History of numbers. Report historical events, etc.

Shrovetide is one of the most joyful and happy holidays... For a whole week, people see off the annoying winter, bake pancakes and visit each other. Completed by: Vlasova Anastasia, 5th grade student. Head: Vlasova T.I., art teacher

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MOU "Ostashevskaya secondary school"

Completed by: Vlasova Anastasia,

5th grade student.

Head: Vlasova T.I.,

art teacher

S. Ostashevo.

year 2012.

History.

Shrovetide is one of the happiest and brightest holidays. For a whole week, people see off the annoying winter, bake pancakes and visit each other.

Shrovetide for us is like a carnival for Italians. Moreover, in translation from Italian "carnival"means "goodbye beef!" And Shrovetide, preceding Great Lent, has long been called "Meat-empty", since it was forbidden to eat meat that week.

Some historians believe that in antiquity Maslenitsa was associated with the spring solstice, but with the adoption of Christianity, it began to precede Great post and depend on its timing. However, this is not all about the meaning of Shrovetide. For the Slavs, for a long time it was also a New Year's Eve! Indeed, until the XIV century, the year in Russia began in March. Even pancakes, an indispensable attribute of Shrovetide, had ritual significance: round, ruddy, hot, they were a symbol of the sun, which flared up brighter and brighter, lengthening the days. And according to old beliefs, it was believed: how a person meets a year, so he will be. Therefore, our ancestors did not skimp on this holiday for a generous feast and unrestrained fun. And people called Shrovetide among the people "honest", "wide", "gluttonous", and even "ruinous".

Centuries passed, life changed, with the adoption of Christianity new church holidays, but the wide Shrovetide continued to live. Nothing could force Russians to abandon their favorite holiday - hospitable and riotous fun. By the way, one time Tsar Alexei Mikhailovichwith the most stringent measures he tried to calm down his daring subjects. The governors sent out tsarist decrees throughout the cities and villages, either prohibiting private distilling, or demanding that the Russians in gambling did not play, did not carry out fist fights. But neither the formidable royal decrees, nor the instructions of the patriarch were able to cope with the overflowing joy.

But in 1724 in St. Petersburg Maslenitsa failed. Peter , a well-known lover of all kinds of amusements, intended to arrange a funny sledge procession in the new capital, but all the festive week there was a snowstorm and there was a severe frost. For several days, the participants in the procession in costumes and masks gathered at the gathering place, but, stiffened along the way, they went to warm up to someone on a visit. Alas, the element won, the fun failed.

Catherine II on the occasion of her coronation, imitating Peter the Great, she organized a grandiose masquerade procession called "Triumphant Minerva" in Moscow at Masleni week. For three days a masquerade procession traveled around the city, which, according to the empress's plan, was supposed to represent various social vices - bribery, embezzlement, bureaucratic red tape and others, destroyed by the beneficial rule of the wise Catherine.

Over time, "rolling fun" in the cities has improved. Wooden slides with elegant pavilions began to be erected on the ice of the river or in squares. The hills were decorated with multi-colored flags, spruce and pine branches, even with wooden sculptures. Petersburg in early XIX The mountains of the merchant Podoznikov were famous for centuries. They were built on the Neva opposite the Senate and reached 26 meters in height. By the way, skiing from the city mountains at that time was paid and cost a penny. A brisk trade in hot sbitn, tea made from steaming samovars, sweets, nuts, pies and pancakes was unfolding near the icy mountains. The audience in large booths was amused by buffoons and a beloved folk hero Parsley.

In villages where booths were never born, the inhabitants themselves became actors an unusual battle - the capture of a snow town. Having gathered, they together erected a fortress out of snow with intricate towers and gates. Most often they put it on the ice of the river and cut through the wormwood in the middle. Then the participants of the merrymaking were divided into two parties. Horse daredevils besieged the fortress, and its defenders fought back with snowballs, brandished twigs and brooms, frightening the horses. The winner, who burst into the gate first, faced a test: he was forced to swim in an ice hole.

But the most beloved and beautiful Shrovetide rite was sleigh rides. Everyone who had a horse rode out, and assorted teams were racing through the streets: the rich flaunted sleek trotters and painted sleds covered with a carpet, and after them galloped peasant horses, cleaned to a shine, decorated with colored ribbons.

Of course, pancakes were the main treat at Maslenitsa. They were baked and eaten in myriad quantities.

For each day of the oil week, there were certain rituals. On Monday - Maslenitsa meeting, on Tuesday - flirting. For gourmets, that is, on Wednesday of Oily week, mother-in-law invited sons-in-law and wives to pancakes. This custom was especially observed in relation to young, recently married. Surely this is where the expression "to the mother-in-law for pancakes" came from. The most crowded tobogganing took place on wide Thursday. On Friday - mother-in-law's evening - the sons-in-law called the mother-in-law for a treat. Saturday was allotted to the sister-in-law's gatherings. Sunday was called "Forgiveness Day." On this day, everyone visited relatives, friends and acquaintances, exchanged kisses, bows and asked for forgiveness from each other if offended by words or deeds.

History of money

It is believed that the very first coins appeared in China and in the ancient kingdom of Lydia in the 7th century BC. About 500 BC, the Persian king Darius made an economic revolution in his state, introducing coins into circulation and replacing barter with them.

Well preserved rock inscriptions in Persepolis (modern Iran) testify to the changes taking place.

Paper money appeared in China in the 8th century AD (paper was first produced there in 100 AD). Earliest type paper money in China, it was a special receipt issued either against values ​​deposited in special shops, or as evidence of taxes paid, stored in accounts in provincial centers, and not in the capital.

Paper money produced great impression on travelers visiting China in VII? VIII centuries. Marco Polo wrote that issuing paper money is new way achieving the goal to which the alchemists have been striving for so long. In the 13th century, the government of Genghis Khan freely exchanged paper banknotes for gold, therefore counterfeiting of paper money brought large profits and was considered a terrible crime. By 1500, the Chinese government was forced to stop issuing paper money due to the difficulties associated with over-issuance and inflation, but the then-existing private banks in China continued to issue paper money.

It is known that in different time and in various regions of the world, metal ingots, shells, feathers, cocoa beans, livestock, etc. served as money.

In the USA, back in the 18th century, in some states, wampums served as money - special necklaces of Indians, receipts showing the quantity and quality of tobacco, animal skins, etc.

Chronology of the emergence of banknotes:

Approximately 3-2 thousand BC NS. The first banks appear in Mesopotamia. Their role was played by the temples and palaces of local rulers, providing services for the safe storage of goods.

About 2,250 BC NS. The rulers of Cappadocia (now the territory of Turkey) for the first time began to guarantee the quality and weight of silver bars, which served as money.

About 1,200 BC NS. The Chinese character "money" appears, which denoted cowrie shells, which served as a universal means of payment. In some regions of Asia, the cowrie retained this function until the middle of the 20th century.

Approximately 1000 - 500 BC NS. In China, prototypes of money appear: ingots of metal in the form of shovels, hoes and knives, which were previously used as a medium of exchange.

Approximately 640 - 630 g to. n. NS. In Lydia (the territory of modern Turkey), money was first invented in modern sense this word. These were round coins made of electrons (an alloy of gold and silver).

Approximately 600g to. n. NS. The first reliable evidence of the existence of banking operations similar to the current ones. The banker Tithias had a network of offices in various cities of Greece and Ionia. He used a non-cash payment - merchants and travelers carried with them not money, but receipts from the Tifias bank.

Around the same time, iron coins began to be minted in China. Before that, money was made only from precious metals and their cost, in fact, was equal to the cost of the material from which they were made. In China, for the first time, they began to use cheaper material to make money and introduced the concept of "face value".

Approximately 500 g to. n. NS. Greek authors describe the reforms of the Spartan legislator Lycurgus. Lycurgus was the first in the world to try to pursue a policy of financial isolationism. He banned the use of gold and silver coins to restrict the activities of foreign dealers in luxury goods. Spartan money was made deliberately large and heavy, for transportation, not even very large sums a horse-drawn cart was required. They were not convertible - they were refused to be accepted for payment everywhere except Sparta.

910 In China, mass production of paper money begins.

Plan

1. Historical eras.
2. Acquaintance with history and archeology.

4. The primitive world.
5. Conclusion.

1. Historical eras.

The history of mankind can be divided into several great eras:

• — primitive history;
• - history Of the ancient world;
• - history of the Middle Ages;
• - history of modern times;
• - history of modern times.

2. Acquaintance with history and archeology

The most ancient era the history of mankind is called primitive.

How did people know about primitive people? Scientists carry out excavations, extract things of ancient people, their bones from the earth. Scientists who excavate are called archaeologists.

Archeology - the science of antiquity. She studies the history of society from the remnants of the life and activities of people. Scientists believe that the earliest people, "traces" of which are found in Africa and Asia, lived more than a million years ago. From the remains of the skeletons of ancient people, it was possible to establish what they looked like.

The first known ancestors of man and apes lived more than two million years ago and were called Dryopithecus.

3. Difference primitive man from modern.

The oldest man was very different from you and me - modern people- and looked like a big monkey. However, people did not walk on four legs, as almost all animals walk, but on two legs, but at the same time they leaned forward strongly. The man's hands, hanging down to his knees, were free, and he could perform with them simple work: grab, hit, dig the ground. The foreheads of the people were low and sloping. Their brains were larger than that of a monkey, but much smaller than that of modern humans. He did not know how to speak, he made only a few abrupt sounds, with them people expressed fear and anger, called for help and warned each other about danger, ate only what he found.

These were arboreal animals, resembling in their structure the great apes. Some of them led only an arboreal lifestyle. It was they who could give rise to a line of animals that later became the ancestor of man.

4. The primitive world.

The most ancient era the history of mankind is called primitive. Primitive (tribal) community. Characterized collective labor and consumption.

Primitive people lived in groups, because alone it was impossible to cope with the difficulties of life. They didn't have to worry about warm clothes. They lived where it is always warm. Primitive people built dwellings to protect themselves from the scorching rays of the sun, bad weather, and predators.

The first tools of human labor were hands, nails and teeth, as well as stones, debris and branches from trees. The first people had to hunt, collect various plants, as well as learn how to make the first simple tools from sticks, bones and horns of animals, and then from stone.

The main the occupation of the ancient people there was a hunt and fishing(activities for men), which required great strength and dexterity. Ancient man he could hardly count more than five, but he could sit motionless for hours in an ambush while hunting or construct a clever trap for a huge mammoth. Gathering (an activity for women) - the ability to understand different plants and collect edible mushrooms, as well as the exchange of loot - with other tribes.

Ancient man together with other animals, he fled from the fire in fear. But then a daredevil was found who began to use the fire left behind natural phenomena as a result of thunderstorms, volcanic eruptions, forest fires. Man did not yet know how to make fire himself. And that's why big problem there was a preservation of fire. The loss of fire was tantamount to the death of the entire family. Later, man learned how to make fire, and fire saved him during a cold snap on Earth. He began to use fire for cooking. He could fry a piece of meat on it, bake root vegetables on coals and remove them in time so that they do not burn out. Fire gave to man what is not in nature.

Within each tribe, certain customs and rules of behavior were formed. Living in caves, they painted on the walls. They sculpted from clay or hewed people, animals out of stone, and decorated dishes. They probably wanted to portray the world in which they lived.

5. Conclusion.

Primitive history lasted hundreds, thousands of years. During this time, people have settled on all continents, except for Antarctica. They appeared on the territory of our country about half a million years ago.

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Title page

Introduction ………………………………………………………………… ..... 3

What is history? .............................................. .......................................5

The subject of history as a science: the goal, learning objectives, socially significant functions ………………………………………………… .. …… ... 8

1. The periodization of world history ……………………………………… .13

Conclusion ……………………………………………………………… ... 14

List of used literature ……………………………………… .16

Introduction

Interest in the past has existed since the beginning of the human race. This interest is difficult to explain by human curiosity alone. The point is that man himself is a historical being. It grows, changes, develops over time, is a product of this development.

The original meaning of the word "history" goes back to the ancient Greek term meaning "investigation", "recognition", "establishment". History was identified with the establishment of authenticity, the truth of events and facts. In Roman historiography (Historiography is a branch of historical science that studies its history), this word began to denote not a way of recognition, but a story about the events of the past. Soon, any story about any case, incident, real or fictional, began to be called "history" in general. Currently, we use the word "history" in two senses: firstly, to refer to a story about the past, and secondly, when it comes about science studying the past.

The subject of history is defined ambiguously. The subject of history can be social, political, economic, demographic history, history of a city, village, family, private life. The definition of the subject of history is subjective, connected with the ideology of the state and the worldview of the historian. Historians who hold materialist positions believe that history as a science studies the laws of the development of society, which ultimately depend on the method of production of material goods. This approach prioritizes economics, society - not people - when explaining causality. Historians adhering to liberal positions are convinced that the subject of the study of history is a person (personality) in the self-realization of natural rights granted by nature. The famous French historian Mark Blok defined history "as the science of people in time."

1. What is history?

History is one of the oldest sciences, it is about 2500 years old. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus (5th century BC) is considered its founder. The ancients appreciated history very much and called it "magistra vitae" (teacher of life).

History is usually defined as a science about the past- of the past reality, about what once happened to a person, people, society as a whole. Thus, history is reduced to a simple analysis of events, processes, states, one way or another sunk into oblivion. This understanding of history is inaccurate and incomplete, moreover, internally contradictory. In fact, history does not allow people to forget "their past life." History, as it were, resurrects the past, the past, rediscovering and reconstructing it for the present. Thanks to history, historical knowledge, the past does not die, but continues to live in the present, serves the present.

It is noteworthy that in Ancient Greece the patroness of history was Cleo - the goddess who glorifies. The scroll and the slate stick in her hands are a symbol and a guarantee that nothing should disappear without a trace.

History is the collective memory of the people, the memory of the past. But the memory of the past is no longer the past in the proper sense of the word. This is the past, restored and restored according to the norms of modernity, with an orientation towards the values ​​and ideals of people's life in the present, for the past exists for us through the present and thanks to it. K. Jaspers expressed this idea in his own way: "History directly concerns us ... And everything that concerns us, thereby constitutes the problem of the present for man."

Initial meaning of the word "history" goes back to the Greek "ioropia", which means "investigation", "recognition", "establishment". Thus, initially "history" identified with a way of recognizing, establishing true events and facts. However, in Roman historiography, it already acquired the second meaning (a story about the events of the past), that is, the center of gravity was shifted from the study of the past to the story of it. During the Renaissance there is third the meaning of the concept "history". History began to be understood kind of literature, special function which was establishing and fixing the truth.

However, as an independent area of ​​knowledge, especially scientific, history has not been considered for a long time. She did not have her own subject during the period of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and even during the Enlightenment. How is this fact consistent with the rather high prestige and widespread prevalence of historical knowledge? How to link it with a huge number of works containing historical information, from Herodotus and Thucydides, through countless medieval chronicles, chronicles and "lives", to the historical research of the beginning of modern times? This is explained by the fact that history has been integrated into the general system of knowledge for a long time. In the era of Antiquity and the Middle Ages, it existed and developed in combination with mythology, religion, theology, literature and, to some extent, with geography. During the Renaissance, she was given a powerful impetus geographical discoveries, the flowering of art, political theories. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. history was associated with political theory, geography, literature, philosophy, culture.

The need for allocation itself scientific knowledge began to be felt from the time of the natural science revolution (XVII century). However, even at the beginning of the 19th century, the "indivisibility" of "philosophical" and scientific knowledge, on the one hand, and science itself by disciplines, on the other, continued to persist.

One of the first attempts to define the place of history as a scientific discipline with its own subject was undertaken by the German philosopher V. Krug in his work "Experience of a systematic encyclopedia of knowledge." The circle divided the sciences into philological and real, real - into positive (legal and theological) and natural, natural - into historical and rational, etc. In turn, the "historical" sciences were subdivided into geographical (place) and historical (time) disciplines proper.

At the end of the XIX century. French philosopher A. Naville divided all sciences into three groups:

1. "Theorematics" - "sciences about the limits of possibilities or about laws" (mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, psychology, sociology).

2. "History" - "the sciences of realized opportunities or facts" (astronomy, geology, botany, zoology, mineralogy, human history).

3. "Canon" - "the science of possibilities, the realization of which would be a blessing, or about ideal rules of behavior" (morality, art theory, law, medicine, pedagogy).

2. The subject of history as a science: purpose, objectives of the study, socially significant functions.

The study of any science begins with the definition of the concepts with which it operates in the process of cognition, both of nature and society. From this point of view, the question arises: what is history as a science? What is the subject of her study? Answering this question, first of all, it is necessary to distinguish between history as any process of development of nature and society, closely related to each other, and history as the science of these processes.

We will consider history as a science in the development of human society in all its diversity. And since the history of society is a collection of specific and diverse actions and deeds of individuals, human communities that are in a certain relationship, constituting the whole of humanity, the subject of history study is the activities and actions of people, the entire set of relations in society.

The famous Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky wrote about history as a science in the following way: “In the scientific language, the word“ history ”is used in a double sense: 1) as movement in time, a process, and 2) as cognition of a process. Therefore, everything that takes place in time has its own history. , as a separate science, a special branch of scientific knowledge, is the historical process, ie the course, conditions and successes of human community or the life of mankind in its development and results. "

Historians study their subject in time diversified, in parts, from different angles. Disorder, fragmentation, unevenness, "white spots" and "gray niches" of the past - such is the canvas of historical time. But historical knowledge as a whole allows, when necessary, to shift your gaze and see all the diversity of the "world of history", structures and connections, events and actions, the existence of peoples and the everyday life of heroes and the "little" person, everyday consciousness and global outlook.

Due to the fact that the content of historical science is the historical process that unfolds in the phenomena of human life, and these phenomena are extremely diverse, respectively, history is a diversified science, it is composed of a number of independent branches historical knowledge, namely: political history, civil, economic history, cultural history, military history, history of state and law, etc.

History is also subdivided according to the breadth of study of the object: the history of the world as a whole (world or general history); history of world civilizations; history of continents (history of Asia and Africa, Latin America); history of individual countries and peoples (history of the USA, Canada, China, Russia, etc.).

A number of auxiliary historical disciplines have developed that develop general questions of the methodology and technique of historical research. Among them: paleography (the history of writing), numismatics (coins, orders, medals), toponymy (the study of the names of geographical places), source studies (general techniques and methods of study historical sources) etc.

History is a concrete science, requiring exact knowledge of chronology (dates), facts, events. It is associated with other humanities and social sciences. These relations in different periods evolved in different ways, but the largest representatives of historiography have always believed in the "common market" of social sciences. This belief continues today. The interpenetration and mutual enrichment of the social sciences, the so-called interdisciplinarity, is a phenomenon characteristic of the 20th century. It is due to the delimitation of the social sciences, their separation into independent areas of knowledge, as a result of which the process of division of labor and specialization was accompanied by the deepening of interconnections.

History, as well as other humanities and social sciences late XIX- XX centuries. did not escape the influence of psychology. They were very popular at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. G. Le Bon's books "The Psychological Laws of the Evolution of Nations" (Le Bon. 1894) and "The Psychology of Nations and Masses" (Le Bon. 1895), which substantiated the assumption of the entry of European society into the "era of the crowd", when a rational critical beginning, embodied in the personality, suppressed by the irrational mass consciousness. The Austrian psychologist Z. Freud believed that his concept of the "subconscious" could be the key to understanding historical figures, and Freud's "Essay" on Leonardo da Vinci, written in 1910, was essentially the first experience of psychohistory.

The term "psychohistory" appeared in the 50s in the USA, where magazines on psychohistory were published at that time. Their heroes were such historical figures as Hitler, Trotsky, Gandhi, etc. Psychoanalysis had a great influence on the criticism of some historical sources - diaries, letters, memoirs.

The fact of the author's psychological need for fantasies was taken into account. A separate topic was the study of diary entries about dreams. There are known examples of the application of psychoanalysis to social groups, for example, to the history of peasant and urban religious movements, in the study of which historians often deal with deviations. But on the whole, the flourishing of psychohistory turned out to be short-lived, and the possibilities were limited.

Today it is obvious to historians both the significance and the limitations of psychoanalysis's capabilities for their discipline. The areas where psychoanalysis can be effectively used are outlined quite clearly: the study of outstanding personalities, the study of cultural traditions. The task of synthesizing history and psychology, if it makes sense, is still a matter for the future.

Compared to other humanities and social sciences that study any one of the aspects of social life, history differs in that the subject of its cognition is the entire totality of the life of society throughout the entire historical process. In addition, many of the problems of the past and the present, which are dealt with by political scientists, economists, sociologists, ethnologists and other specialists in the humanitarian and social cycle, can be solved only on the basis of a historical approach and historical analysis, on the basis of the work done by historians, because only collection, systematization and generalization of a huge amount of factual material allows you to see and understand the trends of social development.

The study and teaching of history in modern conditions is complicated by a number of circumstances:

1. The process of rethinking the past in our country is taking place under the conditions of a change in the socio-economic and political system, under the conditions of the formation of new moral and ethical values. In this regard, history has become a real battlefield, a field of political struggle, where not only scientifically grounded criticism collides, but also politicized points of view, whose supporters are interested not so much in the historical truth as in the arguments in favor of their existence. And this instead of one half-truth gives rise to another.

2. History has always been closely linked with the politics, interests and destinies of rulers, who rarely encouraged the desire of historians to know the truth and communicate it to society. This is felt especially acutely today. Therefore, one has to deal with bias and subjectivity in assessing historical events, especially the Soviet period.

3. Unfortunately, the level of historical training and general political culture of our youth does not create favorable conditions for deep critical understanding and perception of numerous publications that distort the picture of the historical development of our country.

4. The situation is complicated by the lack of textbooks. Available separate textbooks and tutorials isolated.

In these conditions, teaching history acquires a general civilian sound.

3. The periodization of world history.

One of the important problems of historical science is the problem of the periodization of the development of human society. Periodization is the establishment of chronologically sequential stages in social development. The selection of stages should be based on decisive factors common to all countries or to leading states.

Since the development of historical science, scientists have developed many different options for the periodization of social development. Today, the periodization of world history is based on two principles: for early periods of the formation of human society, the fundamental are the material from which the main tools were made and the technology for their manufacture. This is how the concepts "Stone Age", "Copper-Stone Age", "Bronze Age", "Iron Age" appeared.

The dating of these periods is established using natural scientific methods (geological, dendrochronology, etc.). With the advent of writing in the history of mankind (about 5000 years ago), other grounds arose for periodization. It began to be determined by the time of existence of various civilizations and states that kept their account of time.

Generally, world history it is customary to divide into four main periods:

Ancient world (the period from the separation of man from the animal world about 2 million years ago to the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD).

Middle Ages(the period from the fall of the Western Roman Empire to the beginning of the Renaissance of the 16th century).

New time(from the Renaissance to 1918 - the end of the First World War).

Newest time(from 1919 to the present day).

Conclusion

Whatever subject historians study, they all use scientific categories in their research: historical movement (historical time, historical space), historical fact, theory of study (methodological interpretation).

Historical movement includes interrelated scientific categories, historical time and historical space.

Historical time only moves forward. Each segment of movement in historical time is woven of thousands of connections, material and spiritual, it is unique and unparalleled. History does not exist outside the concept of historical time. Events following one after another form a time series. There are internal connections between events in the time series.

At the end of the 19th century, materialist historians divided the history of society into formations: primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist, and communist. On turn of XXI century, the historical-liberal periodization divides society into periods: traditional, industrial, informational (post-industrial).

Theories of the historical process or theories of learning (methodological interpretation) are determined by the subject of history. Theory is a logical diagram explaining historical facts... By themselves, historical facts as “fragments of reality” do not explain anything. Only the historian gives the fact an interpretation that depends on his ideological and theoretical views. What distinguishes one theory of the historical process from another? The difference between them lies in the subject of study and the system of views on the historical process. Each schema-theory selects from a multitude of historical facts only those that fit into its logic. Based on the subject of historical research, each theory singles out its own periodization, defines its conceptual apparatus, creates its own historiography. Various theories reveal only their own patterns or alternatives - variants of the historical process and offer their own vision of the past, make their predictions for the future.

Only the facts of history can be true, the interpretation of these facts is always subjective. Facts that are biased and arranged in a predetermined logical-semantic scheme (without explanation and conclusions) cannot pretend to be an objective history, but are just an example of a hidden selection of facts of a certain theory.

Different theories of study that explain real historical facts do not have advantages over each other. All of them are "truthful, objective, true" and reflect the difference in worldviews, systems of views on history and modern society... Criticism of one theory from the standpoint of another is incorrect, since it replaces the worldview, the subject of study. Attempts to create a general (unique), universal theory, that is, to combine different theories - worldviews (subjects of study), are anti-scientific, since they lead to a violation of cause-and-effect relationships, to contradictory conclusions.

List of used literature:

Barg M. Civilizational approach to history // Communist, 1991, no. 3.

Grechko P.K. Conceptual Models of History: A Handbook for Students. M .: Logos, 1995.

Danilevsky N. Ya. Russia and Europe. M .: Kniga, 1991.

Ionov I.N. The theory of civilization and the evolution of scientific knowledge // Social sciences and modernity, 1997, no. 6.

Klyuchevsky V.O .. Course of Russian history. M., 1956. T. I. Part I.

Marx M., Engels F. Sobr. op. T. 13, 22.

Rakitov A.I. Historical knowledge: a systemic-epistemological approach. M .: Politizdat, 1982.

Savelyeva I.M., Poletaev A.V. History and Time: In Search of the Lost. Languages ​​of Russian culture. M., 1997.

Semennikova L.I. Civilizations in the history of mankind. Bryansk: Cursive, 1998.

Toynbee A. Comprehension of history. M., 1991.

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From the most ancient times to our era, mankind has actively used sound and light as the main means of transmitting information, the history of their use goes back millennia. In addition to the various sounds with which our ancient ancestors warned their fellow tribesmen about danger or summoned them to hunt, light also became an opportunity to betray important messages long distances. For this, signal fires, torches, burning spears, arrows and other devices were used. Around the villages, sentry posts were erected with signal fire so that the danger would not catch people by surprise. The variety of information that needed to be conveyed led to the use of a kind of codes and auxiliary technical sound elements such as drums, whistles, gongs, animal horns and others.

The use of codes at sea as a prototype of the telegraph

The coding was especially developed when moving through the water. When man first went to sea, the first lighthouses appeared. The ancient Greeks used certain combinations of torches to spell messages. Also, signal flags of various shapes and colors were used in the sea. Thus, such a concept as a semaphore appeared, when, using special positions of flags or lanterns, it was possible to transmit different messages... These were the first attempts at telegraphy. Later, rockets appeared. Despite the fact that the history of the development of information transmission means does not stand still, and an incredible evolution has taken place from primitive times, these means of communication in many countries and spheres of life have not yet lost their significance.

The first ways to store information

However, humanity was concerned not only with the means of transmitting information. The history of its storage also dates back to the beginning of time. An example of this is cave drawings in various ancient caves, because it is thanks to them that one can judge some aspects of human life in ancient times. Methods of memorizing, recording and storing information developed, and cuneiform writing came to replace the drawings in the caves, followed by hieroglyphs, and finally writing. We can say that from this moment the history of the creation of means of information transmission on a global scale begins.

The invention of writing became the first information revolution in the history of mankind, because it became possible to accumulate, disseminate and transfer knowledge to future generations. Writing gave a powerful impetus to the cultural and economic development of those civilizations that mastered it earlier than others. In the 16th century, printing was invented, which became a new wave of the information revolution. It became possible to store information in large volumes, and it became more accessible, as a result of which the concept of "literacy" became more widespread. This is very important point in the history of human civilization, because books became the property of not only one country, but the whole world.

Mail message

Mail as a means of communication began to be used even before the invention of writing. The messengers originally conveyed oral messages. However, with the advent of the opportunity to write a message, this type of communication has become even more in demand. The messengers were originally on foot, later - on horseback. In advanced ancient civilizations, there was a well-established postal service on the basis of the relay race. The first postal services emerged in Ancient egypt and Mesopotamia. They were mainly used for military purposes. Egyptian postal system was one of the first and highly developed, it was the Egyptians who first began to use carrier pigeons. Later, mail began to spread to other civilizations.