XVII - transitional period of Russian history from the Middle Ages to a new time. Contemporaries called him "rebellious." The great trouble, peasant wars, city and shooting uprising, the conflict of the secular and church authorities, the split inside the church itself - all this was reflected in culture, giving it to the monuments unprecedented by Dotol social sharpness and topical.

The main distinguishing feature of the culture was the rapidly flowing process of its recruitment, liberation from church influence. New genres are born in literature, the leading style of the era is Baroque. In the literature, he claims Simeon Polotsk, Sylvester Medvedev, Kariona Istomin.Speaker manifests the personal beginning in the creative activity of people, almost an unknown Middle Ages. Expressive means of all types of arts are initiated from now on, the literary language is as close as possible with a conversational speech.

The literacy rate in the XVIII century increased significantly and in different layers was: among landlords - 65%, merchants - 96%, peasants - 15%. In the middle of the XVII century, government, private schools are created, where foreign languages \u200b\u200bwere studied, other items. IN
1687 In Moscow, the first institution in Russia was opened - the Slavic-Greco-Latin Academy to prepare the highest clergy of public service officials.

Under the influence of the West in the XVII century, the first theatrical productions arise. In 1672, the Court Theater was organized. Foreign actors played in it, plays were put on biblical plots. In 1675, the scene of the Russian Theater was first put ballet.

Cult architecture XVII century. Conducted the canons of church construction, it becomes more festive, picturesque. High heyday reaches wooden temple architecture.

Fruitfully develops in this period monumental painting. It is characterized by the expansion of the themes, the dynamism of compositions.

The beginning of the XVIII century. Marked by Peter I reforms, which were called upon to eliminate the gap in the level of development of Russia and Europe. Reforms touched almost all spheres of society. The content of them was the decisive shift from the Middle Ages to a new time and the Europeanization of all areas of life. There was a breaking of old government institutions, replacing them with new ones, the modern administrative bureaucratic apparatus was developed. An important place in the transformation of Peter I was occupied by church reform, as a result of which, relatively independent first, the church was under the authority of the state. As a result, all transformations in the political stroke of the Russian state completed the design of the absolute monarchy. The absolutist state needed secular culture.

An important feature of the culture of the new time was its openness, the ability to contact with the cultures of other nations, which was the result of a policy aimed at undermining national and confessional closets. Connections with Western countries are expanding. Contacts with Europe contributed to the penetration of humanistic and rationalistic teachings to Russia. The ideology of absolutism began to be supported by the ideas of rationalism, European enlightenment.

For the new time, such processes are characterized as accelerating the pace of development, complication public Development generally. The process of differentiation begins, the emergence of new industries of culture, science, theatrical case, portrait painting, poetry, journalism.

A distinctive feature of this period is the emergence of authorship,although in a significant part of the culture still continued to remain anonymous. In the new culture there was a tendency to democratism. Reforms in the field of education played a big role. Created a system of secular schools. Pushkarsky, navigat, medical schools are founded in Moscow. In St. Petersburg, the Marine and Engineering Academy, the School of Translators was established. In addition to state, vocational school, private, general education schools originate, the practice of learning young people abroad is applied. The lack of a folding system of education was that the peasants were not accepted into these schools.

The Petrovsk School was created as a professional, technical, which was as aimed at training personnel in those areas that were needed by the state at this stage. The beginning of the XVIII century was marked by the rapid development of typography, especially training products. Dozens of printing times operated in the capitals. An important beginning in the process of separating secular culture from the church was the replacement of the old Church Slavonic font new, civilian. A powerful means of enlightement of the people was periodic printing.

The first printed newspaper in Russia was "Vedomosti", released in 1703. Growth in typography contributed to the development of book trade. In 1714, the first library was opened, which became the basis of the library of the Academy of Sciences. It was available for free visits. In 1719, the first Russian museum - Kunstkamera opens. The logical outcome of the reforms in the field of education, science was the discovery of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg in 1725. New rites were introduced in socio-cultural life, by household economy. They were aimed at the advent of the Western European lifestyle. Instead of old summer - "from the creation of the world" - with
On January 1, 1700, the church was introduced "from the Nativity of Christ". The custom is celebrated to celebrate the New Year: to arrange fireworks, dress up the Christmas tree. The new form of communication was the Assembly.

As a result of the reforms of the beginning of the century, significant changes occurred not only in the appearance of the ruling layers of Russian society, but also in spiritual, in moral concepts, in private relationships. These changes led to the separation of the nobility in society, to the allocation of it in a privileged estate. However, the transformation practically did not affect the lower layers of the population.

The foundation laid down by Peter 1 at the beginning of the century, turned out to be solid and from the 40s of the XVIII century a new rise of culture began. An important transformations in the field of education occur. At the Academy of Sciences, the first national personnel appear, the nature of their activities is changing. The first Russian member of the Academy of Sciences became M. Lomonosov. Among the first academicians - the poet A.Teviacovsky, the inventor mechanic A.Nartov. The Academy of Sciences becomes not only a scientific, but also an educational institution. With the participation of P. Chevalov and M.Lonosov in 1755, Moscow University was opened in Moscow. The training in it was conducted in Russian, until the beginning of the XIX century, theology was not taught. With it there were two gymnasiums. The activities of the Russian enlightener N.Novikova are connected with the university. In the 1980s, the XVIII century he unfolded an active publishing job.

Thus, the results of the historical and cultural development of Russia XVIII in . Very significant. The preservation of Russian national traditions with the simultaneous strengthening of links with foreign countries contributed to the enrichment of Russian culture, the penetration of the ideas of enlightenment into Russia. The formation of Russia as one of the world's largest states contributed to the formation russian nation and a single Russian language. All directions of culture - education, typography, literature, architecture, visual art were developed. Deep expert XVIII century, Russian historian S.M. Solovyov emphasized that "our transition from an ancient history to a new one, from age, in which the feeling is dominated, in the age, when the thought is dominated, accounted for at the end of the XVIII century."

Questions for self-test:

What is the Reformation?

What are the features of the culture of the XVIII century?

What basic styles can be allocated in the culture of XVII -
XVIII centuries?

Why was the XVIII century called the "Age of Mind", the "Epoch of Enlightenment"?

What are the features of the culture of Russia XVII -XVIII centuries??

Terms:

Baroque - Artistic style, which received spread at the end of the 16th century, first in Italy, and then in France and other European countries, was distinguished by decorative pomp, dynamic and destructive complex forms.

Classicism- direction in culture and artistic style in the European art of the XVIII century., Appearing in antiquity and to the ancient art as a norm and an ideal pattern.

Cosmopolitanism- Refusal of national sovereignty, national traditions and cultures in the name of the unity of the human race.

The science - The form of spiritual culture, the sphere of cultural human activity in the development and systematization of objective knowledge of the world, obtained based on the detection of sustainable repeating relationships between the phenomena of reality.

Rococo - style in architecture and decorative art, which emerged at the beginning of the XVIII century; and especially developing in France in Louis XV; It is characterized by the grace of forms and bizarre asymmetric ornamentation.

Secularization- The process of liberating culture from the influence of religion. It is expressed in changing its place in society, a narrowing of the circle of the functions performed by it, in the alienation of church property in favor of the state, exemption from the religious authorization of state-legal relations, the seizure of education from the maintenance of the Church, the development of secular art and morality.

Sentimentalism- European literary direction of the late XVIII - early XIX century, cultivated in opposition to educational rationalism, increased interest in the mental life of the "simple and natural" person (idealized peasant, artisan, etc.), opposed to spoiled aristocrats.

European culture in the XVII - XVIII centuries.

The XVII century is one of the brightest and brilliant pages in the history of world artistic culture. This is the time when a sense of dramatic contradictions has come to replace the ideology of humanism and faith in the infinite possibilities of a person. On the one hand, a revolutionary coup in natural science occurs, a new picture of the world is formed, new styles appear in art, on the other, political conservatism prevail, pessimistic views on society and man.

The era of the XVII century in culture and in art is customary to call the baroque epoch. The formation of a new European culture was associated with a rapidly changing "picture of the world" and the crisis of ideals of Italian revival. For the spiritual life of the Society of the XVII century, the Great geographical discoveries And naturally scientific discoveries. The man began to acutely sense the zyibility and instability of his position, contradiction between the illusion and reality. The new worldview is particularly challenged in artistic culture: everything unusual, unclear, the ghostly began to seem beautiful, attractive, and clear and simple - boring and uninteresting. This new aesthetics significantly sweating the former Renaissance principles of imitation of nature, clarity, equilibrium.

So emerged new style - Baroque. Baroque (Ial. barocco. - "Freaky", "strange", "prone to excesses", port. perola Barroca. - "Pearl of the wrong shape" (literally "pearl with vice") - the slang word of Portuguese sailors to designate the defective pearls of the wrong shape began to be used in the meaning "soften, dissolve the contour, make the shape of a softer, scenic."

For baroque architecture, a lush decorative decoration with a variety of parts was characterized, a multicolor modeling, an abundance of gilding, threads, sculptures, scenic plaffones, creating the illusion of leaving the expressed archs. This is the time of the domination of curves, fancy curved lines flowing into each other, solemn facades of buildings and majestic architectural ensembles. In painting, the front portrait is dominated, contrast, tension, dynamism of images, desire for greatness and pomp, to combining reality and illusion.

The beginning of Italian Baroque is associated with the construction of the Roman Church Il Jesu (1575), the facade of which was issued Jacomo della port. She literally "created an era", becoming an expression of style trends: traditional division for 2 floors, semi-column, niches, statues and inevitable volitions (curls) at the corners. The first time and the largest palace construction of that era was Palazzo Quirinale, the summer residence of the Roman Dads, erected at the top of the Quirinal Hill.

The most vivid expression in the sculpture is a flow in the work of Lorenzo Bernini. His sculpture "David" - depicts the moment of rapid movement, gust to meet the giant Goliaph, the transition of one movement to another. Bernini does not stop before distorting the face, the transfer of a painful or blissful expression. In sculpture "Apollo and Daphne"Lorenzo Bernini captured the moment of the transformation of the young defenseless Daphne, overtaken by the eldero-leaving Apollo in the Lavr. Bernini's brilliant skill was manifested in the construction of famous Roman fountains - "Triton Fountain" and "Fountain of Four Rivers".

With the name of Bernini, the next stage of transformations is connected cathedral of St. Peter in Rome: He designed the square in front of the cathedral, right from the edges of the facade far ahead stretched indoor galleries-corridors. The architect created 2 squares - greater elliptical, framed by columns, and directly adjacent area in the form of a trapezoid, limited from the opposite side by the main facade of the cathedral. At the same time, the space in front of the cathedral was both the urban area decorated by Obelisk in the center of the oval and two fountains.

On the forefront art and, above all, the Netherlands come out in painting. Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) Like the great figures of Renaissance, manifested itself in different areas of activity: he was a diplomat, courteous, awarded the noble rank, was friends and collaborated with the prominent people of the era. Like many other painters, Rubens took a trip to Italy, where he studied the monuments of antiquity and work of the Renaissance. Returning to his homeland, he created the classic image of the monumental altar image of Baroque - "Exaltation of the Cross" and "Removing from the Cross" (1610-1614). A group of executioners and soldiers puts a big cross with his degraded Christ. A variety of poses of figures, their complex angles and swollen muscles express the extreme tension of physical forces, the idealized image of Christ is opposed to this coarse power. Rubens are characterized by mighty and lush human bodies, full of vitality, a large decorative scope. The theme of his canvases were mythological and biblical plots, historical scenes.

Rubens "Exaltation of the Cross" "Removing from the Cross"

In the picture "Lviv Hunt"The sketch for which is one of the best Rubens in the Hermitage Meeting, the action is endowed with extraordinary swiftness and passion. The raised horses, the lion, torping the falling rider, and the hunters affecting his hunters merged into an inseparable group, where the unrestrained strength and vital energy turn into rabies.

He willingly appeals to the themes antique World. Hermitage picture masterpiece masters "Perseus and Andromeda" (1620-1621) gives an example of how freely and realistically uses it images of classical antiquity. The moment is depicted when the mythical hero of Perseus, coming on his cerebent horse Pegasus, frees the Andromeda chained to the rock. He won her dragon who held her captive, and the terrible monster dissenters his mouth at his feet. The admired beauty of the prisoner, Perseus approaching her, glory crowned the winner, the Amours hurry to serve him.

The main theme of Rubens was a man, live and earthly love, you can even say passion. He was committed to life fullness, strength, sweep, a drill of movement. He often portrayed naked figures, often a cargo, warm, full-blooded body, poured lousy color of life and usually highlighted with a light spot on a dark background. So, he writes "Elena Furmen in the fur coat." In Rubens portraits, accessories, backgrounds are lush curtains, etc. did not interfere, but on the contrary, they contributed to the disclosure of the character's character, penetrating into his inner world ("Portrait of Camericist").

Realistic tendencies in painting can be observed in the work of the Great Dutch Artist Rembrandt Garmers Wang Rhine (1606-1669). The subject of his creativity is diverse: religious plots, mythology, history, portraits, genre scenes. The art of Rembrant was distinguished, first of all, love for man, humanism, in every work of Rembrandt - an attempt to convey the spiritual evolution of man, the tragic path of knowledge of life. His heroes are people with contradictory characters and not easy fate. The artist always studies nature, its model, not limited to the image of general devils. The history of world painting Rembrandt entered as a master of the autoportist. From year to year, he depicted himself with merry or sad, then angry or indifferent. In a hundred cars created by him - the history of his life, the biography of the soul, the confession of the artist.
On the painting "Return of the Prodigal Son" The final episode of parables is depicted when the prodigal son returns home, "and when he was still far away, he saw his father and clenched him; And, running, fell on her neck and kissed him, "and his senior righteous brother, who remained with his father, was sore and did not want to enter.

"Dana" is written based on the ancient Greek myth of Danae, Mother Persea. When the king of the ancient Greek city of Argos learned about the prophecy, according to which he was destined to die from the hand of Son Danai, his daughter, he concluded her in the dungeon and put her maid to her. God Zeus, however, penetrated the Danae in the form of a golden rain, after which she gave birth to the son of Perseus.

In France, the XVII century dominated classicism. Classicism (Fr. classicisme., from lat. classicus. - Exemplary) - Artistic style and aesthetic direction in the European art XVII-XIX explosive Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism. Artistic work, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby finding the slightness and logicality of the universe itself. The masters of classicism did not transfer the immediate living lives directly surrounding their works. They portrayed the refined reality, sought to create ideal images that correspond to their ideas about reasonable, heroic and beautiful. The subjects of classic art was limited mainly by antique history, mythology and the Bible, and the figurative language and artistic techniques were borrowed from classical ancient art, which in the presentation of classicism masters most of all corresponded to the harmonic ideal of reasonable and beautiful.

The founder of classicism in French painting was Nikola Pussen (1594-1665). His works are distinguished by deep ideas, thoughts and feelings. He believed that art should remind a person "On contemplation and wisdom, with the help of which he will be able to remain solid and unshakable before the blows of fate." As part of the plots from the ancient mythology and the Bible, Pussen revealed the themes of the modern era. In his works, he sought the great calm, noble restraint, equilibrium. His ideal is a hero, which preserves the imperturbed calmness of the spirit in life tests, capable of committing a feat. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe frequency of life and the inevitability of death often attracted the attention of Poussin and served the theme of many of his works. The best among them is a picture "Arkadian shepherds"(Louvre), performed, apparently, at the beginning of the 1650s. She depicts four inhabitants of the legendary lucky country - Arkady, who found the tomb among the thickets of the shrub and dismantling the words carved on it: "And I was in Arcadia." This random find makes the arcade shepherd, resembling them about the inevitability of death. The deep philosophical idea underlying this picture is expressed in crystal clear and classically strict form. The character of the figures, their statuarity and proximity to antique forms and proportions are indicative for mature art of the wizard. The picture is distinguished by the extraordinary integrity of the plan and fulfillment, and the covered sadness, which she is penetrated, gives it a completely peculiar beauty. One of the characteristic features of his talent is the ability to reveal the inner world of a person in motion, in a gesture, in rhythms.

In the history of French culture, the period since the beginning of the reign of Louis XV and before the start of the revolution (1789) is called a period of education. One of the most important characteristics of the culture of the Epoch of Enlightenment is the process of displacement of religious principles of art with secular. Secular architecture in the XVIII century for the first time takes the top over the church on almost all of Europe.
The social life of the era of enlightenment was very controversial. The enlighteners fought with the "old order", which was still real strength. Not only style artistic creativity, but also the lifestyle of royal yards, personifying the "old order" of Europe becomes rococo (from Franz. "Rocaille" - sink). The name transmits the main feature of this style - the choice of complex, exquisite shape and fancy lines resembling the silhouette of the sink.
The term "Rococo" (or "Rocail") was used in the middle of the XIX century. Initially, Rokail is a way of decoration of the interiors of grottoes, fountain chasions, etc. Various fossils that imitate natural (natural) education. Characteristic features of Rococo are sophistication, large decorative loading of interiors and compositions, graceful ornamental rhythm, much attention To mythology, personal comfort.

Architecture Rococco

Unlike Baroque, which was exclusively court-style, Rococo was the art of the aristocracy and the highest layers of the bourgeoisie. Now the main goal of the master was not the glorification of anyone or anything, but the convenience and pleasure of a particular person. Rococo architects began to take care of human comfort. They abandoned the pompousness of majestic baroque buildings and tried to surround a person atmosphere of convenience and grace. Painting also refused "Great ideas" and became just beautiful. Baroque flown from stormy emotions, the paintings were filled with cold light and thin halftons. Rococo was perhaps the first almost completely secular style in the history of European art. Like the philosophy of enlightenment, and the art of Rococo separated from the church, moving away the religious topics far to the background. From now on, painting, and architecture should have been light and pleasant. The Galant Society of the XVIII century is tired of morals and sermons, people wanted to enjoy life, receiving a maximum of pleasure from her.
Rococo was not manifested in the external design of buildings, but only in the interiors, as well as in the design of books, in clothing, furniture and painting. Rococo style was expressed brilliant in all industrial industrial sectors; With a special success, it was used in the Factory Factory, reporting a peculiar grace of both the form and the ornamentation of his products; Thanks to him, this fabrication took a huge step forward and entered the lot of art lovers. In addition to porcelain - in fashion silver. Made chocolates, spacing, coffee pots, dishes, plates and more. In this century, culinary art is born in its modern form, including the art of table setting. Rococo furniture is characteristic. One of the brightest features is curved lines curved legs. The furniture becomes easier and elegant compared to the one that was before. New furniture items appear: console tables, secretaries, bureau, dressers, chiffira. The two most common types of seats - "Berger" and "Marquise". Gold plated candelabra, watches, porcelain figurines, tapestries, Shirma - Mandatory Rococo style elements. The abundance uses mirrors and paintings, weighing asymmetrically. On sofas and chairs, use silk pillows and puffs with plot embroidery. An interesting fact - it is the style of the design Rococo introduced such innovation as an aquarium in the interior.

Interior Rococco

The main topics of painting Rococo - The exquisite life of the court aristocracy, "gallant festivals", the idyllic paintings by the "shepherd" of life against the background of the original nature. One of the greatest masters of French art of the 18th century was Antoine Watto (1684-1721), artist of a subtle poetic feeling and big picturesque talent. The dreamy and melancholic master of the "gallant festivals", he introduced in the image of the life of a secular society with genuine poetry and the depth of feelings, and in the interpretation of love scenes and careless fun, a shade of some kind of longing and dissatisfaction. Very often we meet in his paintings the image of a lonely dreamer, melancholic and sad, immersed in meditation and spent from noisy fun, from the vanity vanity of the crowd. This is a genuine Hero Watto. Its workers are always wanding with lyrical sadness. We will not find in them stormy fun, sharp and sonorous paints. He especially loves to depict walking or entertaining ladies and cavaliers against the background of the landscape, in the overgrown shady parks, on the shore of the ponds and the lakes. Such are the two charming paintings of the Dresden Gallery, for example "Society in the Park"where everything is imbued with a subtle lyrical mood, and even marble statues The ancient gods seem to be looked at the lovers.

"Arrival on the island of Cefera"

Most. famous artist Rococo was Franco. and Bushwhich, in addition to painting, worked in all types of decorative and applied art: He created cardboard for a steller, drawings for the Severian Porcelain, painted fans, performed miniatures and decorative paintings. Francois Bush was an artist, ideologically connected with aristocratic society during his decline; He captured in his canvases then the desire to enjoy all the benefits of life, which reigned among the highest classes in the middle of the 18th century. In the work of Bush, the mythological plots, giving rise to the image of a naked female and children's body. Particularly often he writes mythological heroines - at different moments of their lovely pretties or busy toilet. No less characteristic for Bush and so-called pastorals, or shepherd scenes. The passion for pastoral themes, characteristic of the whole era, was a reflection of the trendy then theories, according to which only naive people living away from civilization, on the lap of nature. Its shepherds and shepherds are elegant and pretty young men and girls, a little costumed and depicted on the background of landscapes. In addition to pastoral and mythological paintings, he wrote genre scenes from the life of the aristocratic society, portraits (especially often portraits of Marquise Pompadour), religious images, solved usually in the same decorative plan ("Holidays in Egypt"), flowers, ornamental motives. Bush had an undisputed talent of the decorator, he could connect his compositions with the solution of interiors.

Fashion Rococco

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The XVIII century in the history of Russia became truly fateful. It was the time of the indigenous change caused by Petrovsky reforms. With its transformations Peter I. Cool turned Russia to the West. This turn and its consequences for the development of Russia and Russian culture became the subject of a acute dispute of scientists and thinkers, who flared up in the XIX century. And continues to this day.

In some, the above change caused the highest rating, delight and admiration, others, on the contrary, evaluated them very critically. Watching the origins of all subsequent misfortunes and misfortunes of Russia. In particular, the Russian religious philosopher P.Ya. Chaadaev gives a sharply negative assessment of Peter's acts, believing that he "disappeared the abyss between our past and our real."

As much as critically looks at Peter, the French philosophical enlightener D. Didro, believing that he defeated Russia with his too hasty and forced Europeanization, having deprived of its capabilities and in the future successfully developed Western achievements. Some authors reproach Peter for the fact that he destroyed the former integrity of Russian culture, made it broken, contradictory and patient, split into two parts, one of which is the culture of the highest sections of society - has lost the identity of Russian culture, it became alien for the majority of the people.

Supporters Petrovsky transformations are followed by a different point of view. So, authoritative historian S.M. Solovyov believes that Europeanization turned out to be quite compatible with the cultural and historical development of Russia. In his opinion. Peter his reforms carried out that in the West had a place in the Renaissance. Approximately the same opinion adhered to the historian K.D. Cavelin.

Petrovsky reforms It is difficult to estimate unequivocally, they Have a dual character. First of all, the choice made by Peter between East and the West in favor of the latter was historically necessary and therefore correct. Attempts to preserve the former original Russia were in constant form were unlikely to be fulfilled, or they could lead to the loss of Russia of their independence and independence, and at the same time - to the disappearance of its identity.

The economic growth of Russia, started by Peter the transformation, allowed it to significantly expand its territory - due to the accession of the Crimea. Northern Black Sea, Northern

Caucasus and Western lands turned it into a great and mighty empire. Due to victories in North and Turkish wars, Russia received the status of the Baltic and Black Sea Power. It had new major cities - St. Petersburg, which became the capital of the state, Sevastopol, Ekaterinoslav, Ekaterinodar, Ekaterinburg, Odessa, etc.

The high economic and military potential of Russia allowed it to have a huge impact on the course of world history. At the same time, ambitious transformations are a heavy test for the people. For the creation of a new Russia, he had to pay a huge price.

The figure of Peter is also extremely complex and ambiguous. He possess the incredible power of the will, inexhaustible energy, solid and persistent character, was gifted by many talents. His kipping activity was resting not only on the will, but also on broad knowledge, rich in practical experience. Peter was a man of high culture. He knew two foreign languages \u200b\u200b(Dutch and German), perfectly owned 14 crafts, had a sharp mind and figurative thinking, it was endowed with strong aesthetic aesthetic.

Peter regretted that he could not work simultaneously with two hands: keep the sword in the right hand, and in the left - feather. This would allow him to do much more. He believed that the purpose of the state is internal and external safety, and It should find its fame in art and science. Deploying Russia to the West, he did not renounce domestic culture and ancient traditions. He showed deep respect for the past, which received an expression in the construction of new temples, in a special reverence of the business of Alexander Nevsky, the remains of which were postponed to St. Petersburg, in a specially built Neva Lavra.

Although the era of "enlightened absolutism" in Russia is associated with Catherine II, it was Petr who was a real enlightened monarch. The same can be said in relation to the West. Europe did not know such a ruler as Peter, although the concept of "enlightened absolutism" usually belongs to it. Peter was rightly called the "Northern Giant". By emphasizing his outstanding personality, Pushkin noted that Peter "One is a whole world history."

At the same time, his personality was not deprived of extremes. In his acts, the will and arbitrariness sometimes took the top over measure and mind. Some of their reforms he started! Without proper preparation, and when they admitted excessive hasty and impatience. His favorite expressions were "not to break", "to teach it immediately". Maximalism and uncompromising Peter sometimes passed into wild rage and merciless cruelty. It happened even in relation to his loved ones, in particular to his son Alexei.

Almost all areas of public life were subjected to deep reform - a state-administrative structure, economics, army, church, science and education, artistic culture. The main content and nature of the feasible reforms expressed two trends: secularization, i.e. Sampling. Weakening the religious and strengthening of secular start in culture. And also its Europeanization.

In 1711, instead of the former numerous boyars of the Duma (up to 190) Peter I establish Senate. Consisting of 9 people appointed by the king himself. Only business qualities served as a selection criterion for the Senate, and the former hereditary privileges were not taken into account. Senate protrude as higher organ For legislation and public administration.

Previously existing orders were replaced by 12 Colleges (ministries) who made the individual spheres of public administration. The country was divided into Gubernia and Course. Thanks to these innovations, the state reached the highest degree of centralization and turned into an absolute monarchy.

Extremely important Reform of the churchwhich significantly limited the place and role of religion and church in society. The main loss of the Orthodox Church is the abolition of the patriarchate. His place was taken by the spiritual board, or Holy Synod, at the head of which stood the Ober-Prosecutor appointed by the king. In fact, the synod was not much different from other government agencies.

The church lost part of its lands and income, which significantly weakened the SS economic bases. The clergy was put in one row with other estates. The priests were charged with the duty not only to promote the transformations carried out, but also help the authorities in the cheek and detention of opponents of reforms. At the same time, even a violation of the secret of confession was required: under the fear of execution, priests were to convey about the intentions of the professionatively commit state crime. As a result of all these measures, the church has occurred. She was fully dependent on secular power.

Petrovskaya Epoch created favorable conditions for Revitalization of the economy. Russia begins to actively master industrial production. In the country, the number of weaving and textile enterprises is growing rapidly, especially for the production of cloth and wool. The Ural becomes the center for the smelting of the metal, which from the 20s. XVIII century exported abroad. For the first time, industrial production of porcelain is organized.

Significant progress is observed in all material culture, in technique and technology. Ural heat engineering I.P. The polzunov developed a project of a universal steam engine and built a steaming unit, ahead of the English inventor D. Wattle. Mechanic self-taught I.P. Kulibin invented many mechanisms - watches, spotlight, semaphore telegraph, developed a draft bridge over Neva. In agriculture, the braid is used instead of sickle, the equestrian plants are created, cattle breeding is successfully developing. Peter I attached great importance to trade, calling it a "the supreme owner of the Destiny of Human", and in every way promoted its development. On his initiative, large fairs are arranged, the channels are built: Vyshnevolotsky has been built, the construction of Volgogo-Donskoy has begun.

The development of material culture and economics has allowed to be modernized ArmyWhat made it one of the most modern and strong. In the Russian army, the horse artillery appears for the first time, manual grenades and a bayon begin to be used. The main achievement in the military was the creation of Russian Fleet - Petra's favorite brain.

Russian science XVIII century.

XVIII Century has become time to create in Russia Systems and science systems, which were practically absent before. The deep transformations that took place in all areas of public life were sharply set a problem of lifting the cultural and educational level of the population, which could not be solved without broad Networks new educational institutions. In 1701, a navigator school was opened on the Sukhareva Tower in Moscow, which in 1715 was translated into St. Petersburg, where the Marine Academy was created on its basis. A little later, a few more schools appear on the type of navigator - engineering, artillery and medical.

In 1703, a private general educational gymnasium E. Glituk opens in Moscow, having tasked training for scientific activities. The basis of primary education in the provincial cities was the cyphic schools. Special schools for the attainers were preparing all sorts of officials. With the largest manufactories - in the Urals and other places - handicraft colleges were opened. In 1722, the first commercial school appeared.

In the formation and development of science played a big role played Petersburg Academy, created on the initiative of Peter and open in 1725. Initially, the Academy was mostly part of foreign scientists who express the desire to work in Russia. Many of them had world fame: Mathematics L. Euler and D. Bernoulli, physicist F. Epinus, Botanist P. Pallas. The first Russian academicians were geographer S.G1. Krasheninnikov, naturalist and traveler I.I. Lephechin, Astronomer S.Ya. Rumovsky and others.

Unlike the Western Russian Academy not engaged in theology, being entirely secular state institution. At the same time, it was closely connected with domestic art. In 1732, an artistic department was organized with it. Having powerful state support, the Academy has already created world-class works in the first decades.

An exceptional role in the development of domestic and world science was played by the Great Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765), which became the first Russian member of the Academy in 1745, he was not only a great naturalist, but also a poet, philologist, artist, historian. On the scale of his personality, he did not infuriate the European Titans of the Renaissance. Stressing the universal character of his personality, A.S. Pushkin noted that "Lomonosov hugged all sectors of the Enlightenment" that "he also experienced and penetrated everything."

The foundation in 1755 was the most important milestone in the formation and development of Russian science and education. Moscow University.Initially, he had three faculties: philosophical, medical and legal. He then quickly became the largest center for the training of specialists in all branches of knowledge. In 1783 it is created The Russian Academy of Sciences, The first president of which becomes Prince E.R. Dashkov. The Academy also played a huge role in the development of domestic science. The first major scientific achievement was the sixtime "Dictionary of the Russian Academy", which contained the interpretation of the main scientific terms and concepts. In general, it is possible to say with a complete reason that during one century, Russian science made a powerful jerk forward. Starting almost from scratch, she was able to rise to a world level.

The XVIII century was marked Deep changes in the public consciousness, significant revival and climbing public thought. This was facilitated by both Petrov transformations and fasteners and expanding contacts with European countries, thanks to which the ideas of Western rationalism, humanism and is penetrated into Russia. One of the important features of changes occurring in the public consciousness is the weakening of the influence of religious ideology, the strengthening of a secular, scientific and rational principle. The second significant feature is the desire to comprehend the past and present Russia, which was accompanied by an increase in national self-consciousness.

Large Russian thinker XVIII century. Was Feofan Prokopovich,contemporary and companion Peter. In his works ("The Word of the Power and the Honor of the Tsarist", "True will of the monarch", etc.) he develops the Russian version of the concept of enlightened absolutism. Based on the European ideas of natural law, a public contract and a common good and combining them with Russian peculiarities, Prokopovich. As followed by Peter, in every way glorified his acts and filed him for a sample of an enlightened monarch. He was also an ideologist for reforming the church, justified the need for her staff and state.

An interesting and deep thinker-self-taught was I.T. Posochekov, author of "Books about poverty and wealth." As a supporter of Peter, he at the same time stood in opposition to the nobility, expressing and defending the interests of the peasantry, merchants and artisans.

The understanding of the past Russia is devoted to the work V.N. Tatishchev - The first major Russian historian who wrote the "Russian history from the most ancient times." In it, he traces the history of Russia from Rurik to Peter I.

- Writer and philosopher - occupies a special place in the spiritual life of Russia. He developed the concept of Russian enlightenment in its radical, revolutionary form. In the main work of "Traveling from St. Petersburg to Moscow", the writer drew a bright picture of the horrific position of the serf peasantry, in which he saw the deep origins of future shocks of Russia. Radishchev proposed a draft reform from above, which was democratic and included the liberation of the peasants.

Russian literature XVIII century.

Art culture Russia XVIII century. Also experiencing deep changes. It is increasingly becoming a secular character, experiencing a growing influence from the West. By the middle of the century, it was quite the main European styles: classicism and baroque.

In the literature, classicism represent A.D. Kantemir, V.K. Trediakovsky and M.V. Lomonosov. The first of them achieved literary glory with their satires. Because of the sharpness, jokes and sarcasms, directed against the power of the property and clergy, made themselves influential enemies at the courtyard, which detained their publication for three decades.

Tremakovsky is the author of the poem "Tilemokhid". He also made a significant contribution to the theory of literature, developing the principles of Russian poems, influenced the poetry of V.A. Zhukovsky. A.A. Delivia, N.I. Gallet. Many of his subsequent works were also written in the form of one who had deep philosophical content and high civil sound. In addition, he is the author of tragedies, satir and epigram. Some of his works in style are close to Baroque.

Russian architecture XVIII century.

IN architecture Western influence has affected the most strongly. New capital of Russia - St. Petersburg - represented a sharp contrast with Moscow. The city of Peter was created on completely new principles of urban planning, which had an ensemble character, which was resting on a strict poster of streets, squares, administrative buildings and palaces. Until recently, it was Petersburg who was considered a real modern cityWhile Moscow was often called the "big village". Some admirers of the beauties-Petersburg offered to call him an "eighth miracle of the world" - in addition to the famous "seven wonders".

Only today, in connection with the advent of the architecture of postmodernism, which caused reassessment of values, Moscow in its architectural significance was again sublighted over Petersburg.

Russian Classicism B. architecture XVIII. in. represented I.E. Sgarhov, D. Svarengi, V.I. Bazhenov, M.F. Cossacks. The first of them was built by the Tauride Palace and the Trinity Cathedral of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra in St. Petersburg. The quarters created the Pavilion "Concert Hall" and the Alexander Palace in the Tsarskoye Selo (now Pushkin), the Hermitage Theater and an appliance bank in St. Petersburg. Bazhenov and Cossacks were created in Moscow. The first one belongs to the magnificent house Pashkov, and the second is the old building of Moscow University, the Senate in the Kremlin, the first city hospital.

Russian Baroque in architecture found a bright embodiment in the work of D. Trezini. and V.V. Rastrelli. The first built the "Building of the Twelve Collegium" (now the University), the Summer Palace of Peter I and the Cathedral of the Peter and Paul Fortress in St. Petersburg. The second is the Winter Palace (now Hermitage) and the Smithing Monastery in St. Petersburg, the Grand Palace in Peterhof, the Catherine Palace in the Tsarskoye Sel.

Russian painting XVIII century.

The XVIII century was the heyday of Russian painting. Russian portrait painting rises to the level of the best samples of European art. The founders of the portrait genre are A.M. Matveyev and I.N. Nikitin. The first wrote "Self-portrait with his wife" and paired portraits of Golitsyn spouses. The most famous works of the second - "Outdoor Hetman", "Peter I on the mortal bed".

The highest flourishing portrait painting reaches in creativity F.S. Rokotov D. .G. Levitsky and V.L. Borovikovsky. The first was famous for the paintings "Unknown in a pink dress" and "V.E. Novosiltsova. " Levitsky created pictures of "Kokorinov", "M.A. Dyakova. " Borovikovsky owns the famous canvas "M.I. Lopukhina. " Along with portrait successfully develops historical painting. It is A. .P. Lovenko. Writing pictures "Vladimir and Rogned", "Farewell to Hecker with Androma". The artist also worked in the portrait genre.

In the XVIII century Russia is born and successfully develops modern sculpture. Here is also the leading place is the portrait. The most significant achievements are related to creativity. F.I. Schubin, Worked in the spirit of classicism. He created portraits-busts

A.M. Golitsyn, M.P. Panina, M.V. Lomonosov. Baroque worked B. Rastrelli. Its best works is "Empress Anna Ivanovna with Arapchonk". In the genre of monumental sculpture, the most famous creation is the "copper rider" created by E. Falcone.

In the XVIII century notable changes occur in music, Although not so deep, as in other art types. A new national tool is created - balalaika (1715). From the middle of the century gets the spread of the guitar. The church-singing continues to successfully develop. Choral music. At the same time, new genres arise. In particular, military music appears, performed by brass orchestras. Camera-instrumental, opera and symphonic music occurs. Many aristocrats are breeding home orchestras. Special allocation deserves creativity D.S. Bortyansky, creating beautiful choral works, as well as the Opera "Falcon", "Son Rival".

In the XVIII century The first professional Russian theater is born. His creator became a great actor F.G. Wolves.

Deep changes affected not only the considered cultural fields, but also the whole Standing everyday life. Here, one of the main changes was associated with introduction of a new summer and calendar. By the decree of Peter instead of the previous account for years from the "Creation of the World", henceforth was prescribed to calculate the year from the Nativity of Christ. those. from January 1, 1700, as was customary in european countriesoh. Truth. Europe enjoyed the Gregorian calendar, and in Russia I was introduced by Julian. On Petrovsky Decree, a new tradition was established - solemnly meet the "New Year and Tennake Age", Decorating the gates of houses with pine, firing and juniper branches, arrangeing shooting, games and fun.

For another decree of Peter, a new form of communication of people - Assembly was introduced. Representatives of the highest sections of society for relaxation and a fun time in dancing, casual conversations, for playing chess and checkers gathered. IN daily life Courtnic nobility also includes the tradition of bilingualism. In Peter and Anna, German is distributed, and starting with Elizabeth - French. The influence of French culture was also manifested. That the ladies of the noble society are beginning to be musitizing on the clasine.

Significant changes occur in clothing. Vintage Russian long robes are inferior to German caftanam, short and narrow European clothes. Men of the Higher Layers of the Company disappear beards. Among the court sought, the European rules of etiquette and secular behaviors are approved. The rules of good tone among the children of the nobles promotes the book "Youth Honest Zernalo, or an indication for everyday severity in those days.

Cultural transformations and innovations of the XVIII century. Related preferably preferred estates of Russian society. The lower classes they almost did not affect. They led to the destruction of the former organic unity of Russian culture. In addition, these processes were not without costs and extremes, when some representatives of the highest circles of society were completely forgotten by Russian and culture, Russian traditions and customs. Nevertheless, objectively they were needed and inevitable. Cultural transformations contributed to the overall development of Russia. Without modern secular culture, Russia could not qualify for a decent place among the advanced countries.

The XVIII century refers to the number of the most significant stages of Russian history, since it was the time of the indigenous change caused by petrovsky reforms. Despite the designated trend of the modernization of Russia, in the XVII century. She generally lagged significantly from the level of development of Western European states. In order to overcome the age-old backwardness, it was necessary to truly raise Russia to the new stage of civilization, it was necessary, as one of the associates Peter I said, "bringing our fatherland in comparison with other." Creating the appearance of a new Russia was impossible without major changes in the field of culture, science, education.

Peter the Great reforms were dual and controversial: on the one hand, they contributed to the strengthening of the state, the development of a new culture, and on the other, they strengthened serfdom, which objectively slowed down the development of emerging capitalist relations. It is impossible not to see the progressive value of Petrovsky transformations, but artificial vaccination to the Russian medium of foreign culture often led to ugly manifestations. This process is often called westernization or Europeanization of Russian culture.

Peter's reforms and their consequences for the development of Russia and Russian culture became the subject of an acute dispute of scientists and thinkers, who spoiled in the XIX century and continues to this day. So, a prominent historian and politician P. N. Milyukov believed that Russia was erected into the rank of European powers at the price of ruin. By figurative expression A.I. Herzen, Peter to the Asian body of Russia attained European hands. The French philosophospress D. Didro believed that Peter inflicted in his too hasty and forced Europeanization, dereparable harm, having deprived it and in the future successfully developed Western achievements. Outstanding historian S.M. Solovyov, on the contrary, noted that Europeanization turned out to be quite compatible with the cultural and historical development of Russia. In his opinion,

Peter his reforms carried out that in the West had a place in the Renaissance. Approximately the same opinion adhered to the historian K.D. Cavelin.

A number of authors reinforce Peter for the fact that he destroyed the former integrity of Russian culture, made it broken, split into two parts, which led to the formation of two different stages - "soil" and "civilization" (terminology by V.O. Kleevsky). "Soil" is the way, the main features of which were in the conditions of the Moscow kingdom. The majority of the population was associated with him. The richest traditions developed here folk culture. "Civilization" is an extension type. He was expressed by the highest layers of society and the intelligentsia. The culture of the country's aristocratic circles has lost the identity of Russian culture, it became alien for the majority of the people. The splitness of Russia, the confrontation of two cultures is the most important factor that determined Russia's development in the XVIII-XIX centuries.

The trends in the transition to the culture of the new time, as already mentioned in the previous chapter, outlined in the XVII century, when the crisis of medieval culture became sharply felt. This process itself is extremely complex, diverse and even contradictory. Although he was prepared by all preceding development, but did not carry a smooth nature. A rapid leap occurred, accompanied by the emergence of numerous innovations. Its beginning chronologically coincides with the border of two centuries. It should also be borne in mind that most changes did not smoothly and calmly fit into Russian reality, and broke out sharply, rigidly, often forcibly imposing "top."

For cultures of the new Timethe following features are characterized: secular nature, the development of personalities began, overcoming national closetness, the desire to actively interact with other cultures, accelerating the pace of development. In addition, the differentiation process begins, appearance

new sectors of culture: science, theater, poetry, portrait painting, journalism.

In the development of the culture of the XVIII century. Two stages are clearly distinguished: the era of Petrovsky transformations, i.e. the first quarter of a century, and the culture of the second half. Each of them has its own specificity associated with the generalistic processes that occurred in the state. For the first stage, the rapidness of reforms is characterized, often violent breaking of antiquity. Many changes were simply copying the "abroad", mechanically transported to Russian soil. On all the transformations, the penetration of the personality of the king itself is superimposed, which struggled with barbaria by barbaric methods. They were carried out in the interests of the nobility and cultural reforms practically did not affect the majority of the population. Therefore, it is in the XVIII century. So clearly manifests the presence of "two crops" in the country - the culture of the noble and culture of the people.

Peter reforms in the field of culture.Immediately at return from a trip to Europe as part of the Great Embassy (1697- 1698), young Peter begins to fight traditions and ancient: first prohibits the wearing beard - old Russian symbol Perena and importance, and then makes a decree on replacing the usual long-oil and heavy dress on the "Hungarian", Western European sample. Already in 1700, the gates of the Kremlin were put up mannequins with samples of new clothes. Hard and decisively, the king began to change the appearance of people.

In 1700 Peter introduced in Russia new summer- From the Nativity of Christ, as was customary in Western Europe (Julian calendar). Before him, the summer was going on the church-Byzantine tradition - from the creation of the world. Then Peter prescribed to open the new year on January 1, and not on September 1, as before. On January 1, 1700, the country began to live on a new calendar. So the Christmas trees came to Russia, Santa Claus (again in the Western model).

For reforms, there was a large number of specialists and just competent people. Therefore, under Peter I, the problem of education becomes state policy. First school organized by the king

in 1701, became the "School of Mathematical and Navigation Science" in Moscow. Later she was translated into St. Petersburg and in 1715 transformed into the Marine Academy. In a short time, several more special schools opened: Artillery (1701), Engineering (1712), Medical School (1707). At metallurgical factories in the Urals and in Olonets, the first were formed the first

in Russia Mountain schools who were preparing mining specialists.

In all provinces began to open "Typical Schools", in which the arithmetic and the start of geometry were studied. By 1725, they were numbered 42. Diocesan schools were also discovered, where children of clergy and garrison schools for soldiers' children were studied. The improvement of school education contributed to the publication of such textbooks as the "letter" F.P. Polycarpova, "The first teaching of the shipments" F. Prokopovich, "Arithmetic" L.F. Magnitsky. In addition to textbooks, books in natural science and technology (fortifications, medicine, artillery, architecture, etc.) were published.

The formation of noble children became a kind of service. It came to the point that in 1714 a decree was issued, forbidden to marry evading learning. Besides russian schools Young noblemen could undergo a course of study and abroad. Upon returning to St. Petersburg, they kept the exam on which the king was often attended.

Top Policy of the Tsar - Reformed in the field of enlightenment has become a project for the creation of the Academy of Sciences (January 1724). But he did not live before her discovery - the first meeting took place on November 12, 1725. The peculiarity of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences was that it was designed to unite three institutions operating in Western European countries independently of each other and independently. It consisted of: Actually Academy, i.e. "Meeting of scientists and skilled people", the university, under which implied "

the wound of scientists ", obliged to teach young people medicine, philosophy and law, and preparatory gymnasium.

An important step in the development of education and book business was the replacement of the church-Slavic font new, more simple and affordable. In 1710, Peter approved the final version of the alphabet. Introduction civil alphabetpositive influenced the publication and the sale of books. Old Russian lettering numbers were replaced by Arabic numbers. Now the unit was designated "1", not the letter "A", as before. Due to the appearance of secular and special printing houses, their network is expanding. In the first quarter of the XVIII century. Books came out more than 150 previous years. Book benches open in St. Petersburg and Moscow.

On January 2, 1703, the first number of printed number was released in Moscow newspapers "Vedomosti"that Petr himself edited. It was intended not only for the royal family and the highest dignitaries, like handwritten "Courans" with Alexei Mikhailovic. She was taken to the street. The circulation of "Vedomosti" reached 2500 copies.

Shocked by museums of Europe, Peter set forth the goal of creating something similar in Russia. So, in 1714, Kunstkamera was founded in St. Petersburg - the first natural science museum in the country. After five years, Kunstkamera opened for universal ferris. It demonstrated zoological and mineralogical collections, skilled products and "Monsters" - chewished freaks. In 1714, the oldest in Russia was founded in St. Petersburg public library, which included the book assembly of the Russian kings, the publications presented by the Dukes of Holstein and Kourneda, and the book confiscated from the Oplia boyars. In 1725, when the library was transferred to the Academy of Sciences, it consisted of 11 thousand books.

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH CURRENT SCIENTIFIC SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH PRICES: organized geographical and ethnographic expeditions. The purpose of these expeditions was not only in the intelligence and development of new lands (Kamchatka

and smoked) rich in fur and minerals, but also scientific study of spaces of Russia and nearby countries, the preparation of geographical maps. A special expedition was sent to the Chukotka Peninsula, in front of which the king put the goal to integrate, "Lee America with Asia" came out. " Three weeks before the death of Peter compiled instructions for the Danish captain Vitus Bering, consisting in the Russian service, which was to find a way through the Arctic Ocean in China and India. Already after Peter Bering, reached the shores of Alaska, opened the shed between Asia and America.

Peter, not taking care of expenses, invited European scientific luminaries to the Russian service. So in Russia, the Swiss mathematician and mechanic D. Bernoulli, French astronomer and cartographer I. Delil and others appeared.

At the initiative of Peter, the Astronomical Observatory, the Botanical Garden was opened, the collection of ancient manuscripts began, new historical works have emerged. Peter himself in his free clock worked on the "History of Svayskaya (i.e. Swedish)".

The overall rise in economics and education in the country led to shifts in technical innovations. On more high level Development came out Russian equipment. Mechanic Andrei Narzov, one of the approximate king, subsequently a member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, invented the lathe, torch-painted, intojectable and ventilate machines. Russian optics originated. Russian craftsmen began to make microscopes, pylon pipes that were bought abroad before.

Huge changes occurred in everyday life. Others became the manners of Russian nobles and citizens, the so-called "polite", the rules of good tone appeared. The Code of the Behavior of the Young Aristocrat became published in 1717. The Book of Youth Honest Merzor or the testimony for everyday severity, "which was withstanding three publications under Peter. Peter strongly encouraged the ability to dance, freely express in foreign languages \u200b\u200b(the king himself knew two foreign languages \u200b\u200b- Dutch and German), fencing, own art

speeches and letters. In 1708, another book is published (translation from German) - "Butt supplies are written different compliments". The book contained samples of letters - congratulatory, comforting, etc.

From 1718, Peter introduced a new form of public communication - the Assembly, later turned into court balls. They periodically passed into winter timeIn the evenings, in houses of noble nobles and citizens. All the then Petersburg Society passed on them. In the Assemblies, women who previously extremely rarely left their rest were participating. There were no guests here and did not interfere. Each, including the king, could easily call the cup of tea, play a batch in checkers or chess, which began to get into fashion as one of the favorite entertainment of Peter.

But together with these innovations and the successes of Russian culture, the first signs of excessive and rampant hobbies to all foreign ones appeared. Suffice it to say that the Russian language at this time was replenished with more than 4 thousand new foreign words. Many of them were not at all mandatory. The imitation of Western mods led to the fact that Russian people sometimes had to change the comfortable and well-adapted clothing to the Russian climate to quite European, but uncomfortable and impractical outfits for Russia.

The science. An exceptional role in the development of domestic and world science was played by a great Russian scientist. Lomonosov (1711-1765), which became the first Russian member of the Academy in 1745. His creativity is inherent in the absence of scientific knowledge, which is generally distinguished by the science of the XVIII century. Perhaps there is no area of \u200b\u200bscience that he would not do. Among all sciences of Lomonosov highlighted chemistry. The chemical laboratory created by them became the first in Russia with a research institution. Lomonosov conducted research and in other areas of science - physics (it was he who first read the course of physics in his native language), geology, astronomy, etc. With the name of Lomonosov, the revival in Russia mosaic is connected. Not only "thirst for science was the strongest

lomonosov, but also the idea of \u200b\u200ba selfless service of the Fatherland: "... What is up to me, then I dedicated myself to my myself, to fight the Russian enemies to the coffin ..."

A number of large geographical expeditions are being made on the basis of the Academy of Sciences. The largest scientific enterprise XVIII century. The second Kamchatka, or the Great Northern, Expedition (1733-1743) became the preparation of which many government agencies took part in the preparation. The scientific and practical results of the expeditions were ambitious: the strait was opened, called Bering, teams of ships "St. Paul "led by A.I. Chirikov and "St. Peter ", on which V. Bering sailed, was investigated by the coast of Northwest America, S.P. Kraschinnikov and G.V. The steller was studied and described by Kamchatka, the Kuril Islands, Northern Japan are applied on the map, are described by the coast and a number of islands from Arkhangelsk to the mouth of Yenisei.

The invaluable contribution to the study of spaces of Siberia and the Far East has made academic detachments led by Miller and Hmelin. Based on the materials received during this ten-year experiment, Miller created his works on history, geography, ethnography, statistics of Siberia.

Many talents revealed during this period and among the Russian people. Son of soldier I.I. The sliders created the world's first universal steam car, ahead of the Englishman's Watt for 20 years. Unfortunately, four days before the launch of the car, a talented mechanic died of consumers, and his invention threw "as unnecessary." Nizhny Novgorod, I.P. Kulibin created a number of devices for scientific academic laboratories: a telescope, a microscope, a gold coating machine, developed the project "Samobala" stroller, designed prostheses for persons with disabilities and much more, but in the conditions of the bureaucratic system, which already arose in Russia, many of these inventions Did not find practical application. In 1776, the craftsmen created a project of a unionic bridge through the Neva length of 298 m, but "as unnecessary" and not

improved. Kulibin was forced to spend time on colorful fireworks and other fun for palace fun.

Education. The XVIII century was the time of creation in Russia systems of secular education and science.In noble families, as a rule, home learning was practiced, but in most cases it was quite superficial. In the post-work era, noble educational institutions are created in the country, which occupied the leading position in the emerging system of secular schools. In 1731, the Cadet Corps was opened to prepare the nobility to officer service, twenty years renamed the landlochetical corps. Mandatory for cadets were only three subjects: the law of God, military exercises and arithmetic. The rest of the sciences and languages \u200b\u200bstudied at will. It is noteworthy that the overwhelming majority of Russian cadets were chosen for training not Russian, but French and german languages. In 1750, such an institution was open to training on the fleet. In those opened in 1759, a privileged Page Corps were taught children from noble noble families for the court and administrative service. Created to the nobility, the estate schools were called upon to consolidate the dominant position of the nobility in a wide variety of public services, to turn the service to the estate privilege.

An important milestone in the formation and development of Russian science and education was the foundation in 1755. Moscow University. Its foundation Russia is obliged by M.V. Lomonosov and Favorita Empress Elizabethi. Shuvalov, a famous patron of enlightenment, science, literature and arts. The first was the initiator of this important state eventBut without the support of the authorities, his project would be impracticable. Shuvalov was appointed first curator of the university. Through it, the university was subordinate to Senate. Two gymnasiums were discovered for the training of listeners at the university, where children of the nobles and allocates were studied. Originally, the university had three faculties: philosophical, medical and legal. Then he quickly became

the largest center for training specialists in all branches of knowledge. It is important to emphasize: training at the university was conducted in Russian. At the university, a typography, book shop and newspaper "Moscow Vedomosti" were created.

Of great importance was the discovery in 1758 by the Moscow University of Gymnasium in Kazan. She became the first such type by an educational institution outside the capital (in it, G.R. Dervin, S.T. Aksakov, N.I. Lobachevsky, etc.).

IN 1757 in St. Petersburg, thanks to the efforts of I.I. Shuvalova, was foundedThe Academy of "Correctional Children's", the idea of \u200b\u200bthe creation of which arose after Peter I. Shuvalov was personally headed by the Academy, becoming its president, the practical activity was guided by Architect A.F. Cockerins. Access

in it was allowed to all classes, even a serf, who received permission from their landowners. All students were distributed in three classes studied painting, sculpture and architecture. Twelve the best students every three years were sent to improve skill to France, Italy, England.

In the second half of the XVIII century. Formation state system Education is associated with Catherine II and the activities of I.I. Petsky, who lived abroad for a long time, studied the training case there and became someone like the Minister of Enlightenment. Following the ideas of French enlighteners (first of all, J.Zh. Rousseau), Betskaya believed possible the creation of devoid of any vices of the "new breed of people", which, as their numerical growth and the transfer of acquired virtues of their children, will be able to create a "fair society". Therefore, the pedagogical system of Beetsky - Catherine II envisaged the creation of educational institutions of a closed type, in which students were isolated from the vicious social environment and "spoiled" relatives.

IN 1764 at the Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg, the first not only in Russia opens, but in the world, the women's educational institution "Educational

society of noble maidens. " The new school was designed for 200 girls, mainly from the nobility. Training was educated. According to the place of bezzo and Catherine II, Smolyanka should have been lazy to a serfdom. However, those brought up in greenhouse conditions, they turned out to be unsuitable for real life. And yet the Smolny Institute, where they taught dancing, music, good manners, french, History, geography, had a beneficial effect on the spread of enlightenment, to mitigate the morals.

Six months later, this kind of a blessing school on 240 students, which took girls of all classes, except for fortress peasants. The training of inaliencies was simultaneously part of the program to create a "third class" in Russia, which so cared to the empress. The main subject in the school was home-based, since the graduates were supposed to serve the "real" "Smolyanok", palaces and estates of the aristocracy. Closed educational school, but already for the boys "different titles", appeared at the Academy of Arts.

Bezzka made another noble thing, founding an educational house in Moscow for illegitimate children and a voyage. During this period, professional artistic columns opened: a dance school in St. Petersburg, ballet - in Moscow.

On August 5, 1786, Catherine II approved the "Charter of People's Schools", which provided for the creation of a network of secondary educational institutions. In accordance with the Charter in the provincial cities, the main folk schools with four classes were created, and in the county - small folk schools with two classes. The organization of schools in rural areas did not provide for the charter. In folk schools, a class-grade system was introduced for the first time, united curricula. Thus, in the country, a secular school system was gradually folded, by the end of the century, which included all three of its steps: who completed a small school could continue education in 3-4 grades, and graduates

the latter could go to the university, having studied Latin and one of the European languages.

IN as a result, by the end of the century there were 550 educational institutions in the country

and 60-70 thousand student. However, despite the increase in the number of school schools, they were clearly not enough for a huge country. The overall level of education in Russia remained low. According to 1797, the percentage of the competent rural population was 2.7; Urban - 9.2%. At the same time, it should be noted that a person who is able to designate his signature instead of the scene is competent. Such a low indicator explain - the need for literacy for the majority of the population has not yet come. Proclaimed all-knowledge, in fact, the school has secured the right to education as the estate privilege of nobility and clergy. Access to the middle and especially in higher school It was extremely difficult to come out of the common. Ekaterina herself wrote the Moscow Governor General P.S. Saltykov: "The mobiles should not be educated, as it will know as much as you do, it will not obey us to the extent that it will obey now."

In the second half of the XVIII century. Many new textbooks appeared, their authors were academic and professors of Moscow University. Several textbooks (on history, literature, mining) wrote M. V. Lomonosov.

Literature. The radical update of all spheres of social and spiritual life was reflected in the literature. According to A.S. Pushkin, "Our literature suddenly appeared in the XVIII century." To change such characteristic for medieval literature, genres as life, apocryphas, sermons, the annals, military notions come, Satira, comedies, tragedies, poems, novels. The dominant direction in the literature was challication. Classicism was formed in all countries as the literary direction of the era of absolutism. Its features were to prioritize the civil tags of works, in the mind of the mind - "Supreme Judge" over the surrounding

world. Adherents of classicism preferred to depict a particular person, but a certain abstract person with a set of positive and negative qualities: ignorance and enlightenment, worn and kindness, misfortune and generosity, etc. The classicism is typical of the ordering of literary forms, a strict classification of genres (soda, tragedy, comedy) and styles.

A peculiarity of Russian classicism was the preference of national topics (in Western Europe - antique plots) related to oral folk creativity, topical issues of modern life.

In the development of Russian literature XVIII century. Three stages can be distinguished. The first - since the beginning of the century and until the end of the 20s. - got the name of preclassicism. The literary works of this time are distinguished by a variety of both the genre and style, the connection with the previous period is clearly felt in them.

The second stage refers to the 30-50th gg, when the formation of Russian classicism occurs. His founders of A.D. Kantemir, V.K. Trediakovsky, M.V. Lomonosov, A.P. Sumarokov. There are new classic genres, a literary language and versification are reformed. And. Kantemir has achieved literary glory with his satires. Because of the sharpness, jokes and sarcasms, directed against the power of the property and clergy, made themselves influential enemies at the courtyard, which detained their publication for three decades.

V. Tredyakovskymade a significant contribution to the theory of literature, developing the principles of Russian poems. He wrote a textbook on poetry theory and many critical and historical philological works. Many of his works are written in the form of one who had deep philosophical content and high civil sound. In addition, he is the author of tragedies, satir and epigram. His poems applied as songs, and the poem "Tilemokhid", young people memorized by heart. For a long time, Tremakovsky was

such a unusual role of the court poet Anna Ivanovna, who saw only a stamp hat, who can be entrusted to write even obscene poems "for entertainment" in it. It became for the poet of the tragedy.

No smaller heights Russian Classicism reached in the work of M.V. Lomonosov. An encyclopedist scholar brillically entered the literature with his famous one "for taking Khotin" (1739), written during his studies in Germany. Of all the poetic genres of Lomonosov elected ODU as the most appropriate to attract the "heart of the people." In his works, he is famous for the greatness of Russia, it firmly believes that the Russian Earth's Own Platonic and Fast Mind of Netons can give birth to. " In addition, he made a reform of a literary language, leaking the use of live speech. His "Russian grammar" (1755) withstood 14 publications.

The representative of the noble classicism was the pupil of the Cadet Corps A.P. Sumarokov. In his work, in the genre is very diverse, the characteristic features of Russian classicism are most fully manifested - close relationship with modernity and accusatory orientation. On non-informability to public evil, injustice, he declared openly: "Docci fucking Ile death is not faded / against the vice, I will not write!" Contemporaries (especially Baryni) appreciated his poems "painted songs", in which "gentle love" was challenged. His fables used much popularity. He wrote them more than 400. Sumarokov is rightfully considered to be the attitude of the Russian playwright of classicism. In total, they were created by 9 tragedies and a dozen comedy. The proud and challenge character of the writer served as the source of his endless quarrels with representatives of the Higher and Literary Society. Lomonosov and Tremakovsky pledged him with epigram, but he himself never remained indebted.

The third stage of the development of literature falls on the 60-90s. The views of enlighteners began to play a major role in society. Under their influence

classicism rises to a new stage of its ideological and art Development. In the conditions of the celebration of the new statehood, literature becomes the most important means of approving new ideas - the ideas of citizenship based on strict observance A separate personality of the principle of "common benefits". The most prominent writers of this time are D.I. Fonvizin and G.R. Derzhanin; besides them should be mentioned Ya.B. Knyazhnina and V.V. Capnicker.

DI. Fonvizin acquired glory and fame with his plays "Brigadier" (1769) and especially "inexpensive" (1782), created (for the first time on the Russian scene) in the genre of the socio-political comedy. In his works that did not lose relevance and today, he condemned both "Russian French", such as Ivanushka from the Brigadier, who received the French education, which despised all Russian and uneducated and corrupted by the limitless landlord authority of representatives of the provincial nobility, Like cattle and spaces from "cheap". Historian V.O. Klyuchevsky estimated the work of phonvizin as a "unmatched mirror" of Russian reality. In addition to classifying literary activities, Fonvizin served for many years in the Foreign Affairs College, where as secretary of N.I. Panina has developed several progressive for that time state projectsBut they were rejected by the Empress.

G.R. Derzhavin adhered to conservative views, but he was looking for the truth everywhere, fought with injustice, demanded compliance with laws and therefore remained in the history of literature, according to A.S. Pushkin, "Beach Venerable". A loud European glory of the poet delivered his ode "God" - she reflected the ideas of deesma dominant then in the west and was translated almost all European languages. Already contemporaries noted that no one was available to Derzhavin and did not show the controversial essence of a person: "I king - I am a slave - I am a worm - I am God!" The poet does not accept the idea of \u200b\u200bman's insignificance. In his oodas, Derzhavin glorified the victory of the Russian army in wars with Turkey and

Sweden, chasing Suvorov and the Russian soldier. The Ode of Felitsa (1783) was an innovative work, since it was connected to the praise with satire and the "simplicity" style. In it, the author fought the enlightened government. Catherine II awarded him, determined the public service, appointed his StatSecretary with the calculation that the poet would continue to glorify it. However, having familiarized himself near the yard's bushes, Drozhanin could almost write anything

in the honor of the Empress, because she, he said, "managed the state and the most justice more policy than in the Holy Truth." The poet won

in it, the Rodanovetz.

IN the last decade of the XVIII century. In Russian literature, the replacing direction of classicism has emerged a new course calledsentimentalism(from the French SENS word, meaning a feeling). In contrast to classicism, he put forward questions of personal life, a cult of sincere pure feelings and nature. Numerous "travels" became the most popular genre of this literary direction. In Russia, one of the first works of this kind was the famous "Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow" A.N. Radishcheva (1790).

Russian sentimentalism found the most complete expression in the work of N.I. Karamzin. The literary activities of the future historian began with the publication in 1791-1792. "Letters of the Russian traveler", immediately after his return from a foreign trip by Europe. The most popular story of Karamzin is "poor Lisa", in which the dramatic story of the love of the peasant girl is told. It raised the typical problem of that era - the problem of social inequality. The writer not only showed that the peasants are the same people, but for the first time refused the comforting junction - in the suicide of the heroine, the Russian reader first encountered "with the bitter truth of life." However, not only the "story of the feeling" attracted contemporaries in the works of Karamzin. The reader found a poetic image of Russian life, Russian people, Russian nature, Russian

rii. As evidenced by Al. Bestuzhev, Karamzin "fused us to the loyals of our old." In addition, Karamzin was the first among Russian writers to consider the literature "the main business of life, holy deed."

The development of literature is inextricably linked and with the development of publishers. For the entire XVIII century. In Russia, 9,500 books were published, of which about 85% accounts for 34-year-old reign of Catherine II.

Social political think. In the conditions of the Russian action

the second half of the XVIII century. The criticism of the most stringent forms of serfdom, despotism autocracy appears. Russian thinkers are interested in enlightenment ideas. Another part of the noble intelligentsia falls under the influence of Masonry. The phenomenon is widespread in Europe in Europe, there existed in the form of semi-gun organizations with a solemn and mystical ritual. Masons were fraternity (lodges) in order to assist in the case moral education, fraternal love and piety. Freemasonry was not homogeneous: very moderate lodges were distinguished, and radical. The common features were religious-moral search. In 1780, there were up to 100 Masonic "lies" in Russia. Catherine II first completely tolerant referred to Masons. However, with the beginning of the French revolution, the empress began to suspect Masons in political unreliability and banned their organization.

One of the largest masons and an outstanding enlightenment figure in Russia was N.I. Novikov, with his name, the creation of the first bright satirical magazines "Truten", "Painter", "Wallet" is connected. Novikov Beacheval Ferrous Sergeshiki (epigraph to the first magazine served words taken from Sumarokov's paradise: "They work, and you are their work so on"), ridiculed the bribery of the judicial ranks and other vices indicating specific persons. Novikov boldly entertained into the discussion with Catherine II, and that was forced to give answers to his satirical journal "Everyone". The difference was that the empress struggled with the same vices with the help of

why "smiling satire", oriented on humanity in general. Ultimately, victims defeat in a magazine controversy about the direction of satire, Catherine banned all the magazines Novikov.

Novikov, like other Russian enlighteners, believed that the distribution of advanced ideas could lead to the correction of all public vices. Therefore, after closing the magazines, Novikov moves from St. Petersburg to Moscow, where he takes a university typography for 10 years and creates a "typographic company", which has become more profitable. In the 1780s. About a third of all books in Russia were published in Novikov's printing house. In addition, he publishes the first Morning Light philosophical magazine in Russia, the newspapers "St. Petersburg scientists" and "Moscow Vedomosti". Novikov managed to organize a book trade in 16 cities of Russia, opened a library-reading library in Moscow, schools for allocations. In 1792, at the peak of his activities, Novikov was arrested and concluded in the Shlisselburg fortress.

At the same time, the left radical wing is formed in the public thought of Russia - the flow of noble revolutionism. His expressher became A.N. Radishchev, who expressed the belief that "autocracy is the most stable human nature." These ideas are penetrated by the Oda "Velost", which is the referee of which is the inevitable fall of "self-adjustment". However, the fame, and the torment he brought another work - "Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow"in which he tried to convey all the horror of serfdom in Russia. The book contained direct calls for the violent destruction of existing orders. It felt well and the power of the pre-war. It is not by chance that Catherine II stated that Radishchev - "Buntingman worse than Pugacheva." The Criminal Chamber sentenced him to the death penalty. True, Catherine replaced him by the execution of a ten-year-old reference to Siberia, where he was freed by Paul.

Theater and music. In Moscow, under Peter I, the theater was revived - comedy temper. Representations walked in a wooden building built on Red Square. The sister of the Tsar reformer Natalya Alekseevna was a real Teatralka. Thanks to its efforts in 1715, the first and free theater opened in St. Petersburg. Tsarevna composed the tragedies and comedies in Russian. In the 20-30s. XVIII century The professional theater was represented exclusively by the troupes of foreign actors, which periodically replaced each other on the court scene. Here, the tragedy of Cornel, Rasin, the comedy of Moliere, etc. was shludred with a successful success. This played a role in the formation of Russian theatrical art. Translation of theatrical plays successfully engaged in V.K. Trediakovsky. The ballet performances of the Italian opera were attracted by the Cadets of the Shuttle Corps, which served to the foundation of the first Russian ballet school in St. Petersburg (1738). The beginning of the domestic drama laid Sumarokov, published in 1747 his first tragedy of "Korev". Two years later, she was put on the stage of students of the Cadet Corps by order of Empress Elizabeth. In just three years, the Cadets played 32 performances, mainly on the plays of Sumaro. Following this, Russian plays are put by many amateur theaters not only in both capitals, but also in the province.

Formation professional Theater Starts from 1750, when in Yaroslavl merchant son Fedor Volkovovtheatrical troupe from local talents was organized. The Wolves assembled from the produces of the Wolves on its own project on the banks of the Volga Wooden building under the theater. Soon the news about him comes to Elizabeth. By that time, the Russian government had clearly understood the need for the existence of his own public theater: it was important for enlightenment and entertainment of society, and to maintain the international prestige of Russia. According to the name of the royal decree of Volkova and another 10 of his actors are brought to the capital. Here Sumarokov comes troupe. It includes Yaroslavl who were trained in the Shuttle

pust singing and first actresses scored by ads in the newspaper. Finally, on August 30, 1756, a decree was published on the establishment in St. Petersburg of the first

fessional "for the presentation of tragedies and comedies" theater, half

the name of the Russian theater. The first director was the playwright of Sumarokov, and the performance of the performances was carried out by the "First Russian Actor" F. Volkov - a talented director and organizer.

Increasing interest in theatrical spectacles determined the emergence of urban theaters in the province. The landowners create amateur fortress theaterswho played considerable importance in the history of the Russian Theater. At the turn of the centuries in Russia there were about 170 theaters in which serfs and musicians played. The theater of Count N.P. received the greatest fame. Sheremetyeva in his near Moscow estates - Kuskovo and Ostankino.

In the XVIII century Notable changes occur in music. From the middle of the century gets the spread of the guitar. A genre of chamber lyrical song - romance is born. Military music appears, executed by brass orchestras. Camera-instrumental, opera and symphonic music occurs. Many aristocrats are breeding home orchestras. The first professional composers (E.I. Fomin, D.S. Bortnian) create beautiful choral works, as well as national operas.

Architecture. The transition from one era in Russian architecture to another coincided with the border of two centuries. The principles of the architecture of the new time most fully embodied in the construction of a new capital - St. Petersburg. As directed by Peter, all construction activities were concentrated in the St. Petersburg City Office, renamed in 1723 in the office from the buildings. The city of Peter was created on completely new principles of urban planning, which had an ensemble character, who had a strict layout of streets, squares, administrative buildings and palaces.

Peter invites foreigners specialists. The first architect of St. Petersburg was Italian. Trezini, who came from Switzerland. King commissioned

it is designing and building the main objects of the new capital: Petropavlovsk Fortress and Cathedral (1712-1733) with a giant bell tower made at the request of Peter higher than the Bell Tower of Ivan the Great in the Moscow Kremlin, the building of the Twelve College (now the University), Alexander Nevsky Lavra, Palaces And houses on the Neva embankment for the king's associates. In addition, Peter ordered him to develop typical, or, as they said, "exemplary", projects of houses for three layers of citizens. Famous French architect J.-B. Leblon Peter instructed to develop a master plan for the construction of St. Petersburg, through which the city center was located on Vasilyevsky island. However, this project was not destined to be implemented.

After the death of the king reformer, the construction pace of the city is temporarily declining, although the Russian masters of M. Zemtsov, I. Korovov became famous for them. In 1737, at Anna Ivanovna, the Commission on St. Petersburg structure is established for the development of the master plan. The chapter is actually standing. Yeropkin. He went along the way that life pointed out - refused to the Petrovsky plan of the city center device on Vasilyevsky Island and made the Admiralty side in such a center. The planning of the center of Yeropkin laid the Roman three-beam system. Three "Perspectives" - Nevsky, Voznesenskaya and Average (Pea Street) - emerged from a single center - from the Admiralty Tower. They were in different levels crossed the chains of ring highways and areas. The project of Yeropkin and gave ultimately the capital is unique "strict, slim species." The life of the master ended tragic: in the summer of 1740, he was accused of an anti-state conspiracy and executed on the scaffold along with his comrades.

A new style is developing in Petrovsky, associated with the traditions of the XVII century and enriched with the ideas of Western European construction - Russian Baroque. The typical monument of the Russian Baroque - the building of the Twelve Colleges (1722-1742) D. Trezini - is characterized by four-tie roofs with a stepped ohongle and picturesque attic with volitions, pilasters simplified

schennogo warrant. Palace structures of this period are small, with a clearly pronounced central part and, as a rule, protruding lateral, with a modest decor of the facades: The Summer Palace of Peter I Arch. D. Trezini and A. Gotarata: Palace A. D. Menshikova Arch. J.-M. Fountain and Shedel; Big Peterhof Palace of Arch. I. Brownshtein, J.-B. Leblona, \u200b\u200bN. Micketty.

Barochko flourishing (from Ital. Barocco - fancy) falls on the years of the reign of Elizabeth (1741-1761). This style fell to the taste of the noble aristocracy with his puff, solemnity, festiveness. Baroque architecture is full of movement, speakers, it does not accept a smooth, smooth surface and straight lines. In addition, it is very colorful: the walls of the buildings were painted in blue, blue, yellow colors, architectural details - columns, pilasters, eaves, windows of windows - white, sculptural decorations were often golden.

The most striking representative of the new style in the middle of the century in Russia became F.-B. Rastrelli. His talent was most fully revealed in the palace construction - in lush compositions of facades, solemn anfilads of halls, their luxurious interior. In St. Petersburg, he is building the palaces of Elizabetan venels to Count Vorontsov on Sadovaya Street, Baron Stroganov on Nevsky Prospect, in Moscow - Prince Golitsyn. Architect rebel Grand Palace in Peterhof, Strelinsky erected. But from all the palaces erected by him, two - the Ekaterininsky Palace in the Tsarist village (1752-1757) and St. Petersburg Winter Palace (1754-1762), built, according to the Rastrelli himself "for the glory of the Russian". One of the outstanding discoveries of Rastrelli is complexes of palace front interiors filled with light, flowing through huge windows and reflected in the mirror pilasters and mirrors placed in common. Gilded carving and stucco, bronze and picturesque plafones complemented the magnificence of the spatial solution of the palace premises. To the great regret, the interior decoration of the Winter Palace was destroyed during the fire of 1837

The complex of the Smolny Monastery (1748-1758), which is characterized by the wealth of architectural forms, decorations, decorations, was the grand arch of the architecture. Rastrelli built it by order of Elizabeth, which was going to retire to his old age. However, the design of the architect was not fully implemented (for example, Rastrelli assumed to build a 140-meter height bell tower). After the death of the empress, the work had to stop. Catherine II, going to the throne, refused this expensive plan and more than 70 years old the cathedral stood unfinished. Only in the 30th of the XIX century. His architect V.P. Stasov.

IN at one time, S.I. worked with Rastrelli in St. Petersburg Chevakinsky, creating projects of the Sheremetyevsky Palace (Flange House), the palace of Shuvalov, warehouses of New Holland. For almost 15 years, he was an architect of the royal village. The best of his creation is Nikolsky Marine Cathedral.

IN the reign of Catherine II. (1762-1796) In Russia, a new artistic style -classicism was established (from Lat. Classicus - exemplary). Like Baroque, he rose from the Renaissance and has developed in European art in the XVII century. A new style, whose homeland is considered France, scolded its samples from antiquity. In the middle of the XVIII century. The excavations of the Roman G. Pompeii and classicism survived the new rise. Classicism in architecture is characterized by clarity and geometrism forms, the logic of planning, a combination of a wall with a warrant and a restrained decor.

The rapid statement of "enlightened style" (as its contemporaries was determined) in Russia had its reasons. Having received on the manifesto on the liberty of the nobility of 1762. Freedom from the obligatory service, some of the nobles returned to his estates, saw the poverty of his estates, and began to rebuild them. However, for the exquisite complex forms of Baroque, the nobles not only did not have material means, but all the qualified architects lacked. Cold Calculation dictated to them a refund to the ancient architecture - at the same time simple and extremely expressive. Strongly turned out to be a personal pretty

steka Catherine II. In one of the letters to the sculptor, Falcone she wrote: "I would like to have a project of an ancient home, as in antiquity."

Russian Classicism in the second half of the XVIII century. He experiences two stages: early classicism (60s - beginning of the 80s.) and strict classicism (mid 80s

- 90s.). The largest Russian architects, who began a new line in architecture, was A.F. Cockerins. His main creation is the building of the Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg. In the design of the facades of the Academy, the French master J.-B participated. Wallen-Demotam. He built a living courtyard and a small Hermitage in the capital. The final architect of the first period is the Italian architect Antonio Rinaldi, the builder of Oranienbaum and Gatchina, on the project of which in 1768-1785. on a million st. The so-called is being erected "Marble Palace" (for the facing of its facades, 32 varieties of specially selected marble were used). Catherine II presented the palace to his favorite of Count Orlov in gratitude for active participation in the "revolution of 1762", which led it to the Russian throne. Next to the marble palace in 1780-1788. A service corps was built (ARH. P.E. Egorov). Currently, in its walls is North-West Technical University.

Son of Petrovsky Cook-German Y. Felten, the architect of an old Hermitage, also became famous as a designer of the summer garden lattice (together with P.E. Egorov) and stone embankments of the Neva. By this time refers to the works. Bazhenova, first of all, his famous project of the Greater Kremlin Palace is complex according to plan, with a grand Ionian colonnade. In Moscow for projects. Kazakov built a Senate Buildings in the Kremlin, Golitsinskaya Hospital, Demidov House.

Strict classicism is presented primarily by the creations of I.E. Starov, Ch. Cameron, J. Kurengy. The most significant contribution to I.E. Starov introduced to the architecture of the manor, having developed its special classic type. The Tauride Palace (1783-1789), built for Favorite Ekaterina GA, was the best creation. Potemkin, who received the title "Tauride" in 1783 for

crimea connection. The main feature of the palace architecture is the ascetic simplicity and the severity of the facade contrast with the wealth and complexity of interiors. Designed for solemn receptions, the palace with its architecture and interiors admired contemporaries. Power, strict greatness are attached to an oldaries to their wonderful creation - the Troitsky Cathedral of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra, the tomb of Alexander Nevsky. Many future innovations were laid in the works of Ivan Egorovich. Art historian I. Grabar wrote that Starov "ahead of Russia for whole half a century."

Among foreign masters who worked in Russia during this period, the Scot Plant was allocated. Cameron. In the 1780s, being the court architect of Catherine II, he created a number of palace and park ensembles: a complex in the royal village (Cold baths with agate rooms and Cameronov Gallery) and the ensemble of Pavlovsk (Palace, Colonnade Apollo, the Temple of Friendship). Cameron first introduced a genuine Greek order to Russian architecture, while Russian classicism used the forms of Roman architecture in the interpretation of the Renaissance Archors.

The most striking expressant of strict classicism and the representative of the Italian school was J. Kurengy. He came to Russia already established by the master. Among the masterpieces created by him, in many respects defining the face of St. Petersburg, - the Hermitage Theater, the building of the appliance bank at the Sadovaya St., Building of the Academy of Sciences, Connogvardeysky Manege, Palaces and at home for nobility. It is impossible not to note his magnificent country palaces - English in Peterhof and Alexandrovsky in the royal village. The kingdom of the best construction of his life considered the Smolny Institute (1806-1808).

A peculiar flow of pseudo in the architecture of the XVIII century, presented, for example, by the Bazhenovo ensemble of the estate of Tsaritsyno near Moscow. It consisted of picturesquely located in the Palace and Palace Park. Only pavilions are preserved, bridges, apparel buildings connecting firing

chat and gear completion. In this ensemble, as it were, the fantasy masters on antique, medieval and old-Russian motives are combined.

Painting. Century and Catherine can be called a century the heyday of Russian portrait. The founders of the portrait genre are. Nikitin IA.M. Matveyev. The first broke with the traditions of Parsuna Ivan Nikitin, the son of the Moscow priest, whom Peter sent in the number of other retirees to learn paintings abroad for the government account. Returning home, Nikitin received the title of court painter and "Horpmaler of personal cases."

IN the artist created the gallery of his portraits to the mature period of his work. famous people The era (portraits of the S.G. Stroganova, G.I. Golovkin, Malorosi Outdoor Hetman). To the best works Nikitin belongs to the portrait of Peter on the mortal app.

Andrei Matveyev also learned painting from best masters in Holland.

In the 30s, he became one of the leading masters of Russian art. Large works of Matveyev - murals of palaces, churches and decorative decoration of a number of structures - not survived. Only the Master's painting of the master came to us: paired portraits of Golitsyn's spouses and "Self-portrait with his wife". The lyric spirituality of the autoportist distinguishes it from often the harsh works of Nikitin.

IN the middle of the century is the whole Pleiad of Russian artists - I. Vishnyakov, A. Antropov, I. Argunov, in whose portraits realistic trends are developing, the perception of the personality is complicated, the perception of the personality is complicated, further overcoming the frost and flatness inherent in Personne.

The opening in 1757, the Academy of Arts contributed to the increase in the professional skill of artists and the development of the genres system in Russian visual art: portrait, landscape, still life. In the 60-70s. In Russian art, classicism is approved, proclaiming the slogans of "imitation of Raphael" and "Return to Antiquity". According to the theory and canons of this direction the only "high calm" in painting was considered

in addition to the historical topics of the antique and biblical mythology, in addition to actually historical themes. The founder of the historic genre was A.P. Losenko, son of the peasant, one of the first academic "pensioners" of those who studied abroad, later taught at the Academy. His central work is the picture "Vladimir and Rogneda", the plot of which was taken from ancient Russian history. The historical topics wrote paintings G.I. Ugryumov, P.I. Sokolov, I.A. Akimov.

But the most powerful in the depth of the direction of painting remained a portrait that served mainly the need for nobility and nobility. The portrait of this time is characterized by the deepening of the realism of the image, the genre of the parade portrait is developing. Portrait painting reaches a heyday in the work of F.S. Rockotova, D.G. Levitsky and VL. Borovikovsky.

One of the best Russian painters F.S. Rockots took place from the fortress peasants of the princes of repneels, in adulthood received free and was enrolled in the Academy of Arts "according to verbal orders" I.I. Shuvalova. Soon he became a famous portraitist, received orders from many nobles and even from imperial family. His brushes belong to the portraits of Gregory Orlova, the Grand Prince Paul in childhood, two large portraits of Empress Ekaterina. In 1765, Rockots moved to Moscow, where in the forty years of work created the best works (portrait of the poet Maikova, A.P. Struj's friend of the artist, etc.). According to admission, Rockots are a magnificent master of an intimate portrait. According to the testimony of fans of his work, the artist "instantly traveled" the essence, the soul of the person depicted, and wrote "almost playing" and unusually quickly.

D.G. Levitsky, a contemporary Rockot, was the son of the Malorossiysk priest, who trained him asam painting. Another teacher became A. Antropov - together they worked in Kiev and Moscow. After receiving fame, Levitsky taught at the Academy of Arts, where the portrait class was led. He was with an equal success wrote the front and chamber portraits. He was posing dire

tor Academy Architect A.F. Kokorinov (for this work, Levitsky was awarded the title of academician), Philosopher D. Didro, Mining Player Proophyal Demidov, Enlightener N.I. Novikov and others. By order of Catherine II in the 70s, the artist created a series of portraits of pupils of the Smolny Institute of Noble Maiden. By order of the flagger, the Liberty is a large portrait of Ekaterina II - the legislation. Portrait-allegory, expressing the idea of \u200b\u200benlightened absolutism, had a huge success - afterwards the artist made several copies.

V.L. Borovikovskyborn in the family of the Cossack senior. Together with the Father and the brothers was engaged in an icon painting. The case turned his life - Catherine II during a trip to the south of Russia in 1787 he saw his paintings on which she was also depicted and Peter I. followed the highest decree - to go to St. Petersburg to the Academy of Arts. Very quickly, Borovikovsky becomes hardly a cumier of the Metropolitan Nobility. The best works are portraits M.I. Lopukhina (one of the most charming female images of Russian painting XVIII century), V.I. Arsenyeva, sisters of gagary and others - written in the style of sentimentalism. The artist created an innovative portrait of Catherine II (1794), not similar to a typical portrait of a monarch, on which the Empress is represented as a simple person. Borovikovsky depicted her strolling in the Tsarsko Selo Park with a dog.

The founders of genre paintings depicting the peasant life were serfs. These include M. Shibanov (paintings "Peasant Lunch", "Credit"), son Konya I.A. Eremeev, who participated in the storming of Bastille in Paris, the author of watercolors "singing blind people", "beggars", distinguished by severe truthfulness. In the last quarter of a century, independence of the landscape genre, whose hence of which in Russia became S.F. Shchedrin, mostly portraying parks.

In 1764, shortly after the completion of the construction of the Winter Palace, the first paintings were enrolled here, mainly masters of Dutch and Flemish

schools acquired by Catherine II in Berlin Denician Gotkovsky. From this period, the Hermitage time began his countdown (from Franz.- Ermitage - a privacy), which quickly becomes one of the centers of the country's artistic culture. However, until 1863, access to the museum was limited - permission to visit the Hermitage issued the Ministry of the courtyard.

Sculpture. In a new time, the sculpture was not easy to survive in Russian soil: the audience was not ready to accept it. At the end of the XVII century. Noble nobleman P.A. Tolstoy, for the first time, being abroad, so responded about the statues of the ancient gods and heroes: "... Rogging idols and a place for them only in hell." Peter I considered art as an important means of upbringing Russian people. Using the images of antique and biblical heroes and gods - Hercules, Samson, Mars, Minerva, the acts of the Tsar reformer and his associates were glorified. With Peter, more than 300 marble sculptures were brought to Russia from Western Europe, mainly Italian masters. The most famous among them is the famous "Venus Tavrichesky" - an outstanding work of ancient art, now stored in the Hermitage. Summer garden in St. Petersburg became the first Russian park, decorated with sculpture.

The founder of the Russian sculpture of the new time was Italian K. -b. Rastrelli, who came along with the Son, the future of the great architect, in 1716 to Russia. He creates the first Russian sculptural portraits who are inherent in both the vitality, psychologist of the images and the jewelery study of the smallest details: Busts of Peter I and A.D. Menshikova, Portrait of Anna Johnna with Arapchonk. K.-B. Rastrelli first began to create a monument to Peter I, but his work had not particularly happy fate. The equestrian monument in the style of classicism was cast in bronze after the death of the sculptor, and erected in St. Petersburg in front of the Mikhailovsky castle only in 1800.

French sculptor E.M. Falcone arrived in St. Petersburg at the age of fifty years at the invitation of Catherine II already known to the Paris Master: his work was decorated with royal palaces and parks. But genuine glory

the Great Master brought him one monument - the equestrian statue of Peter I, eating Pushkin in the poem "Bronze Horseman"who has become a symbol of St. Petersburg and the Russian Empire. The monumental statue of the rider, the powerful hand of the compressive reins of the horse raised in the rapid rust of the horse, personifies the growth of the power of Russia was cast from bronze (1768-1778). Petra's head made a student Falcone Maria Colllo. The footage of the sculpture is a giant granite block ("Thunder-stone") was found on the shore of the Gulf of Finland. In the pedestal in Russian and Latin, the inscription is mounted: "Peter the first - Catherine Two". The opening of the monument was held on August 7, 1782, but Falcone by then in the capital was no longer - four years before, he left for France, quarreling with his opponents.

In recent decades of the XVIII century. There is a whole constellation of the sculpture of the sculpture of the domestic school, among them the first one should be called F.I. Schubin, Lomonosov countryman. He left a large portrait gallery of famous persons: busts M.V. Lomonosov, commander P. Rumyantsevazadunaysky, I.I. Petsky, Paul I and many others. In 1790, Shubin finished the statue of Catherine II - legislation for the Tauride Palace. For this work, the master received the honorary title of professor. The secret of the popularity of the sculptor was that he knew how to portray Russian aristocrats exactly as they wanted to see themselves. The skill of Schubin is so virtuoso, peculiar, humanistically, that on the monument, erected over the grave of the brew, the words were carved: "... and under his hand the marble breathes ..."

Fame of his works conquered F.G. Gordeev, F.F. Shchedrin, I.L. Martos, I.P. Prokofiev. In the traditions of the classic sculpture, M. Kozlovsky, son of the fleet trumpeter. The highest achievements of this author should include an allegorical sculpture of Samson, tearing the mouth of a lion in Petrodvorets and a monument to A. V. Suvorov in St. Petersburg (1799-1801). In military armor, the commander combined elements of the ancient warrior equipment, and a medieval knight. Solemn, strict pedestal cylinder

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Ministry of Common and Vocational Education

Ural State College I.I. Polzunova

Culture of Russia in the XVII-XVIII centuries.

Performed Yakovleva Ksenia

PR-123 Group

Checked Yakimenko I.V.

Yekaterinburg 2011.

Introduction

1. Russian culture of the XVII century

1.1 School, Enlightenment and Scientific Knowledge

1.2 Literature

1.3 Architecture

1.4 Music and theater

2. Russian culture of the XVIII century

2.1 Enlightenment

2.2 Folklore and Literature

2.3 Architecture

Conclusion

application

Bibliography

Introduction

"The age of mind and enlightenment" - the great thinkers of XVII speak about their time and XVIII centuriesProsperators of new revolutionary ideas. In the history of world culture, these centuries entered as the era of large ideological and social and historical shifts, the most acute struggle with feudal monarchical and religious dogmatism. The spread of materialistic worldview and the approval of the spirit of freedom-lodging was bright reflected in philosophy, science, literature, in educational activities. After a long time of violent cultural isolation, due to three-year-old Mongolian conquest, as well as the influence of the Orthodox Church, agreed to protect Russia from the whole "heretical", "Western" (including education, morals, forms of cultural life), Russian art joins the path of pan-European development And gradually frees from the shackles of medieval scholasticism. It was the first century of the development of secular culture, the century of the decisive victory of the new, rationalistic worldview over the harsh, ascetic, dogma of religious morality. Mirskoye art acquires the right to public recognition and begins to play an increasingly important role in the system of civilian education, in the formation of new maintenance of the country's social life.

The relevance of this topic is that the XVII-XVIII century has become a turning point for Russian culture, the pace of its development has never been so fast, reforms are so comprehensive. Peter I and its policies of Catherine II brought our country from the state of stagnation, clearly demonstrated all the power and strength of our country, all the potential that was deeply buried under the age of conservatism. For contemporaries, these events are a vivid example of the limitless power of desire to drastically change the situation in the country for the minimum time, any chaos in the country can be overcome if attached to this maximum efforts and have clearly planned targets.

In this topic, I plan to talk about how Russian culture developed for two centuries.

The main goal of the work is to consider the culture of Russia of the XVII and XVIII century, study its features.

1. Russian culture of the XVII century.

1.1 School, Enlightenment and Scientific Knowledge

XVII century - Formation of the Russian nation. Culture departure from church traditions, giving it a secular, civilian nature. The desire for realism in art and painting. Development of education and typography. A person is developing painting. The theater appeared (court and school).

In the XVII century, the history of medieval Russian culture was completed and elements of the culture of the new time were born. Literacy rate in the XVII century. Significantly increased, in different layers it amounted to: among landlords - 65%; merchants - 96%; Posad people - about 40%; peasants - 15%; Streltsov, Pushkur, Cossacks - 1%.

In the XVII century Middle schools appeared in Moscow, where in. Languages \u200b\u200band some items associated with a wider nature of education (1621 - Lutheran School in German Sloboda; 1640 - e. - - private school Boyar F. Rtishchev for young nobles, where they were taught by Greek and Latin, rhetoric and philosophy; 1650 - a school in the Kremlin Miracle Monastery, open to the means of the Patriarchal Yard; 1664 - public school for learning the approach of the order of the mystery and others). Finally, in 1687, the Slavic-Greco-Latin Academy was opened in the Sacconoscope Monastery in Moscow - the Slavic-Greco-Latin Academy to prepare the highest clergy and public service officials. The first teachers here were brothers Lichuda - Greeks, who completed the Padowan University

In the XVII century Scientific knowledge retained in Russia mainly practical, applied. Intensification of trade caused an increase in applied mathematics needs, which led to the emergence of handwritten textbooks such as "County Counting Wisdom" - manuals on arithmetic, which could be used as a tutorial; From the first printed books in mathematics close to trade practice. It contained 50 pages of multiplication tables, which provided trading calculations in the amount of up to 10 thousand rubles. In trade practice, the instrumental account was used in the ordinary system, which was different from computing methods used in Western Europe. For this, the "device" was used with knuckles or beads strung on the rods fixed in the frame. Accumulation geometric knowledge It happened during the land work and in construction.

The relevant practical knowledge was transmitted more often in oral form ("Book of a Communist Party" - on the use of geometry in the measurement of land areas). Practical knowledge in the field of mechanics, accumulated earlier, was widely used in the XVII century, a variety of mechanisms were used (aquar wheels, gates, blocks, polyspars, screw wooden jacks, etc.).

Mechanical devices were distributed in the first Russian pavilion manuffs (milling water wheels led to the movement of the hammers, drilling machines, circular mechanical saw, lifting mechanisms, etc.). Many Russian plants of that time were equipped with an advanced technique for their time. In this regard, there was a need for manuals that summarized practical science and containing theoretical information on physics, chemistry, mechanics, and other sciences.

The first attempt to connect theory and practice was a handwritten "Charter of Rattaya, Cannon and Other Affairs" (1620).

In Russian medicine XVII century. There have been significant changes. People's healing continued to develop, folk healing agents ("Legs"), possessing rational medical skills, transferred them by inheritance. Handwritten "hospitals" and "trailies", generalizing the age-old experience of traditional medicine, were widely popular. At the same time, the foundations of state medicine were laid in Russia: the first pharmacies, hospitals opened. In 1682, Tsar Fedor Alekseevich ordered the pharmaceutical order to arrange two permanent "shopping" - hospitals for treating the full board "poor, scholars and old people ... serunel ranks that heavy wounds on public services Cheap ". In 1654, "School of Russian Drugs" was opened at the pharmacarial order with a learning date for 5-7 years. To continue the formation of some drugs sent to Universities of England, France, Italy. Upon returning to their homeland, who received the degree of doctors did not only be practical medicine, but also created the first scientific works on medicine (Stepan Kirillov, Peter Postnikov, etc.).

1.2 Literature

The 17th century, was the last century of chronicle of Rus. The "New Chronicler" describes events from the time of the reign of Ivan the Terrible, and before the end of the "Discharge." "New chronicler" clearly, concisely and logically justifies the rights of the house of Romanovs to the royal throne.

The main role in the literature of the 17th century, was occupied by the works of historical subjects. A feature of the books of the historical topics of the 17th century era was bright journalism. The biggest and most famous historical literary work of the 17th century - "The Troiny's Lady of Kelary - Sergeeva Lavra Abraham Palitsyn." In this work, the author tells his understanding of the troubled time, argues about the reasons for the "Discharge" and its events.

In Russian literature, the 17th century, manifests a large, lively interest in history. Historical compositions of a generalizing nature appear. In the 70s of the 17th century, the first historical book "Sinopsis" appeared (Review). Posted by her monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Innocent Gizel. Gizel's work told the history of Russia and Ukraine from the very beginning, from the moment of education Kievan Rus. In the 17-18th century, the book "Synopsis" was used as a textbook on Russian history.

It was in the literature of the 17th century, sometimes several valuable handwritten works. The book "Scythian stories", for the authorship of A.I. Lyslova describes the struggle of the Russian people, and Europeans with Scythians. The author carried Mongol-Tatars and Turks to Scythians. Labor Value Lyslova is that in the book, he skillfully tied the knowledge of Russian and European sources, making a fairly truthful and clear picture of what is happening.

The literature of the 17th century included not only historical narrations of distant passed. In this century, events took place that they deserve the attention of modern writers. "The story of the Azov Siege Sitting" tells about the Azov campaigns. The basis of the story served the capture of the Don Cossacks of the Turkish fortress. The author of this is remarkably not installed, but it is likely that this is the head of the military office Fedor Poroshin. That kind of mystery left the literature of the 17th century.

The books of moral content took their niche in the literature of the 17th century. The "Life of Saints" received great distribution. The autobiography of the ideologue of the Old Believers of Avvakum - "Life of the Avvakum Protopopa" was also very popular.

New genres for Russian literature are actively emerging in the literature of 17Vek. Satirical stories and book poetry appear. Subsequently, these genres occupied their own niche, in Russian literature.

1.3 Architecture

In the XVII century, communication with Western Europe It was reflected in Russia's life. The influence of the church on the worldview of people is weakening. The formation of community market relations was reflected in the growth of cities, their development at the expense of new Slobod. In the middle of the century, the number of cities reached 254.

Architecture in Russia XVII century. It is possible to divide into three stages: 20-30s. - a period of addition of a new style; 40-80s. - the heyday of the construction, the 90s. - a period of appeal to new ideas, forms, elements.

At the end of the XVII century. It is already more felt by the secular beginning. New types of civil society buildings are being developed. However, the traditions of Russian architecture, which have developed in the process of its centuries-old development, could not be completely interrupted. The national color is preserved, the architectural approach and fudge, a challenge of rigor and order. Nowhere in the world there is no such joyful and merry religious consciousness, such unusual church art, as in Moscow.

At the end of the XVII century. Ends the long stage of the ancient Russian culture. Since the beginning of the new century, the country will be active in the form of the West. But the creative approach to the new will lead to the creation of unique structures and in stone, and in the tree. Although the main building material remained a tree, but compared with the previous time, stone (brick) construction was obtained significantly greater development. New types have been used widely building materials: Multicolor tiles, curly brick, blonde parts.

Many buildings were built by masters of the order of stone affairs (formed at the end of the XVI century). TO outstanding works Wooden architecture refers to the royal palace in the village of Sel Kolomenskoye near Moscow, built in 1667-1678. It was a whole town with turrets, scaly roofs, halbs, porches with twisted "columns". Various buildings - choirs made in an individual manner, not similar to each other, were associated with each other transitions and numbered 270 rooms and 3000 windows. Contemporaries called him the "eighth miracle of the world."

Tent buildings prevailed in wooden church architecture. Language churches were also built. In general, wooden architecture experienced the opposite effect of stone architecture. Despite the attempt by Patriarch Nicon to prohibit the construction of stone tantle temples, this type became the predominant in church architecture. In Moscow, the church of Christmas in Putkach, the Church of the Trinity in Nicnics, in the Alekseev monastery in Uglich - "Wi-end" Assumption Church, having three tents, in the Trinity-Sergiev Monastery - Church of Zosima and Savvatiya, as well as temples in Vyazma, in the village of Island ( near Moscow), in Murom and Ustyug. They all differed, as a rule, rich architectural decoration and ornamental, giving the buildings to elegacity.

At the same time, under the influence of Nikon in the middle - the second half of the XVII century. The construction of a number of monumental buildings, made in the traditional style of previous periods and having a goal to show the power of the Church. Such is the majestic Resurrection Cathedral of the Moscow Novo-Jerusalem Monastery, for the construction of which the model of the temple was used over the "Coffin of the Lord" in Jerusalem - the main Christian shrine. Even earlier buildings of the Valdai Iversky Monastery. In the 70-80s, the ensemble of the buildings of the Rostov Metropolitan Yard is being built - Rostov Kremlin. The residential complex here was combined with the temple. All buildings surrounded massive walls with towers. Customers of churches were not only "Power Prejoy", but also parishioners - residents of Posalov and Sel. Therefore, they even talk about the landline in the architecture. The cult construction in Yaroslavl is characteristic of Yaroslavl, one of the major craftsmen and shopping centers. Examples of this: Temples of Ilya Prophet, John of Zlatoust, Nikola "Wet", the Grand Church of John the Forerunner in the Toll. Noteworthy church buildings and other cities: Kostroma, Romanov-Borisoglebsk.

At the end of the XVII century. In the temple architecture there is a new style - Naryshkinskoye (Moscow) Baroque. Its most significant monument is the Moscow Church of the Intercession in films, characterized by grace, impeccable proportions, using such decorative decorations, as columns, capitals, sinks, as well as their "bior biscution"; using only red and white colors.

Along with church in the XVII century. Significant civilian structures are being built. The Moscow Kremlin is exposed to a significant restructuring. The Kremlin towers are extended, the Spasskaya is built (in its present form), creating a parade entrance to the Kremlin. All towers appear tent inspired instead of the former four-tie roofs. All this gives the Moscow Kremlin a new appearance: his defense-serf its appearance is inferior to a solemn ensemble.

In the XVII century Receives further development of trade and industrial construction. So, the living room courtyards are built in the China City in Moscow and in Arkhangelsk. Arkhangelsk Seating courtyard, stretched along North Dvina at 400m, surrounded high stone walls with combat towers. Inside it was placed more than two hundred retail premises. The architecture is noticeable aspiration for realism, use folk traditionscoming from the depths of centuries.

1.4 Music and theater

Until the XVII century, there was no theater in Russia. Over the centuries, the theater replaced folk rituals - weddings, holidays, such as carnival facilities, a bond with the participation of omens. During these holidays, scomerculo performed - dancers, acrobats, musicians, rushes, puppetes and others. Later the folk theaters of the crochets with their repertoire appeared. The actors of these folk theaters (somoric - in Belarus, Kazykchi and Maskharaboza - in Uzbeks and Tajiks, Beriki - Georgians) ridiculed the power of the property, clergy, rich, sympathetically showed ordinary people. Presentations of the People's Theater were built on improvisation, included a pantomime, music, singing, dances, circus numbers. The performers used masks, makeup, costumes, butafory.

The truly theater appeared in the XVII century - the court and school theater. The emergence of the court theater was caused by the interest of the courtestiny for Western culture. This theater appeared in Moscow at Queen Alexei Mikhailovic. The first representation of the play "Artaxerksovo Action" took place on October 17, 1672. The king liked the idea that he watched him ten hours in a row. Other plays were put on biblical plots. Initially, the Court Theater did not have its premises, scenery and costumes were transferred from place to place. The first performances put Pastor Gregory from the German Sloboda, the actors were also ingenic. Later, they became forced to attract and train the Russian "Foci". In 1673, 26 residents of the Novomshenskaya Slobody were determined to the "comedy case", then their number increased. The salary was paid irregularly, but did not bother on scenery and costumes. The performances differed in great magnificity, sometimes accompanied by playing musical instruments and dancing. After the death of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, the Court Theater was closed, and the performances were resumed only under Peter. In addition to the court, in Russia in the XVII century there was a school theater with the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. The plays were written by teachers and put students on holidays. The plays used both gospel plots and everyday legends. They wrote in verses on the basis of monologues. In addition to real persons, allegorical characters were introduced. The emergence of court and school theaters has expanded the sphere of the spiritual life of the Russian society. Romantic dramas revealed the awakening of the national self-consciousness, they sounded liberation ideas, protest against social injustice, humiliation of human dignity. Development of drama in Russia went in other ways than in Western Europe. Russian classical dramaturgy grew on the basis of near-minded people's liberation movements. She is inherent in the militant democratism, deep humanism and the rising development line even at the time when Western European playwright went to break. Russian playwright began to fold in ancient period Russian culture - in folkore and folk games and rites associated with peasant labor and life (dance games, wedding rituals). Literary dramaturgy arose in Russia due to progressive reforms of Petrovsky time, which gave impetus to the development of Russian national culture. By the XVII century. Russian musical culture had sustainable centuries-old traditions. Like other fields of folk creativity, she was unnamed. There were local singing schools with their own features of the "branches". But the choral multipath dominated everywhere, so characteristic of Russian folk music. Folk songs were rich and genre diversity, and melodiousness, and deep expressiveness, with huge powertransmitting the most different psychological states man. Features of folk choral creativity were perceived in a considerable degree and church music.

russian Culture Worldview Enlightenment

2. Culture of Russia XVIII in.

2.1 Education

Petrovsky transformations affected the scope of education, education. Schools opened to train specialists: navigator, artillery, engineering in both capitals; Mountains - in the Urals; Diocesan and cyphira, garrison and admiralty - in the province. Moscow existed a school of foreign languages. In St. Petersburg founded the Marine Academy. Nobles sent to Germany and Netherlands, Italy and England for learning sciences.

Tutorials, textbooks, dictionaries, buckwar were published. Basics of mathematical sciences expressed L.F. Magnitsky in his "arithmetic" (first edition - 1707). "Vedomosti", the first printed newspaper in Russia, could buy everyone. They introduced a civil font, simpler and clear, and the Church Slavonic font was used only in the liturgical books. Arabic figures changed old letter notation.

In the middle - the second half of the century competent people became more and more. By the beginning of the XIX century. There were 550 educational institutions with 62 thousand students. It was a step forward. But Russia has greatly lagged behind many European countries. For example, in France there were up to 8 thousand schools (1794). The term of study was from three to five years. He studied on the "arithmetic" L. Magnitsky, "Grammar" M. Pochtskoy, "First Teachings of the Rings" F. Prokopovich, Azboks, Character, Psaltry. Among students of secondary schools were children of peasants and artisans, masters and soldiers, sailors. Special soldiers' schools existed - for children soldiers who continued the traditions of the Timph Schools of Peter I. To train the noble opportunities, there were more - private guest houses, gentle hulls (land, sea, artillery, engineering), Institute of Noble Maiden (Smolny Institute in St. Petersburg). In 66 spiritual seminaries and schools studied the children of the Orthodox clergy. Special schools operated: mountain, medical, nursing, intertwine, commercial and others, just about two dozen.

In 1725, the Academy of Sciences appeared in St. Petersburg, with it - University and Gymnasium. In 1755, founded, for the aspiration of I.I. Shuvalova and M.V. Lomonosov, Moscow University. The university has released a large number of specialists in various sectors of knowledge, many large scientists have come out of them. In 1757, the Academy of Arts began training. At the beginning of 1762, the emperor Peter III He called him to St. Petersburg, and he headed the office of the structure of houses and parks. In this position he contributed to the decoration of Northern Palmyra - a monument to Peter the great work of Falcone, a summer garden lattice, one of Nevsky bridges and granite embankments appeared in the capital. The welling of Catherine II, whose mother, at one time, presented Bezzky, brought him huge wealth and boss on a number of establishments - the Academy of Arts, the Ground Shankhetsky Cadet Corps and, most importantly, educational houses in Moscow and St. Petersburg, the Smolny Institute ("by the educational society of noble maidens ").

It is necessary to soberly assess the results of the development of education in Russia in the XVIII century. Noble Russia He had the Academy of Sciences, University, Gymnasium and other educational institutions, and the Peasant and Master People of the country remained illiterate. School reform of 1786, so widely advertised by the Government of Catherine II, was people only by name, and in fact wearing a purely class character. We must not forget that the ideas of "enlightenment" were the "tsarism's motto in Europe."

2.2 Folklore and literature

Literature XVIII century. distinguishes a wide reflection of features new era: Increasing the power of the Russian state, expanding the acquaintance of Russian people with Western European countries, the formation of new spiritual qualities, and above all pride in Russian land. Petrovsky's literature was freed from religious influence, it began to set questions from a political, historical, domestic and personal nature, to interpret them in a progressive spirit, corresponding to the main trends of the era. Folk creativity began the XVIII century. also reflected the characteristics of the time.

In the literature of those years notable phenomenon were a story. They are quite closely connected with folklore, most of all with fairy tales. A very popular "story about the Russian sailor Vasily Kariotsk" narrated about the adventures of the Russian man who fell after the shipwreck on an unknown island. Other type "Tale of Tsearevich Yarropole". In it, the most noteworthy of the influence of the Bogatyr motifs of the epics: So, Yaropol beats in a fight with Turkish gigan, and the fight usually proceeds as in the eponymies: the hero in multiple fights the enemy wins, takes his heart with a liver.

Literature of the XVIII century - Literature of Enlightenment. Her first stage is represented by Chanatera, Tredianakovsky and Lomonosov. In his scientific activities and literary work, they joined the experience of foreign science and art with the experience of Russian folk art. Kantemir used not only antique forms and imagery, but also style, and the language of folk poetry. Even more widely addressed the Russian folk art of Lomonosov. He grew up in the Northern Russian village, where many genres of folklore were told, including the epics. In his scientific works, "Russian grammar", "rhetoric", "ancient Russian history" - Lomonosov repeatedly indicates the value of Russian folk art, leads examples from songs, proverbs and sayings; Sorry that the works of Russian folklore were not recorded little. His scientific essays gave impetus to collecting and studying national poetic creativity. He studied Russian and Slavic mythology, customs and rites, works of various genres of folklore. All this made it possible to show the wealth of Russian culture, the originality of the Russian language, the talent of the Russian people. Lomonosov's creativity researchers consider him the founder of the historical school in Russian folkloristic.

Undoubtedly, under the influence of Lomonosov from the middle of the XVIII century. It begins the collection and publication of the works of people's eating creativity, and then all the wider use of its use in the literature. N.I. often appealed to proverbs Novikov. Having become a tenant of the printing house of Moscow University in 1779, Novikov issued a number of collections of folklore works: "The new and complete collection of Russian songs" (1780--1781), a collection of proverbs, compiled by A. Barsov, a collection of fairy tales, compiled by V. Levshin. An important merit of Novikova was the widespread use of the works of folklore in a social, anti-refreshing satire. Proverbs and fairy tales helped him create sharp accusatory works. Often, he embedded in the mouth of the peasants themselves caustic statements addressed to serfshirts. The ideological content of Novikov's works is extremely rich. The writer widely engulfed Russian life, especially pronounced the position of the peasants, performing on the protection of their interests. The creativity of Novikov had a great influence on Russian writers, helped them to evaluate the importance of Russian folk art.

At the end of the XVIII century. Russian educational realism, which was characterized by the named writers, was further developed. Writers even more often and still skillfully began to use folklore in their works, everything, more subordinating to its goals that had not only progressive, but also a revolutionary character. The basis of this process was the exacerbation of social contradictions, peasant unrest and uprisings. The huge ideological value of Russian folklore for literature has revealed. With particular force, this was manifested in the work of I.A. Krylova and A.N. Radishchev. In the works of these writers, the quality of literature, which is called humans is most pronounced. The scope of folk unrest and the influence of the ideas of the French bourgeois revolution of the end of the XVIII century. contributed to a new understanding of folk art. It brightly affected the works of A.N. Radishcheva, who saw a reflection of moods and aspirations of a serf peasantry, his hopeless position in folklore. Inclosure. However, in general, appeal to folklore at the end of the XVIII century. There was still limited framework. It consisted most often in direct use of populatory stories and images, in their poetic processing, respectively, the style of a certain author and its individual manner.

2.3 Architecture

The Russian architecture of the 18th century is connected mainly with three architectural directions. This is primarily baroque, rococo and classicism.

Baroque is a direction in art, the main features of which is pomp, contrast, as well as combining reality and illusions. Baroque Wizard, left a large mark in the Russian architecture of the 18th century. The surnames of Trezini, Sothet, Muchti, Dustov, Rastrelli, Chevansky and Ukhtomsky remained forever in the history of Russian architecture.

It is worth noting that the ensembles of the Winter Palace, the Palace of the Stroganov, Smolny Monastery, the Tsarist village and the design of Peterhof are masterpieces of the work of the Baroque style.

Rococo is an architectural style that arose by combining baroque and classicism. This style carries refinement and halanery and is characteristic mainly for interior design.

In the 18th century, in Russian architecture, the formation of a new phenomenon is "Russian classicism". Russian Classicism is the direction of architecture for which simplicity and rigor is characteristic, as well as rationality. A large number of buildings in the style of Russian classicism was in Moscow. Pashkov's house, Tsaritsyn Bazhov complex, Senate Buildings, House of Prince Golitsyn and many other buildings. Today, these buildings are monuments of the Russian architecture of the 18th century. Foreign masters invited to Russian service not only helped create new arts, but also were teachers of Russian people. Another equally important way to obtain vocational training was the parcel of Russian masters for study in Western Europe. So many Russian masters received high training in France, Holland, Italy, England, Germany. It was at this stage that Russian art entered into a closer contact with the style trends developed in the Western European art of the new time, through which he had to go through his way and to him.

In 1757, the opening of the Academy of three noble arts took place in St. Petersburg. The Academy becomes the legislator of artistic ideas, and an educational institution. In its environment, the new generation of artists, who later glorified Russia for the whole world, was also architects I. Starov, V. Bazhenov, Sculptors F. Shubin, F. Gordeev, Artists A. Losenko, D. Levitsky, and others.

Russian art, as we will see, continuing in the XVIII century to develop at the new European beginnings, still remained expressed by the national phenomenon with their specific person, and this fact itself is very significant. Very and very many outstanding Russian and foreign architects worked for the benefit of Russia, it is their efforts on the beauty of cities and the greatness of buildings, Russia in the XVIII stood in one row with Western European countries.

Conclusion

Having studied the culture of Russia of the 17-18th century, the following conclusions can be drawn. Cultural life of the XVII century, as, however, and all public life This time was as it were for a crossroads.

Some researchers come to the conclusion that at this time occurs cultural revolution, meaning the transition from ancient Russian culture to the culture of "New Time" But in fact, only the prerequisites arose, the revolution occurred in XVIII in Petra I.

The culture of the people is imbued with a bright sense of optimism, it is a life-affirming in his spirit. Unlimited selfless love for native land, High moral nobility, firm faith in the victory of good over evil, justice over false and deception and at the same time deep poetry, inexhaustible humor - all this is characteristic of the folk art of the feudal era. To one degree or another, in different forms, these wonderful qualities of folk art pierced the road not only in literature, but architecture, painting.

There is no doubt that the dominance of religious worldview was involved in the development of Russian culture. The church played a certain role in the dissemination of literacy, and in the development of architecture and painting. But at the same time, the church jealously defended his dogmas and hostilely treated new phenomena in culture, being a brake in the development of sciences, technical knowledge, literature, art.

And, nevertheless, Russian culture has evolved not isolated from world culture, enriched by its achievements and contribute to its development. Russian art, continuing in the XVIII century to develop on the new European beginnings, remained expressed by the national phenomenon with its specific person, and this fact itself is very significant.

However, in contrast to the previous period of time, the nobility had a great influence, and the dominance of foreigners was continued.

During this period, Russian science and education continued to develop, although the serfdom and autocracy strongly prevented this. Still the Tsarist government had to take some measures to spread education - this was required by the era.

In the development of Russia's education of the second half of the XVIII century. Two tendencies are clearly traced. The first of them was manifested in a significant expansion of the network of educational institutions; The second was expressed in strengthening the influence of the principle of vocabulary for the formulation of enlightenment.

The development of science is closely connected with the spread of education. The need for the knowledge of the laws of nature and increased interest in the study of the country's resources was caused by economic needs.

Cultural achievements of the 17th and 18th century entered the circle of irritation of the artistic values \u200b\u200bof our country, they are part of our national wealth, fame and greatness of our people.

Bibliography

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