Development of geographical knowledge. Methodical development of a multimedia lesson on the history of Russia on the topic: "Enlightenment and science in the second half of the XIX century
The origin of the geography of Herodotus Galicarnas, GG. BC e.
The birth of geography made a trip along the coast of Northern Europe (the book "Ocean") Pill, GG. BC.
The origin of the geography of Eratosthene Kirensky, GG. BC.
Claudius Ptolemy, GG. Number of geography
Hannon's swimming is one of the most ancient travelers who have reached us, there was Gannon from Carthage. Carthage was on the coast of North Africa (near the modern city of Tunisia). It was a rich and strong city-state. His merchants had numerous settlements on the Islands of Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia. Bold Carthaginian sailors have repeatedly went to the Atlantic Ocean. In the south of the Pyrenean Peninsula, they founded the major trading city of Gades (now it is called Cadiz).
Phoenicians, Phoenicians called themselves Hananons. The Greeks were called them by the Phoenicians or Sidonian, Romans of Bully. The Phoenicians were distinguished by high business qualities, were known in history as skillful merchants, great navigators, alphabet inventors. The Phoenicians founded numerous colonies in the Mediterranean Sea, and even on the coast of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The most famous Carthage colonies, phyava (in Greece), Cadiz, etc.
Ibn Batutta February 25) Arab traveler and wandering merchant, who traveled all the countries of the Islamic world from Bulgar to Mombasa, from Timbuktu to China.
The Great Silk Road is a great achievement in the history of world civilization. Branched caravan road networks crossed Europe and Asia from the Mediterranean to China and served in the era of antiquity and the Middle Ages an important means of trade relations and the dialogue between the cultures of the West and the East. Silk Road had many routes for which from the II century BC. until the end of the XVII century AD. There was an international chat from China to Spain.
The name "The Great Silk Road" is associated with precious in those days for the countries of the West by goods - silk. At the end of the II century BC. Silk introduced two worlds - the West and East - in the first in the history of mankind of the transcontinental road. The base of the Silk Road refers to the second half of the II century BC, when the diplomat and intelligence officer Zhang Jiang for the first time discovered the western land for the Chinese countries - the countries of Central Asia. Until this time, the path from Europe to Asia was broken from China's borders, as Asian Mountains - Tien Shan, Kun Lun, Karakorum, Hindukush, Himalayas - hid the ancient Chinese civilization from the rest of the world
21 Vikings Ranniestrial Awards predominantly Scandinavian seawards, in the viiixi centuries who have made maritime trips from Winland and the Caspian to North Africa. Swedish Vikings, and Vikings from the Baltic coast traveled to the East and appeared in ancient Russian sources under the name Varyagov. Norvezhie and Danish Vikings moved in their most to the West and are known in Latin sources under the name of Normanov.
The Middle Ages presented his travel history in Asia in the "Book of the Diversity of Peace". The first of Europeans reached China. Marco Polo, GG.
Middle Ages to create the first globe in 1494. The magnitude of the globe, nicknamed by the "earth apple", 507 mm in diameter; There are no indications of latitude and longitude in the modern method, but there is equator, meridians and tropics and images of the zodiac signs. Martin Behaimim, GG.
Development of geographical knowledge V for the second half of the XIX and early XX centuries. Russian geography has achieved great success, which was connected mainly with the activities of the Russian geographical society.
F. P. Litke V F. P. Litke (1797-1882) - Admiral of the Russian Fleet, was a major geographer. In the rank of Michman, he took part in swimming V. M. Golovna on Kamchatka.
F. P. Litch V in 1826-1829. F. P. Litke was the commander of the Senjavin Slut, which made worldwide swimming, during which significant scientific works were performed in the northern part of the Pacific. In Kamchatka, the most important points of the coast were identified and the heights of many sobes were measured; Islands described in detail.
Semenova-Tianzhansky V F. P. Litke led the geographical society until January 17, 1873. After him, P. P. Semenov-Tian-Shansky (1827-1914) became the head of the Company (1827-1914), which was playing a major role in the development of Russian geography.
V in 1856-1857. Semenov-Tian-Shansky made a scientific expedition to Tien Shan, putting the beginning, a comprehensive study of nature and human activity. During the expedition, Semenov-Tian-Shan studied mutual relations between various components of nature and human activity, and also found patterns in the relationship of nature elements, highlighting vertical belts and types of terrain. V Semenov-Tian-Shansky contributed to the creation of a whole school of geographers, which included the largest scientists: J. M. Przhevalsky, V. I. Roborovsky, Ya. G. Potanin, M. V. Pevtsov, Ya. K. Kozlov, V. . Obruchev, I. V. Muskketov and others.
Peter Alekseevich Kropotkin V Peter Alekseevich Kropotkin (1842-1921) during their travels in Siberia in 1862-1867. Assembled exclusively valuable material, which changed all the previous ideas about the northeastern part of Asia.
Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky V Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky (1839-1888) is known as the great researcher of Central Asia. While in the Military Academy, Przhevalsky amounted to the great work of "Military Review of the Pria Amur Region" and was elected a member of a geographical society.
V In 1867 P. P. Semenov-Tian-Shansky offered Przhevalsky to go to the Ussuri region. Przhevalsky accepted this proposal and wonderfully held his first expedition, the results of which are set forth in the book "Journey to the Ussuri Territory". After that, the geographical society adopted a plan for his journey to Central Asia. V N. M. Przhevalsky made four travels to Central Asia: Mongolian (1871 - 1873), Lob-Norse and Dzhungarian (1876-1877), Tibetan first (1879-1881) and Tibetan second (1883- 1886). At the beginning of the fifth expedition, Przhevalsky died.
Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maklai V Among the travelers of the last century, Nikolai Nikolayevich Miklukho-Maclay (1846-1888) occupies a special place (1846-1888). While other geographers discovered new, accomplishly unknown land, Miklukho-Maclay sought to open a person among the "primitive", that is not affected by the European culture, peoples.
v Humanitarian sciences in Russia in the XIX century. They differed originality and were at the global level of development. A characteristic feature of the development of humanities in the XIX century is their differentiation: such sciences as sociology, political science are distinguished from philosophy; From historical science - archeology, ethnography and auxiliary historical disciplines. Humanitarian sciences have become different a variety of schools and trends that influence the development of science in the 20th century.
v is the characteristic phenomenon of the beginning of the XIX century. In Russia, there was an increase in interest in history. As a result, numerous historical societies appear, in particular the Moscow Society of the History and Antiquities of the Russian (1804). With the names of K. D. Cavelina (1818 -1885), B. N. Chicherina (1828 -1904), S. M. Solovyova (1820 -1879) The direction in the domestic historical science was associated with the name "State School".
V. O. Klyuchevsky V Legend and Classic of Russian History became a student of S. M. Solovyeva - V. O. Kleevsky (1841 -1911) A bright representative of the National Psychological and Economic School, which formed in Russia in the last quarter of the XIX century. When the psychoanalysis became popular.
The development of geography in Russia in the XVIII century was originally a certain influence of the ideas of Western European scientists, for example, by B.Vanya. But they were so strong and critically processed, so much was made new to the science of Russian scientists (I.I. Kirillov, V.N. Tatishchev, M.V. Lomonosov) that the Russian geographical school of this time is new, distinctive. And it was determined first of all practical tasks.
If in the countries of Western Europe, science has largely aimed at meeting the practical needs of maritime shipping and overseas trafficking, then in Russia there were other practical needs - settling and economic development of the world's largest array of sushi, a kind of "ocean", forests, and. In the XVIII century The development of Russia was particularly intense: firmly became on, on the ocean; The mining areas of the Urals arose, new cities and villages were built hundreds; Numerous began to be used for shipping. In the second half of the XVIII century. Russia came to the first place in the world for the production of black and non-ferrous metals, began to produce gold, trading bread; still continued to abound with furs, catch the fish and beat the marine beast, garbage of flax, hemp, smoke a resin ...
For the needs of the economic development of the territory of Russia, economic statistics were primarily necessary ("political arithmetic"). From the "Petrove nest chicks" first combined these sciences to one whole Ivan Kirillovich Kirilov (1669-1737). In the early 1720s. He headed astronomical, topographic, cartographic and statistical work in Russia. Kirilov decided to draw up a three-volume "All-Russian Empire", 120 cards in each volume. But I managed to publish in 1734 only the first edition, which included the "General" map of the entire country and 14 "special" (private) cards of individual administrative-territorial units. On these, in particular, there were also many economic objects, and the text included brief economic and statistical characteristics of various locations.
In 1727 I.K. Kirilov finished the work of the "blooming state of the Russian state" (it was published only in 1831) - the first Russian statistical and economic and geographical description.
Ideas and suggestions IK Kirilov was essentially developed by Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev (1986-1750) and Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (1711-1765). It is from them that begins in Russia the original Russian scientific geography. Both outstanding scientists began their activities during Peter I reforms, when the word "geography" itself is included in Russia.
V.N. Tatishchev - a man of versatile talent: Warrior (participant of the Poltava battle), diplomat, builder of cities and factories, metallurgist, historian, ethnographer, archaeologist, botanist, paleontologist, cartographer, economist and geographer - such a range of activities of this wonderful scientist. Peter I in 1719 specifically instructed Tatishchev to draw up the history and geography of Russia, which he diligently took up only in 1724
V.N. Tatishchev knew well the boar book, which was released into Russian in 1718, he mentions her in his writings. The System of Geographic Sciences of Tatishchev appeared to a certain extent reminded the system proposed by jar. But essentially in its own way, it was very different from it methodologically. In the work "On geography in general about the Russian" (1746), Tatishchev divided the geography three times into three sections, thereby proposing as a bulk (three-dimensional) model of geographic science:
P.P. Semenov-Tian-Shan began its activities as a geologist and botanico-geographer. His journey to Tien Shan (1856-1857) he spent as a naturalist. But then the questions of history, historical geography, demographics, geography and, finally, economic geography as a whole are attracted. Semenov-Tian-Shansky wrote many regional monographs, including the five-volume "geographic statistical dictionary of the Russian Empire" (1863-1885). In 1871, he published a job on the historical geography of Russian settlements. He was also a member of the expert of the editorial commission on the preparation of the reform of 1861, which freed Russia's peasants from serfdom. From January 1, 1864 P.P. Semenov became the first director of the newly organized Central Statistical Committee. He led them until 1897 and left from there due to disagreement with a distortion of the program of the first All-Russian census of the population of 1897
A man of a variety of interests competent in many areas of knowledge, Semenov-Tian-Shan was perfect for managing such a complex organization as a Russian geographical society, within 41 (1873-1914); It was he who was able to support his unity and, consequently, the identity of domestic geographic science.
Among the historians of geographic science discusses the difficult question about Scientific School P.P. Semenova Tien Shanskaya. He did not teach at the university, did not have disciples in the literal sense of the word. But he turned the Russian geographical society to the first-class school of young researchers: travelers, ethnographers, oceanologists, cartographers, economists. Among them were not only N.N. who from Semenov-Tien Shan's hands received a wide program of studying the peoples of the new, not only N.M. who received from the same hands a program for the study of the Ussuri region, and then, but also such great researchers, like G.N. Potanin, M.V. Pevtsov, A.L. Chekanovsky, I.D. , I.V. Musketov, A.P. Fedchenko, A.A. Tilla, P.A. Kropotkin, A.I. , I.P. Minaev, Yu.M. Schocal and many others. Each of these names is an outstanding phenomenon in the history of geographic science. It can be said that Semenov-Tien-Shansky's geographical society created a brilliant constellation of geographers of different specialties, but most of all - the geographers of a wide profile dealing with a comprehensive study of nature and man.
Alexander Ivanovich Wayes (1842-1916), as well as p.p. Semenov-Tian-Shansky, distinguished deep education and breadth of scientific research. He studied in Berlin, Göttingen and. His doctoral dissertation "On direct insolation in various places of the earth's surface" he defended in 1865 in the University of Ghettingen. He devoted all subsequent life to the study of the thermal and water balance of the Earth. In the 1870s, Waikov traveled through the United States of America and Asia. In 1884, he began his activities at the University of St. Petersburg.
It is characteristic that A.I. Waries directly associated the study with an improvement in agricultural production. Learning in questions of improving Russia, he conceived to compare agricultural receptions in areas with a climate, similar to the climatic conditions of European Russia. So the first study of climatic analogues arose. Following his advice, the coast began to successfully grow tea, in Central Asia - cotton, on wheat. Famous work A.I. Warious "Climates of the globe, especially Russia" was published in his native language in 1884. And in 1887 it was transferred to German and entered Germany, it was highly appreciated by the climatologists of others.
However, one of the most significant merits of A.I. VEYKOVA in front of world geographic science is that he declared the importance of studying the influence of a person to the environment. He was one of the first European scientists who realized the destructive consequences of using the Earth to the person and indicating them (a little earlier did George Perkins march in the book "Man and Nature" (1864), which was translated and published in Russia in 1866 in In particular, A.I. Wayers believed that due to destruction in nature, a variety of changes occur, which in some areas wrapped with disastrous consequences. Warns warned that the predatory cutting of forests in the north of the country can change the climate towards its greater aridity. He was passionate The commemor of the revival of the desert and lands by them.
The beginning of modern physical geography in Russia is associated with the works of the Creator of Scientific Soil Studies of the Professor of St. Petersburg University of Vasily Vasilyevich Dokuchaeva (1846-1903). Ideas, forecasts, Docuchyev offers were based on comprehensive perennial expedition research. Three more expeditions of Dokuchaev - according to land assessment in the Nizhny Novgorod and Poltava provinces and a special steppe expedition - a total of 15 years (1882-1885, 1888-1897). To this, it is necessary to add that Dokuchaev in 1890-1900. He headed the commission created by him for the natural historical, agricultural and hygienic study of St. Petersburg and its surroundings - the first integrated geographical study of the Big City. Classical steel Main works V.V. Dokuchaeva - "Russian" (1883) and "Our steppes before and now" (1891). The soil doctrine served as the starting moment to develop the idea of \u200b\u200ba natural geographical complex. According to Dokuchaev, there is a result of the interaction of maternal, water, heat and organisms; It is like a product and at the same time with its "mirror", a visual reflection of a complex system of relationships in the natural complex. Therefore, the shortest path to the geographical synthesis is underway from exploring the soil.
Dokuchaev well understood the negative aspects of the differentiation of natural science far to the time of the time and saw that geography, as he said, "blossoms in all directions." In 1898, he expressed the idea of \u200b\u200bthe need to develop a new science on relationships and interactions between the components of living and inanimate nature and the laws of their joint development. The beginning of this science, as if by introducing into it, served as its doctrine of nature zones (1898-1900). Now this teaching is known to every schoolboy, but at that time only a few scientists (among them the student of Dokuchaeva G. F. Morozov, 1867-1920) was foreseen in the ideas of Dokuchaev the beginning of modern geography. Later academician hp Bert (1876-1950) clearly indicated that "the founder of modern geography was the great soil student V. Dokuchaev" (Bert L.S. Geographical zones of the USSR. M., 1947. T. 1).
Wonderful Russian scientist Dmitry Nikolaevich (1843-1923) created an extremely large and strong university geographical school. At first - at Moscow University, and then, through His graduates, and in other universities in Russia.
The first in Russia of the Department of Geography was opened at Moscow University in 1884, first at the historical and philological faculty; Head of her was invited by D.N. Anuchin. In 1887, he achieved the transfer of this department - geography, anthropology and ethnography - on the natural branch of the Physics and Mathematics of the Faculty, where his work turned out to prepare young geographers, from which the largest scientists with world names were then rose.
Most of the scientific interests of D.N. Anunay was exceptional:, anthropology, ethnography, archeology, history and methodology of science, hydrology (including limbor), cartography, geomorphology, country studies. But such a versatility was not a random set of current interests, leakage from one subject of studying to another. They, like many major scientists, theoretically accounted for, as we say now, "single block".
D.N. Anuchin believed that geography should study the nature of the earth's surface. He shared geography on landography and country studies. Zemlyology studies a complex of physical and geographical components of the entire surface of the Earth, and country studies, although a wider complex, including a person ("without a person, geography will be incomplete," - wrote in 1912. D.N. Anuchin), but within the framework of individual areas ( "Countries"). Since the nature of the earth's surface is formed in the process of its historical development, the historical method is necessary in geographic studies. And of course, geographic studies are not important in themselves, but practice is necessary.
These are the main provisions of D.N. Anunay, they will support each modern geographer in Russia.
"Geography course" - the title list includes: program design rules: an elective course on geography. The name of the elective course is the "Basics of Entrepreneurial Activities". Educational and thematic planning. Subject courses: cities, areas, towns of urban type 1 16. Subject courses. Criteria for evaluating the program of the elective course:
"Geography textbooks" - Geography: Grade 9: Thematic Testing Technology Rostov. Update the content of the geography in the UMC of the new generation. TECHNOLOGY TESTING. G.P. Volobuev. Geography of Russia. Population and economy. Grade 9`. Barabanov V.V., Dyukova S.E., Petrova N.N. We are preparing for Egpocho geography.
"Tasks on geography" - Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern. Printing machine Germany 1455g. But no in the ocean. Shepherd. Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (Ulyanov). Donetsk. Smokyan. Napoleon 1 Bonaparte. What is in the river, pond, lake, in the sea. Dmitry Donskoy Dmitry Ivanovich Rurikovich. Cooking Russia 15th century. Telescope H 17th century Netherlands. Glasses Italy 1280.
"Geography lessons" - knowledge skills skills. Good level of knowledge. Organization of students in geography lessons. Development learning. Research of the river. Problem question. Understanding the joy of discoveries. Slides. Lecture and seminar classes. Reflection lessons. Analyze the experience of organizing personal-oriented learning in the lessons of geography.
"Games in geography" - Games of educational training: in the sky, I fly the cloud, I am on Earth by the river, I and the sea, the ocean ... The method of studying the actions of the opponent. Tolerant attitude towards others. Calibration of gaming scores with school marks. The desire for the activity itself, regardless of the result. Project theme: Development of creative and communicative abilities of students.
"Questions in geography" - East Siberizok. Continued. Sargassovo. Alaska. Name the third planet of the solar system. Seismograph. Ural. Antarctica. Name the largest and deep sea off the coast of Russia. At the North Pole. Sakhalin. Question: Name the biggest island of Russia. Pampa. Bering. What continent intersect all the meridians?
History of Russian geographic discoveries XIX. in. Begins a series of round-the-world travels, among which the navigation of Ya. F. Cruzenshternand about. F. Lisyansky(1803-1806), V. M. Golzvnina(1807-1809 and 1817-1819) and F. F. Bellinshausenand M. P. Lazarev (1819-1821) (Fig. 8).
Sailing I. F. Kruzenshtern and Yu. F. Lysyansky was the first Russian round-the-world expedition. The reason for its organization was the inconvenience of supply and the need to protect possessions in North America. The main tasks of the first Russian round-the-world expedition were: Delivery to the Far East of the Russian-American Foundation and Sale of Furies of this company in China, Delivery to Japan N. N. Rezanova and the production of fair geographical studies. For the expedition, two vehicles were equipped with displacement of 450 and 350 g, respectively named by "hope" and "Neva". Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern was appointed commander of "Hope", and the "Neva" commander - Yuriy Fedorovich Lisynsky. The teams of both ships consisted of Russian military sailors scored voluntarily. Astronomer participated in the expedition Gorner,natually reptiles Tillesius.and Langesdorfand doctor medicine Labland.
On July 26, 1803, the ships came out of Kronstadt. Having visited Copenhagen, England and the Canary Islands, on November 14, 1803, "Nadezhda" and "Neva" for the first time in the history of the Russian fleet, Equator crossed. Having conceded Cape Gorn, on March 12, 1804, the ships were separated during the storm and met again only at the Marquisian Islands, from where they got to the Hawaiian Islands. Next began their separate swimming.
Kruzenshtern from the Hawaiian Islands went to Petropavlovsk-on-Kamchatka, and from there to Japan, where after five months of waiting received the Japanese refusal to take the Russian Messenger. From Japan, Kruzenshtern has passed the Unknown Europeans to the Japanese Sea, then through the strait of the laper in the Okhotsk Sea and returned to Petropavlovsk. Hence, he headed for Sakhalin, having studied his Eastern shore, then heated the northern tip of the island and descended to the south to the mouth of Amur. Having met a strong course from the south and fresh water, Kruzenshtern came to a false conclusion that Sakhalin connects with the mainland south of the mouth of the Amur. Having been on Kamchatka again, Cruzenshtern headed in Macau (China).
Lissean headed from the Hawaiian Islands to the shores of North-West America, where he made a description of the shores and accepted fur. After that, "Neva" went to Macau. On the way, west of the Hawaiian Islands, Lisya opened the island called him name.
Having finished selling fur, Kruzenshtern and Lissean floated their homeland through the Zordsky Strait, the Indian Ocean, around Cape of Good Hope. Cape of good hope ships separated and came to Kronstadt apart in August 1806
Expedition Kruzenshtern - Lisyansky gave enormous scientific and practical results. She laid the beginning of oceanographic research; During the swimming, numerous shooting in the northwestern part of the Pacific, many ethnographic observations were made, large collections were collected.
Kruzenshtern and Lisseany described their swimming. In 1809-1812 The work was published Kruzhenstern "Travel around the world in 1803, 1804, 1805 and 1806 on the ships" Hope "and" Neva "in three volumes with the album application of the drawings and the atlas of cards." In 1812, the work of Lisíansky "Travel around the world in 1803, 1804, 1805 and 1806 on the ship" Neva "with the attachment of the Atlas of Maps and drawings" was published.
The brave navigator was Vasily Mikhailovich Golovna, which made two round-the-world swimming. He performed the first journey in 1807-1809. At the "Diana" gate. The head intended to go to the Pacific Ocean around Cape Gorn, but strong storms did not let the ship west. Then the head turned to the east in order to overtake the cape of good hope. Cape of Good Hope in connection with the war between England and Russia, the British detained the ship, although the head had a skip of the British government. After a long expectation, the headman decided to leave the British. After studying the winds attentively and waiting for their favorable combination, the head chopped the anchor ropes and fled. Fearing chase, he took a course to the south, and then turned to the east - bypassing Australia from the south. Having done the parking lot from the new hebrid, the head reached Petropavlovsk-on-Kamchatka. After the arrival at Kamchatka, the head slammed off the coast of North-West America, and then took up the description of the Kuril Islands. During this work, he was captured by the Japanese and stayed in captivity for more than two years.
The second journey of the head took place in 1817-1819. At the Kamchatka gate. This time he passed in the Pacific Ocean around Cape Horn. After parking in Petropavlovsk, the head headed to Russian America, having determined the astronomical position of a number of islands on the road. Having visited the Kadyak, in Novo-Arkhangelsk, at the coast of California, visited the Hawaiian, Mariana Islands and about. Manil. Then the head ended the cape of good hope and, going to the islands of St. Helena, Ascension and Phial, he returned to Kronstadt through Portsmouth. His swimming pool described his swims in writings: "The journey of the Russian Imperial Slut" Diana "from Kronstadt to Kamchatka in 1807, 1808 and 1809 under the authorities of Lieutenant V. Golovnna" and "Journey around the world, perfect at the Kamchatka military gate in 1817, 181.8 And 1819. "
In 1819-1821. At the Slaps "East" and "Mirny" under the superior of Faddeya Faddeevich Bellingshausen and Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev held the first Russian South-Polar Expedition (Fig. 8), marked the greatest geographical discovery XIX. v.- The opening of the sixth mainland - Antarctica. The ships went out on July 4, 1819. In the area of \u200b\u200bSouth Georgia, the expedition was opened a number of islands (O-Va Annenkova, Leskova, Zavadovsky, etc.). Then the ships went to the ground of the sandwich, and it turned out that it represents the archipelago called the southern sandwich islands.
January 16, 1820, under 69 ° 21 "Yu. Sh. Maja fleets were very close to the banks of Antarctica and noted signs of land. This day can be considered the date of opening of the sixth mainland. January 21 and February 5, the signs of the proximity of the Earth and saw Ice Barrier Next, following the east, the ships arrived in Jackson (Sidney). Then the expedition made swimming on the Pacific Ocean, and many islands were opened in Papamot group. After returning to Sydney, the ships went back to seek southern mainland. from about. McQouri Crates They took the course to the south, and reaching floating ice, floated to the east, bypassing the Antarctic mainland. Swimming took place in difficult conditions, however, despite the difficulties, the expedition at all times sought to penetrate as close as possible south. January 10, 1821 at 68 ° 57 "Yu. sh. and 90 ° 46 "z. d. was opened about. Peter I., a. January 17 - Alexander Earth I.. Next, the boat went to the South Shetland Islands, previously adopted by the Englishman Smith for the protrusion of the southern mainland, from where they took the course to Rio de Janeiro and on June 24, 1821 arrived in Kronstadt. Over 91 thousand were passed. kMways, and the seafarers went around the entire Antarctic mainland.
Description of the wonderful swimming on the vessels "Vostok" and "Mirny" was published under the title "Two-time surveys in the Southern Arctic Ocean and swimming around the world in continuation of 1819, 1820 and 1821, committed on the" East "and" Mirny "boats under the bosses of Captain Bellingshausen The commander of the East gate. Lieutenant Lazarev supervised the "Mirny" slut. The description was two volumes with the atlas of cards and species.
Proceedings of the first Russian Antarctic expedition were highly appreciated by scientists. The Soviet people appreciate the merits of the navigators who opened Antarctica.
Russian Geographical Society. IN the second half XIX. and beginning XX explosive Russian geography has achieved great success, which was connected mainly with the activities of the Russian geographical society.
The Russian geographical society was organized in 1845. The goal of the society was "Assembly and distribution in Russia geographical information in general and especially in Russia, as well as the dissemination of reliable information about our fatherland in other lands." Society according to the Charter was divided into four compartments: 1) geography of general, 2) geography of Russia, 3) statistics of Russia, 4) ethnography of Russia. Tsarevich Konstantin became the chairman of the Company, the actual leader was Fedor Petrovich Litke.
F. P. Litka (1797-1882) - Admiral of the Russian Fleet, was a major geographic traveler. In the rank of Michman, he took part in swimming V. M. Golovna on Kamchatka. In 1821, Litke was appointed head of the expedition to describe a new land that had no more accurate cards. At Brig, the "New Earth" Lithuan made four navigation to the shores of the new land. During this time, the Western and southern shores of the island and the Strait of Motokkin Ball were described.
In 1828, Litke published a book "Four-time journey to the Northern Arctic Ocean, committed at the New Earth Brig in 1821-1824," which received a high assessment of scientists. Litch descriptions were distinguished by accuracy and big objectivity.
In 1826-1829. F. P. Litke was the commander of the Senjavin Slut, which made worldwide swimming, during which significant scientific works were performed in the northern part of the Pacific. In Kamchatka, the most important points of the coast were identified and the heights of many sobes were measured; The islands are described in detail: Karaginsky and St. Matthew and the bank of Chukotka from Cape Dezhnev to the mouth of the river. Anadyr; The islands of profit and many others are defined. Great works were held in the Caroline Archipelago. Very great importance were made by the surveillance lithuania for earth magnetism and gravity, as well as daily observations over the weather and water temperature. The naturalists of the expedition collected rich collections on zoology, nerd, mineralogy and ethnography. The description of this swimming Litch gave the book "Travel around the world at the Military Sanitary Sangenin in 1826-1829."
F. P. Litke led the geographical society until January 17, 1873. After him, the head of the Company became P. P. Semenova-Tian-Shan (1827-1914), which played a major role in the development of Russian geography. Regarding the activities of P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky famous Soviet geographer L. S. Bergi wrote: "There are three types of geographers: travelers, country houses and organizers. Peter Petrovich Semenov-Tian-Shansky was also the same, and others. "
In 1856-1857 Semenov-Tian-Shansky made a scientific expedition to Tien Shan, putting the beginning, a comprehensive study of nature and human activity. During the expedition, Semenov-Tian-Shan studied mutual relations between various components of nature and human activity, and also found patterns in the relationship of nature elements, highlighting vertical belts and types of terrain. In addition, it compared the nature of the territory under study with other locations, which is widely applying a comparative method. The results of this journey were set out in the book "Journey to Tien Shan".
Semenov-Tian-Shansky considered geography as a complex of sciences, which includes cartography, physical geography, anthropology, historical geography and statistics. This complex of sciences is, in Semenov-Tian-Shanskoye, "Geography in the broad sense of the word". In addition to her, he spoke about the geography "in the close meaning", that is, about the country. P. P. Semenov-Tian-Shansky contributed to the creation of a whole school of geographers - researchers, where the largest scientists were included: I. M. Przhevalsky, V. I. Roborovsky,I. G. Potanin, M. V. Pevtsov,I. K. Kozlov, V. A. Obruchev, I. V. Musketovother.
We characterize the activities of some other members of the Russian Geographical Society.
Peter Alekseevich Kropotkin (1842-1921) during its travels in Siberia in 1862-1867. Assembled exclusively valuable material, which changed all the former ideas about the northeastern part of Asia. On the basis of the observations conducted in Siberia and Finland, he created the theory of the Ice period. Research P. A. Kropotkin was
generalized in the works: "General essay of the Orientation of Eastern Siberia" (1875) and "research on the glacial period" (1876).
Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky (1839-1888) is known as the great researcher of Central Asia. While in the Military Academy, Przhevalsky amounted to the great work of the "Military Statistical Review of the Pria Amur Region" and was elected a member of a geographical society.
In 1867 P. P. Semenov-Tian-Shansky offered Przhevalsky to go to the Ussuri region. Przhevalsky accepted this proposal and wonderfully held his first expedition, the results of which are set forth in the book "Journey to the Ussuri Territory". After that, the geographical society adopted a plan for his journey to Central Asia.
N. M. Przhevalsky made four travels to Central Asia: Mongolian (1871 -1873), Lob-Norse and Dzhungarian (1876-1877), Tibetan first (1879-1881) and Tibetan second (1883-1886 GG.). At the beginning of the fifth expedition, Przhevalsky died. N. M. Przhevalsky described her travels in the books: "Mongolia and the country of Tangutov" (1875); "From Kuldzhi for Tien Shan and on the forehead" (1878);
"From Zaisan through Hami in Tibet and on the headwaters of a yellow river" (1883) and "from Kyakhta to the origins of a yellow river, the study of the northern outskirts of Tibet and the path through the forehead over the Tarima basin" (1888).
The merits of Przhevalsky are immortal for science. It passed more than 30 thousand. km,by making the route shooting of the entire path with the definition of astronomical points and heights and for the first time gave the correct ideas about the nature of Central Asia. In his writings N. M. Przhevalsky
described the relief and landscapes of Gobi, Nanshania, Tiadam, Kunlun, Northern Tibet, Lobnor and other places. Meteorological observations, which were conducted during all four travel, gave a large material to clarify the climate of Central Asia and Tibet.
Przhevalsky collected extensive collections. He opened a wild horse, a wild camel, several types of mountain rams, antelope, pheasants, chorrows, cuban fish and other lakes, snakes, lizards, insects. Such extensive were plants fees. In the descriptions of the travels, N. M. Przhevalsky was reflected by the life and morals of the peoples with whom he had to meet. Przhevalsky gave the characteristics of Mongols, Tanguts, Tibetans, Chinese, Donggan, Lobrore Turks and the Tarima Basin, Kyrgyz and Kalmjov Tien Shan.
A worthy student N. M. Przhevalsky was Peter Kuzmich Kozlov(1863-1935), who continued the study of Central Asia. P. K. Kozlov committed three independent travels: East Tibetan (1899-1901), Mongol-Tibetan (1907-1909) and Mongolian (1923-1926), describing them in the following books: "Mongolia and Kam (three-year journey in Mongolia and Tibet) "(1905); "Mongolia and Ampo and the dead city of Hara-Hoto" (1923) and "Journey to Mongolia" (1923-1926).
During his travels, P. K. Kozlov passed about 40 thousand. km.In the desert, he discovered the ruins of the dead city of Hara-Hoto, whose excavations were given valuable archaeological materials. Kozlov studied the little-known places of Central Asia: Kam and AMDO, and also collected additional information about the nature of other territories. Much attention of Kozlov paid to ethnographic research.
Among the travelers of the last century there is a special place Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maclay(1846-1888). While other geographers discovered new, accomplishly unknown land, Miklukho-Maclay sought to open a person among the "primitive", that is not affected by the European culture, peoples.
On September 20, 1871, Miklukho-Maklai landed on the northeast coast of New Guinea, in the Gulf of Astronoribia. Here he was delivered to the Corvette "Vityaz", which made around the road. The traveler was built a hut near the Papuas village. Soon between Miklukho-Maclary and Papuas, friendly relations were established. Miklukho-Maclay studied in detail the life, culture and classes of Papuans.
On December 19, 1872, the Mikludo-Maklam came the Cleper "Emerald", at which the researcher accomplished a great journey through the Malay Archipelago. In the future travels, Miklukho-Maclay visited the southwest of New Guinea, on the Malacca Peninsula, on. Java, in the group of Caroline Islands, Admiralty Islands and after three and a half years after departure, settled on the shore of Astrojabia Bay. Here Miklukho-Maclay lived until November 1877, after which he visited Sydney, on the islands of Admiralty and the southeast coast of New Guinea. In 1883, he for the third time I visited the Papuans of the Bay of Astrolabia, after staying here only a few days.
Miklukho-Maclay was a kind of explorer of the life of primitive peoples. He loved people and protested against those violence, which were practiced by Europeans in relation to these peoples.
In the geographical society of half a century worked Alexander Ivanovich Wayikov(1842-1916 gg.)- One of the founders of climatology. Warkers traveled a lot. In addition to the Caucasus and Central Asia, he visited many countries in Western Europe, in North and South America, in Japan and India. The wanders served as the source of those generalizations, which are given in its main work "Climates of the globe, in particular Russia." Here, Wings establishes a deep bond existing between climate and other elements of nature. It also considers the influence of individual elements of the geographical environment on the climate and the opposite effect of the climate on these elements. In addition, Wayers were engaged in the geography of the population and economy. He drew attention to the interaction of man and nature, devoting these questions a number of articles.
A Russian geographical society conducted great work on the study of Asia and other continents. The society contributed to the development of physical geography, ethnography and economic geography, repeatedly considered the issue of geography essence, made a lot to disseminate geographic knowledge. The Company was led by a great job in places, having branches and branches in various parts of Russia.
Scientific activity of the outstanding Russian scientist Vasily Vasilyevich Dokuchaev (1846-1903) flowed out of the geographic society, but had a great importance to fate geography in our country. Dokuchaev was a versatile researcher. His classic scientific work "Russian Chernozem", "Our steppes before and now", "Methods for the formation of river valleys of European Russia", "To the teachings on the zones of nature" and others relate to various issues of geology, geomorphology, geography, soil science and agronomy. The variety of nature of our country allowed Dokuchaev to create science about the soil and the doctrine of geographical zones. Dokuchaev showed that in each zone there are strictly natural links between climate, mother breed, soil, vegetation, animal peace and agricultural activities of man. Among the elements of the nature of the Dokuchaev attached great value to the soil. He considered the soil as a special naturalistful body, which is a link between living and dead nature and is closely connected with the other.
The ideas of Dokuchaev have a large scientific and practical importance. The agriculture of our country is conducted in accordance with the soil and climatic conditions of each zone. Dokuchaev's teachings about geographical zones is the basis of geography.