Achievements of Russian culture of the 17th century. Achievements of Russian culture of the 17th century

The 17th century in Russian culture, as well as in the history of the country as a whole, was the stage that ended the Middle Ages. Since the second half of the century, serious shifts have taken place in the socio-economic sphere. The development of economic ties contributed to the elimination of local isolation, the growth of national identity, the strengthening of national traditions and their spread. The braking element was serfdom, which chained the peasants to the ground.

The main content of the cultural and historical process of this period should be called the secularization of culture, giving it a secular character. This was due to democratic trends in Russian culture, the formation of new ideals, artistic tastes and moral and ethical standards.

In the spiritual life of Russian society, more and more attention was paid to man, the idea of the value of earthly life with all its sorrows and joys was strengthened. Such sentiments are especially strongly established in historical, socio-political, fiction and art.

The main content of the cultural process of the 17th century is the struggle between two directions: the secular and the ecclesiastical. Then it looked like a conflict. Today it appears as a conviction that both these warring tendencies have mutually enriched each other. As a result, new original art and culture appeared, which today have not lost their attractiveness, relevance, spiritual, historical and aesthetic value.

2. Russian architecture.

The architecture of the 17th century has its own distinctive features, among which the strengthening of secular motives stands out. Masters strive for external splendor, focusing on picturesqueness and decorative elements. An example of this trend is the Terem Palace in the Moscow Kremlin (1635 - 1636), which has a secular purpose. The architectural forms of this building embodied the popular ideas of beauty, and also demonstrated the best features. folk art in construction. This is evidenced by the multicolored tiles that attract the eye with their overflows; magnificent, pleasing to the eye, murals. All this gave the Terem Palace a literally fabulous look.

If we talk about church architecture, then tent-roofed architecture began to develop here, but the desire for external beauty and festivity prevailed in it. Thus, she began to overlap with household architecture. Folk secular traditions were clearly reflected in the buildings of the Assumption Church of the Alekseevsky Monastery in Uglich (1628), the church in Medvedkovo near Moscow, which was built by order of Prince D.M. Pozharsky (1578 - 1642). A similar style is observed in the churches of Zosima and Savvaty in the Trinity-Sergius Lavra and the five-tent cathedral in Vyazma.

The development of posad architecture in Yaroslavl, which was the largest commercial and industrial center of Russia, deserves special attention. The buildings here were built at the expense of merchants, and therefore significantly surpassed the architecture of other cities in their scale and elegance of the interior. In Yaroslavl churches, the grandeur and grandeur of the ancient five-domed cathedrals were combined with the elegance and cheerfulness of folk art in an amazing way. Such are the churches of Elijah the Prophet (1647), John Chrysostom (1654), built in Yaroslavl at the expense of wealthy merchants. But the most beautiful of the temples of Yaroslavl is the Church of John the Baptist in Tolchkovo (1671 - 1678). It is distinguished by its strict monumentality, the extraordinary expressiveness of the architectural language and the beauty of fifteen gilded chapters. For this reason, it was called “a jubilant symphony of folk fantasy” [Voronin; 75].

Beginning in 1656, near Moscow, the construction of the New Jerusalem Monastery was carried out (architects A. Mokeev and Y. Bukhvostov), which was to become the suburban residence of the Patriarch. As the name suggests, the New Jerusalem Monastery was supposed to repeat the main shrines of the Christian world. For example, the Resurrection Cathedral was erected according to the drawings of the Jerusalem Church of the Holy Sepulcher. But Russian builders followed only the general composition, adding a specifically Russian national ornament to the interior.

In the Russian architecture of kremlin and monasteries, in spite of their general austere appearance and protective function, the striving for decorative elegance is quite noticeable. This is evidenced by many buildings: the Spasskaya Tower of the Moscow Kremlin stands out for its brick superstructure, on which white-stone patterns adorn (architects B. Ogurtsov and H. Galovei). Similar work was continued on other Kremlin towers.

Under the influence of this trend, the harsh appearance of central Russia is also being transformed. The walls of Novodevichy, Danilov, Donskoy monasteries in Moscow, Trinity-Sergius Lavra, Spaso-Evfimiev in Suzdal were decorated with stone ornamentation. The construction of elegantly decorated bell towers, chapels and refectories was carried out in monasteries almost throughout Russia.

The development of Russian architecture was very intensive. Among the historical monuments of the 17th century there are wooden churches in Kizhi, the Rostov Kremlin, the Assumption Church in Uglich. In the church architecture of the seventeenth century, a tent reigns, proudly, appearing in all its glory, in the churches of Zosima and Savvaty Trinity-Sergius Lavra, in the Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in Putinki.

And yet, Russian architecture of the 17th century amazes with its diversity, art and richness of thought. The main types of Russian churches that were widespread in that period are: cross-domed, hipped roof, tiered, rotunda churches, temples-ships - a cubic temple connected to a bell tower by a rectangular building. The latter is an architectural metaphor: a temple is a ship on which you can sail on a sea of life full of temptations and dangers. An example of such a temple is the Church of Demetrius-on-the-Blood in Uglich.

So, in the seventeenth century, the type of church buildings changed significantly, architecture underwent a significant evolution: from hipped roof forms to tiered five-domed structures and further to rotundas and ship churches.

3. Painting inXVIIcentury.

Painting of the 17th century is primarily a church fresco. Many churches were then built with the money of merchants, therefore, according to the tastes of the customers. So the secular beginning is slowly but surely crowding out the strict rules and canons inherent in ancient Russian temple painting. The ethereal figures and stern faces are being replaced by images of earthly people. It turned out that biblical stories are better understood when presented through familiar scenes and faces.

At the same time, it is obvious that everyday trifles and details do not reduce the value of the fresco to the commonplace, do not overshadow the religious content. They only enliven them with the people's perception of the world. Advocates of the old iconography, such as the archpriest Avvakum, sharply condemned these deviations from the established traditions, initiating a heated debate.

The largest representative of church painting of the seventeenth century is Simeon Fedorovich Ushakov (1626-1686). A strange paradox prevails in his work: paintings and parsuns resemble icons, and icons are paintings. Ushakov even wrote the essay "A Word to the Lover of Icon Writing", in which he argued that the artist has no right to deviate from the truth, but must write "as it happens in life" [Soloviev; 209].

Subsequently, he was going to create a kind of alphabet of art, which would serve as a useful guide for other artists, but for some reason he could not do this. Ushakov himself was an outstanding painter. His works (icon “ Savior Not Made by Hands»), The images of the Virgin are distinguished by correct proportions, accurate transmission of chiaroscuro, synthesis of the divine and the human.

So, Simeon Ushakov was the first to make an attempt to bring icon painting closer to painting. Having been brought up on the models of the old school of icon painting of the tsarist masters, he did not leave the influence western artists, his drawing is notable for its expressiveness, and in the figures of the saints there is a lot of life, which consists in the expressiveness of faces, wide-open eyes. He drew his material from engravings, illustrated publications, or directly took it from nature. The best works of Ushakov are in Georgian Church, in Moscow.

Great specimens religious painting are Yaroslavl churches, frescoes of Ilyinsky and Tolchkovsky churches. They display a fabulous wealth of figures, a variety of bright, strong colors. Attention is drawn to the colossal dimensions of the frescoes themselves and the generosity with which the artist paints the entire interior: walls, porches, porches, their vaults, doors, pillars, benches.

These frescoes are a first-class monument to Russian Art XVII century. I.E. Grabar wrote: “Russian wall painting has risen to such a height to which it has never reached later; by the enormity of the decorative designs, by their brilliant solution, the painting of these temples can be compared with the most perfect Italian frescoes ”[Grabar; 178].

But frescoes were not the only characteristic of seventeenth-century painting. Interest in the personality of a person was expressed in the creation of Parsuns - this was the name of the portraits that arose at that time. The technique of their creation was similar to icons - with tempera paints (based on chicken eggs) and on boards. A.V. Zakharevich writes: “By the end of the century, the Parsuns lose their conventionality and more convey individual traits, personality traits of the person being portrayed” [Zakharevich; 271]. These are the portraits of royalty - Alexei Mikhailovich and Fyodor Alekseevich.

So, painting XVII century is the first step towards the development of secular painting. The work of S. Ushakov and other artists lays the foundations for the further development of the unique Russian pictorial art, reveals a tendency towards a realistic depiction of man and life.

4. Russian literatureXVIIcentury.

Since the role of a person in the life of society and attention to the individual, its spiritual world increased significantly, literature received a new stimulus for its development. In the Middle Ages, the preferred literary genres were the lives of saints, chronicles, stories on historical subjects. In the 17th century, they were supplanted by other literary forms: a biographical story, memoirs, and even democratic satire.

An important point was the fact that a fictional character now acted in literary works, giving the author the opportunity to more freely express his views on life.

The clergy underwent a satirical depiction, as evidenced by the following literary works: "The Legend of the Priest Savva and his great glory", "The Legend of the Chicken and the Fox", "Kalyazinskaya Petition" and others.

The objects of criticism were also officials and the vices inherent in them at all times: bribery, red tape in business, bureaucracy. Such were the famous "The Tale of Ruff Ershovich", "The Tale of the Shemyakin Court", "The Service of the Tavern".

There were also completely innovative works in which invented heroes acted, through which the authors analyzed the problem of fathers and children, relevant in any era. The most striking works of this trend are "The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn", "The Tale of the Woe-Evil Part".

These stories are distinguished by humor and sharp words. It is obvious that in the 17th century, literature was approaching life, and if before heroes were taken from church sermons, now they looked more like mere mortals. In the narratives, almost everything happened as in life: some people were lucky, others were not. As is the case with almost all literary monuments of previous centuries, the authors of poignant satirical stories are unknown.

The masterpiece of the 17th century, which still attracts the attention of researchers, turned out to be the Life of Archpriest Avvakum Petrov, who was the leader of the Old Believer movement. Being an opponent of the secular trend in culture, Avvakum, nevertheless, gave rise to the genre of memoirs.

Simultaneously with these, the process of transformation took place hagiographic literature into a biographical story. This is the work called "The Tale of William Osorina", the author of which was her son Druzhina.

Simeon of Polotsk (1629-1680) became an innovator of poetry. He introduced syllabic versification, which was based on the ordering of the number of syllables in a verse [Pickles; eight]. Polotskiy is the author of two books - "Vetrograd multicolored" and "Rithmologion". In addition, he translated the Psalter into poetic language. His last work was very popular among both adults and children. Simeon Polotsky himself occupied an important place in public life Russia XVII century, since he was a teacher in the royal family (reign of Alexei Mikhailovich Quiet, 1645 - 1676).

Also noteworthy are those that appeared during this period in a large number historical songs. The people put them together about personalities or events famous for something: Ataman Ermak, the capture of Kazan, the anger of Ivan the Terrible against his son, the death of Tsarevich Dimitri, the Cossack campaign against Azov and, of course, about Stenka Razin. They reflected various incidents, glorified the exploits of the defenders of the Russian land, mourned the fallen, ridiculed the enemies.

Historical songs are valuable because they convey little-known facts and names to us. It happens that new finds by historians and archaeologists confirm the reliability of the song information. They retain folk memory and the past is displayed exactly as the ancestors saw it.

So, Russian literature receives a new impetus for development. In addition to the spiritual, there are secular, everyday genres with a pronounced satirical coloring.

5. Sphere of education.

In the life of the Russian people, city life was gaining more and more importance. This contributed to the emergence of a need for education, for literate people. By the beginning of the 17th century, an elementary school was already functioning in Russia, due to which the level of literacy was quite high. The most literate were two groups of the population: white clergy (not monks) and merchants.

The merchants possessed both literacy and mathematics, as a result of which they were able to maintain their own documentation. In addition, they made every possible effort to ensure that their children received an accessible education. A very interesting fact is not widely known: merchants studied foreign languages, taking their native speakers as teachers - overseas guests - and even compiled dictionaries.

The education of the white clergy is understandable, but among the black there were also many educated people (70%). Among the nobility, the percentage of educated representatives of this class was at least 65%. Posad people and peasants were also not completely ignorant. Even among the peasantry, there were those who possessed literacy and other skills (15%). Highest percentage literate peasantry fell on the territory of the Russian North, because serf oppression was not so intensely manifested there. The peasants not only had the opportunity to send their children to schools. They themselves strove for knowledge: there are known cases of their writing books, collecting libraries, creating chronicle and business records. As for the nobles and merchants, they invited teachers to the house, giving preference to those who spoke foreign languages.

The main textbook used to study in the 17th century was the primer. His Printing House was republished several times. The primer was a truly universal book and contained grammar, the alphabet, the basics of mathematics, a code of conduct and moral rules, a religious educational program, and small dictionaries. In the arsenal of the students there were both copy-books and arithmetic notebooks.

ABC books (as the handwritten collections were called) covered not only those sciences that were listed in relation to the primer, but also information from history, geography, literature, philosophy, mythology.

Compulsory science in primary school there was singing. Knowledge of music was almost the main indicator of literacy. Perhaps this was directly related to church traditions, with temple singing, because the religious side of life was still of great importance.

But even after leaving school, the person continued to study. The worldview of man in the 17th century presupposed a doctrine lasting a lifetime: from nature, from books, since “Books are rivers that fill the universe with wisdom” [Vladimirov; 44].

So, education more and more actively entered the life of all strata of the population. To a large extent, this was facilitated by the strengthening of trade relations with other European countries; the development of new territories, especially the eastern ones, where outstanding knowledge was disseminated; the desire of the population to learn the sciences.

6. Conclusion.

Russian culture and art represent an innovative phenomenon, reflecting the turning point in social life, in which religious and secular tendencies entered into conflict. This conflict is reflected in all spheres: literature, architecture, painting and even the educational process.

The gloomy images of the Middle Ages, which suppress all the joy of life, are replaced by festivity, brightness, multicolor, the desire to reflect the realistic sides of life and the ordinary person, i.e. the process of secularization. Thus, a person's natural desire for optimism, for everyday pleasures, for festivity is manifested. But this did not mean at all that spirituality was rejected by the masters of the 17th century. On the contrary, having organically combined, these two directions have formed a new quality of art and culture.

In literature, this feature manifested itself in the form of fictional plots and heroes, in the appearance of satirical, critical and humorous works, the authors of which were able to express their attitude to what is happening in society.

Changes are also taking place in the field of education: the demand for literate people is growing; at the same time, there is a craving for knowledge in all strata of society. The role of the book is increasing, the number of schools and educated people, which are also found among the peasantry.

Thus, the 17th century is characterized not only by the flourishing of culture, but also by the formation of a new type of it, a distinctive feature, which is secularization and an appeal to earthly human joys.

7. List of literature.

1. Vladimirov L.I. General history of the book / L.I. Vladimirov. - M: Kniga, 1988 .-- 312 p.

2. Voronin N.N. The architecture of North-Eastern Russia. In 2 books / N.N. Voronin. - M .: AN SSSR, 1962 .-- 1148 p.

3. Voskoboinikov V.N. History of world and domestic culture: Textbook in 4 parts / V. Voskoboinikov. - M .: MGUK. 1995.

4. Grabar I.E. History of Russian art. Volume 6. Issue 22. History of painting. Pre-Petrine era / I.E. Grabar. - M .: Art, 2004 .-- 534 p.

5. Zakharevich A.V. History of the Fatherland / A.V. Zakharevich. - M .: ITK "Dashkov and K˚", 2005. - 755 p.

6. Kononenko B.I. Big explanatory dictionary on culturology / B.I. Kononenko. - M .: LLC "Publishing house" Veche 2000 ", LLC" Publishing house AST ", 2003. - 512 p.

7. Lyubimov L. D. The Art of Ancient Rus / L.D. Lyubimov. - M .: Education, 1974 .-- 336 p.

8. Pickles M.M. Simeon Polotsky / M.M. Pickles. - M .: Terra, 2008 .-- 352 p.

9. Solovyov V.M. Russian culture. From ancient times to the present day / V.M. Soloviev. - M .: Bely Gorod, 2004 .-- 736 p.

10. Shmurlo E.F. History of Russia 862 - 1917 / E.F. Shmurlo. - M .: Agraf, 1997 .-- 736 p.

The 17th century was the beginning of a new period in the field of culture. Changes took place in the socio-economic and political life of Russian society, which caused a revival of the socio-political thought of the advanced part of the people. The revitalization of urban life, the development of industry, crafts and trade greatly increased the role of the townspeople, their craving for knowledge and education. Russian art took its first steps to become secular, free in its expression. This was also facilitated by the expansion of ties with the West. Along with the Greco-Slavic enlightenment, Western Latin culture came to Russia, which had previously been rejected by the Orthodox Church. 17 is characterized by the secularization (luminosity) of culture, i.e. severing the connection between religious and aesthetic consciousness. In the 17th century came new stage in the development of the Russian language. Education and enlightenment were given great importance... Printed primers were in great demand. Handwritten books continued to be distributed. But typographic printing was developing more and more. 17th century was a new page in the history of book printing in Russia. Private libraries appeared. The further dissemination of practical and natural science knowledge continued, medical knowledge was improved. In connection with the development of new territories and the expansion of ties with other countries in Russia, there was an accumulation of geographic knowledge... For architecture, the 17th century was also a time for the emergence of new trends, tastes and forms. Monumental temples, which in the previous period built the state and influential clergy, are now giving way to small, but elegant, patterned township churches. This reflected the people's desire for beauty, the departure from church fanaticism and asceticism. The struggle between the new and the old, characteristic of the development of Russian culture in the 17th century, could not, of course, but affect painting. Here the church fought against secular tendencies with all available measures. The works of the painters of Yaroslavl, Kostroma and other cities were distinguished by their desire for realism. However, all these new cultural trends affected only the top of society. The bulk of the population remained illiterate and superstitious. For the further development of Russian culture, the country required more decisive and widespread transformations, which were later carried out by Peter I.

30. The evolution of the state system in the xviI century. The reasons for evolution.

In the second half of the 17th century. the development of the state system in Russia passed from autocracy with the Boyar Duma to absolutism, from the estate-representative monarchy to the bureaucratic-noble monarchy. Absolutism - all power belongs to the monarch. It is taking shape under the conditions of the undivided domination of the feudal-serf system. The gradual transition to absolutism is clearly visible in various areas of the country's political life, both external and of a deeper nature. The decline in the significance of the Zemsky Sobors was also evidence of the strengthening of the autocracy. Zemsky councils were replaced by the Boyar Duma and other institutions. In the Boyar Duma itself, the composition was changing: in it nobles and clerks were gaining more and more power. In Russia, an absolute monarchy was formed in the course of Peter's reforms, but already from the “Cathedral Code” of 1649, attempts to transition to new forms of organization of power can be traced. The title "autocrat" appears.

During the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov (Tsarev. 1645-1676), the Zemsky Sobor in 1649 adopted the “Cathedral Code”, which consisted of 25 chapters, divided into 967 articles:

10-15 - set out the structure of the judicial procedure,

16-20 - formulated the right to slaves,

21-25 - Minor issues settled.

Signs of an absolute monarchy:

1. The presence of a regular army.

2. The formation of the bureaucracy, the civil servant, the administrative layer, which takes the oath to the state - developed under Alexei Mikhailovich + Alexei Mikhailovich streamlined the system of orders.

3. The introduction of direct taxes, which go directly to the treasury, was formed under Alexei Mikhailovich. The first direct tax was established by Fyodor Alekseevich, and the courtyard tax and poll tax appear.

4. Submission of the ecclesiastical authority to the secular. 1700 - the death of Patriarch Andrian, the patriarch in Russia was no longer elected. The power of the patriarch was replaced by an assembly of bishops

In the XVII century. in the history of Russia, the period of the Middle Ages is coming to an end. In the XVI century. Russian culture has retained all the characteristic features of the feudal culture of the Middle Ages, but new elements are also emerging. The story has come to an end medieval culture, and the beginnings of a new one were formed, the main feature of which was the process of "secularization". In the years 1653-1656. Patriarch Nikon carried out a reform that ultimately led to a split in the church and the emergence of the Old Believers.

In the XVII century. Russian culture has made a big step in its development, new directions have appeared: realistic household and historical story, poetic, dramatic, historical and satirical genres in literature; the transition from church canons to the elegance and decorativeness of the Moscow Baroque style in architecture; approximation of the image to the original in painting, the emergence of parsun painting; the penetration of secular motives into music and the emergence of a new type of art - the court and school theater. At this time, secular literature was actively developing. The genre of life is transformed into a story-life, the so-called biographical story ("The Life of Archpriest Avvakum" and other works). There is a significant increase in the literacy of servicemen and townspeople, provincial nobles.

All this leads to the development of a household story, in which the attention of the authors is focused primarily on Everyday life heroes. In this regard, the first attempts to draw a psychological portrait of the hero appear. Such works include "The Tale of Grief-Misfortune", "The Tale of Frol Skobeev", "The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn" and some others. Satire is actively developing. Very crowded satirical tale was associated with folklore traditions... In the same period, Russian poetry appeared, the ancestor of which was S. Polotsky. Theater and theatrical drama appear and develop. The first theatrical performances took place in 1672 at the court theater of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. Plays were staged mainly on biblical and antique subjects.

By the same time the emergence of ballet in Russia belongs. In 1687 g. the first university, the Slavic-Greco-Roman Academy, was opened in Moscow. The future, church ministers and government officials were trained here. Moreover, the children who studied there were from different social strata (from the sons of grooms to the princes). During the same period, was widely developed practical side scientific knowledge. Scientists-mathematicians achieved high achievements for that time. In connection with the development of medicine, transferable healers and herbalists appear. A number of drug masters have appeared in Moscow.

This was a possible expansion of knowledge in botany, pharmacology and chemistry. An interest in biology arises. At the same time, information began to appear on agricultural technology, animal husbandry and agriculture ("The Treasure of the Known Secrets of Zemstvo Economy"). Interest in such sciences as zoology and anatomy is noticeable. Geography was also actively developing at this time, and translated literature made a huge contribution to it. At the end of the 17th century. originated in architecture new style"Moscow baroque", or "Naryshkin style". Its main differences can be called: symmetry, balance of masses, centricity, tiered.

In painting during this period, there were two artistic directions: the "Godunov school", the purpose of which was to preserve the traditions of the past by reviving the fading spirit of great art (icons "It is worthy", "Simeon the Stylite"); the aim of another direction, the "Stroganov school", was to revive the works, strengthening the aesthetic principle in them (Chirin "Selected Saints", "Nikita the Warrior"). Second half of the 17th century marked by the appearance of works of a synthesized nature (icons "Meeting of the Icon of the Vladimir Mother of God", "Prince George", etc.). The secular style of painting, the parsun, has reached tremendous development, where the artist's attention is primarily focused on the inner world of the person being portrayed, the image is poeticized, and subtle coloring is used.

Oral folk art... Literacy and writing

The first collections of proverbs appear, many of which have survived to our time. Legends, songs, legends are widespread. One of their favorite heroes is Stepan Razin, who is endowed with heroic features and finds himself in the same circle with the epic heroes.
Handwritten books are becoming more widespread, especially collections containing various materials. Since 1621, handwritten "Chimes", a kind of newspapers, began to be made for the tsar.
The growth of written clerical work led to the final victory of cursive writing and new attempts to organize the production of paper in Russia. Along with handwritten books, printed books were increasingly distributed. The Printing House was actively working, which also published educational literature (for example, "Grammar" by Meletiy Smotritsky).

Socio-political thought and historical knowledge, literature

Chronicles remained one of the main monuments of social and political thought and literature. A few decades ago, it was believed that during this period the annalistic genre was degenerating. but
scientific research 1940-1990s allow us to talk about a very intensive development of both official and private chronicles in that era, even about its heyday in the last quarter of the "rebellious" century (Ya.G. Solodkin). At this time, the patriarchal vaults, the Belsky, Mazurinsky chroniclers, the vaults of 1652,1686 were created. and many, many other monuments of chronicle writing. Along with the general Russian, provincial, local, family and even family chronicle writings appear.
During the Time of Troubles, other works of this kind appear. But it is important to note that the events of the Troubles continued to be comprehended after it. In the 1620s. clerk Ivan Timofeev wrote the famous "Vremennik". In it, he condemns Ivan the Terrible for persecuting the boyar nobility and the oprichnina. The composition is characterized by a sharply negative attitude towards the "despot" Godunov and towards Vasily Shuisky, who also had no legal rights to the throne. Timofeev also condemned "the insane silence of the whole world" - the non-resistance of the nobility to Godunov.
The focus of attention of the writers of that time increasingly turned out to be questions of economic life, political problems. One of the most interesting monuments of social and political thought of the second half of the century were the works of Yuri Krizhanich, a Croat by origin, who was engaged in the correction of liturgical books in Russia. He was suspected of activities in favor of the Catholic Church and was exiled to Tobolsk, where he lived for 15 years, after which he returned to Moscow, and then went abroad. In the essay "Dumas are Political" ("Politics"), he painted a picture of the broad transformations in Russia.
A new phenomenon in literature was the spread of syllabic versification, which in turn is associated with the baroque in Russian literature. This is, first of all, the activities of the Belarusian scientist and educator Simeon Polotsky (S.E. Petrovsky-Sitnianovich), who was invited to Moscow to teach the tsar's children. His works are distinguished by ornamentation, splendor, reflecting the idea of the "variegation" of the world, the fickleness of being. In the years 1678-1679. there were two collections of his poems - "Vetrograd multicolored" and "Rithmologion". The first work is a kind of encyclopedia, which contains
data gleaned from various fields of knowledge: history, zoology, botany, geography, mineralogy, etc. At the same time, reliable information is interspersed with mythologized ideas of the author.

Architecture

In Russian architecture of the 17th century. also has a special place. The desire to abandon the age-old canons, to "secularize" art, manifested itself with tremendous force.
An important role in the development of architecture in general was played by wooden architecture... Scrap in the cities was built mainly from wood. These were two- and three-story mansions (in 1688 the tsar forbade the construction of three-story houses because of the constant danger of fires). Wooden architecture became more and more diverse, the desire for decorativeness intensified, compositions and silhouettes became more complex. The most striking monument of wooden architecture was the palace in Kolomenskoye, built in 1667-1678. The palace consisted of many different buildings, connected by passages, and consisted of 270 rooms with 3000 windows. It was a whole town with turrets, scaly roofs, "gulbisches", kokoshniks, porches.
In wooden architecture at the beginning of the century, buildings that were simple in design and external design prevailed, but by the end of the century they became decorative, multi-volume. This trend is completed in the Church of the Transfiguration of the village of Kizhi (1714). The closest predecessor of this amazing creation of northern masters was the Intercession Church in the village of Ankhimovo on the Vytegra River (1708). These churches are “a hymn to the onion head” (MA Ilyin). The 22-head Kizhi temple is based on an octagon with four prirubs. The faces of the octagon and the ledges of the priruby have barrels topped with heads. Not a strict ascetic idea, but worldly cheerfulness was expressed by the picturesque and elegant wooden temples of that time. The growth of stone construction was directly related to the strengthening of state power. Back at the end of the 16th century. arose the Order of Stone Affairs, which concentrated the best forces in this area. The techniques of stone architecture have improved, the volumes of buildings are significantly complicated. Various side-altars and annexes adjoin the main massif, covered porches - galleries, etc. become widespread. Craftsmen began to widely use colored tiles, complex brick belts and other decorative details, due to which the facades of buildings acquire an unusually elegant, colorful appearance.
One of these structures was the Terem Palace in the Kremlin, built in 1635-1636. Bazhen Ogurtsov and Trefil Shaturin. This is a three-storey building on high basements, crowned with a high "tower". The golden roof and two belts of azure tiled cornices made the palace look fabulous. The tent style is developing in church architecture. The most famous buildings of this type are the "Wondrous" Church in Uglich and the Church of the Intercession in Medvedkovo, erected on the estate of D. Pozharsky. Researchers consider the Trinity Church in Nikitniki, built in 1634 in Kitay-gorod at the expense of a wealthy merchant Grigory Nikitnikov, a native of Yaroslavl, as a kind of standard of temple architecture. This temple has come down to our time. The principle of "wondrous ornamentation" was manifested with special force in him. Many hipped temples were also erected, for example, the Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in Putinki (1649-1652).

Painting

In the first half of the century, the Stroganov and Godunov schools continued to live and develop. In the 1640-1650s. there was a fusion of these styles, which was reflected in the wall painting of the Church of the Robe Deposition (1644), the Assumption (1642-1648) and Archangel (1652-1653) cathedrals of the Moscow Kremlin, the Church of Nikolai Nadein in Yaroslavl (1640-1641), the cathedral of the Savvo-Storozhevsky monastery under Zvenigorod (1650). But in the 17th century. new tendencies are also emerging, which are fancifully mixed with the old traditions. All this gives rise to a complex research problem, fraught with different, sometimes opposite, assessments.
Scientists of the XIX century. (F.I.Buslaev, G.V. Filimonov, N.V. Pokrovsky) considered the 17th century the time of the rise of Russian art. After 1910, when the first exhibition of icon painting took place, the attitude to painting of the 17th century. changed dramatically. Many began to perceive it already as "devastation", "decline". For the first time this was clearly formulated in the multivolume history of Russian art by I. Grabar.
Nowadays in the literature, the accents are placed, apparently, correctly. Old Russian painting was dying, but not Russian painting (G. Karpov). To unequivocally appreciate the painting of the 17th century. very hard. One thing is clear - "liveness" poured into painting. The masters themselves tried in their compositions ("The Epistle to Simon Ushakov" (1656-1658) by Joseph Vladimirov, "The Word to the Lovely Iconic Writing" (1666-1667) by Simon Ushakov) to substantiate new approach to painting.
The highest stage in the development of painting at this time was the work of S. Ushakov. The artist, who worked in the Armory, tried to depict the human face in a new way, even if it was still flat, icon-painting, but much closer to life. Ushakov's famous work is his "Savior not made by hands", as well as an icon on the traditional theme of the "Trinity". It cannot be confused with Andrei Rublev's Trinity. The deep spirituality and sublimity were replaced by a heavy, "carnal" depiction of figures, all kinds of realistic details appeared.
An interesting phenomenon of painting of that time was the school of Yaroslavl masters. Their work is most characterized by the desire to break free from the constraining framework of the canon, to use the familiar images of Russian life.
The manifestation of interest in a person, his psychology, appearance was also the appearance of "parsun" writing, portrait images. In the first half of the century, these portraits were made in the iconographic tradition, such as the images of Ivan the Terrible and Prince M.V. Skopin-Shuisky. In the second half of the century, the images began to acquire a more realistic character (images of Alexei Mikhailovich, Fyodor Alekseevich, etc.).

Music and theater

This century turned out to be a turning point for the development of Russian music. Church music is becoming more festive. “Kants” appear - musical works that were performed outside the church; special "part" singing for three voices. There is also a new, linear notation of the musical text.
The basis for the development of music is still Russian folk song - bright, imaginative, rich in genre diversity and melody. The popular buffoonery was very popular. He was often persecuted by the authorities, but the people loved the Petrushka theater with its heroes and hilarious witticisms, often directed against the same authorities and human vices.
A theater of a new type, created on the initiative of A.S. Matveeva The troupe of the theater was recruited from the inhabitants of the German settlement. In 1672 the first performance took place in Preobrazhensky. True, only members of the royal family and their entourage were spectators. Mainly translated plays on biblical themes were staged. The first play presented is Artaxerxes Action.

The political and economic changes that took place in Russia were marked by the flourishing of culture. Main feature new culture- a departure from religious canons and an appeal to the values of human existence and human personality.

In 1634 the first printed Russian primer was published by Vasily Burtsev, in 1648 - "Grammar" by Meletiy Smotritsky. In 1679, a new printed alphabet appears.

In 1665, at the Zaikonospassky monastery in Moscow, a school was opened that trained clerks for government agencies, in 1680 - a school at the Printing House.

In 1687, on the initiative of Sylvester Medvedev, the Slavic-Greek-Latin school (from 1701 - the academy) was created, which became the first higher educational institution Russia. The spread of literacy among the townspeople was strongly encouraged by the government. Scientists and monks were invited to Moscow to teach both secular and spiritual sciences.

In the 17th century. new literary genres... Satirical everyday stories were created: "The Tale of Ruff Ershovich", "The Tale of the Shemyakin Court", in which land orders were criticized. The debauchery and sinful life of the monks of the Kalyazin monastery is ridiculed in the story "Kapyazinskaya petition".

Simeon Polotsky introduced two new genres - poetry and drama, creating poems and plays that were staged in the first Russian court theater, founded in 1670 under the tsar.

One of literary movements of that time - popular accusatory. Its representative is Archpriest Avvakum, the founder of the biographical genre. In the polemical work "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum", he told in simple colloquial language about the dramatic story of his life.

In the second half of the 17th century. the first portraits with elements of real resemblance appear. Secular portraiture was born.

Ancestor portrait painting in Russia S. Ushakov worked at the art center at the Kremlin Armory. In 1668, he painted the icon "Our Lady of Vladimir" (or "Planting a tree in the Russian state"), which depicts the most prominent figures of his era.

Significant changes have taken place in architecture and urban planning. In addition to the creation of masterpieces of wooden architecture, religious buildings in Kolomenskoye and in the Russian North, the number of buildings erected from stone is significantly increasing.

In the architecture of the 17th century. a convergence of the cult style with the civil one is outlined. A style appeared that arose at the merger of Russian architecture and Western European baroque - the Moscow (or Naryshkin) baroque.

The characteristic features of Russian architecture of this period are multi-layeredness, symmetry of compositions, and colored decor. Examples of this style are the Church of the Intercession in Fili (1693) and the Church of the Savior Not Made by Hands in Garments (1697).

In civil architecture, the main direction was the construction of the first stone buildings for household use - living rooms in Moscow and Arkhangelsk, the Sukharev tower in Moscow, the Pogankin chambers in Pskov.

The economic and military needs of the centralized state led to the development of science and technology.

Russian craftsmen master science and technology. They are characterized by extensive theoretical knowledge... This is evidenced by Anisy Mikhailov's "Charter of Military, Cannon and Other Affairs" created in 1621, which sets out knowledge in mathematics, physics and chemistry.

Actively developing geographical science... In the years 1643-1653. expeditions of V. Poyarkov, S. Dezhnev and E. Khabarov took place to develop new territories.

Alexander II.

The 17th century was a time of anticipation of the changes that lay ahead for Russia. The change in the type of culture took place in an acute struggle old tradition with new needs and tastes. Contemporaries very sharply, painfully felt a breakdown, a reassessment of values and traditions, therefore the entire 17th century passes under the sign of the struggle between two social sentiments. On the one hand, this is a passionate defense of antiquity to the point of fanaticism, on the other, an understanding of the necessity and usefulness of changes.

At this critical time for culture, the first shoots of renewal appear:

the process of secularization begins in the spiritual life of society, it is slowly but steadily freed from the influence of the church that determines all aspects of its life;

a person begins to realize himself as a person, people of action appear, energetic, proactive, aware of their place in the fate of the country. Man-creator and creator ceases to be anonymous, the names of such people are heard by contemporaries;

conditions are ripening for the birth of a secular culture, which is free from church dogmas and canons; these processes only manifest themselves, therefore it is customary to say that in the 17th century. there is a secularization of culture. Secularization is a trend, not an end result. In parallel, two cultures coexist, as it were, the religious and the renewing one, which has not yet broken with the religious basis;

the influence of the West is becoming more noticeable, especially after the reunification with Ukraine, whose culture was heavily influenced by Poland.

The cultural change could not be realized without loss. The art of modern times, winning in details, lost to the medieval ones in integrity, in harmony of ancient depth and spirituality. Moreover, cultural evolution from the 17th century. goes in breadth, and not in depth, when the development of new images, plots, styles is not accompanied by the desire to comprehend the ideal. Therefore, the Old Believers' criticism of "novelty" was not exclusively a retrograde fear of the new as such. Behind this criticism there was a fear of losing enduring spiritual values, of losing a saving connection with the past.

Traditionalists, adherents of antiquity reproached this century for "diversity". "Diversity" is an unprecedented socio-political activity of society in comparison with past centuries, which was demonstrated by the Time of Troubles, when ordinary people, artless people - petty nobles, townspeople headmen, Cossacks, peasants and even slaves came to the fore. They forever entered the history of Russia, pushing aside for a time the princes, boyars, generals. This activity, as an awareness of their rights, raised huge masses to the city uprisings of the middle of the century and continued throughout the century, not giving the authorities the opportunity to take revenge. And the power was retreating.

People, accepting the changes, contributed to the novelty, optimistically called "petrota" "marvelous ornamental". It manifested itself most clearly in the colorfulness, elegance, decorativeness in painting and architecture; beauty, multicolor, variety in the decoration of everyday life, in the clothes of the townspeople. The art of modern times is a hymn to creation, and not to the Creator in the classical art of Ancient Rus.

The age of wondrous patterns is the age of secularization, secularization of culture, the growth of secular principles, rationalism and practicality in it.

The 17th century was marked by social needs and a desire to educate not only the upper strata of society, but also the middle, especially the urban population.

The increasing complexity of urban life with its trade and craft activities, the growth of the government apparatus, the development of relations with foreign countries made new demands on education: the need for an increase in the number of educated people grew.

The general level of literacy in the 17th century grew significantly in various strata of the population and, according to experts, was: among landowners - 65%, merchants - 96%, townspeople - 40%, peasants - 15%, archers, gunners, Cossacks - 1%.

As before, literacy was most often taught in families, so manuals on home upbringing and education were especially popular. The main teaching aids remained religious books, but several secular publications were also published: primers, which were broader in content than their name and included articles on doctrine, short dictionaries, articles of pedagogical content. Vasily Burtsev's primer (1634) was reprinted several times over the course of a century. In the middle of the century, up to three thousand copies of the Burtsev primer were in the book warehouse of the Moscow Printing House. It cost one penny, or two money, quite cheap for those times. At the same time, the grammar of Melentiy Smotrytsky, a Ukrainian scholar, was published. Mikhailo Lomonosov later studied using it. At the end of the century, the primer of Karion Istomin, a monk of the Chudov Monastery in the Kremlin, was published. The primer of Simeon of Polotsk (1679) was popular, according to which the author himself taught the children of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. The same Karion Istomin prepared a practical manual for counting (multiplication table) - "Convenient counting, with which any person who bathes or sells can find the number of any thing very conveniently."

Alphabet books began to be published - dictionaries of foreign words, supplemented with information on phonetics, spelling, cases and declensions. In addition, the ABC students introduced philosophical concepts (essence, nature, quality, etc.), provided brief information about ancient philosophers and writers, contained geographical information and materials on national history... They were rather reference books - encyclopedic textbooks that provide knowledge on a wide range of problems.

Scientists have established that during the second half of the century the Printing House issued 300 thousand primers (by various authors) and 150 thousand educational psalters and books of hours.

In 1672 the first bookstore was opened in Moscow. It often happened that in a few days it sold thousands of copies of books for various purposes.

The percentage of literate people across the country has been steadily growing. For the townspeople - merchants, large owners of handicraft workshops - knowledge of writing and counting became an urgent need. For others, this knowledge became a profitable business, a kind of craft, to which people of low and low income aspired. It was a clerk's craft. On the squares of cities, they offered their services to those who themselves were not able to draw up this or that document, write a letter, appeal, etc.

Many books of the 17th century have survived. Along with ecclesiastical (printed and handwritten) literature, more and more secular literature appears: various collections, books of historical, medical, geographical, astronomical and other content. The variety of practical manuals and guides for measuring and land surveying, construction work, paint production, etc. is striking. Books were appreciated in society, people with wealth willingly bought them for personal use, the circle of home reading grew. According to the established tradition, the tsars and the boyar aristocracy had libraries with hundreds of books in different languages.

General needs of the economic and political development countries have raised the issue of systematic, school education. In 1621 a Lutheran school for children of foreigners living in the capital was opened in Moscow, in the German settlement. But soon there were students from the Russians who studied foreign languages and those subjects, the development of which gave education a broader character. In the 40s, on the initiative and at the expense of the roundabout F.M. Rtishchev, the favorite and advisor of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, was opened in the Andreevsky Monastery private school... In it, the boyar and noble youth were trained in the Slavic and Greek languages, philosophy, rhetoric, history and geography. F.M. Rtishchev is an iconic figure for his time, he is an innovator, an admirer of learning, a supporter of new beginnings. He convinced the tsar of the need to send the children of boyars and nobles abroad for scholarship, to invite foreign scientists to the country. In 1650, another school was opened in the Kremlin's Chudov Monastery at the expense of patriarchal funds, the program of which was aimed at training enlightened and educated clergy.

In the second half of the 17th century. several public schools were opened. The school at the Printing House had 30 students from different classes, and their number grew from year to year, reaching 232 students by the end of the century. Similar schools were opened under the Aptekarsky and Ambassadorial orders. Unified textbooks on basic disciplines were published for them in small editions.

The provinces did not lag behind Moscow either. Schools for their children were opened in cities at the expense of townspeople. It is known that in 1685 a similar school existed in Borovsk.

In 1687, in the Zaikonospassky monastery in Moscow, the first higher educational institution in Russia, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, was opened to train higher clergy and civil service officials. The first teachers here were the Likhud brothers - Greeks who graduated from the University of Padua in Italy. The social composition of the students of the academy was heterogeneous, representatives of all classes studied: from the sons of the groom to the relatives of the patriarch and the princes of the most ancient Russian families. The ethnic composition was also variegated: Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, baptized Tatars, Moldovans, Georgians, Greeks.

The Academy was both a higher and a secondary educational institution. Her students comprehended all the school wisdom from grammar to philosophy. It was assumed that in the future, only its graduates would receive public positions. M.V. Lomonosov, P.V. Postnikov, who became a doctor of medicine at the University of Padua in Italy, architect V.I. Bazhenov.

In the XVII century. about 600 book titles were printed by typographic method, most of them with religious content. A handwritten newspaper "Courants" was published (for the royal family and its entourage).

Interest in the historical past, the desire to put it at the service of absolutism led to the creation of a special Written Order, which was charged with collecting materials for future Russian history.

In the XVII century. scientific knowledge in Russia retained a predominantly practical, applied character. The intensification of trade has caused an increase in the need for applied mathematics: there have appeared manuals for calculating trade transactions, for various computational methods. The accumulation of geometric knowledge took place during land surveying and in construction. During construction work, a variety of mechanisms were used: water wheels, gates, blocks, chain hoists, screw wooden jacks, etc. Mechanical devices were used in the first Russian smelting factories.

There have been changes in medicine. Folk healing and folk medicine were developing. The healers possessed rational medical skills that were inherited. Handwritten "Healers", "Herbalists" communicated centuries of experience traditional medicine and were very popular. At the same time, the foundations of state medical services were laid in Russia: the first pharmacies and hospitals were opened (under Fedor Alekseevich in 1668, under the pharmacy order, the first state hospital was set up for full board treatment of “poor, scientists and old people ... they were mutilated with wounds in the sovereign service ”).

Russian explorers made a huge contribution to the development of geographical knowledge. In 1648, Semyon Dezhnev's expedition reached the strait between Asia and North America... In 1649, E. Khabarov studied and made a map of the lands along the Amur, where Russian settlements were founded. At the end of the 17th century. Siberian Cossack V. Atlasov explored Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands. Based on the accumulated geographical knowledge, maps were created Of the Russian state, Siberia and Ukraine.

Social thought of the 17th century. associated with the names of Simeon Polotsky and Yuri Krizhanich. They laid the foundations for the theoretical foundation of absolutism. S. Polotsky, a Belarusian and Russian church and public figure, writer and teacher, one of the authors of the project of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, argued that only the sole power of the tsar is able to restore order in the country and ensure the solution of the most important foreign policy problems. Y. Krizhanich - Croat, writer, supporter of the idea of "Slavic unity", where he assigned the main role to Russia, - gave his arguments in favor of "autocracy". Moreover, both were supporters of "enlightened absolutism."

Literature of the 17th century reflected all aspects of the social life of Russia, it most fully expressed the growth of the national self-awareness of the people, the acute social contradictions of the century, spiritual aspirations, and most importantly - a critical understanding of life, order, common sense of the people, their deep patriotism. Princes and boyars, nobles and townspeople, monks and priests took up the pen. Each of them outlined his vision of the events of the century, gave his own assessment of what was happening.

General characteristics of the literature of the XVII century. gives academician D.S. Likhachev: “Briefly, in a few words, to determine the meaning of the XVII century. in the history of Russian literature and Russian culture in general, then we have to say that the main thing was that this century was a century of gradual transition from ancient literature to a new, corresponding to the transition of Russia from medieval culture - to the culture of the new time. XVII century. in Russia took on the function of the Renaissance, but took it under special conditions and in difficult circumstances, and therefore he himself was "special", unrecognized in its meaning .... Russian literature on the verge of the XVI-XVII centuries. faced the need to subordinate literature to a personal principle, develop personal creativity and a stable author's text of works. She faced the need to free the entire system of literary genres from their subordination to "business" tasks and create general forms literature with Western European. Development literary directions, theater and poetry, the activation of readers and the liberation of literature from subordination to church and narrow state interests, the manifestation of the independence of writers' opinions, assessments, etc. - all this had to appear in the 17th century to make possible the final transition in the second quarter of the 18th century. to a new structure of literature, to a new type of literary development and to a new type of relationship with the literatures of the European West ”.

Literature of the 17th century continues to be multi-genre. But the traditions and genre norms mastered by previous generations are violated, they acquire new features of an inter-genre nature, new genres appear with their own characteristics, language, manner of presentation, dialogue and description of nature are included in the text.

The 17th century is the time of the decline of the ancient form of historical works - the annals. This is the last century of chronicle writing. The last works of this genre include:

In the second half of the century, new vaults appeared. One by order of Patriarch Nikon (1652), the other - on the occasion of the conclusion of the "Eternal Peace" with the Commonwealth. All of them were compiled in Moscow and are of a purely official nature.

New historical works transitional type from the chronicle to the generalizing historical work. Scientist and writer, a graduate of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy Sylvester Medvedev wrote the work "Brief Contemplation of the Years 7190, 7191 and 7192, in which he became a citizen." This is a kind of monograph, which describes the events from the end of the reign of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich, the Moscow uprising of 1682, the beginning of the reign of Sophia. Sylvester's work can be called a historical and journalistic work.

The reunification of Ukraine with Russia gave impetus to the creation of the first Russian printed essay on history. Ukrainian scientist, archimandrite Kiev-Pechersky Monastery Innokenty Gizel wrote "Synopsis", which gives a short and popular essay on Russian history with an emphasis on the unity of the destinies of Russia and Ukraine. The Synopsis was reprinted dozens of times and was used as a textbook on Russian history.

An important step in the development of historical thought was Andrei Lyzlov's extensive work "Scythian History" (90s of the 17th century), dedicated to the struggle of the Russian people and its neighbors against the Mongol-Tatars and Turks.

The central place in literature was occupied by historical narrative stories, which were of a journalistic nature. A group of such novellas - "Annals of the clerk Ivan Timofeev", "The Tale of Abraham Palitsin", "Another Legend" and others - were a response to the events of the Time of Troubles.

"The Legend of the Cellarer of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra Abraham Palitsin" is an extensive work, there are 77 chapters in it. The author expounds his understanding of the causes of the Troubles and subsequent events. Statesmen are portrayed in the "Tale" as complex, contradictory personalities, in which good is combined with evil (Boris Godunov), insidious and helpless (Vasily Shuisky). This was an innovation in comparison with the principles of medieval literature, where the hero was unambiguously positive and where he was opposed by an equally unambiguously negative character. An innovation was also a bold introduction into the fabric of the narrative of the personality of the author himself, emphasizing his personal participation in events.

Dyak I. Timofeev, Prince I.M. Katyrev-Rostovsky, numerous other well-known and anonymous authors left to their descendants many stories, legends, words, visions about the tragic Time of Troubles. Each of them in his own way tried to explain the reasons for the Russian catastrophe. For some it is god's punishment for human sins, for others - violation of justice, punishment for having elected the tsar-child-killer (Godunov) to the throne, others expressed themselves in the spirit of feudal ideology that the reason for everything is the disobedience and rebellion of the "master's slaves".

The people persistently comprehend the events of the century, gave their assessment. "Cossack writing" was compiled by the participants of the Ermak campaign, where the initiative of the campaign was assigned to the Cossacks themselves, and not to the Stroganovs. Another original writer of the 17th century. fugitive servant Fyodor Poroshin, who became the clerk of the Don Army, created in the 40s "The Tale of the Azov siege seat of the Don Cossacks." "The Tale" is written bright language, the heroic struggle of the Don people with the Turks is developed as an epic and dramatic story. Experts consider it one of the best literary monuments era.

Widespread, along with the historical, receives everyday story... An example of it is the "Tale of Grief-Misfortune", written by an unknown author. Its hero, a young man from a merchant family, leaves his father's house and tries to live with his own mind, but constantly fails. For the first time in Russian literature, the hero becomes an “unfortunate” person, a loser who arouses the author's sympathy. In the author's sympathy for this sinful man, a humanistic tendency, new for that time, was manifested: before it was impossible to sympathize with such a hero.

Full social conflicts XVII century. brought to life a new genre - democratic satire. Satirical stories were created among the townspeople, clerks, and lower clergy. These are stories-parodies of legal proceedings ("The Tale of the Shemyakin Court", "The Tale of Ruff Ershovich"), on hagiographic works("The Word about the hawk maker"), on the decline of morals in the church ("Kalyazin petition") and urban ("Service of the tavern") environment.

Memoirs became a new genre. This genre was mastered by the ideologue of the Schism - Archpriest Avvakum ("Life of Archpriest Avvakum, written by himself"). Get an idea of the ideology of the Schism of the 17th century. other works of Avvakum, where he acts as a bright Old Believer publicist, also allow: "The Book of Conversations" and "The Book of Rebuke".

Book poetry is another innovation of 17th century Russian literature. Poems are known already in the first third of the century, but the heyday of syllabic poetry was its second half - it is rhymed poetry and drama. Their founders are Simeon Polotsky and his students Karion Istomin and Sylvester Medvedev. The first theatrical performances took place in 1672 at the court theater of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. For the theater, S. Polotsky wrote several plays, where serious moral, political and philosophical problems were raised, reflecting a difficult and eventful time.

Thus, Russian literature of the 17th century. began to get rid of medieval traditions; the church-scholastic worldview was undermined and a more realistic vision of reality came to replace it. The transition of Russian literature from the Middle Ages to the New Age was prepared.

The general process of "secularization" of culture most vividly and consistently captured such spheres of culture as architecture and painting:

folk tastes are introduced into architecture, sometimes leading the architect away from the traditional, antiquated samples;

civil construction is gaining an unprecedented scale, competing with the cult, which until now has been the main line of development of architectural art;

at the same time, church and civil architecture is losing its sharp opposition;

a stream of realism and free interpretation of church subjects breaks through in painting.

Stone architectural structures They are distinguished by great picturesqueness, intricacy, asymmetric grouping of masses, inlaid brick platbands, multicolored "solar slabs" - tiles. In the formation of this style, the fact that merchants and townspeople communities, whose tastes expressed the secular principle in temple architecture, were increasingly the customers of religious buildings, played a large role.

Of course, the temple remained the leading structure of stone architecture. His "marvelous pattern" was achieved by a more complicated "play of volumes" (in comparison with the previous period) with a combination of various decorative means, giving many details. As a result, churches become richer and more elegant externally and internally. But this is achieved by a partial loss of the integrity of the architectural image. However, in their best creations, the architects of the 17th century. they know how to balance beauty and monumentality, to achieve a harmonious combination of whole and details.

After foreign intervention at the beginning of the century, stone construction resumed in the 1920s. The restoration of the walls and towers of the Moscow Kremlin was carried out. The towers lost their military purpose: hipped roofs gave way to tents. Architects Bazhen Ogurtsov and Englishman Christopher Galovey erected a tent over the Spasskaya Tower (1624-1625).

The most remarkable building of civil architecture of the first half of the century is the Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin, built for the royal children by B. Ogurtsov, A. Konstantinov, T. Shaturin, L. Ushakov. In the architecture of the palace, the influence of wooden buildings of the mansion type is noticeable. Gradually, civil stone construction gained momentum and was carried out in various cities (the three-story chambers of the Duma clerk Averky Kirillov on the Bersenevskaya embankment in Moscow, the Pogankin merchant chambers in Pskov, the first half of the 17th century).

The tent remains one of the favorite architectural forms. In the late 1920s, the Church of the Intercession of the Mother of God was built on the estate of Prince D. Pozharsky in Medvedkovo. This is a kind of repetition of the Intercession Cathedral on Red Square (St. Basil's Cathedral). Another example of hipped roof architecture is the refectory church of the Alekseevsky Monastery in Uglich (1628), popularly nicknamed "Wonderful". The last tent-roofed temple in Moscow is the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in Putinki (1649-1652). The parishioners began to build it at their own expense, but they were not enough. I had to turn to Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich for help. He helped, but the temple ended up costing 500 rubles - a huge sum for that time (a pound of meat then cost 5 kopecks). In 1652, Patriarch Nikon forbade the construction of hipped-roofed temples as inappropriate to the Greek models, but since the ban did not apply to the bell towers, next to the officially permitted domed temples, the beloved Russian hipped-roof bell towers were erected. Far from the patriarchal eyes, local architects continued to erect wooden hipped roof churches.

Cathedral church of the 17th century. v classic form presented in the monastery architecture. It is distinguished by monumentality, laconic decor. Examples are the Transfiguration Cathedral of the Moscow Novospassky Monastery (1642-1647), the Cathedral of the Ipatiev Monastery in Kostroma (1650s), the Assumption Cathedral in Kolomna (1672-1682).

A characteristic feature of cathedral architecture throughout the 17th century. - the rise in the height of cathedrals. This expressed the general tendency of the architecture of the century towards vertical composition.

The development of Old Russian architecture was completed in the 90s. the emergence of a new style - "Naryshkinsky" or "Moscow baroque". The main compositional principles of this architecture are tiering, centricity, symmetry, balance of masses. The decoration, usually made of carved white stone, looked unusually beautiful against the background of smooth brick walls... The windows, oval or octagonal, were framed by small columns (Church of the Intercession in Fili, 1690-1693; Savior in the village of Ubori near Moscow, 1693-1697, architect Y. Bukhvostov). Decorative forms of the "Moscow Baroque" were also used in five-domed cathedral-type churches (Assumption Cathedral in Ryazan, late 17th century, Y. Bukhvostov; Moscow Church of the Resurrection in Kadashi, 1687-1713).

It should be noted that despite the name - baroque, this is a completely original national style. We can only talk about borrowing certain elements of the European Baroque, which, moreover, came from Ukraine, where, in turn, came not directly from the West, but from Poland and Lithuania.

In the XVII century. wooden architecture flourishes. "The eighth wonder of the world" was called by contemporaries the palace of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in the village of Kolomenskoye. It had 270 rooms and about 3 thousand windows. It was built by an artel of Russian craftsmen headed by the servant Semyon Petrov and the archer Ivan Mikhailov. Wooden multi-domed temples were skillful (22-main temple of the Transfiguration in Kizhi, the end of the century).

The century of "family nests" - the famous Russian estates - is usually considered to be the 18th century. However, already the previous century knew both the word itself and many estates.

Our description of the pre-Petrine estate of the 17th century. is an abstract of an article by art critic R. Baiburova "An old Russian estate" published in the 10th issue of the journal "Science and Life" for 1992 (pp. 70-78; in No. 4 of the same magazine for the same year her article about the estate of Tsaritsyno, the former Black Mud).

The central core of the estate was a spacious courtyard, usually surrounded by a strong fence made of logs. Its main "front" gate with a wicket was elegantly decorated. The main mansions were located opposite the gates. They, as a rule, were made on the basement, in which various supplies were stored. To get into the mansion, one had to climb the porch, also called the front porch, and lavishly decorated with a hipped roof and carved railings. Ceremonial meetings and seeing off of guests by the hosts took place on the porch. On ordinary days, the gates and mansions were tightly locked. If "they send a servant kind people, - instructed "Domostroy", - he had to "beat lightly at the gates", and after passing through the courtyard to the mansion, "wipe dirty feet, blow your nose and cough up, and skillfully create a prayer", but if after the third prayer "answer they won't give it up, but they'll just knock around "until they let you in."

The front porch led into the "front porch". In wealthy houses, there was a border between the residential part of the house and a large dining room for guests, where feasts were held on holidays. Above the dining room, the mansion could build tiers of pyramid-decreasing attics.

But feasts were held only on holidays, and on weekdays the visitor was escorted from the front hallway to the living quarters in a choir, to the first room, called the “front”. The owner of the house came out to the guest here. Only a person close to the family could go far.

Behind the "front" there was a "room" where they spent the daytime. She often took a corner position, since it was the corner room that gave a wider view of the estate. The owners ate in the room on weekdays, and often slept in it. From the "room" there was a transition to the "other room", often already in the back half of the house. Sometimes an additional daily dining room was added to these premises, as well as a special "cross", more chambers and more canopy.

In the rich mansions, a "soap-house" was made with a special passage in front of it. The "back porch" faced the "back porch" accordingly. In the hallway, closets (storerooms), premises for the courtyard were arranged, and sometimes latrines were fenced off.

The mansions had two and sometimes three tiers. Upstairs there were "light rooms" - the female part of the house.

For practical reasons, the windows were made "recumbent", choosing a small opening from horizontal logs. They provided only the minimum required light. Only the so-called "red" windows were made large; they were filled with glass in rich mansions, and more often with cheaper ones in the 17th century. mica.

The limited number of rooms in the mansions, their isolation and isolation from the outside world, according to R. Baiburova, is explained both by the “closed way of life of the Russian people of that time” and by the Christian worldview, which demanded saving the soul from the temptations of a sinful world, inner concentration.

The living quarters were small - from 12 to 25 square meters. This size of the room was constructively determined by the size of the logs, and even more so by the socially closed life of the owners. In the mansion there is no place for later enfilades, when space flows freely from room to room. Even if the doors were made on the same axis, they were not at all supposed to be left open.

In the front hallways and living quarters in the red corner were placed holy images, in front of which the owners read prayer rule... Everyone who came to the house must, before greeting those present, no matter how noble they were, first made the sign of the cross and bowed to the icons, and only then, in order of nobility and seniority, to everyone in the room.

Along the perimeter, the premises were surrounded by originally built-in benches. One of them - "konik" - served as the actual bed. They did not know a European bed in a classic Russian house. A chest-locker was built under the bunk even during the construction. There might be shelves on the walls.

In the soap box there was a large stove with a stove "filled with a field round ardent stone." They gave the heat to kvass, poured it over when they started to steam. There were also made "shelves" and benches along the walls for "rest".

Everyone in the mansion tried to "cover and cover" - upholstered walls, doors, sometimes floors, curtained windows and rare mirrors in everyday life, even covered windowsills. The images of "deanery for the sake of and protection" were also covered with a "veil".

The owners loved bright colors: red and green cloth, Persian carpets, golden silks, painted ceilings. In the city mansions on the walls in the 17th century. pictorial portraits have already appeared. And of course, the interior decoration of the chorus cannot be imagined without stoves in brightly etched (green) or valuable (colored) patterned tiles. In a word, everything is bright, elegant, colorful in the mansions of the 17th century.

The house of this time is not bound by any rules of "regularity". The family grew, and additional premises were added to it on the basement or a group of them. Therefore, as I.E. Zabelin, they say about the house in the plural: the mansion, its walls are just the shell of the collection of horomin.

Parts of the house also had various finishes: in addition to pitched roofs, tents, cubes, tents, and barrels were erected over the mansions. The main dwelling mansions were placed opposite the front gates, and near them a "front hut", a kind of gatehouse, was erected. Cellars with a cellar, glaciers, barns, dryers, granaries, stables, barns, courtyard huts, etc. were freely located along the perimeter of the courtyard or in the courtyard itself. All these outbuildings in more modest estates were located in one or two courtyards: front and back. In rich estates there could be several courtyards behind separate fences: stables, oxen, mill, etc.

The most important economic structure of the estate was the mill, where the landlord's and peasant's bread was ground. There were "windmills", but more often mills were placed on the river. To increase the rotation of the mill wheel, and behind it the millstones, it was necessary to increase the water pressure. For this, dams were built and manor ponds were dug. They used to breed valuable fish. Sturgeon, catfish, sterlet, pike were found in the pond in the Golitsyn estate near Moscow, Black Mud. Like ponds and gardens in Ancient Russia were created for purely practical purposes. Some 17th century estates also had estate churches.

The process of "secularization" was reflected with special force in painting. The entire 17th century. permeated with the struggle of two creative methods, two directions - the old and the new.

Painting first half of XVII v. to a large extent freed from the complex symbolism characteristic of the 16th century, the compositions became simpler and more vital; a narrative develops in them. However, the icons and miniatures of this time did not go beyond the old tradition.

In icon painting, two schools continue to develop, which emerged back in the 16th century:

In the middle of the 17th century. these two schools merge in the works of some masters.

In the second half of the 17th century. The Armory became the artistic center not only of Moscow, but of the whole country. Here are the best artistic forces... The masters of the Armory were instructed to renovate and paint over the palace chambers and churches, paint icons and miniatures. The chamber consisted of a whole workshop of "denominators", that is, draftsmen who created drawings for icons, church banners, regimental banners, sewing, jewelry.

In addition, the Armory served as a kind of supreme art school... Artists came here to improve their skills. All paintings were headed by the tsarist iconographer Simon Ushakov. The most significant of the icon painters of the Armory were

The parsuna genre originated at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries. But this first purely secular genre received its development in the second half of the 17th century. Known portraits of tsars Alexei Mikhailovich and Fyodor Alekseevich, which are in the State Historical Museum. There is also a portrait of the young Tsarevich Peter.

The most significant works of Parsun painting were written at the end of the century (portraits of the steward V. Lyutkin, uncle and mother of Peter I - L.K. and N.K. Naryshkins). In these portraits-parsuns, those artistic features that became the basis and feature of the Russian portrait school of the 18th century are already noticeable, namely: attention to the inner world of the person being portrayed, the poeticization of the image, subtle coloring.

Thus, for the cultural process of the 17th century. in general, a departure from the traditional and the formation of a new, secular culture is characteristic. This transition is associated with profound socio-economic and political changes in the country. Cultural evolution of the 17th century paved the way for the transformation of the coming century.