Changes in literature in the 20th century. Literature of the late xix - early xx centuries general characteristics

History

Imagism as a poetic movement arose in 1918 year when the "Order of the Imagists" was founded in Moscow. The creators of the "Order" were those who came from Penza Anatoly Mariengof, former Futurist Vadim Shershenevich and previously a member of the group of new peasant poets Sergey Yesenin... The features of a characteristic metaphorical style were also contained in the earlier work of Shershenevich and Yesenin, and Mariengof organized a literary group of Imagists back in his hometown. The Imagist Declaration published by January 30 1919 in the Voronezh magazine "Sirena" (a 10 february also in the newspaper "Sovetskaya Strana", of which Yesenin was a member of the editorial board), in addition to them, the poet Rurik Ivnev and artists Boris Erdman and Georgy Yakulov... Poets also joined Imagism Ivan Gruzinov , Matvey Roizman , Alexander Kusikov , Nikolay Erdman .

Organizationally, imagism actually disintegrated to 1925 year: in 1922 Alexander Kusikov emigrated, to 1924 year the dissolution of the "Order" was announced by Sergei Yesenin and Ivan Gruzinov, other imagists moved away from poetry, turning to prose, drama, cinema. The activities of the "Order of the Militant Imagists" ceased in 1926, and in the summer of 1927 the liquidation of the "Order of the Imagists" was announced. The relationships and actions of the imagists were then described in detail in the memoirs of Mariengof, Shershenevich, Roizman.

General characteristics of the literature of the beginning of the century (trends, publishing houses, problems of prose, motives in poetry).

Late 19th - early 20th centuries became the time of the bright flourishing of Russian culture, its "Silver Age" (the "Golden Age" was called Pushkin time). In science, literature, art, one after another new talents appeared, bold innovations were born, different directions, groups and styles competed. At the same time, the culture of the "Silver Age" was characterized by deep contradictions characteristic of the entire Russian life of that time.

The rapid leap in development of Russia, the clash of different structures and cultures changed the self-consciousness of the creative intelligentsia. Many were no longer satisfied with the description and study of visible reality, analysis of social problems. I was attracted by deep, eternal questions - about the essence of life and death, good and evil, the nature of man. Revived interest in religion; the religious theme had a strong influence on the development of Russian culture at the beginning of the 20th century.

However, the turning point not only enriched literature and art: it constantly reminded writers, artists and poets of the impending social explosions, that the whole habitual way of life, the entire old culture could perish. Some waited for these changes with joy, others with longing and horror, which brought pessimism and anguish into their work.

At the turn of the XIX and XX centuries. literature developed in different historical conditions than before. If you look for a word that characterizes the most important features of the period under consideration, then it will be the word "crisis". Great scientific discoveries shook the classical ideas about the structure of the world, led to a paradoxical conclusion: "matter has disappeared." The new vision of the world, thus, will determine the new face of realism of the 20th century, which will differ significantly from the classical realism of its predecessors. Also devastating for human spirit had a crisis of faith ("God is dead!" - exclaimed Nietzsche). This led to the fact that the man of the XX century began to feel more and more the influence of irreligious ideas. The cult of sensual pleasures, the apology of evil and death, the glorification of the self-will of the individual, the recognition of the right to violence, which turned into terror - all these features testify to the deepest crisis of consciousness.

In Russian literature of the beginning of the 20th century, a crisis of old ideas about art and a feeling of the exhaustion of past development will be felt, a reassessment of values ​​will be formed.

The renewal of literature, its modernization will cause the emergence of new trends and schools. The rethinking of the old means of expression and the revival of poetry will mark the beginning of the "Silver Age" of Russian literature. This term is associated with the name of N. Berdyaev, who used it in one of the performances in the salon of D. Merezhkovsky. Later, art critic and editor of Apollo S. Makovsky consolidated this phrase, calling his book about Russian culture at the turn of the century "On Parnassus of the Silver Age." Several decades will pass and A. Akhmatova will write "... the silver month is bright / Frozen over the Silver Age".

Chronological framework the period defined by this metaphor can be designated as follows: 1892 - the exit from the era of timelessness, the beginning of social upsurge in the country, the manifesto and collection "Symbols" by D. Merezhkovsky, the first stories of M. Gorky, etc.) - 1917. According to another point of view, the chronological end of this period can be considered 1921-1922 (the collapse of past illusions, which began after the death of A. Blok and N. Gumilyov, the mass emigration of Russian cultural figures from Russia, the expulsion of a group of writers, philosophers and historians from the country).

Russian literature of the XX century was represented by three main literary trends: realism, modernism, literary avant-garde.

Representatives literary directions

Senior Symbolists: V. Ya.Bryusov, K. D. Balmont, D. S. Merezhkovsky, Z. N. Gippius, F. K. Sologub, etc.

God-seekers mystics: D. S. Merezhkovsky, Z. N. Gippius, N. Minsky.

Individualist Decadents: V. Ya. Bryusov, K. D. Balmont, F. K. Sologub.

Younger Symbolists: A. A. Blok, Andrey Bely (B. N. Bugaev), V. I. Ivanov and others.

Acmeism: N. S. Gumilev, A. A. Akhmatova, S. M. Gorodetsky, O. E. Mandel'shtam, M. A. Zenkevich, V. I. Narbut.

Cubo-futurists(poets "Gileya"): D. D. Burliuk, V. V. Khlebnikov, V. V. Kamensky, V. V. Mayakovsky, A. E. Kruchenykh.

Egofuturists: I. Severyanin, I. Ignatiev, K. Olympov, V. Gnedov.

Group"Poetry Mezzanine": V. Shershenevich, Khrisanf, R. Ivnev and others.

Association "Centrifuge": B. L. Pasternak, N. N. Aseev, S. P. Bobrov and others.

One of most interesting phenomena in the art of the first decades of the 20th century, there was a revival of romantic forms, largely forgotten since the beginning of the last century. One of these forms was proposed by V.G. Korolenko, whose work continues to develop at the end of the 19th and the first decades of the new century. Another expression of the romantic was the work of A. Green, whose works are unusual in their exoticism, flight of fantasy, ineradicable dreaminess. The third form of the romantic was the work of revolutionary workers' poets (N. Nechaev, E. Tarasov, I. Privalov, A. Belozerov, F. Shkulev). Turning to marches, fables, calls, songs, these authors poeticize the heroic feat, use romantic images of glow, fire, crimson dawn, thunderstorm, sunset, infinitely expand the range of revolutionary vocabulary, resort to cosmic proportions.

A special role such writers as Maxim Gorky and LN Andreev played a role in the development of 20th century literature. The twenties was a difficult but dynamic and creatively fruitful period in the development of literature. Although many figures of Russian culture were expelled from the country in 1922, and others went into voluntary emigration, the artistic life in Russia does not stop. On the contrary, there are many talented young writers, recent participants in the Civil War: L. Leonov, M. Sholokhov, A. Fadeev, Yu. Libedinsky, A. Vesely, etc.

The thirties began with the "year of the great turning point", when the foundations of the former Russian life order were sharply deformed, and the party began to actively intervene in the sphere of culture. P. Florensky, A. Losev, A. Voronsky and D. Kharms were arrested, repressions against the intelligentsia intensified, which claimed the lives of tens of thousands of cultural workers, two thousand writers, in particular N. Klyuev, O. Mandelstam, I. Kataev, and Babel, B. Pilnyak, P. Vasiliev, A. Voronsky, B. Kornilov. Under these conditions, the development of literature was extremely difficult, tense and ambiguous.

The work of such writers and poets as V. V. Mayakovsky, S. A. Yesenin, A. A. Akhmatova, A. N. Tolstoy, E. I. Zamyatin, M. M. Zoshchenko, M. A. Sholokhov, M. A. Bulgakov, A. P. Platonov, O. E. Mandel'shtam, M. I. Tsvetaeva.

The Holy War, which began in June 1941, set new tasks for literature, to which the country's writers immediately responded. Most of them ended up on the battlefield. More than a thousand poets and prose writers joined the ranks of the army, becoming renowned war correspondents (M. Sholokhov, A. Fadeev, N. Tikhonov, I. Ehrenburg, Vs. Vishnevsky, E. Petrov, A. Surkov, A. Platonov). Works of various kinds and genres joined the fight against fascism. Poetry was in the first place among them. Here it is necessary to highlight the patriotic lyrics of A. Akhmatova, K. Simonov, N. Tikhonov, A. Tvardovsky, V. Sayanov. The prose writers cultivated their most operative genres: journalistic essays, reports, pamphlets, stories.

Realistic publishers:

Knowledge (release of general education literature - Kuprin, Bunin, Andreev, Veresaev); collections; social Problematic

Rosehip (St. Petersburg) collections and almahs

Slovo (Moscow) collections and almanacs

Gorky publishes the literary and political journal "Letopis" (publishing house Parus)

"World of Art" (modernist. Art; magazine of the same name) - Diaghilev founder

"New Way", "Scorpio", "Vulture" - symbolist.

"Satyricon", "New Satyricon" - satire (Averchenko, S. Cherny)

* The most significant trend in Russian modernism was symbolism. It emerged in the early 90s of the 19th century and existed for two decades. The magazine Vesy (1904-1909) was the artistic and publicistic organ of the Symbolists.

V. Bryusov, D. Merezhkovsky, 3. Gippius, K. Balmont belonged to the senior Symbolists (90s), who approved the name and principles of the new art. The second generation of Symbolists came to literature at the beginning of the 20th century - A. Blok, A. Bely, S. Soloviev, Ellis.

The ideologist and inspirer of the Symbolists was the poet and philosopher V. Soloviev (1853-1900). The symbolists were close to his idea of ​​the Soul of the World, the Eternal Femininity, the Spirit of Music. The younger generation of Symbolists was also guided by the position of I. Annensky
(1856-1909), his "torment of the ideal."

At the heart of the world, the Symbolists saw not a material, but an ideal essence. In the surrounding reality, there are only signs, symbols of this essence. They found the origins of this perception in philosophy. So, Plato compared reality to a cave, where only glare, shadows of the genuine unreal world penetrate. A person can only guess from these shadow-symbols about what happened outside the cave. I. Kant's reasoning sounded in the same vein.

Existing in the everyday, real world, a person feels his connection with the existential, unreal world, tries to penetrate into it, to go beyond the "cave". Let us emphasize in this position the recognition of the primary role of the human spiritual world.

The concept of a symbol needs clarification. We often meet symbolic meaning images in the realistic literature of the past. Folklore is permeated with symbolism. The modernists put a new semantic connotation into this word. The symbol was contrasted with allegory, allegory. As the main thing in the symbol, its polysemy, the variety of associative links, a whole system of correspondences were emphasized.

The Symbolists saw the highest form of creativity in music, and paid special attention to melody. The nature of the sound of the work was no less important than its meaning. And in comprehending the meaning, the attitude towards reticence is essential. The text was supposed to remain a mystery, and the artist felt like a creator, a theurgist.

The creativity of the Symbolists was initially addressed to the elite, the initiated. The poet counted on a reader-co-author, not trying to be understood by everyone. In one of the lyric poems of Z. Gippius, the recognition of the ambiguity of desires, the desire for something "which does not exist in the world" sounded like a refrain. It was a certain programmatic setting, a refusal to pay attention to real, "real" life.

Refusing to depict a concrete world, the Symbolists turned to the problems of being. However, it was real life that made its own adjustments. Dissatisfaction with modernity gave rise to the motive of the end of the world, was the impetus for the poeticization of death.

In the works of literary critics of past years, these motives, as already mentioned, were explained by confusion before the impending revolution. At the same time, the revolutionary events of 1905 were perceived by many Symbolists as the beginning of renewal. While welcoming the destruction of the old world, the Symbolists did not fill their confessions with concrete social content. "I will break with you, build - no!" - asserted in verse V. Bryusov. The element of revolution was accepted as a symbol of freedom, what followed seemed to be its limitation, and for this reason it was rejected. *

Senior Symbolists:

Priority of spiritual idealistic values ​​(Merezhkovsky)

The spontaneous nature of creativity (Balmont)

Art as the most reliable form of knowledge (Bryusov)

Younger Symbolists:

The need to combine art and religion (White) - mystical and religious sentiments

- "trilogy of humanity" (Blok) - movement from the music of the transcendent through the underworld of the material world and the whirl of the elements to the "elementary simplicity" of human experiences

The poetry of the Symbolists is poetry for the elite, for the aristocrats of the spirit. "While realist poets view the world naively, as simple observers, submitting to its material basis, symbolist poets, re-creating materiality with their complex impressionability, rule over the world and penetrate its mysteries."

Philosophy of Symbolism:

Perceptions of the double world are given only to a select few

Sophia, femininity, collegiality

New religion - neo-Christianity (union of the soul with God without mediation from the church)

Features of the verse:

Solemnity, high style

Music of the verse, the emotional value of sounds

Complex abstract irrational metaphor

"Symbolism makes the very style, the most artistic substance of poetry, spiritualized, transparent, transparent through and through, like the thin walls of an alabaster amphora in which a flame is lit"

From the 40s of the last century to the very end of it, realism prevailed in Russian literature. New qualities arose in active contact with tradition. The need for radical renewals prompted a broad summing up of the results: what to accept and what to refuse in the artistic past. His perception in the literature of that time was particularly intense.

The transformation of realism takes place at the turn of the century throughout Europe. But the role of traditions in this process was especially great in Russia, because here classical realism not only does not weaken by the end of the century, but is enriched. In the 90s, a young generation of realistic artists entered Russian literature. However, the beginning of the renewal of realism was laid by the greatest masters of the older generations - those who directly connected the present century with the past. This is the late L. Tolstoy and Chekhov.

By the end 19th century world significance Tolstoy's activities were fully realized abroad as well. Primarily important for literary process turned out to be the conquests of creativity Chekhov, who created, according to L. Tolstoy, completely new forms of writing in prose and in drama.

The realist literature of the transitional era as a whole did not rise to the level of its great predecessors. One of the explanations for this is the particular difficulties of creative self-determination at the time of a radical change in values ​​and guidelines in the country. But despite the contradictions and difficulties, the direction continued to develop intensively, giving rise to a special typological quality that arose on the basis of a renewed perception of the traditions of classical realism and the gradual overcoming of the concept of determinism in a naturalistic spirit. The actual artistic renewal of realism at the turn of the century is also fundamentally important: stylistic searches, expressed in decisive genre restructuring, in significant modifications of the poetic language.

(FROM THE TEXTBOOK)

Allegations about the crisis of realism at the turn of the 20th century have remained in the past. Arguments against such statements were the works of L. Tolstoy, A. Chekhov and talented writers of the next generation, who came up with realistic works (A. Kuprin, I. Bunin, etc.).

Obviously, when characterizing the literature of the beginning of the century, one should speak not about the crisis of realism, but about the expansion of the ways of translating the crisis phenomena of life, the crisis of consciousness in literature.

The works of A. Chekhov and the late L. Tolstoy are viewed by researchers as the highest stage in the development of classical realism. Both writers did not seek an answer to the traditional questions of "who is to blame?" and "what to do?", but showed how modern life deviates from the norm. L. Tolstoy, completed at the turn of the 20th century, "Resurrection" gave artistic image those state institutions - courts, churches, prisons - that allowed him to reveal the hostility to man of all public system... Tolstoy solved a similar artistic problem in the drama Living Corpse (1900). In the story "Hadji Murat" (1904) tragic fate the central character- a strong, whole person - revealed in opposition to the same system, indifferent to a person and his national mentality. Tolstoy gave the reader the opportunity to see and feel not individual shortcomings and vices of specific people, but the foundations, roots of false morality, corrupt politics, and a criminal state.

In Chekhov's works, the reader was immersed in an everyday, philistine atmosphere. Showing the unevenness of everyday life, the writer recreated the complexity of life, in which evil is present in a dispersed and silent manner, permeates everyday life. Chekhov is not engaged in a "moral investigation", but in identifying the reasons for the mutual misunderstanding of people, far and near.

The author led the heroes and readers to the rejection of categorical judgments, to understanding the complexity of each person. In Chekhov's stories and novellas, it is important not only what happens, but also what does not happen - Moscow remained in the dreams of the Prozorov sisters, the heroes of "The Lady with the Dog" do not take decisive steps, etc. Plot situations help to discover the measure of delusion of each of the characters. At the same time, Chekhov believed in a person's ability to change his life, he believed even in such weak ones as Laevsky ("Duel").

Researchers have emphasized the meaningful importance of the structure of Chekhov's works. Plots of "insight" - the hero reveals the meaning of his existence, the inner need to resist vulgarity ("A Boring Story", "Teacher of Literature"). Plots of “leaving” - the need and implementation of an act, a step into the unknown, a turn of fate (“My Life”, “The Bride”). The misunderstanding separating the characters is perceived by the readers not only as confirmation of people's disunity, but also as an impetus to the development of self-awareness.

The collision of concepts, ideas about man and the world with real life turned into disappointment, but did not stop the search. The literature of the beginning of the century is characterized by various forms expressions of the author's position. The writers counted on the thinking reader, but they also openly analyzed his perception. It is no coincidence that the abundance of questions organizing, pushing the development of the plot: “Why is life arranged this way?”; "Who am I?"; "What to do if that dream deceived, like any dream?"

HAJI MURAT, PERESKAZ

On a cold November evening in 1851, Hadji Murad, the famous Naib of Imam Shamil, enters the non-peaceful Chechen village of Makhket. Chechen Sado receives a guest in his sakla, despite Shamil's recent order to detain or kill the rebellious naib,

On the same night, from the Russian fortress Vozdvizhenskaya, fifteen versts from the village of Makhket, three soldiers with a non-commissioned officer Panov went to the front guard. One of them, the merry fellow Avdeev, recalls how, out of homesickness, he once spent the company’s money on drink, and once again says that he joined the soldiers at the request of his mother, instead of his family brother.

Hadji Murad's envoys go out on this guard. Seeing off the Chechens to the fortress, to Prince Vorontsov, the cheerful Avdeev asks about their wives and children and concludes: "And what are these, my brother, good naked guys."

The regimental commander of the Kurinsky regiment, the son of the commander-in-chief, the adjutant wing, Prince Vorontsov lives in one of the best houses of the fortress with his wife Marya Vasilievna, a famous Petersburg beauty, and her little son from his first marriage. Despite the fact that the life of the prince amazes the inhabitants of a small Caucasian fortress with its luxury, it seems to the Vorontsovs that they are suffering great hardships here. The news of Hadji Murad's departure finds them playing cards with regimental officers.

On the same night, the inhabitants of the aul Makhket, in order to cleanse themselves in front of Shamil, are trying to detain Hadji Murad. Firing back, he breaks through with his murid Eldar into the forest, where the rest of the murids are waiting for him - the Avar Khanefi and the Chechen Gamzalo. Here Hadji Murad expects that Prince Vorontsov will respond to his proposal to go out to the Russians and begin a fight against Shamil on their side. He, as always, believes in his own happiness and that this time he succeeds in everything, as it always happened before. The returning envoy of Khan-Mahom reports that the prince promised to receive Hadji Murad as a dear guest.

Early in the morning, two companies of the Kurinsky regiment set out for logging. Company officers over drinks discuss the recent death in battle of General Sleptsov. In this conversation, none of them sees the most important thing - the end human life and her return to the source from which she came - and they only see the military daring of the young general. During Hadji Murad's exit, the Chechens pursuing him fatally wound the merry soldier Avdeyev in passing; he dies in the hospital, not having time to receive a letter from his mother that his wife had left home.

All Russians who see the "terrible mountaineer" for the first time are struck by his kind, almost childish smile, self-esteem and the attention, insight and calmness with which he looks at those around him. The reception of Prince Vorontsov at the Vozdvizhenskaya fortress turns out to be better than Hadji Murad expected; but the less he trusts the prince. He demands that he be sent to the commander-in-chief himself, the old prince Vorontsov, in Tiflis.

During a meeting in Tiflis, Vorontsov the father understands perfectly well that he should not believe a single word of Hadji Murad, because he will always remain an enemy of everything Russian, and now he is just submitting to circumstances. Hadji Murad, in turn, realizes that the cunning prince sees right through him. At the same time, both say to each other exactly the opposite of their understanding - what is necessary for the success of the negotiations. Hadji Murad assures that he will faithfully serve the Russian Tsar in order to take revenge on Shamil, and guarantees that he will be able to raise the whole of Dagestan against the Imam. But for this it is necessary that the Russians ransom from captivity the family of Hadji Murad, the Commander-in-Chief promises to think about it.

Hadji Murad lives in Tiflis, attends a theater and a ball, increasingly rejecting the Russian way of life in his soul. He tells Vorontsov's adjutant, Loris-Melikov, the story of his life and enmity with Shamil. A series of brutal murders, committed according to the law of blood feud and the right of the mighty, passes before the listener. Loris-Melikov also observes the murids of Hadji Murad. One of them, Gamzalo, continues to regard Shamil as a saint and hates all Russians. Another, Khan-Mahoma, came out to the Russians only because he easily plays with his own and other people's lives; just as easily he can return to Shamil at any moment. Eldar and Khanefi obey Hadji Murad without reason.

While Hadji Murad was in Tiflis, by order of Emperor Nicholas I, in January 1852, a raid was launched into Chechnya. The young officer Butler, who recently transferred from the Guards, also takes part in it. He left the Guards due to a loss of cards and now enjoys a good, valiant life in the Caucasus, trying to preserve his poetic idea of ​​the war. During the raid, the village Makhket was destroyed, a teenager was killed with a bayonet in the back, the mosque and the fountain were senselessly fouled. Seeing all this, the Chechens do not even hate the Russians, but only disgust, bewilderment and a desire to exterminate them, like rats or poisonous spiders. The inhabitants of the aul ask Shamil for help,

Hadji Murad moves to the Grozny fortress. Here he is allowed to have intercourse with the highlanders through scouts, but he cannot leave the fortress except with an escort of Cossacks. His family is held at this time in custody in the village of Vedeno, awaiting Shamil's decision about his fate. Shamil demands that Hadji Murad come back to him before the holiday of Bayram, otherwise he threatens to give his mother, old woman Patimat, to the auls and blind his beloved son Yusuf.

For a week Hadji Murad lives in the fortress, in the house of Major Petrov. The major's mistress, Marya Dmitrievna, is imbued with respect for Hadji Murad, whose treatment differs markedly from the rudeness and drunkenness accepted among regimental officers. A friendship develops between Officer Butler and Hadji Murad. Butler is embraced by "the poetry of a special, energetic mountain life", which can be felt in the mountain songs sung by Khanefi. Hadji Murad's favorite song, about the inevitability of blood feud, is especially striking for the Russian officer. Soon, Butler becomes a witness of how calmly Hadji Murad takes an attempt at blood revenge on him by the Kumyk prince Arslan-Khan,

Hadji Murad’s negotiations to buy the family out in Chechnya have not been successful. He returned to Tiflis, then moved to the small town of Nukhu, hoping to snatch the family from Shamil by cunning or force. He is listed in the service of the Russian Tsar and receives five gold pieces a day. But now, when he sees that the Russians are in no hurry to free his family, Hadji Murad sees his exit as a terrible turn in life. He increasingly recalls his childhood, mother, grandfather and his son. Finally, he decides to flee to the mountains, to break into Vedeno with faithful people in order to die or free his family.

While on horseback, Hadji Murad, along with his murids, ruthlessly kills the escorting Cossacks. He expects to cross the Alazan River and thus escape from the pursuit, but he cannot cross the rice field flooded with spring water on horseback. The pursuit overtakes him, in an unequal battle Hadji Murad was mortally wounded.

The last memories of the family run through his imagination without causing any more feeling; but he fights to the last breath.

The head of Hadji Murad, cut off from the mutilated body, is being carried around the fortresses. In Grozny, she is shown to Butler and Marya Dmitrievna, and they see that the blue lips of the dead head retain a childish kind expression. Marya Dmitrievna is especially shocked by the cruelty of the "live-cutters" who killed her recent guest and did not betray his body to the ground.

The story of Hadji Murad, his inherent strength of life and inflexibility are recalled when looking at a burdock flower, crushed in full bloom by people in the middle of a plowed field.

DUEL, PERESKAZ

In a town on the Black Sea coast, two friends are talking while swimming. Ivan Andreevich Laevsky, a young man of about twenty-eight, shares the secrets of his personal life with military doctor Samoilenko. Two years ago, he became friends with a married woman, they fled from St. Petersburg to the Caucasus, telling themselves that they would start a new working life there. But the town turned out to be boring, people were uninteresting, Laevsky could not and did not want to work on the land in the sweat of his brow, and therefore from the first day he felt bankrupt. In his relationship with Nadezhda Fedorovna, he no longer sees anything but lies, to live with her is now beyond his strength. He dreams of running back to the north. But you can't break up with her either: she has no relatives, no money, she doesn't know how to work. There is one more difficulty: the news of the death of her husband came, which means for Laevsky and Nadezhda Fyodorovna the opportunity to get married. Kind Samoylenko advises his friend to do just that.

Everything that Nadezhda Fyodorovna says and does seems to Laevsky to be a lie or looks like a lie. At breakfast, he barely restrains his irritation, even the way she swallows milk causes heavy hatred in him. The desire to sort things out as soon as possible and run away now does not let him go. Laevsky is used to finding explanations and justifications for his life in someone else's theories, in literary types, compares himself with Onegin and Pechorin, with Anna Karenina, with Hamlet. He is ready to blame himself for the lack of a guiding idea, to admit that he is a failure and a superfluous person, then to justify himself to himself. But as before he believed in salvation from the emptiness of life in the Caucasus, so now he believes that as soon as he leaves Nadezhda Fedorovna and leaves for Petersburg, he will live a cultured, intelligent, vigorous life.

Samoylenko keeps something like a table d'hôte, a young zoologist von Koren and a just graduated from the Victory seminary are eating at his place. At dinner the conversation turns to Laevsky. Von Koren says that Laevsky is as dangerous to society as the cholera microbe. He corrupts the inhabitants of the town by openly living with another man's wife, drinking and getting others drunk, playing cards, multiplying debts, doing nothing and, moreover, justifying himself with fashionable theories about heredity, degeneration, and so on. If people like him multiply, humanity, civilization is in grave danger. Therefore, Laevsky, for his own benefit, should have been rendered harmless. “In the name of saving mankind, we ourselves must take care of the destruction of the frail and worthless,” the zoologist says coldly.

The laughing deacon laughs, while the stunned Samoylenko can only say: “If people are drowned and hung, then to hell with your civilization, to hell with humanity! To hell!"

On Sunday morning Nadezhda Fyodorovna goes swimming in the most festive mood. She likes herself, she is sure that all the men she meets admire her. She feels guilty towards Laevsky. Over the course of these two years, she ran into three hundred rubles worth of debts in the Atchmianov shop, and she wasn’t going to tell about it. In addition, already twice she received the police officer Kirilin. But Nadezhda Fyodorovna happily thinks that her soul did not participate in her betrayal, she continues to love Laevsky, and everything is already torn with Kirilin. In the bath, she talks with an elderly lady, Marya Konstantinovna Bityugova, and learns that in the evening the local community is having a picnic on the bank of a mountain river. On the way to the picnic, von Koren tells the deacon about his plans to go on an expedition along the coast of the Pacific and Arctic oceans; Laevsky, riding in a different carriage, scolds the Caucasian landscapes. He constantly dislikes von Koren and regrets going on a picnic. The company stops at the mountain dukhan of the Tatar Kerbalai.

Nadezhda Fyodorovna is in a playful mood, she wants to laugh, tease, flirt. But Kirilin's persecution and young Atchmianov's advice to beware of it darken her joy. Laevsky, tired of the picnic and von Koren's undisguised hatred, vent his irritation on Nadezhda Fyodorovna and calls her a cocotte. On the way back, von Koren confesses to Samoilenko that his hand would not have wavered if he had instructed the state or society to destroy Laevsky.

At home, after the picnic, Laevsky informs Nadezhda Fyodorovna about the death of her husband and, feeling at home as in prison, goes to Samoylenko. He begs his friend to help, lend three hundred rubles, promises to arrange everything with Nadezhda Fyodorovna, to make peace with his mother. Samoilenko offers to make peace with von Koren, but Laevsky says that this is impossible. Perhaps he would have held out his hand to him, but von Koren would have turned away with contempt. After all, this is a firm, despotic nature. And his ideals are despotic. People for him are puppies and nonentities, too small to be the purpose of his life. He works, he will go on an expedition, he will break his neck there not in the name of love for one's neighbor, but in the name of such abstracts as humanity, future generations, the ideal breed of people ... morality, and all this in the name of improving the human race ... Despots have always been illusionists. With enthusiasm, Laevsky says that he clearly sees his shortcomings and is aware of them. This will help him to resurrect and become a different person, and he is passionately waiting for this revival and renewal.

Three days after the picnic, an agitated Marya Konstantinovna comes to Nadezhda Fyodorovna and invites her to be her matchmaker. But the wedding with Laevsky, Nadezhda Fyodorovna feels, is now impossible. She cannot tell Marya Konstantinovna everything: how confused her relationship with Kirilin, with the young Atchmianov. From all the experiences, she begins to have a strong fever.

Laevsky feels guilty towards Nadezhda Fyodorovna. But the thought of leaving on the next Saturday so overwhelmed him that Samoilenko, who came to see the patient, asks only if he could get the money. But there is no money yet. Samoylenko decides to ask von Koren for a hundred rubles. He, after a dispute, agrees to give money for Laevsky, but only on the condition that he leaves not alone, but together with Nadezhda Fyodorovna.

The next day, Thursday, visiting Marya Konstantinovna, Samoilenko tells Laevsky about the condition set by von Koren. Guests, including von Koren, play mail. Laevsky, mechanically participating in the game, thinks about how much he has to lie and still have to lie, what mountain of lies prevents him from starting new life... To skip it at once, and not lie in parts, you need to decide on some kind of cool measure, but he feels that this is impossible for him. The malicious note, apparently sent by von Koren, gives him a hysterical fit. Having come to his senses, in the evening, as usual, he leaves to play cards.

On the way from the guests to the house, Nadezhda Fyodorovna is pursued by Kirilin. He threatens her with a scandal if she does not give him a date today. He is disgusted with Nadezhda Fedorovna, she begs to let her go, but in the end she gives in. Young Atchmianov is watching them, unnoticed.

The next day, Laevsky goes to Samoilenko to take money from him, since it is a shame and impossible to stay in the city after a hysteria. He only finds von Koren. A short conversation ensues; Laevsky realizes that he knows about his plans. He acutely feels that the zoologist hates him, despises and mocks him, and that he is his worst and most implacable enemy. When Samoilenko arrives, Laevsky, in a nervous fit, accuses him of not knowing how to keep other people's secrets, and offends von Koren. Von Koren seemed to be waiting for this attack, he challenges Laevsky to a duel. Samoylenko unsuccessfully tries to reconcile them.

On the evening before the duel, Laevsky first possesses hatred for von Koren, then, over wine and cards, he becomes careless, then anxiety seizes him. When young Atchmianov leads him to some house and there he sees Kirilin, and next to him Nadezhda Fyodorovna, all feelings seem to disappear from his soul.

Von Koren this evening on the embankment talks with the deacon about the different understanding of the teachings of Christ. What should love for one's neighbor consist in? In the elimination of everything that somehow harms people and threatens them with danger in the present or future, the zoologist believes. The danger to humanity is threatened by the morally and physically abnormal, and they should be rendered harmless, that is, destroyed. But where are the criteria for distinguishing, because mistakes are possible? the deacon asks. There is no need to be afraid of getting your feet wet when a flood threatens, the zoologist replies.

On the night before the duel, Laevsky listens to the thunderstorm outside the window, recalls his past in his memory, sees in it only a lie, feels his guilt in the fall of Nadezhda Fyodorovna and is ready to beg her for forgiveness. If it were possible to return the past, he would find God and justice, but this is just as impossible as returning a rolled star back to heaven. Before going to a duel, he goes to Nadezhda Fyodorovna's bedroom. She looks with horror at Laevsky, but he, embracing her, realizes that this unfortunate, vicious woman is the only close, dear and irreplaceable person for him. Sitting in a carriage, he wants to return home alive.

The deacon, leaving early in the morning to see the duel, ponders why Laevsky and von Koren can hate each other and fight in a duel? Wouldn't it be better for them to go down and direct their hatred and anger to where whole streets are groaning with gross ignorance, greed, reproaches, uncleanness ... Sitting in a strip of corn, he sees how opponents and seconds have arrived. From behind the mountains, two green rays stretch out, the sun rises. Nobody knows exactly the rules of the duel, they recall the descriptions of the duels at Lermontov's, at Turgenev's ... Laevsky shoots first; fearing that the bullet would hit von Koren, he fires a shot in the air. Von Koren points the barrel of the pistol directly at Laevsky's face. "He will kill him!" - the deacon's desperate cry makes him miss.

Three months pass. On the day of his departure for the expedition, von Koren, accompanied by Samoilenko and the deacon, goes to the pier. Passing Laevsky's house, they talk about the change that has happened to him. He married Nadezhda Fyodorovna, and works from morning till evening to pay off debts ... Deciding to enter the house, von Koren holds out his hand to Laevsky. He has not changed his beliefs, but admits that he was wrong about his former opponent. Nobody knows the real truth, he says. Yes, nobody knows the truth, Laevsky agrees.

He watches as the boat with von Koren overcomes the waves, and thinks: so in life ... In search of the truth, people take two steps forward, a step back ... And who knows? Perhaps they will reach the real truth ...

(FROM THE TEXTBOOK)

Literature of the 1920s is characterized not only by the difference in the approaches of writers to life problems, to the hero of the time, but also by the variety of styles. The artistic searches of the writers of the beginning of the century continued. A realistic display of reality seemed clearly insufficient. E. Zamyatin, a theoretical writer, speaking about the new literature, introduced the term "synthetism": the coexistence of "the microscope of realism with the telescopic glasses of symbolism."

The increased subjectivity of the artist's perception made it possible to move away from the likeness of life, to present a "contour" picture of reality, to highlight leitmotifs, to "shift" plans. As an example of such impressionistic prose of the 1920s, M. Golubkov considers the works of B. Pilnyak in prose, and the poems of O. Mandelstam in poetry. The researcher emphasizes that the main thing in the work is not the explanation of a person by circumstances, environment, but the peculiarities of the perception of reality by the writer and his heroes. The moment, the present day, its significance, its uniqueness are of particular value in such a text. Science fiction coexists with everyday life, generalization with concreteness.

Another feature new prose manifested itself in increased expressiveness, expressive form of phrases, rhythm, in deformation of the external world for the sake of comprehending the deep questions of life. M. Golubkov refers to the works created on the basis of expressionist aesthetics, "We" by E. Zamyatin and "Foundation pit" by A. Platonov. The grotesque, the fantasy of these works help the writers to reveal the illogism and absurdity in their contemporary reality.

Many prose works of the 1920s were built according to the laws of poetic speech. A significant layer of this prose was called "ornamental". Metaphors, the rhythmic organization of the text, the spoken word of the narrator - "skaz" were used in an interesting way. These features are characteristic of the works of I. Babel.

A stream of vernacular words, dialectisms, neologisms, speech constructions with colloquial syntax, with a variety of vivid intonations poured into literature.

L. Leonov, for example, turned to the most ancient form of folklore - conspiracies, folk beliefs, fairy-tale and mythological images Ancient Rus, magic spells. "Do not go to the midnight forests, girls, for berries, peasants, for firewood, rotten old women, for mushrooms: you meet a diva, he swaggers a lot, barks - you will become a stump ..."

In the early 1920s, there were many officially formed literary organizations and associations with their own printed organs. The question of the difference between the intelligentsia and the people. Attempts to educate are a failure. Proletkult, founded by Bogdanov. But it emphasizes the independence of literature from the state. Therefore, he was in conflict with the authorities. In 1920, Proletkult was deprived of independence and included in the People's Commissariat for Education. One of the first groups of proletarian poets was The Forge (until 1921). The peculiarity of their poetry is posterity, sloganism. The titles of the poems: "Close the ranks!", "To arms!", "Follow us!" The genres also corresponded to the general mood of the call and praise: hymns, marches, battle songs. The verses sounded aphoristic order, rally expressions, political formulas. A. Gastev "Poetry of a working blow". Machinization.

The poets who left the "Forge" - A. Bezymensky, A. Zharov, N. Kuznetsov in 1922 created the "October" group. The history of the most massive and radical group, the RAPP (Russian Association of Proletarian Writers), begins with it. Objectives: strengthening the communist line in proletarian literature, that is, capable of influencing the psyche and consciousness of the working class and the working masses. A. Bezymensky and D. Poor. Magazines "On the post". 1928 - the first congress of proletarian writers. L. Averbakh, G. Lelevich, V. Ermilov.

1921-1932 group of peasant writers. 1929 - first congress. The magazines "Trudovaya Niva", "Mill", "Sovetskaya Land". Klyuev, Oreshin, Yesenin united with the former Symbolists Blok and Bely in the Scythians group. With the revolution, peasant poets associated dreams of national identity, the creation of an agricultural paradise. The revolution seemed like a bridge between the past and the future, "transformation". Peasant poets argued with the slogans of technization, with those who idealized the machine and iron. In iron N. Klyuev saw only an evil force bringing death to man and nature. S. Yesenin felt something similar. His thin-legged foal ("Sorokoust") was perceived as a symbol of an unequal dispute between the living beauty of the village and the dead mechanical force technical progress - a steam locomotive.

The ideas of revolutionary art understood in their own way were the main ones for the futurists. As before the revolution, V. Mayakovsky was associated with the futurists. In his "Letter on Futurism" in 1922, he formulated the objectives:

1. To establish verbal art as mastery of words, but not as aesthetic stylization.

2. Answer any problem posed by the present day. The name of the futuristic magazine "LEF" (Left Front

Arts) is similar to the name of the group united around V. Mayakovsky and O. Brik. Since in its composition, besides poets, there were artists, the goal was defined broadly - "to help find a communist path for all kinds of art."

At the end of the 1920s, the magazine began to be called "New LEF", and in the name of the group the "left" was changed to "revolutionary" (REF). But the "front" remained the "front" - the attitude towards struggle remained. After Mayakovsky left this group in 1929, it broke up.

Against the background of politically active organizations, the community of young writers who united at the beginning of 1921 in the St. Petersburg House of Arts into the Serapion Brothers group looked like a black sheep: V. Kaverin, M. Zoshchenko, L. Lunts, Vs. Ivanov, N. Nikitin, E. Polonskaya, M. Slonimsky, N. Tikhonov, K. Fedin. E. Zamyatin became their spiritual leader, and M. Gorky became their “patron”. "Serapions" proclaimed the principle of the independence of creativity from the political environment, the principle of the freedom of the artist. Their first joint performance took place in the Petersburg Collection (1922) in the Serapion Brothers almanac. The name was taken from Hoffmann. The alliance with the "hermit dweller Serapion" emphasized the lack of connection with concrete revolutionary reality. The main ones were not themes, but images, not revolutionary content, but self-valuable art.

Defending the artist's rights to the independence of views and judgments, the "serapions" in the official press were assessed as "internal emigrants". The group held out until 1927.

Among the literary groupings of the 1920s that focused on the artistic form were the Imagists. The leader, the author of the manifestos was the former futurist V. Shershenevich. This group consisted of R. Ivnev, A. Mariengof, S. Yesenin. Based on the novels of A. Mariengof and articles by S. Yesenin, the modern reader can get an idea of ​​the nature of the imaginists' enthusiasm for images, of the disputes among them, of the reasons for the departure of S. Yesenin.

The Pereval group arose under the Krasnaya Nov 'magazine in 1924 and existed, despite criticism, until 1932. Its organizer was the editor-in-chief of this first in Soviet Russia thick magazine A. Voronsky; in the group - I. Kataev, N. Zarudin, M. Prishvin, N. Ognev, M. Golodny, I. Kasatkin, D. Altauzen, D. Vetrov, D. Kedrin, A. Karavaeva. The task of "Pass", formulated by Voronsky, is to resist the "tendentious boredom in prose and superficial verse in poetry" of proletarian authors.

This attitude did not contradict the unconditional devotion to the revolution. “The blessing of the revolution is above all, and I have no other postulates,” A. Voronsky asserted. He, as G. Belaya emphasizes in the book about "Pass" ("Don Quixote" of the 1920s - M., 1989), protested against turning the theory of the class struggle into a "butt that nails right and left without all sense and analysis. " "Perevaltsy" strove in their works to combine the image of everyday life with fiction, realism with romanticism.

A. Voronsky was accused of increased attention to "fellow travelers" and disregard for genuinely revolutionary authors by the Rapp critics. And he lamented the "revolutionary assurances of the nimble and nimblest people", more than once said that the distance from a good ideology to its good artistic embodiment is quite a decent size: "Honor and place to communist writers, proletarian writers, but to the extent of their talent. The measure of their creativity. A party card is a great thing, but it shouldn't be waved out of place. "

A fundamentally different understanding of the tasks of art among the "Perevaltsy" and among the ideologists of the RAPP manifested itself in the course of the discussion about the "social order". A. Voronsky's position was supported by B. Pilnyak: “From the moment when a writer begins to ponder how to sew a story to an idea in order to dress it, there can be no story ... extremely tense socially; but in no way is description and system making ”.

A. Voronsky, like B. Pilnyak, was not forgiven for independence. The struggle against the "Voronshchina", with the "Pilnyakovschina" ended in the physical destruction of these and many other writers close to them in their views in the 30s. And the dispute about the "social order" continued for decades, its echoes were manifested in attempts to link the "party" with the "dictates of the heart."

A union of several poets in the late 1920s was formed under the name OBERIU (Association real art). It included D. Kharms, N. Zabolotsky, K. Vaginov, A. Vvedensky and others. Initially, they called themselves the "school of plane trees". This was the last literary association in the mainstream of the Russian avant-garde, inheriting futurism. It was from the futurists that the Oberiuts borrowed destructive and outrageous beginnings, a fascination with phonetic and semantic "nonsense". The basis of their artistic method was a mockery of the generally accepted, ironic highlighting of the obvious absurdities of our time.

Konstantin Vaginov (Wagenheim, 1899-1934) was the continuer of Khlebnikov's tradition of creating a “self-made word”. He was a member of many little-known groups, "Workshop of poets" acmeists. In the 1920s, K. Vaginov published a collection "A Journey into Chaos", in the early 30s - "Experiments in combining words by means of rhythm."

Proletarian and peasant authors were grouped on a class basis. Commonality creative principles connected "serapions", "perevaltsy". There were also bands focused on a specific genre. One of such associations of the 1920s is the Red Selenites group, which included science fiction writers. The first Soviet science fiction work was published in Berlin in 1920 by A. Obolyaninov's novel "Red Moon". At the beginning of 1921 A. Lezhnev came up with a program of a new association.

Literary scholars and linguists, participants in the university seminar of S. Vengerov, united in a group, in 1923 they established the Society for the Study of Poetic Language (OPOYAZ). It included Yu. Tynyanov, B. Tomashevsky, V. Shklovsky, B. Eikhenbaum. Members of the society published collections on the theory of poetic language. The ideologists of the RAPP dubbed the method of studying literature, which was born in disputes, "formalism" and for several years smashed it as "alien to Soviet literary science."

In the journal "Printing and Revolution" a "war of annihilation against formalism" was declared. Of course, the Opoyaz people had mistakes and excesses, but in the history of Russian literature the importance of literary books by B. Eikhenbaum, memoirs by V. Shklovsky, and historical novels by Yu. Tynyanov is indisputable. Much of the theoretical quest of the "formal school" has been adopted by modern scientists.

The October Revolution was perceived in different ways by the workers of culture and art. For many, it was the greatest event of the century. For others - and among them there was a significant part of the old intelligentsia - the Bolshevik coup was a tragedy leading to the death of Russia.

The poets were the first to respond. Proletarian poets performed hymns in honor of the revolution, evaluating it as a holiday of emancipation (V. Kirillov). The concept of rebuilding the world justified cruelty. The pathos of reworking the world was internally close to the Futurists, but the very content of the rework was perceived by mimes in different ways (from the dream of harmony and universal brotherhood to the desire to destroy order in life and grammar). Peasant poets were the first to express concern about the attitude of the revolution to man (N. Klyuev). Klychkov predicted the prospects for brutality. Mayakovsky tried to stay on the pathetic wave. The poems of Akhmatova and Gippius sounded the theme of robbery, robbery. Death of freedom. Blok saw in the revolution that high, sacrificial and pure that was close to him. He did not idealize the element of the people, he saw its destructive power, but so far he accepted it. Voloshin saw the tragedy of the bloody revolution, the confrontation within the nation, refused to choose between white and red.

Voluntary and forced emigres blamed the Bolsheviks for the death of Russia. The break with the Motherland was perceived as a personal tragedy (A. Remizov)

Publicism often sounded irreconcilable with cruelty, with repression, and extrajudicial executions. "Untimely Thoughts" by Gorky, letters from Korolenko to Lunacharsky. Inconsistency of politics and morality, bloody ways of combating dissent.

Attempts to satirically depict the achievements of the revolutionary order (Zamyatin, Ehrenburg, Averchenko).

Features of the concept of personality, the idea of ​​\ u200b \ u200bthe heroes of the time. An increase in the image of the masses, an affirmation of collectivism. Refusal from I in favor of us. The hero was not himself, but a representative. The lack of vitality of the characters gave impetus to the promotion of the slogan "For a living person!" The heroes of early Soviet prose emphasized sacrifice, the ability to abandon personal Yu. Libedinsky's "Week". D. Furmanov "Chapaev" (spontaneous, unbridled in Chapaev more and more submits to consciousness, idea). Reference work about the working class F. Gladkov "Cement". Excessive ideologization, albeit an attractive hero.

Hero-intellectual. Either he accepted the revolution, or he turned out to be a man of a failed fate. In "Cities and Years" Fedin kills Andrey Startsov by the hand of Kurt Van, because he is capable of betrayal. In Brothers, the composer Nikita Karev writes revolutionary music at the end.

A. Fadeev fulfilled the order of time. Overcoming physical weakness, Levinson gains the strength to serve the idea. In the confrontation between Morozka and Mechik, the superiority of a working person over an intellectual is shown.

Intellectuals are most often the enemies of the new life. Anxiety about the new person's attitude to the world.

Among the prose of the 1920s, the heroes of Zoshchenko and Romanov stand out. A lot of small people, poorly educated, uncultured. It was the little people who enthusiastically reacted to the destruction of the bad old and the construction of the good new. They are immersed in everyday life.

Platonov saw a thoughtful innermost person trying to understand the meaning of life, work, death. Vsevolod Ivanov portrayed a man of the masses.

The nature of the conflicts. The struggle between the old and the new worlds. Towards NEP - the period of comprehending the contradictions between the ideal and real life. Bagritsky, Aseev, Mayakovsky. It seemed to them that the townsfolk were becoming the masters of life. Zabolotsky (devouring philistine). Babel "Cavalry". Serafimovich's "Iron Stream" - overcoming spontaneity in favor of conscious participation in the revolution.

The centers of literary emigration first became Berlin, Belgrade, then Paris; in the East - Harbin. Societies were organized; one of the largest is the "Union of Russian Writers and Journalists" in Paris, chaired by I. Bunin. Russian newspapers and magazines were published abroad: in the 1920s - 138 Russian newspapers; in 1924 - 665 books, magazines and collections. Literary historians from abroad singled out as the most significant journal "Contemporary Notes" (Paris, 1920-1940). Works by I. Bunin and Z. Gippius, K. Balmont and M. Aldanov, A. Remizov and V. Khodasevich, M. Tsvetaeva and I. Shmelev are presented in 70 issues of this magazine.

A general émigré congress of writers took place in 1928 in Belgrade.

In the absence of a wide reader, the main topic of emigre literature was still Russia.

In emigration were widely represented historical novel, biographical and autobiographical genres. A number of writers have acted as critics.

Vladislav Khodasevich(1886-1939) was ready to accept the revolution. However, he very quickly became convinced that the artist was required to adapt to power, regardless of his beliefs. Defending his independence in 1922, Khodasevich left the country of the revolutionary experiment, remaining its citizen. Russia is the main theme of his poetic book Heavy Lyre (1922). The last collection of poetry is "European Night" (1923). The verses sounded a feeling of emptiness, reflected the heavy consciousness of the reader's lack of demand. There was no one to write for.

After 1928 V. Khodasevich stopped writing poetry. He creates a book about Derzhavin. In its own way, it was autobiographical - in the fate of Derzhavin and his era, V. Khodasevich saw a lot of "his", "today". The most significant created by V. Khodasevich in last years life is a collection of articles "On Pushkin" (1937) and the book "Necropolis" (1939), which includes chapters about remarkable contemporary writers.

Igor Severyanin ( 1887-1942) in 1918 he was elected "the king of poets". He was accompanied by the glory of a philistine idol. A. Blok, V. Mayakovsky wrote about I. Severyanin's poems.

In his poetry, Russia became the main character.

During the years of exile, a northerner wrote ten thematic books-cycles, poetry memoirs.

Georgy Ivanov(1894-1958). In emigration G. Ivanov wrote about love and death, about Russia. The researcher of his poetry V. Ermilova notes the complexity of the interpretation of the lyrics of G. Ivanov, the poet's refusal from any embellishment. Often, his poems, written in exile, are perceived as "the last", created "at the limit and even beyond the limit of despair." The poet also refuses religious consolation.

Often, emigrant writers have written publicistic works. The diaries, notes, memoirs reflected the last impressions received at home, the process or the moment of parting was recorded, accompanied by reflections on the prospects of Russia and their own fate: "Petersburg Diaries" 3. Gippius, "Cursed Days" by I. Bunin, "Word of Death Russian Lands "by A. Remizov," Sun of the Dead "by I. Shmelev.

Poets and prose writers wrote about lost Russia with sadness and tenderness. F. Stepun called this motive “the cult of the Russian birch tree”.

Boris Zaitsev(1884-1972). In the first years after the revolution, he not only witnessed the Red Terror, but survived the murder of loved ones. Despite this, he tried to work - he prepared for publication a three-volume collection of his works, translated, organized trade in the Moscow "Bookstore", participated in the activities of the committee to help the hungry. The latter was the reason for the arrest, imprisonment. After his release, B. Zaitsev left his homeland in 1922. Having lived in emigration for half a century, he created a number of works of different genres. Among them are novels, the autobiographical tetralogy "The Journey of Gleb" (1937-1954), the life story "Reverend Sergius of Radonezh" (1925), the biographies of Russian classic writers - Zhukovsky, Turgenev, Chekhov. The main pathos of his books is the comprehension of spirituality.

The literary process of 1917-1929 can be divided into three stages. The first years after the October Revolution - comprehension of the changes that have taken place, orientation in the new reality. This stage ends with a "great exodus" in emigration, and domestic literature it turns out to be divided by far not only territorially. The further, the more they realize the loss of their homeland by those who left it and the lack of freedom among those who remained in their homeland.

The next stage - the years of the NEP, the crisis nature of the perception of reality. At the same time - deepening the analysis, expanding the subject matter. Turning to history in search of analogies and correspondences. In emigration during these years, the first books about Russia in different genres were created, the finality of the break with it was realized.

In the second half of the 1920s, an increasingly active attack on freedom of creative search was carried out. Any inconsistency with ideological guidelines is declared hostile to socialist ideals.

* The opportunity is now opening to look at those events from different t. Sp. Books about the civil war: stories by M. Sholokhov, stories by A. Malyshkin, A. Serafimovich, novel by Fadeev. Belonging to one camp or another determined the author's approach to events. Members of the white movement created their books about Russia already in exile. In the 1920s, the series “Revolution and Civil War in the Descriptions of the White Guards” was published. Among them are "Essays on Russian Troubles" by Denikin, "From the Two-Headed Eagle to the Red Banner" by Krasnov. Thoughts on the fate of Russia.

Bunin ("Cursed Days") wrote about Russia and the revolution, Gippius "Petersburg Diaries", Remizov "The Word about the destruction of the Russian land." Sarcastic irony was interspersed with a sense of shame and bitterness. Thoughts about repentance and belief in the highest justice helped to overcome the apocalyptic moods.

In 1923 V. Zazubrin wrote the story "The Sliver". Its hero Srubov is a man with strong convictions, who considers himself a "history cesspool". The subtitle "Slivers" is "The Story of Her and Her." "She" is the heroine of the soul. The revolution. She is a powerful stream carrying people-chips. "Let the taiga be burnt out, let the steppes be trampled down ... After all, only on cement and iron will an iron brotherhood be built - a union of all people."

Srubov's willingness to do anything for the sake of an idea turns him into an executioner. This readiness is emphasized by the attitude towards the father. The son did not hear his warnings: "Bolshevism is a temporary, painful phenomenon, a fit of rage, into which the majority of the Russian people fell." The finals of "Two Worlds" and "Slivers" echo. The first ended with a fire in the church, staged by fanatics of the revolutionary idea. The events of the second take place in days Happy Easter... “It seems to Srubov that he is floating on a bloody river. Only not on the raft. He came off and swayed like a lonely chip on the waves. "

Y. Libedinsky ("Week", 1923), and A. Tarasov-Rodionov ("Chocolate", 1922) included the motive of doubt and delirium in the story of the uncompromising firmness of the adherents of the revolutionary idea.

In a number of works of the early 1920s, the hero was the new army itself - a revolutionary crowd, “multitudes”, heroically inclined, striving for victory. The fact that this path was bloody and associated with the death of thousands of people was relegated to the background.

A. Malyshkin was not an ordinary participant in the battles in the Crimea region, but a member of the Headquarters. Accordingly, he knew about the losses on both sides knew about the mass execution of white officers, who were promised life in the event of the surrender of weapons. But "The Fall of Dyr" (1921) "is not about that". This is a romantic book, stylized as ancient historical stories. “And in the black night, ahead, they saw - not the eyes, but something else - a dark, raised massif fierce and thorny from the ages, and behind it the wonderful Dair - blue fogs of the valleys, blossoming cities, the starry sea”.

In "Cavalry" by I. Babel (1923-1925) they faced the reality of a revolutionary dream. The main character books (K. Lyutov) took a seemingly contemplative position, but was endowed with the right to judge. Lyutov's unconquered loneliness does not bother him sincere desire understand, if not justify, then try to explain the unpredictable actions of the cavalrymen. Murder is perceived as a punishment coming from all over Russia.

For many writers who accepted the revolution and its opponents, the main motive was the unjustifiedness of the spilled rivers of blood.

B. Pilnyak portrayed a person associated with the revolution with ideas and deeds, with his own and others' blood. In 1926, The Tale of the Unquenched Moon was published in Novy Mir and immediately banned. The unbending man, personifying the totalitarian power, sent a commander to death. Gavrilov, who died on the operating table, also bore the blame for the shed blood of people. The icy light of the moon illuminated the city.

And the moon will come up at night. She was not devoured by the dogs: She was just not visible Because of the human bloody fight.

These poems by S. Yesenin were written in 1924. The moon appeared in many works of techlet, not a single science fiction book could do without it. The unquenched moon of B. Pilnyak seemed to give additional light the real world- the light is alarming, alarming.

A historian and observer of the revolution, B. Pilnyak did not admire the scale of the destruction, but made him feel the threat to all living things, primarily to the individual, from the new state machine.

Genre variety and style originality... Memoirs and diaries, chronicles and confessions, novels and stories. Some authors have striven for maximum objectivity. Others are characterized by increased subjectivity, emphasized imagery, expressiveness. *

Philosophically interpreted the essence of the events in Russia at the beginning of the century years later B. Pasternak in the novel "Doctor Zhivago". The hero of the novel was held hostage to history, which mercilessly interferes in his life and destroys it. The fate of Zhivago is the fate of the Russian intelligentsia in the 20th century.

Fadeev's heroes are "ordinary". The strongest impression in “Defeat” is made by a deep analysis of the changes caused by the civil war in the spiritual world of the ordinary person. The image of Frost speaks volumes about this. Ivan Morozka was a second generation miner. His grandfather plowed the land, and his father mined coal. From the age of twenty, Ivan rolled trolleys, swore, drank vodka. He did not look for new ways, he walked the old ones: he bought a satin shirt, chrome boots, played the accordion, fought, walked, stole vegetables for the sake of mischief. He was in prison during the strike, but did not betray any of the ringleaders. Was at the front in the cavalry, received six wounds and two concussions. He is married, but a family man is bad, he does everything thoughtlessly, and life seems to him simple and unpretentious. Morozka did not like clean people, they seemed fake to him. He believed that they could not be trusted. He himself strove for light, monotonous work, and therefore did not remain an orderly with Levinson. Comrades sometimes call him “bastard,” “fool,” “the devil,” but he is not offended, business is most important to him. Morozka knows how to think: he thinks that life is becoming "more cunning" and that he must choose the path himself. Nashkodiv on melons, he cowardly ran away, but afterwards he regrets and is very worried. Goncharenko defended Moroz at the meeting, called him a "fighting guy" and vouched for him. Morozka vowed that he would give his blood a vein for each of the miners, that he was ready for any punishment. He was forgiven. When Morozka manages to calm people down at the crossing, he felt like a responsible person. He was able to organize the men, and he was pleased. In the detachment of miners, Morozka was a serviceable soldier and was considered a good, necessary person. He even tries to fight the terrible desire to drink, understands that there is external beauty, but there is genuine, spiritual. And thinking about it, I realized that he was deceived in his former life. Gulba and work, blood and sweat, and nothing good was visible ahead, and it seemed to him that all his life he had been trying to get out on a straight, clear and correct path, but he did not notice the enemy who was sitting in him. People like Morozka are reliable, they can make their own decisions and are capable of remorse. And although they Weak Will, they will never commit meanness. They will be able to find a way out of any, even the most hopeless situation. Only before the heroic death Morozka realized that Mechik is a reptile, a cowardly reptile, a traitor who thinks only of himself, and a memory of loved ones, dear people who rode behind him, forced him to self-sacrifice. In works about the civil war, the idea is important that the winner is often not the one who is more conscientious, softer, more responsive, but the one who is more fanatical, who is more insensitive to suffering, who is more subject to his own doctrine. These works raise the theme of humanism, which is inextricably linked with a sense of civic duty. Commander Levinson took the only pig from the poor Korean, using weapons, forced the red-haired guy into the water for fish, gave the go-ahead for Frolov's forced death. All this is for the sake of saving the common cause. People suppressed personal interests, subordinating them to duty. This debt crippled many, making them an instrument in the hands of the Party. As a result, people became callous, crossed the line of what was permissible. The “selection of human material” is also waged by the war itself. More often the best die in battles - Blizzard, Baklanov, Morozka, who managed to realize the importance of the team and suppress their selfish aspirations, but such as Chizh, Pika and the traitor Mechik remain.

The originality of Russian literature of the early 20th century. Periodization, main trends.

Late 19th - early 20th centuries became the time of the bright flourishing of Russian culture, its "Silver Age" (the "golden age" was called the Pushkin era). At the turn of the XIX and XX centuries. literature developed in different historical conditions than before. If you look for a word that characterizes the most important features of the period under consideration, then it will be the word "crisis". The new vision of the world, thus, will determine the new face of realism of the 20th century, which will differ significantly from the classical realism of its predecessors. The crisis of faith also had devastating consequences for the human spirit (“God is dead!” Exclaimed Nietzsche). This led to the fact that the man of the 20th century began to feel more and more the influence of irreligious ideas. The cult of sensual pleasures, the apology of evil and death, the glorification of the self-will of the individual, the recognition of the right to violence, which turned into terror - all these features testify to the deepest crisis of consciousness.

In Russian literature of the beginning of the 20th century, a crisis of old ideas about art and a feeling of the exhaustion of past development will be felt, a reassessment of values ​​will be formed.

The renewal of literature, its modernization will cause the emergence of new trends and schools. The rethinking of the old means of expression and the revival of poetry will mark the beginning of the "Silver Age" of Russian literature. The term is associated with the name N. Berdyaeva who used it in one of the performances in the salon of D. Merezhkovsky. Later, the editor of "Apollo" S. Makovsky consolidated this phrase, calling his book about Russian culture at the turn of the century "On Parnassus of the Silver Age."

Chronological framework of the period can be defined as follows: 1892 – 1917 - exit from the era of timelessness (the beginning of the social upsurge in the country, the manifesto and collection "Symbols" by D. Merezhkovsky, the first stories of M. Gorky, etc.). According to another point of view, the chronological end of this period can be considered 1921-1922 (the collapse of past illusions, which began after the deaths of A. Blok and N. Gumilyov, the mass emigration of Russian cultural figures from Russia, the expulsion of a group of writers, philosophers and historians from country). Russian literature of the XX century was represented by three main literary directions: realism, modernism, literary avant-garde.

Representatives of literary trends

‣‣‣ Senior Symbolists: V.Ya. Bryusov, K. D. Balmont, D.S. Merezhkovsky, Z.N. Gippius, F.K. Sologub and others.

◦Mystics-God-seekers: D.S. Merezhkovsky, Z.N. Gippius, N. Minsky.

◦ Individualist decadents: V.Ya. Bryusov, K. D. Balmont, F.K. Sologub.

‣‣‣ Younger Symbolists: A.A. Blok, Andrey Bely (B.N.Bugaev), V.I. Ivanov and others.

‣‣‣Acmeism: N.S. Gumilev, A.A. Akhmatova, S.M. Gorodetsky, O.E. Mandelstam, M.A. Zenkevich, V.I. Narbut.

‣‣‣Kubofuturists (poets of "Gilea"): D.D. Burliuk, V.V. Khlebnikov, V.V. Kamensky, V.V. Mayakovsky, A.E. Twisted.

‣‣‣Egofuturists: I. Severyanin, I. Ignatiev, K. Olympov, V. Gnedov.

‣‣‣ "Poetry Mezzanine" group: V. Shershenevich, Khrisanf, R. Ivnev and others.

‣‣‣Unification "Centrifuge": B.L. Pasternak, N.N. Aseev, S.P. Bobrov and others.

Such writers as Maxim Gorky and L.N. Andreev. The twenties was a difficult but dynamic and creatively fruitful period in the development of literature. Although many figures of Russian culture were expelled from the country in 1922, and others went into voluntary emigration, the artistic life in Russia does not stop. On the contrary, there are many talented young writers, recent participants in the Civil War: L. Leonov, M. Sholokhov, A. Fadeev, and others.

The thirties began with the "year of the great turning point", when the foundations of the former Russian life order were sharply deformed, and the party began to actively intervene in the sphere of culture. P. Florensky, A. Losoeev, A. Voronsky and D. Kharms were arrested, repressions against the intelligentsia intensified, which claimed the lives of tens of thousands of cultural workers, two thousand writers died, in particular N. Klyuev, O. Mandelstam , I. Kataev, I. Babel, B. Pilnyak, P. Vasiliev, A. Voronsky, B. Kornilov. Under these conditions, the development of literature was extremely difficult, tense and ambiguous.

The work of such writers and poets as V.V. Mayakovsky, S.A. Yesenin, A.A. Akhmatova, A.N. Tolstoy, E.I. Zamyatin, M.M. Zoshchenko, M.A. Sholokhov, M.A. Bulgakov, A.P. Platonov, O.E. Mandelstam, M.I. Tsvetaeva.

The originality of Russian literature of the early 20th century. Periodization, main trends. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "The originality of Russian literature of the early 20th century. Periodization, main trends." 2017, 2018.

The 20th century is the most dynamic in the history of human civilization, which could not but affect the entire character of its culture, including the liter. General characteristics of the XX century: the triumph of science, human intelligence, the era of social storms, upheavals, paradoxes. Modern society, while shaping the lofty ideals of love for man, equality, freedom, democracy, at the same time gave rise to a simplified understanding of these values, which is why the processes taking place in modern culture are so versatile.

In the literary process of the XX century. there have been changes due to socio-economic and political reasons. Among the main features of the literature of this time are:

Politicization, strengthening the connection of literary trends with various political movements,

Strengthening the mutual influence and interpenetration of national literatures, internationalization,

Denial of literary traditions,

Intellectualization, the influence of philosophical ideas, the pursuit of scientific and philosophical analysis,

Merging and mixing of genres, variety of forms and styles,

Committed to the genre of essays.

In the history of literature of the XX century. it is customary to distinguish two large periods:

1) 1917-1945.

2) after 1945.

Features of the 20th century literature:

1. Literature in the XX century. developed in the mainstream of two main directions - realism and modernism.

Realism allowed bold experiments, the use of new artistic techniques with one goal: a deeper comprehension of reality (B. Brecht, W. Faulkner, T. Mann).

Modernism in literature is most vividly represented by the work of D Joyce and F. Kafka, who are characterized by the idea of ​​the world as an absurd beginning, hostile to man, lack of faith in man, rejection of the idea of ​​progress in all its forms, pessimism.

From the leading literary trends of the middle of the XX century. should be called existentialism, which as a literary trend originated in France (J.-P. Sartre, A Camus).

The features of this area are:

Statement of "pure" unmotivated action,

Affirmation of individualism,

Reflection of a person's loneliness in an absurd world hostile to him.

Avant-garde literature was the product of an incipient era of social change and cataclysm. It was based on a categorical rejection of reality, denial of bourgeois values ​​and vigorous breaking of traditions.

Joyce's most famous novel is Ulysses. The action takes place on 1 day, from morning until late at night. An important object is the city of Dublin. A middle-aged family man leaves home, spends the day away from home. This day is likened to the wanderings of Odysseus. The events of the myth, altered, form the undercurrent of the novel. This is how neomythologism entered literature.

Neomythologism has different manifestations. On the one hand, this is a return to literature of plots associated with ancient myths, and sometimes passed through a lot of new assimilations (“Antigone” by Jean Anuy - the same plot, but cosmetics, coffee ...). On the other side mythological plot may not be part of the text on purpose. For example, García Márquez “100 Years of Solitude” - the motive of the flood, the motive of original sin - 2 young men competed for the heart of Ursula. Jose Arcadio kills an opponent. They live almost in paradise, in Mokondo. On the other hand, Ursula and José Arcadio are close relatives and she is afraid to enter into a love affair with him, because she thinks that an ugly child will be born. Death comes with the girl who brings the bones of her ancestors in a bag. Everyone has madness, memory loss. The eschatological motive is the end of the world - a gypsy who brought unprecedented thoughts leaves the book. It is said that the last in the Buendi family will read it, and at the end of the storm sweeps Mokondo off the face of the earth, and read about everything that happened before.

3. Utopian and dystopian tendencies - associated with real historical experience in the 20th century. Utopia in its kind of technocratic utopia (social problems are solved by accelerating scientific and technological progress) b - Aldous Huxley "The Island", Ivan Efremov "The Andromeda Nebula". Dystopias - Zamyatin "We", Platonov "Chevengur, Nabokov" Invitation to execution "Orwell" 1984 "- In Orwell's novel, the features of a policeman are brought to unbearable tension totalitarian state as he saw the Soviet Union - but the novel is set in London.

4. Novel in the 20th century - The novel remains of genres, but its genre palette changes. It becomes more diverse, uses other genre varieties. There is an interpenetration of genres. In the 20th century, the structure of the novel loses its normality. There is a turn from society to personality, from the piitical to the individual, interest in the subject dominates. A subjective epic (Proust) appears - individual consciousness is in the center and it is the object of research.

5. To say that the entire literary process is filled with a complex subject-rhythmic and space-time organization.

Grade 7 report.

The beginning of the XX century is a difficult time for Russia: the 1st World War, the February and October revolutions of 1917, the establishment Soviet power, the period of collectivization, Stalinist repressions. The cataclysms of the beginning of the century influenced the development of Russian literature. On the one hand, a number of writers continue the traditions of the Russian classical Literature XIX century: I.A. Bunin, L. Andreev, A. Kuprin and others. The most important artistic method there is still realism. On the other hand, in Russian literature of the early XX century, many modernist literary trends appear, especially in poetry: symbolism (A.A. Blok, V.Ya.Bryusov, A. Bely, etc.), acmeism (N. S. Gumilev , A.A. Akhmatova, S. Gorodetsky and others), futurism (V.V. Mayakovsky, V. Khlebnikov, I. Severyanin and others), new peasant poets (S.A. ). Some works of post-revolutionary prose were created in the spirit realism XIX century. Most described the bloody Civil War of 1918-1920. - this is an example of the murderous pictures of social decline during the general strife in the novel by B.A. Pilnyak's "Naked Year" (1922).

In the absence of political censorship in the first years of Soviet power, much was allowed to satirical writers who in every possible way ridiculed new regime, as, for example, Yu.K. Olesha in the political satire "Envy" (1927) or V.P. Kataev in the novella Prospectors (1926), an excellent depiction of the ingenuous fraud of two Soviet officials, as well as the greatest satirist of the Soviet era, M.M. Zoshchenko in his many caustic and sad stories.

After the October Revolution of 1917, most of the Russian intelligentsia went abroad. Thus, Russian literature was divided into two, developing in parallel. Writers from the Russian diaspora: I. Bunin, B. Zaitsev, V. Nabokov, E. Zamyatin, I. Shmelev, and others. Some writers, unable to bear the separation from their homeland, subsequently returned to Russia. I. Bunin's novel "The Life of Arseniev" reveals the formation and development of the human soul.

In Russian literature of the first half of the 20th century, new themes appear: the theme of collectivization and the Civil War, the loss of moral guidelines; and at the same time, the eternal themes of good and evil, love, civil service to the Motherland continue to develop. The literature of the 20th century is distinguished by its genre diversity: a novel (M. Gorky, M. Sholokhov), a poem (A.T. Tvardovsky), realistic stories and stories (I. Bunin, A. Kuprin), satirical stories (M. Bulgakov), fantastic stories and stories (A. Green), stories (Bazhov), rich lyrics.

Since 1930, writers have begun to rethink the events that took place in the country: new works by M. Gorky, A. Makarenko, M. Sholokhov, N. Ostrovsky, etc. appear. During the repressions in the second half of the 1930s, many writers were arrested - some were shot , others spent long years in the camps. After Stalin's death, some were posthumously rehabilitated, like Pilnyak or the remarkable poet O.E. Mandelstam; and those who were excommunicated from literature, like A.A. Akhmatova, it was again allowed to publish.

Since 1941, the most popular topic in Soviet literature has been the Great Patriotic War, the theme of national heroism (AT Tvardovsky "Vasily Terkin", MA Sholokhov "They fought for the Motherland", poems by K. Simonov, etc.). In the story of M.A. Sholokhov's "The Fate of a Man" shows the ability of a person to overcome their troubles, the possibility of an ordinary person moral feat, finding the meaning of your life through taking care of the fate of a little boy. Thus, the writer moves from thinking about the fate of an individual to thinking about the fate of all mankind. In the poem by A.T. Tvardovsky's "Vasily Terkin" the image of an ordinary soldier-fighter, cheerful, cheerful, able to maintain an optimistic mood not only in himself, but also in his colleagues, is displayed.

After Stalin's death in 1953, the growing dissatisfaction with the strict regulation was reflected in the story of I.G. Ehrenburg's "Thaw" (1954) about the plight of artists forced to create under the supervision of their superiors. In many works of poetry, prose and drama, young authors denounced
not only the abuse of power of the Stalinist era, but also the ugly phenomena of modern reality.

In the early 1960s, the need for more freedom artistic expression in literature and art affected with renewed vigor, especially through the efforts of "angry young people", of whom the most famous were poets E.A. Evtushenko and A.A. Voznesensky.

The 1960s were notable not only for new works, but also for the first published old ones. So, readers got the opportunity to get acquainted with the work of M.I. Tsvetaeva (1891-1941), who committed suicide shortly after returning from emigration. The name of Boris Pasternak appeared in print again, although only his poems were published. The most important literary discovery of the decade was the work of M.A. Bulgakov (1891-1940).

By the early 1980s, Russian literature was divided into two communities - emigrants and Soviet writers. Panorama of legal literature within Soviet Union tarnished when many prominent writers such as Trifonov, Kataev and Abramov died in the early years of the decade, and literally no evidence of new talent emerged in print. T.N. Tolstaya, whose first story "On the Golden Porch" was published in one of the Leningrad magazines in 1983; a collection under the same title was published in 1987. Her second collection, Somnambula in the Fog, was published in 1991 in the United States in English.

Questions about the report:

1) What historical events took place in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century?

2) What was happening in the literature of the early XX century? What works of art have been created?

3) What happened to the creative intelligentsia after the October Revolution of 1917?

4) What was the most popular topic in the literature of the 40s?

5) How did literature develop in the 60s and 80s?

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Kostanay State Pedagogical Institute

Faculty of Distance Learning

Department of Russian Language and Literature

Discipline "History of Russian Literature of the 20th Century"

"Features of the literature of the early 20th century"

Khitrik Olga Yurievna

Specialty 5В011800 "Russian language and literature", 2 course

Kostanay

Plan

Introduction

1. New techniques in the literary process of the first half of the twentieth century

2. The influence of public and state life on literature

Introduction

The beginning of the twentieth century was marked by a large-scale technical revolution: for the first time, telephones, light bulbs, and cars began to be used. The revolution is taking place in the state system, this is a period of bloody wars. This time can be precisely characterized by the word "Breakthrough". Society was able to say goodbye to its past and opened up to innovations, absorbed new ideas. Literature, like a mirror, reflected all the changes that took place in the life of the people.

1. New techniques in the literary process of the first half of the twentieth century

The literary process in the first half of the twentieth century acquires new styles, new techniques, it combines modernism and realism. For literary works, fantastic absurdity becomes characteristic, as a new experimental form. If in the nineteenth century, literary works described clear objective subjects, for example, love, evil, family and public relations, then in the updated literature of the twentieth century, abstract psychological techniques to describe this or that thing.

Literature is filled with a special philosophy. The main themes that were used in creativity are war, revolution, problems of religious perception, and most importantly - the tragedy of a person, a person who, due to circumstances, has lost his inner harmony. Lyrical heroes become more daring, decisive, extraordinary, unpredictable. literature creativity style reception

Many writers also abandon the classical stylistic presentation of the text - the famous "ladder" of V. Mayakovsky appears. The experience of the literary masters of the past is not rejected, but is supplemented by more daring modern elements. For example, Yesenin's versification style is very close to Pushkin's, but they cannot be compared and identified. In most works, interest in the subject is brought to the fore, in how a person perceives social events through the prism of his consciousness.

At the beginning of the 20th century, mass literature appears. Works that did not have a high artistic value, however, were widespread among the population.

2. The influence of public and state life on literature

During this period, writers and poets were in anticipation of new changes and explosions in public and state life. This, unambiguously, greatly influenced their work. Someone in their works inspired people and instilled faith in a new wonderful future, someone with pessimism and anguish convinced them of the inevitability of grief and suffering.

The authoritarian intervention of the new government played a significant role in the development of the literary process. Some writers chose the dissident path for themselves, some began to build a socialist country in their works, glorify the working class and the communist party.

Despite the fact that many literary figures were forced to leave the country for political reasons, Russian literature does not die in emigration. The most famous Russian literary figures in exile include Bunin, Tsvetaeva, Kuprin, Khodasevich, Shmelev.

Russian literature at the beginning of the twentieth century is characterized by an awareness of the crisis of old ideas about values, and a large-scale reassessment of them is taking place. New literary trends and schools appear. A revival of the renewed poetry takes place, which marks the beginning of the Silver Age of Russian literature.

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