The role of the Renaissance in the history of Europe. The era of renaissance - the beginning of a cultural upheaval in Europe
№ 14 The era of the revival of Western Europe. Revival Is a period in the cultural and ideological development of the countries of Western and Central Europe. The Renaissance was most clearly manifested in Italy, tk. in Italy there was no single state (with the exception of the south). The main form of political existence - small city-states with a republican form of government, feudal lords merged with bankers, wealthy merchants and industrialists. Therefore, in Italy, feudalism in its full forms never took shape. The atmosphere of rivalry between cities put in the first place not origin, but personal ability and wealth. There was a need not only for energetic and enterprising people, but also for educated ones. Therefore, a humanistic direction appears in education and worldview. The Renaissance is usually divided into Early (beginning 14 - end 15) and High (end 15 - First quarter 16.). The greatest artists of Italy belong to this era - Leonardo da Vinci (1452 - 1519), Michelangelo Buonarroti(1475 -1564) and Raphael Santi(1483 - 1520). This division is applicable directly to Italy and, although the Renaissance reached its peak in the Apennine Peninsula, its phenomenon spread to other parts of Europe. Similar processes north of the Alps are called « Northern Renaissance ». Similar processes took place in France and in the cities of Germany. Medieval people and people of modern times were looking for their ideals in the past. During the Middle Ages, people believed that they continue to live in. The Roman Empire continued, and the cultural tradition: Latin, the study of Roman literature, the difference was felt only in the religious sphere. But in the Renaissance, the view of antiquity changed, from which they saw something fundamentally different from the Middle Ages, mainly the absence of the all-encompassing power of the church, spiritual freedom, an attitude towards man as the center of the universe. It is these ideas that have become central in the worldview of humanists. Ideals, so consonant with new development trends, gave rise to the desire to resurrect antiquity in full, and it was Italy with its huge number of Roman antiquities that became fertile ground for this. The revival manifested itself and went down in history as a period of extraordinary rise of art. If earlier works of art served church interests, that is, they were cult objects, now works are created to satisfy aesthetic needs. Humanists believed that life should be enjoyable and medieval monastic asceticism was rejected by them. Such Italian writers and poets played a huge role in the formation of the ideology of humanism, as Dante Alighieri (1265 - 1321), Francesco Petrarca (1304 - 1374), Giovanni Boccaccio(1313 - 1375). Actually, they, especially Petrarch, were the founders of both Renaissance literature and humanism itself. Humanists perceived their era as a time of prosperity, happiness and beauty. But this does not mean that she was devoid of contradictions. The main one was that it remained the ideology of the elite; new ideas did not penetrate the masses. And the humanists themselves sometimes had a pessimistic mood. Fear of the future, disillusionment with human nature, the impossibility of achieving an ideal in the social order permeate the moods of many Renaissance figures. Perhaps most revealing in this sense was the tense expectation doomsday in 1500. The revival laid the foundations of a new European culture, a new European secular worldview, and a new European independent personality.
N.A.Figurovsky, "Outline of the general history of chemistry. From ancient times to the beginning of the 19th century." Publishing house "Science", Moscow, 1969
OCR site
THE RENAISSANCE IN EUROPE
The development of crafts and trade, the rise of the role of cities, as well as political events in Western Europe in the XII and XIII centuries. entailed significant changes in the entire way of life of European peoples. In the XVI century. in Europe, the unification of small feudal principalities began, large independent states arose (England, France and Spain). Several republics and principalities were formed on the territory of modern Germany and Italy.
In the process of the merger of small feudal possessions, the tendency of the united states to emancipate from the political power of the papacy was clearly manifested. In the XIII century. the Roman Catholic Church was a huge pan-European "state over states". Popes actively intervened in the management of European states, installed and crowned kings, removed kings and even emperors they disliked. Through its system of centralized spiritual governance, the Vatican siphoned enormous funds from the countries of Western Europe.
The shameless greed of the higher clergy of the Roman Catholic Church, the luxurious life of popes and cardinals caused spontaneous protests among believers and lower clergy. In various European countries, a movement of the so-called reformation (changes in church government) arose, a number of uprisings broke out against the dominance of popes (indulgences), bishops and monasteries. At the beginning of the 15th century, the famous uprising against the Vatican rule began in the Czech Republic under the leadership of Jan Hus, a prominent preacher, professor and rector of the University of Prague (founded by Charles IV in 1349).
In an atmosphere of general indignation at the greed of the Roman Catholic clergy in various European countries, doubts began to be openly expressed not only about the legitimacy of the secular power of the popes, but also about the fairness of certain religious dogmas and scholastic philosophy that constitute the ideological foundations of Catholicism. Dissatisfaction with religious scholasticism, the search for new ways to solve worldview issues significantly revived the mental life of Europe.
In the educated environment of European society, an interest arose in the works of ancient Greek and Roman "pagan" philosophers and writers, whose works were banned by the church. In the rich Italian republics - Florence, Venice, Genoa, as well as in Rome itself, circles of lovers of antique literature were formed. Numerous copies of the works of ancient authors have appeared. Interest in ancient examples of literary creativity soon spread to the field of art, architecture and philosophy. The Renaissance era of ancient literature, art and architecture (Renaissance) began in Europe, which marked the beginning of a new era in social history.
On the basis of unsurpassed examples of literary creativity of ancient Greek and Roman authors, a new direction arose in oratory and literature, the so-called humanism (humanitas - "human perfection"). Writers and poets of a new type appeared, such as Dante (1265-1321), Petrarch (1304-1374), Boccaccio (1313-1375), etc.
In the future, new trends were especially pronounced in art and architecture. The return to the samples of ancient builders and sculptors inspired the great artists of the Renaissance - Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Michelangelo (1475-1564), Raphael (1483-1520), Durer (1471-1528), Titian (1477-1576) and others. Wonderful architectural structures appeared, especially in Italy.
The most important achievement in the history of culture during the Renaissance was the invention of printing (1440). Until the middle of the 15th century. only handwritten books were in use. They circulated on a small number of lists and were very expensive. The introduction of printing made it possible to reproduce books in large numbers, which greatly contributed to the dissemination of knowledge.
During the Renaissance, great geographical discoveries were made. At the end of the XIII century. Marco Polo (1254-1324) traveled through the countries of Middle Asia to China, and spent more than 20 years in Asian countries. The description of his journey had a great influence on subsequent generations of travel geographers who were looking for a way to fabulous India. In the XIV and XV centuries. the Portuguese and Spaniards undertook many long-distance sea expeditions. Vasco da Gama (1469-1524) at the end of the 15th century, having rounded Africa from the south, opened the sea route to India, simultaneously making many important geographical discoveries. Christopher Columbus (1450-1506) at the end of the 15th century. crossed the Atlantic Ocean and discovered the West Indies and then South America. Magellan (1480-1521) made the first sea voyage around the world.
In the field of natural sciences, the Renaissance was marked by the appearance of a number of innovative scientists who, for the first time, with their works, shook the foundations of peripatetic and scholastic philosophy. In 1542, Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) overthrew the old, supported by the authority of the church, Ptolemy's geocentric system (II century), and developed a new heliocentric system. The teachings of Copernicus were further developed in the discoveries of Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) and Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), who laid the foundations of theoretical astronomy. Noticeable successes in this era were achieved by mechanics, mathematics and other sciences.
The driving forces behind the major scientific discoveries and achievements of the Renaissance were profound transformations in the nature and scale of production. Already in the XV century. the process of transition from handicraft methods of production, characteristic of the era of feudalism, to manufacture began. This process, which marked the beginning of the capitalist system of production, caused profound socio-economic changes in the life of society.
All new economic, political and social phenomena of the Renaissance led to the formation of a new bourgeois worldview, which rejected the religious scholasticism of the past centuries. The emergence of elements of a new worldview had a beneficial effect on the development of natural sciences and, in particular, chemistry. Describing this important period in the history of culture and science, F. Engels wrote that it was an era “in need of titans and which gave birth to titans in terms of the power of thought, passion and character, versatility and learning. The people who founded the modern rule of the bourgeoisie were anything but bourgeois-limited people. "
One of the greatest representatives of the science and art of the Renaissance was the Italian Leonardo da Vinci. Being a remarkable mechanic, mathematician, design engineer, anatomist and artist, Leonardo da Vinci was also interested in some issues of chemistry. For example, he himself invented and prepared paints for his paintings. His views reflected the new trends of the Renaissance. Here is what Leonardo da Vinci writes about the role of air in the combustion process: “Fire-element continuously destroys the air that partially feeds it. And he would be in contact with emptiness if the inflowing air did not come to the rescue, filling it. "
Such innovative ideas, as will be seen, were characteristic of many chemists of the Renaissance.
Renaissance is the greatest progressive revolution in human history.
At the beginning of the 15th century, tremendous changes in life and culture took place in Italy. The townspeople, merchants and artisans of Italy since the 12th century have waged a heroic struggle against feudal dependence. Developing trade and production, the townspeople gradually grew rich, threw off the power of the feudal lords and organized free city-states. These free Italian cities were becoming very powerful. Their citizens were proud of their conquests. The enormous wealth of the independent Italian cities became the reason for their bright flourishing. The Italian bourgeoisie looked at the world with different eyes, they firmly believed in themselves, in their strength. They were alien to striving for suffering, humility, rejection of all earthly joys that had been preached to them until now. Respect for the earthly man, who enjoys the joys of life, grew. People began to actively relate to life, eagerly study the world, admire its beauty. During this period, various sciences were born, art developed.
Italy has preserved many monuments of art of ancient Rome, therefore the antique era again began to be revered as a model, antique art has become an object of worship. The imitation of antiquity gave rise to the name of this period in art - Revival , which in French means "Renaissance". Of course, this was not an exact repetition of ancient art, it was already a new art, but based on antique samples.
The Italian Renaissance is divided into three stages : 13th -15th century -Pre-Renaissance (Proto-Renaissance, Trecento) ; 15th century- Early Renaissance (Quattrocento ); late 15th - early 16th century-High Renaissance (Cinquecento).
Archaeological excavations were carried out throughout Italy, looking for ancient monuments. The newly discovered statues, coins, dishes, weapons, frescoes were carefully preserved and collected in museums specially created for this. Artists learned from these samples of antiquity, painted them from nature.
High renaissance
From the end of the 15th century, Italy began to experience difficult times in economic and political matters. And in this difficult period for the country, the short golden age of the Italian Renaissance begins. High Renaissance, highest point flourishing of Italian art... The art of this time was especially imbued with the belief in the creative powers of man, in the fact that man can do anything. Typical paintings of the High Renaissance are strictly balanced in construction. Characters are often grouped together, the landscape, as if drowning in a blue distance, serves as a background for them or is seen through the window.
During the High Renaissance, three great masters worked in Italy, whose work reflects in its entirety this wonderful era. This is - Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael Santi and Michelangelo Buonarotti.
Venetian Renaissance
Painting in Venice developed in its own special way. The humid atmosphere of this city, built on islands, was detrimental to fresco painting - therefore, here, earlier than anywhere else in Italy, artists mastered the technique of oil painting, invented in the Netherlands. It was comfortable and provided the artist with more varied possibilities. A festive mood, a special warm golden color - these are the typical features inherent in the work of the painters of this city.
Northern Renaissance Art
In the countries located north of Italy - in the Netherlands, Germany, France - in the 15th - 16th centuries a culture called the Northern Renaissance developed.
Like the Italian, the Northern Renaissance marks a new stage in the development of European culture, higher than in the Middle Ages. As in Italy, the discovery of the world and man in art takes place here, man becomes the highest value in art. But if in Italy the Renaissance began with the revival of ancient ideals and the rejection of medieval views, then in the North the culture of the 15th - 16th centuries is still very closely connected with the Middle Ages. Unlike Italian art, which strives to be perfect, Nordic art is closer to real, real life. Italian art is festive, joyful, and the art of the Northern Renaissance moresevere, restrained... In Italy, the art of the Renaissance reached a high flowering in all forms - architecture, sculpture, painting, and in the North, new views on art manifested themselves only in painting and graphics. The architecture and sculpture remained largely Gothic.
Religion continued to occupy the main place in the life of society. But if earlier God was far from man, and man was considered as an insignificant grain of sand, now man, like God, becomes a part of the Universe.
At the turn of the 15th -16th centuries in the countries of Western Europe there is a deep interest in sciences, they are developing very rapidly. During this period, violent disputes occur between scientists in Northern Europe and religious leaders - whether the country should be free or feudal, with the domination of the Catholic Church. These disputes grew into a popular movement - Reformation ("cleansing of faith"). In Germany at this time the Peasants' War was taking place, in the Netherlands a fierce struggle was waged for liberation from Spanish rule. In such historical conditions, the art of the Northern Renaissance took shape.
Northern Renaissance originated in The Netherlands.
The first shoots of the new Renaissance art in the Netherlands can be seen in book literature. A great contribution to the development of book miniatures in the Netherlands was made by brothers Hubert and Jan van Eycke. Jan van Eyck considered the founder of oil painting. And the artist Pieter Bruegel considered truly popular, "Muzhitsky" as it was called. Since the art of the Renaissance fell on the period of the anti-Spanish movement in the Netherlands, this could not but be reflected in the works of Dutch artists: J. Bosch, P. Brueghel the Elder and others.
At the turn of the 14-15th centuries Germany was even more fragmented than in previous periods, which contributed to the vitality of the feudal foundations in it.
The development of German cities lagged behind even in relation to the Netherlands, and the German Renaissance took shape in comparison with the Italian one a whole century later. The 16th century for Germany begins with a powerful revolutionary movement of the peasantry, chivalry and burghers against the princely power and Roman Catholicism. But this movement was defeated by 1525, but the time of the peasant war was a period of high spiritual upsurge and flourishing of German humanism, secular sciences, and German culture. During this period, such great brilliant artists as A. Dürer, G.B. Green, M. Grunewald, G. Holbein Jr., A. Altdofer, L. Cranach St... and many others.
The beginning of the Renaissance belongs to the middle of the 15th. France , in the early stages still closely associated with Gothic art. French artists became familiar with Italian art, and from the end of the 15th century a decisive break with the Gothic tradition begins. The French Renaissance bore the character of a court culture.
As in the Netherlands, realistic tendencies are observed primarily in miniatures of both theological and secular books. The first major painter of the French Renaissance - Jean Fouquet, court painter of Charles VII and Louis XI. In the 16th century, the court of Francis I, an art connoisseur and patron of Leonardo, became the center of French culture. ! 6th century - the heyday of the French portrait. In this genre, he was especially famous Jean Clouet, court painter Francis I.
- < Back
- Further >
Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below
Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.
Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/
Introduction
Conclusion
Introduction
The Renaissance, or Renaissance, is an era in the history of European culture that replaced the culture of the Middle Ages and preceded the culture of the New Age. Approximate chronological framework of the era: the beginning of the XIV - the last quarter of the XVI century A distinctive feature of the Renaissance is the secular nature of culture and its anthropocentrism (that is, interest, first of all, in man and his activities). There is an interest in ancient culture, there is a kind of its "revival" - and this is how the term appeared.
The term Renaissance is found in Italian humanists, for example, in Giorgio Vasari. In its modern meaning, the term was introduced into everyday life by the 19th century French historian Jules Michelet. Nowadays, the term Renaissance has become a metaphor for cultural flourishing: for example, the Carolingian Renaissance or the 12th century Renaissance.
The culture of the Renaissance arose and formed earlier than other countries in Italy, reaching a brilliant flourishing here in the first decades of the 16th century. Its origin in the XIV century. and rapid progressive development in the 15th century. were due to the historical characteristics of the country.
The formation of a new culture has become a matter, first of all, of the humanistic intelligentsia, which in its origin and social status is very motley and heterogeneous. Although the ideas put forward by humanists received a growing public resonance over time, on the whole it is difficult to associate them with the ideology of one or another stratum of society, including characterizing them as "bourgeois" or "early bourgeois". With all the ideological diversity in the culture of the Italian Renaissance, however, the nucleus of a single new worldview was formed, the specific features of which determine its “renaissance”. Ultimately, it was generated by the new needs of life itself, as well as the task of achieving a higher level of education for a fairly wide stratum of society. The internal laws of the development of culture itself led to the advancement of this important educational goal. In Italy, its implementation has been aided by the diverse educational structure prevailing in the cities.
The purpose of this essay is to look at the life of Italy during the Renaissance.
1. Progressive changes in the economy, politics, culture of the XII-XIII centuries.
The culture of the Renaissance arose and formed earlier than other countries in Italy, reaching a brilliant flourishing here in the first decades of the 16th century. Its origin in the XIV century. and rapid progressive development in the 15th century. were due to the historical characteristics of the country. One of the most urbanized regions of Europe - Italy in the XIV - XV centuries. reached a very high level of medieval civilization in comparison with other regions of Europe. Free Italian city-states in the context of political particularism gained economic power, relying on advanced forms of commercial, industrial and financial entrepreneurship, monopoly positions in foreign markets and extensive lending of European rulers and nobility. The independent cities of Northern and Central Italy, rich and prosperous, extremely active economically and politically, became the main base for the formation of a new, Renaissance culture, secular in its general orientation.
Of no less importance was the fact that in Italy the feudal nobility, clearly defined for the estates, did not develop, found themselves involved in the stormy city life and closely linked in their political and economic activities with the merchant elite and the wealthy layer of the population, the boundaries between which were blurred. This feature of Italian society contributed to the creation of a special climate in the city-state: the freedom of full citizens, their equality before the law, valor and enterprise, which opened the way to social and economic prosperity, were valued and cultivated here. In the urban environment, new features of the world outlook and self-awareness of various strata of society were more clearly manifested. A typical example is business books, family chronicles, memoirs, letters from representatives of prominent families in Florence, Venice, and other cities - the so-called merchant literature clearly reflected the mentality of both the patrician and the populan environment. The very existence of this kind of literature, testifying to the high level of education of the leading social stratum of the city, is indicative.
Among the prerequisites for the emergence and development of Renaissance culture in Italy, one of the most important was a wide educational system - from primary and secondary schools supported by the city commune, home education and vocational training in the shops of merchants and artisans to numerous universities. Unlike other countries, they early found themselves open to teaching disciplines that expanded the framework of traditional liberal arts education. Finally, a significant role in Italy was played by the especially close historical connection of its culture with the Roman civilization - one should not forget about the numerous ancient monuments preserved in the country. Restoring continuity with ancient culture - the task put forward by the leaders of the Renaissance, it was not by chance that it originated and for a long time was most fully carried out precisely in Italy, for which the culture of Ancient Rome was an important part of its own past. A new attitude towards the ancient heritage here became the problem of reviving the tradition of the ancestors.
The ideological origins of the Renaissance are found already in the medieval culture of Europe in the 12th - 13th centuries. They can be seen in the Provencal lyrics and poetry of the vagantes, in urban satire and short stories, in the philosophy of the Chartres school, Pierre Abelard, John of Salisbury. Secular motives characteristic of chivalric and urban literature, attempts to free philosophy from dogmatism, like a number of other features of medieval culture - all this paved the way for the culture of the Renaissance with its unconventional, although remaining within the framework of the Christian worldview, ideas about the world and man. ... In Italy, new trends were outlined in the poetry of the "sweet style", the art of the Proto-Renaissance, the work of Dante Alighieri. "Divine Comedy" is a poetical and philosophical generalization of the medieval worldview, like other works of the great Florentine (treatises "Feast" and "Monarchy", the poetic cycle "New Life"), contain many ideas that were perceived and developed later by humanists. This is a new understanding of nobility as a result of the individual's efforts, and not a sign of gentility, and large-scale images of strong personalities in the Divine Comedy, and an appeal to the ancient heritage as an important source of knowledge.
The worldview orientations of the Renaissance culture of Italy were also influenced by the psychological climate of city life, changes in the mentality of various strata of society. In this respect, the urban environment was by no means homogeneous. In business circles, the sobriety of practical thinking, business rationalism, high quality professional knowledge, breadth of outlook and education were valued. The principles of corporate consciousness gradually gave way to individualistic tendencies. Along with the growing apology for enrichment, the concepts of group and personal honor and respect for the laws persisted, although the cult of communal freedoms, typical of Italian cities, had already begun to combine with attempts to justify deceiving the state in favor of the family and clan when paying taxes. New maxims began to prevail in the secular-oriented merchant morality - the ideal of human activity, energetic personal efforts, without which it was impossible to achieve professional success, and this, step by step, led away from the church ascetic ethics, which sharply condemned money-grubbing and the desire for accumulation.
Among the nobility, especially among the old aristocratic families, traditional ideas about feudal virtues were firmly preserved, family honor was highly valued, but new trends appeared here, not without the influence of the merchant-popolan environment. As a rule, commercial and financial entrepreneurship, which gave rise to practical rationalism, prudence, and a new attitude to wealth, entered into the everyday life of the nobility, who had already moved to the city for a long time. The desire of the nobles to play a leading role in urban politics intensified not only personal ambitions in the sphere of power, but also patriotic sentiments - serving the state in the administrative field pushed military prowess into the background.
The bulk of the replenishment - middle-class merchants and guild masters, as well as representatives of traditional intellectual professions (clergy, theologians, lawyers, doctors) stood up for the preservation of social peace and the prosperity of the city of the state, drawing closer in this part to the "business people". Here the corporatist tradition was stronger.
In a grassroots urban environment with an increasing contrast between poverty and wealth, outbreaks of social protest that sometimes reached uprisings often arose, their ideas about justice, sinfulness and retribution were formed, far from the moods of not only the ruling elite of society, but sometimes from the mentality of the craft environment of the populace. The peasantry, on the whole personally free and quite mobile, in the specific conditions of Italian feudalism was closely connected with the city and joined the ranks of its unskilled workers. This environment was the most conservative, it was in it that the traditions of folk medieval culture were firmly preserved, which had a certain impact on the culture of the Renaissance.
2. The transition from theocentric to anthropological understanding of the world
The Renaissance era meant a crisis of the feudal system and the emergence of capitalism in Europe. For philosophy, this time became a kind of transition period - from theocentrism to rationalism, to the study of the world by means of scientific knowledge. The process of secularization began as a tendency for the gradual liberation of society from the spiritual dictate of religion and the church and the formation of a secular culture. The development of philosophy during the Renaissance was determined by the influence of a number of factors. First, the influence of the advanced ancient philosophical thought (Socrates, Epicurus, etc.). Second, interaction with the systematic science that was emerging in that era. And, thirdly, the growing influence of the established capitalist system on public consciousness, culture and morality of society.
Within the framework of this great era, a deep breakdown of the theological picture of the world (theocentrism) that had developed in the Middle Ages became obvious. The greatest contribution to this turn was made by the natural philosophy and natural science of the Renaissance. However, the position of science was not yet strengthened, and religion was still very influential. A peculiar form of struggle and compromise between them was pantheism ("all-divine"), which affirmed the idea of the dissolution of God in nature and in all its things. “God is inside nature, not outside it” - this thesis became dominant in the Renaissance.
Anthropocentrism was a very important characteristic of the new era. It is a type of philosophizing, the essence of which is the perception of man as a kind of center of the world, the "crown" of the evolution of nature. Humanism, an ideological trend that originated in Italian cities, which proclaimed a person as the highest value and goal of society and formed the concept of personality, became an expression of such a world outlook. The spirit of humanistic anthropocentrism permeated not only philosophy, but the entire culture of the Renaissance, especially literature and fine arts. In fact, it was a philosophical and artistic era, where the cult of man, his spirituality and beauty, freedom and greatness prevailed. The revival emphasized not only the freedom of man, but also the idea of all-round (universal) development by him of his inclinations and abilities (essential forces), his creative vocation in the world.
The emergence of capitalism aroused a great interest of philosophy in socio-political problems, in the topic of the state. At this time, utopian socialism was formed, which put forward the ideal of a new and just society (communism), where a person could develop freely, comprehensively and harmoniously.
3. Renaissance humanism and the problem of unique individuality
A very important feature of the philosophy and culture of the Renaissance was humanistic anthropocentrism, i.e. the perception of a person as a kind of center of the world and the highest value. It is known that the object of attention for the philosophy of the ancient world was, first of all, the Cosmos, and in the Middle Ages - God. On the contrary, the Renaissance era focused its main attention on Man, his essence and nature, the meaning of existence and vocation in the world. It is not surprising that it was at this time that humanism was fully formed - an ideological trend, the supporters of which declared man as the highest value and goal of society. To the question "Is man great or insignificant?" they answered with confidence: "Not only great, but omnipotent." Humanism meant the revival ("renaissance") of the ancient tradition (Socrates, Epicurus, etc.), a respectful attitude towards a person, protection of his intrinsic value, honor and dignity, the right to freedom and happiness.
Humanism as a trend was formed in the bosom of fiction as a critical reaction to the dogmas of religion, to the doctrine of sinfulness and lack of freedom of man. Italian writers restored and promoted the work of those ancient philosophers and poets (Socrates, Epicurus, Virgil, Horace) who defended the ideas of the high value of man and his freedom. Ancient culture was presented to humanists as a model of perfection, undeservedly rejected in the era of the "thousand-year night" (Middle Ages). Florence became the center of the Italian humanist movement. Dante Alighieri (1265-1321), "the last poet of the Middle Ages" and at the same time "the first poet of modern times", was born and worked in this city. In his "Divine Comedy" Dante put forward a thesis, bold for its time, that man was by nature created not only for posthumous life, but also for earthly life. And in this poem Dante rejected asceticism and preached a reasonable way of life. The heroes of the poem are living people, seeking and suffering, creating their own destiny. The author of the work emphasized that the outcome of human life depends on the actions of the person himself, on his ability to choose a reasonable path and not leave it. Over time, the theme of freedom as a person's self-determination became one of the most important in the Italian humanism of the Renaissance.
The poet and philosopher Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374), the founder of lyric poetry as a new genre in European literature, is considered the ancestor of the humanist movement in Italy. Like most people of his time, Petrarch was a believer. However, he was very critical of the scholasticism of the Middle Ages, seeing in it pseudo-scholarship and far-fetched formulas. In his works, Petrarch defended the human right to earthly aspirations, to love other people. He tried to give his philosophy a moral direction and for this he restored the ethical teaching of Socrates. In man, he was primarily interested in the theme of love, which he regarded as the highest expression of the spiritual principle. Human life is always a constant search for oneself in this world, which is often associated with excruciating suffering, with mental anxiety.
The formation of Italian humanism was also promoted by Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), who spoke in his work "The Decameron" from the standpoint of criticizing the clergy and supporting the advanced mentality of the urban population. Humanistic motives also took place in the works of other authors of that time. These include Colluccio Salutati, who was at one time the chancellor of the Florentine Republic. Leonardo Bruni translated into Latin a number of works by Plato and Aristotle, Plutarch and Demosthenes. In Italy, the names of statesman and philosopher Gianozzo Manetti, painter Leon Batista Albert and minister of the church Marsilio Ficino were widely known.
The most prominent figure among the Italian humanists was the University of Rome professor Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457). He proved to be an active supporter of the teachings of the ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus. Valla was an opponent of the secular power of the popes, a sharp critic of asceticism and the monasticism associated with it. In his opinion, scholasticism is an idle and irrational occupation. The Italian humanist tried to restore the true teachings of Epicurus, which were banned in the Middle Ages. According to him, Epicureanism most fully affirms the idea of the full value of human life, preaches sensual activity and bodily well-being. In his treatise "On pleasure" the scientist argued that the basic law of human nature is pleasure as a genuine pleasure of the soul and body. He proclaimed: "Long live faithful and constant pleasures at any age and for any gender!" Lorenzo Valla even believed that pleasures should continue in the posthumous life of a person. His teaching was positive, since it restored the natural right of man to the fullness of his existence and individual happiness in life.
Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494) also stood on the positions of humanistic anthropocentrism. In his "Speech on the Dignity of Man", he emphasized the most important property of man - his freedom. According to Pico, man represents the fourth world, along with the sublunary, heavenly and heavenly. On earth, man is a great being who has a mind and soul. The spirit of a person determines the freedom of his will and, therefore, the entire path of life. Having created man, God allegedly put in him the "seeds" of a diverse life, which gives him the opportunity to choose: either to rise to the level of perfect angels, or to descend to an animal existence. Freedom is an invaluable gift of God that makes up the inner essence of a person. This freedom gives a person the opportunity to be active and "rise above the heavens", to become the creator of his own destiny.
4. Internal contradictions in the culture of the Renaissance
The culture of the Renaissance is famous for an amazing abundance of bright talents, many achievements in various fields of creativity, masterpieces of art and literature, which belong to the highest creations of mankind. Closely connected with the social, political and other aspects of the life of the era, it is distinguished by its exceptional versatility and is not devoid of contradictions, which are manifested not only in the specifics of the general trends in its development, but also in the individual contribution to the culture of many of its leaders from different European countries.
The Renaissance epoch occupies a special place in the history of Europe. The culture of this time is connected by thousands of threads with changes in the life of society, its complication and contradictions in the conditions of the beginning of the transition from the Middle Ages to the early modern times. The traditional system of feudal social relations is going through a crisis and is being transformed, new forms of market economy are emerging. The established social structures, the position and self-consciousness of various strata of the urban and rural population are changing. It is no coincidence that the XVI century. was marked by large-scale social conflicts and movements in many European countries. The tension and contradictions in the social life of the era increased in connection with the formation of a new type of statehood - an absolute monarchy, as well as as a result of interfaith struggle caused by the Reformation and the subsequent Counter-Reformation.
The development of the Renaissance in individual countries and regions of Europe proceeded with varying intensity and unequal rates, but it was able to give European culture a certain unity: with a variety of national characteristics, the culture of different countries has similar features. This was of great importance, since in social terms, the Renaissance culture was not homogeneous: it was nourished, ideologically and materially, by various social groups - the middle strata of the city and its top, part of the clergy, nobility, aristocracy. The social milieu in which this culture spread was even wider. Ultimately, it affected all sectors of society, from the royal court to the urban lower class, although, of course, to different degrees. Formed in a relatively narrow circle of the new intelligentsia, it did not become elite in its general ideological orientation and understanding of the tasks of culture itself. No wonder the Renaissance was nourished by humanistic ideas, which in the process of its evolution developed into a holistic worldview. It organically intertwined the foundations of the Christian doctrine, pagan wisdom and secular approaches in various fields of knowledge. The humanists focused on the "earthly kingdom of man", the image of the creator of his own destiny. Anthropocentrism became a characteristic feature of the Renaissance culture. She affirmed the greatness of man, the strength of his mind and will, a high purpose in the world. She questioned the principle of class division of society: she demanded to value a person according to his personal merits and merits, and not according to birth or wealth.
Conclusion
The Renaissance was a period of organic synthesis of philosophical thought, science and art. At this time, large and bright thinkers lived and worked. The Renaissance proclaimed the spirit of freedom and happiness of man, his high vocation in the world - to be a creator and creator, an accomplice of the divine creation of the world. It was, according to F. Engels, "the era of giants" - "by the power of thought, passion and character", the era of the greatest progressive turn in the history of human civilization.
Within the framework of this great era, a deep breakdown in the theological picture of the world that had developed in the Middle Ages became obvious. The greatest contribution to this turn was made by the natural philosophy and natural science of the Renaissance. However, the position of science was not yet strengthened, and religion was still very influential. A peculiar form of struggle and compromise between them was pantheism ("all-divine"), which affirmed the idea of the dissolution of God in nature and in all its things.
During the Renaissance, secular life comes to the fore, human activity in this world, for the sake of this world, to achieve human happiness in this life, on Earth.
The worldview of the people of the Renaissance has a pronounced humanistic character. In this worldview, man is interpreted as a free being, the creator of himself and the world around him. The thinkers of the Renaissance, naturally, could not be atheists or materialists.
During the Renaissance, any activity was perceived differently than in antiquity or in the Middle Ages. The ancient Greeks did not value physical labor and even art highly. The elite approach to human activity prevailed, the highest form of which was declared to be theoretical quest - reflection and contemplation, because it was they who introduced a person to that which is eternal, to the very essence of the Cosmos, while material activity plunges into the passing world of opinions. Christianity considered the highest form of activity that leads to the "salvation" of the soul - prayer, performing liturgical rituals, reading the Holy Scriptures. In general, all these types of activity were passive, contemplative.
In the Renaissance, material and sensory activity, including creative, takes on a kind of sacred character. In the course of it, a person does not simply satisfy his earthly needs; realizes the new world, beauty, creates the highest thing in the world - himself.
List of used literature
culture renaissance theocentric
1.L.M. Bragin "Socio-ethical views of the Italian humanists" (II half of the 15th century) Publishing house of Moscow State University, 1983
2. From the history of culture of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Publishing house "Science", M. 1976
3. Art of the early Renaissance. - M .: Art, 1980
4. History of Art: Renaissance. - M .: AST, 2003
5. Yaylenko E.V. Italian Renaissance. - M .: OLMA-PRESS, 2005
Posted on Allbest.ru
...Similar documents
Progressive changes in economics, politics, culture during the Renaissance. The transition from a theocentric to an anthropological understanding of the world. The ideas of humanism in the works of Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, Mirandola. Internal contradictions in the culture of the Renaissance.
abstract added on 01/08/2010
Renaissance (Renaissance) - a period in the cultural and ideological development of the countries of Western and Central Europe. Development of the Renaissance culture in Spain. Plateresque architectural style. El Escorial is a gem of Spanish Renaissance architecture. Renaissance painting.
presentation added on 05/26/2014
Characteristics of the culture of the Western European Renaissance. The transition from a theocentric to an anthropocentric understanding of the world. The theme of revival humanism. Description of the internal contradictions of the Renaissance. The intrinsic value of the human person in art.
test, added 10/09/2016
Cultural and historical Renaissance (Renaissance). Renaissance as an "Italian phenomenon" at the first stage of development. Sources of the Renaissance culture: classical classical heritage and medieval culture. Achievements of the Renaissance culture in various fields.
abstract, added 06/12/2010
Ideological and aesthetic foundations of the Renaissance in European culture. Historical conditions and socio-political reasons for the formation of the Renaissance culture of Ukraine during the times of the Principality of Lithuania and the Commonwealth. Brotherhoods and their role in the development of culture.
test, added 07/25/2013
Landmarks and principles of the cultural development of Europe. General characteristics of the Renaissance culture as a time of spiritual upsurge and flourishing of all spheres of human activity. Development of humanitarian knowledge, individualism and anthropocentrism of the Renaissance.
test, added 04/01/2012
Economic, political and spiritual prerequisites for the emergence of the Renaissance culture. The transition from a theocentric to an anthropocentric understanding of the world. Renaissance humanism and the problem of unique individuality. Internal contradictions in culture.
test, added 02/01/2012
Revival (Renaissance) as an era in the history of European culture that replaced the culture of the Middle Ages, its general characteristics. The canons of culture and art, the socio-political system of that time. Species-genre features of literature and music.
presentation added on 12/02/2013
Renaissance as an era in the history of European culture in the 13th-16th centuries. Deification of every blade of grass in the northern landscape, copying the smallest details of everyday life in the work of Dutch artists. Works by Jan van Eyck, Hieronymus Bosch and Pieter Bruegel.
abstract, added 05/03/2015
A study by the main explorers of the Renaissance. Comparison of their methods. The Renaissance is a revolutionary upheaval in history, its impact on all spheres of culture. The emergence of humanism, a new concept of personality, a change in the status of the artist. Renaissance in Russia.
FRANCHESKO PETRARCA (1304-1374) - the founder of the Italian Renaissance, a great poet and thinker, a politician. Coming from the popolan family of Florence, he spent many years in Avignon under the papal curia, and the rest of his life in Italy. Petrarch traveled a lot in Europe, was close to popes and sovereigns. His political goals: reform of the church, end of wars, unity of Italy. Petrarch was a connoisseur of ancient philosophy, he was credited with collecting manuscripts of ancient authors, textual processing of them.
Petrarch developed humanistic ideas not only in his ingenious, innovative poetry, but also in Latin prose works - treatises, numerous letters, including his main epistolary, "The Book of Everyday Deeds."
It is customary to say about Francesco Petrarch that he is stronger than anyone - at least in his time - focused on himself. That he was not only the first "individualist" of the modern era, but much more than that - a strikingly complete egocentric.
In the works of the thinker, the anthropocentrism of Renaissance humanism replaced the theocentric systems of the Middle Ages. Petrarch's "discovery of man" made it possible for a deeper understanding of man in science, literature, and art.
LEONARDO DA VINCI (1454-1519) - brilliant Italian artist, sculptor, scientist, engineer. Born in Anchiano, near the village of Vinci; his father was a notary who moved to Florence in 1469. The first teacher of Leonardo was Andrea Verrocchio.
Leonardo's interest in man and nature speaks of his close connection with humanistic culture. He considered the creative abilities of man to be limitless. Leonardo was one of the first to substantiate the idea of the cognizability of the world through reason and sensations, which has become firmly established in the ideas of the 16th century thinkers. He himself said about himself: "I would have comprehended all the secrets, getting to the bottom!"
Leonardo's research dealt with a wide range of problems in mathematics, physics, astronomy, botany, and other sciences. His numerous inventions were based on a deep study of nature, the laws of its development. He was also an innovator in the theory of painting. The highest manifestation of creativity Leonardo saw in the activity of an artist who scientifically comprehends the world and reproduces on canvas. The thinker's contribution to the Renaissance aesthetics can be judged by his "Book of Painting". He was the embodiment of the "universal man" created by the Renaissance.
NICCOLO MACCHIAVELI (1469-1527) - Italian thinker, diplomat, historian.
Florentine, came from an ancient but impoverished patrician family. For 14 years he served as Secretary of the Council of Ten, in charge of military and foreign affairs of the Florentine Republic. After the restoration in Florence, the Medici power was removed from government activities. In 1513-1520 he was in exile. This period includes the creation of the most significant works of Machiavelli - "Sovereign", "Discourse on the first decade of Titus Livy", "History of Florence", which won him European fame. The political ideal of Machiavelli is the Roman Republic, in which he saw the embodiment of the idea of a strong state, whose people "are much superior to sovereigns both in virtue and in glory." ("Discourse on the first decade of Titus Livy").
The ideas of N. Machiavelli had a very significant impact on the development of political doctrines.
THOMAS MOP (1478-1535) - English humanist, writer, statesman.
Born into the family of a London lawyer, he was educated at Oxford University, where he joined the circle of Oxford humanists. Under Henry VIII, he held a number of high government posts. Very important for the formation and development of Mohr as a humanist was his meeting and friendship with Erasmus of Rotterdam. He was accused of high treason and executed on July 6, 1535.
The most famous work of Thomas More is "Utopia", which reflected the author's passion for ancient Greek literature and philosophy, and the influence of Christian thought, in particular the treatise of Augustine "On the City of God", as well as an ideological connection with Erasmus of Rotterdam, whose humanistic ideal was in is close to Moore in many ways. His ideas had a strong impact on public thought.
ERASM OF ROTTERDAM (1469-1536) - one of the most prominent representatives of European humanism and the most versatile of the then scientists.
Erasmus, the illegitimate son of a poor parish priest, spent his youth in the Augustinian monastery, which he managed to leave in 1493. He studied with great enthusiasm the works of Italian humanists and scientific literature, became the largest expert in the Greek and Latin languages.
The most famous work of Erasmus is the satire "Praise of Folly" (1509), created by him on the model of Lucian, which was written in just one week in the house of Thomas More. Erasmus of Rotterdam tried to synthesize the cultural traditions of antiquity and early Christianity. He believed in the natural kindness of man, wanted people to be guided by the requirements of reason; among the spiritual values of Erasmus - freedom of spirit, temperance, education, simplicity.
THOMAS MUNZER (circa 1490-1525) - German theologian and ideologist of the early Reformation and the Peasant War of 1524-1526 in Germany.
The son of a craftsman, Münzer was educated at the Universities of Leipzig and Frankfurt an der Oder, from where he graduated with a bachelor's degree in theology, and became a preacher. Influenced by mystics, Anabaptists and Hussites. In the early years of the Reformation, Müntzer was an adherent and supporter of Luther. Then he developed his teaching on the people's Reformation.
In Müntzer's understanding, the main tasks of the Reformation were not to establish a new church dogma or a new form of religiosity, but to proclaim an imminent socio-political upheaval to be carried out by a mass of peasants and urban poor. Thomas Munzer strove for a republic of equal citizens, in which people would take care of justice and law to prevail.
For Müntzer, Holy Scripture was subject to free interpretation in the context of contemporary events - an interpretation directly addressing the spiritual experience of the reader.
Thomas Munzer was captured after the defeat of the rebels in an unequal battle on May 15, 1525 and, after brutal torture, was executed.
Conclusion
Based on the first chapter, we can conclude that the main features of the Renaissance culture are:
Antoropocentrism,
Humanism,
Modification of the medieval Christian tradition,
A special relationship to antiquity - the revival of ancient monuments and ancient philosophy,
A new attitude towards the world.
As for humanism, its leaders emphasized the value of the human person, the independence of the dignity of the individual from origin and birth, the ability of a person to constantly improve and confidence in his unlimited possibilities.
The Reformation played an extremely important role in the formation of world civilization and culture in general. She contributed to the process of the emergence of a person in bourgeois society - an autonomous individual with freedom of moral choice, independent and responsible in his beliefs and actions, thus paving the way for the idea of human rights. The carriers of Protestant ideas expressed a new, bourgeois, type of personality with a new attitude to the world.
Renaissance figures left us with a vast artistic legacy that spans philosophy, art, political science, history, literature, natural sciences and many other areas. They made numerous discoveries that are a huge contribution to the development of world culture.
Thus, the Renaissance is a local in scale, but global in consequences, a phenomenon that had a strong impact on the development of modern Western civilization and culture with its achievements: an efficient market economy, civil society, a democratic rule of law, a civilized way of life, high spiritual culture.
[Francis Bacon's doctrine of "idols"
Idols and false concepts, which have already captivated the human mind and have become deeply entrenched in it, so dominate the mind of people that they make it difficult for the truth to enter, but even if the entrance is allowed and granted, they will again block the path at the very renewal of sciences and will hinder it. unless the people, warned, arm themselves against them as much as possible.
There are four kinds of idols that plague the minds of people. In order to study them, we will give them names. Let's call the first kind the idols of the family, the second - the idols of the cave, the third - the idols of the square and the fourth - the idols of the theater.
The construction of concepts and axioms through true induction is undoubtedly a genuine means to suppress and banish idols. But the indication of idols is also very useful. The doctrine of idols is the same for the interpretation of nature as the doctrine of the refutation of sophisms is for the generally accepted dialectics.
Idols of the kind find a basis in the very nature of man, in a tribe or in the very race of people, for it is false to assert that a person's feelings are the measure of things. On the contrary, all perceptions of both the senses and the mind rest on the analogy of man, and not on the analogy of the world. The human mind is likened to an uneven mirror, which, mixing its nature with the nature of things, reflects things in a distorted and disfigured form.
Idols of the cave the essence of the delusion of the individual. After all, each, in addition to the errors inherent in the human race, has its own special cave, which weakens and distorts the light of nature. This happens either from the special innate properties of each, or from upbringing and conversations with others, or from reading books and from the authorities whom one bows to, or due to the difference in impressions, depending on whether their souls are biased and predisposed, or souls cold-blooded and calm, or for other reasons. So the spirit of a person, depending on how it is located in individual people, is a changeable, unstable and, as it were, accidental thing. That is why Heraclitus correctly said that people seek knowledge in small worlds, and not in a large, or general, world.
There are also idols, which occur, as it were, due to the mutual connection and community of people. We call these idols, meaning the communication and fellowship of people that give rise to them, idols of the square... People are united by speech. The words are established in accordance with the understanding of the crowd. Therefore, the bad and absurd establishment of words is surprisingly besetting the mind. The definitions and explanations with which learned people are accustomed to arm themselves and protect themselves do not in any way help the cause. Words directly violate the mind, confuse everything and lead people to empty and countless arguments and interpretations.
Finally, there are idols that have taken over the souls of people from different tenets of philosophy, as well as from the perverse laws of evidence. We call them idols of the theater, for we believe that, as there are accepted or invented philosophical systems, as many comedies have been staged and played, representing fictional and artificial worlds. We say this not only about the philosophical systems that exist now or existed once, since fairy tales of this kind could be folded and composed in many; after all, in general, very different errors have almost the same reasons. At the same time, we mean here not only general philosophical teachings, but also numerous principles and axioms of sciences, which received strength as a result of tradition, faith and carelessness. However, each of these types of idols should be said in more detail and definitely separately, in order to warn the mind of man.
The human mind, by virtue of its inclination, easily assumes more order and uniformity in things than it finds them. And while much in nature is singular and has absolutely no resemblance to itself, he comes up with parallels, correspondences and relationships that do not exist. Hence the rumors that everything in heaven moves in perfect circles \ ... \
The mind of man attracts everything for support and agreement with what he once accepted, whether because it is an object of common faith, or because he likes it. Whatever the strength and number of evidence to the contrary, the mind either ignores them, or neglects them, or rejects and rejects them by discriminating with a great and pernicious bias, so that the credibility of those earlier conclusions remains intact. And therefore, the one who, when they showed him the images of those who had survived the shipwreck by making a vow, were shown to him on display in the temple and at the same time sought an answer whether he now recognizes the power of the gods, asked in turn: “Where are the images of those who perished after made a vow? " This is the basis "of almost all superstitions - in astrology, in dreams, in beliefs, in predictions and the like. People who delight themselves with this kind of vanity celebrate the event that has come true, and ignore the one that deceived, although the latter happens much more often. This evil penetrates even deeper into philosophy and science. In them that which is once recognized infects and subjugates the rest, even if the latter was much better and more solid. In addition, even if these partiality and vanity that we indicated did not take place, nevertheless, the human mind is constantly delusional that it is more amenable to positive arguments than negative ones, while in fairness it should have the same attitude to both; even more, in the construction of all true axioms, the negative argument has great power.
The human mind is most affected by that which can immediately and suddenly strike it; this is what usually excites and fills the imagination. The rest he imperceptibly transforms, imagining him to be the same as the little that owns his mind. To turn to distant and heterogeneous arguments, by means of which the axioms are tested, as if on fire, the mind is generally not inclined and incapable until harsh laws and strong government dictate it.
The human mind is greedy. He can neither stop, nor remain at rest, but is torn further and further. But in vain! Therefore, thought is not able to grasp the limit and end of the world, but always, as it were, of necessity, represents something that exists even further. \ ... \ This impotence of the mind leads to much more harmful results in the disclosure of causes, for although the most general principles in nature should exist as they were found, and in reality do not have causes, yet the human mind, not knowing rest , and here looking for a better known one. And so, striving for what is next, he returns to what is closer to him, namely to the final causes, which have their source rather the nature of man than the nature of the Universe, and, proceeding from this source, they have miraculously distorted philosophy. But lightly and ignorantly, the one who seeks the reasons for the universal, as well as the one who does not seek the reasons of the inferior and subordinate, philosophizes.
The human mind is not dry light, it is sprinkled with will and passions, and this gives rise to what everyone desires in science. A person rather believes in the truth of what he prefers. He rejects the difficult - because there is no patience to continue research; sober - for it captivates hope; the highest in nature because of superstition; the light of experience - because of arrogance and contempt for it, so that it does not appear that the mind sinks into the base and fragile; paradoxes are due to conventional wisdom. In an infinite number of ways, sometimes imperceptible, passions stain and spoil the mind.
But to the greatest extent, the confusion and delusion of the human mind comes from inertia, inconsistency and deception of the senses, for what excites feelings is preferred to what does not immediately excite feelings, even if this latter was better. Therefore, contemplation stops when the gaze stops, so that the observation of invisible things is insufficient or absent altogether. Therefore, the entire movement of spirits trapped in tangible bodies remains hidden and inaccessible to people. Likewise, more subtle transformations remain hidden in parts of solids - what is commonly called change, when in fact it is the movement of the smallest particles. Meanwhile, without research and clarification of these two things, which we said, nothing significant in nature can be achieved in practical terms. Further, the very nature of air and all bodies that surpass air in subtlety (and there are many of them) is almost unknown. Feeling itself is weak and deluded, and the tools designed to strengthen and sharpen the senses are of little value. Most of all, the interpretation of nature is achieved through observations in appropriate, expediently staged experiments. Here feeling judges only experience, while experience judges nature and the thing itself.
The human mind by its nature is directed towards the abstract and the fluid thinks as constant. But it's better to cut nature into pieces than abstract... This was done by the school of Democritus, which penetrated nature deeper than others. It is necessary to study more matter, its internal state and change of state, pure action and the law of action or motion, for forms are the invention of the human soul, unless these laws of action are called forms.
These are the idols we call idols of the clan... They arise either from the uniformity of the substance of the human spirit, or from its bias, or from its limitation, or from its relentless movement, or from the suggestion of passions, or from the inability of the senses, or from the way of perception.
Idols of the cave come from the inherent properties of both soul and body, as well as from upbringing, from habits and accidents. Although this kind of idols is diverse and numerous, we will nevertheless point out those of them that require the most caution and are most capable of seducing and defiling the mind.
People love either those special sciences and theories, the authors and inventors of which they consider themselves, or those in which they have invested the most work and to which they are most accustomed. If people of this kind devote themselves to philosophy and general theories, then under the influence of their previous designs they distort and spoil them. \ ... \
The biggest and, as it were, a fundamental difference of minds in relation to philosophy and sciences is as follows. Some minds are more powerful and fit to notice differences in things, others to notice similarities in things. Hard and sharp minds can focus their reflections, lingering and dwelling on every subtlety of difference. And the sublime and mobile minds recognize and compare the subtlest similarities of things inherent everywhere. But both minds easily go too far in pursuit of either subdivisions of things or shadows.
Contemplation of nature and bodies in their simplicity grinds and relaxes the mind; contemplation of nature and bodies in their complexity and configuration deafen and paralyze the mind. \ ... \ Therefore, these contemplations must alternate and replace each other so that the mind becomes at the same time discerning and receptive and in order to avoid the dangers we have indicated and those idols that arise from them.
Discretion in contemplation should be such as to prevent and expel the idols of the cave, which mainly originate either from the dominance of past experience, or from an excess of comparison and separation, or from a tendency to temporality, or from the vastness and insignificance of objects. In general, let everyone contemplating the nature of things consider as doubtful what has especially strongly captured and captivated his mind. Great care is needed in cases of this preference to keep the mind balanced and pure.
But the most painful of all idols of the square that penetrate the mind along with words and names. People believe that their mind rules over words. But it also happens that words turn their power against reason. This made science and philosophy sophistic and ineffective. Most of the words have their source in ordinary opinion and divide things within the boundaries most obvious to the mind of the crowd. When a sharper mind and more diligent observation wants to redefine those boundaries to make them more in line with nature, words become a hindrance. Hence, it turns out that loud and solemn disputes of scientists often turn into disputes over words and names, and it would be more prudent (according to the custom and wisdom of mathematicians) to start with them in order to put them in order by means of definitions. However, such definitions of things, natural and material, cannot heal this ailment, for the definitions themselves consist of words, and words give birth to words, so it would be necessary to get to particular examples, their series and order, as I will soon say, when I turn to the method and way of establishing concepts and axioms.
Idols of theater are not innate and do not secretly penetrate into the mind, but are openly transmitted and perceived from fictional theories and from perverse laws of evidence. However, an attempt to refute them would be decidedly inconsistent with what we have said. After all, if we disagree on neither the grounds nor the evidence, then no arguments for the better are possible. The honor of the ancients remains untouched, nothing is taken away from them, because the question concerns only the path. As the saying goes, the lame walking on the road outruns the one who runs without the road. It is also obvious that the more agile and quick the runner is, the more his wanderings will be.
Our way of discovering sciences is such that it leaves little to the sharpness and power of talents, but almost equalizes them. Just as hardness, skill and testing of the hand mean a lot to drawing a straight line or describing a perfect circle, if you act only with your hand, it means little or nothing if you use a compass and a ruler. This is the case with our method. However, although separate refutations are not needed here, something must be said about the types and classes of this kind of theories. Then also about the external signs of their weakness and, finally, about the reasons for such an unfortunate long and universal agreement in error, so that the approach to the truth would be less difficult and so that the human mind would more willingly purify itself and reject idols.
The idols of theater or theories are numerous, and there may be more, and one day there may be more. If for many centuries the minds of people were not occupied with religion and theology and if civil authorities, especially monarchical ones, did not resist such innovations, even speculative ones, and, turning to these innovations, people did not incur danger and did not suffer damage in their well-being, not only without receiving awards, but also subject to contempt and ill will, then, no doubt, many more philosophical and theoretical schools would have been introduced, similar to those that once flourished in great variety among the Greeks. Just as many assumptions regarding the phenomena of the celestial ether can be invented, in the same way, and to an even greater extent, various dogmas regarding the phenomena of philosophy can be formed and constructed. The fictions of this theater are characterized by the same thing that happens in the theaters of poets, where the stories invented for the stage are more harmonious and beautiful and are more likely to satisfy the desires of everyone than true stories from history.
The content of philosophy in general is formed by deriving much from a little or a little from a lot, so that in both cases philosophy is affirmed on too narrow a basis of experience and natural history and makes decisions from less than it should. Thus, philosophers of the rationalistic sense grab various and trivial facts from experience, without knowing them exactly, but having studied and not weighed diligently. All the rest they assign to the thoughts and activities of the mind.
There are a number of other philosophers who, having diligently and thoroughly worked on a few experiments, dared to invent and deduce their philosophy from them, surprisingly distorting and interpreting everything else in relation to it.
There is also a third kind of philosopher who, under the influence of faith and veneration, mixes theology and tradition with philosophy. The vanity of some of them has reached the point that they derive sciences from spirits and geniuses. Thus, the root of the errors of false philosophy is threefold: sophistry, empiricism, and superstition.
\ ... \ if people, prompted by our instructions and having parted with sophistic teachings, seriously engage in experience, then, due to the premature and hasty fervor of reason and its desire to ascend to the general and to the beginnings of things, there may be a great danger from philosophies of this kind ... We must warn this evil now. So, we have already spoken about certain types of idols and about their manifestations. All of them must be rejected and thrown away by a firm and solemn decision, and the mind must be completely freed and cleansed of them. Let the entrance to the kingdom of man, based on the sciences, be almost the same as the entrance to the kingdom of heaven, "where no one is allowed to enter without being like children."