English speakers and the language itself have come into contact with other languages ​​during their historical development. As a result of these contacts (trade, military), numerous lexical units were borrowed. The largest number of loan words came from Latin, Scandinavian and French. It should also be noted that a significant number of words are borrowed from Celtic, Dutch, Italian, Spanish, Oriental languages. Borrowings are of great interest for studying the history of the English language and the English people, contacts of the British with other nations and peoples.

I. Latin borrowings... In the process of historical development, the English people experienced a significant influence of Roman civilization. For a long time, the Latin language in England was the language of instruction, science, religion. Despite the fact that it is a dead language, it continues to be used to this day for the creation of terms in the language of science. Latin borrowings are usually divided into three periods, or three layers:

1) The first, most ancient layer of borrowings includes:

a) the so-called continental borrowing carried out through direct contacts Anglo-Saxon tribes with the ancient Romans before migrating to the British Isles. Through trade contacts with the Romans, whose level of civilization was quite high, the Anglo-Saxon tribes learned about new and useful things for them and borrowed Latin words typical for the trade of that time: market (L. mercatus), cheap (L. caupo), pound (L. pondo), inch (L. uncia), mile (L. milia); product names: cheese (L. caseus), butter (L. butyrum), oil (L. oleum); fruits and vegetables: cherry, pear, plum, beet, pea, pepper; the words plant, lily, cat, dish, cup, kitchen, cook, sack, chalk, copper, mill, port, etc. Also the first component of the word Satur day.

b) indirect borrowings, through the Celtic tribes who lived in the British Isles before the migration of the Anglo-Saxons from the continent. The ancient Roman emperor Julius Caesar and his legionnaires periodically raided the British Isles in 55 and 54 BC, and in 43 AD the Romans occupied Britain, which they left in 407. During this period, the tribes living on the islands - the Britons and Celts - borrowed the words wall (L.vallum), street (L. strata), camp (L. campus). Also, the Latin component of the castra "camp" is preserved in some geographical names: Lancaster, Dorchester, Manchester, etc.

2) The second layer of Latin borrowings includes religious words... In the 5th - 6th centuries, the church began to play an important role in the life of society in Britain. Christianity spread to the north of England from Ireland. The Pope in 597 sent one of his representatives (St. Augustine) to England to convert the British to Christianity. England converted to Christianity in the 7th century. Latin as the official language of the church became widespread. As a result, the English language borrowed words for the realities associated with the church, religion: abbot, altar, angel, anthem, bishop, candle, cross, creed, cleric, devil, mass, minister, monk, nun, pope, priest, temple , tunic. However, the word god is native English, and church is of Greek origin. At the churches in England, schools were formed, the first teachers were priests and monks, therefore the words school (L. schola< Gk. skhole), scholar, master, grammar, verse, meter, etc. - латинские заимствования.

3) The third layer of Latin borrowings includes borrowings that have taken place during the Renaissance in the 14th - 16th centuries. The Renaissance era is characterized by an increased interest in the ancient culture of ancient Rome and Greece, the flourishing of sciences and culture. The Latin language at that time played a large role in many European countries, including England. It was the language of education, religion, scientific works and many literary works were written in it. Many Latin borrowings came to English through French, so it is not always possible to determine how the borrowing process went. So, the word of Latin origin doubt, borrowed through French< Fr. doute >, and his writing retained the Latin influence: L. dubitare.

Since Latin was the language of intellectual communication, borrowings from this period include scientific, literary terms, abstract words... Nouns: act, action, admission, animal, certificate, collision, conflict, conduct, content, contract, datum, formula, forum, fracture, genius, literature, nucleus, picture, promise, progress, etc. Specific names: chalk, marble, silk, linen, etc. Verbs: add, admit, abbreviate, accept, act, affect, assimilate, assume, attract, complete, constitute, construct, correct, direct, dismiss, distribute, exhibit, express, divide, include, interrupt, prevent, produce, reject, separate , subdivide, subscribe, transport, violate, etc. Adjectives: absolute, acute, artificial, convenient, delicate, desperate, equal, fabulous, finite, frequent, fortunate, infantile, inferior, intelligent, junior, major, maternal, mental, minor, moderate, paternal, polite, private, senior, superior , etc.

Latin borrowings are so numerous that of course it is impossible to present a complete list here. At the same time, groups of synonyms appear, where one word is original, and the other is a Latin borrowing:

fatherly - paternal "fatherly"

motherly - maternal "motherly"

childish - infantile "childish"

sunny - solar "solar"

The first of these pairs of words is original, the second is Latin borrowing, which has a more formal terminological character. Compare: sunny day and solar orbit, motherly feelings and maternal duties. Most Latin borrowings consist of two or more syllables with prefixes and suffixes: ab-, ad-, com-, dis-, ex-, in- / im-, il-, ir-, sub-, -ate, -al , -or, -ant, etc.

During the Renaissance, words were also borrowed from the Greek language: atom, cycle, Bible, myth, philosophy.

II. Scandinavian borrowings(from Old Norse and Danish).

The British and the Scandinavian peoples have had close contacts throughout the history of England. Particularly close contacts between them were in the 9th - 11th centuries, when the Scandinavian Vikings captured the north and east of England and partly Scotland and Ireland. In 878 a peace treaty was signed known as Danelaw (Danelagu) "Danish Law". From here the word law was borrowed. Scandinavian words, unlike Latin ones, were borrowed orally.

Since English and Scandinavian languages ​​are similar in origin and structure, such words were borrowed from Scandinavian that could not be borrowed from genetically unrelated languages. For example, the pronouns they, their, them, which supplanted Old English hie "they", the pronoun same, prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs: both, till, though, fro (from to and fro).

Nouns: fellow, husband, sister (OE sweostor), law, window, cake, egg, steak, bag, link, bank, root, wing, bark (of a tree), dirt, anger, leg, etc. Words starting with sk-, sc-: scale, score, ski, skin, skirt, sky, skill but skeptic, skeleton from Greek, square from French. Verbs: cast, die, gaze, crawl, hit, ransack, seem, take, want, call, etc. The words get and give are natively English, but the pronunciation of the initial [g] appeared under the influence of the Scandinavian languages, otherwise these words would have been read with the sound [j]. Adjectives: bleak, weak, ill, sly, odd, loose, low, happy, ugly, wrong.

III. Borrowings from French.

Historically, borrowings from French went into English from two dialects: Norman and Parisian.

In the 11th century, after the Battle of Hastings in 1066, Britain was conquered by the Normans (Normandy is a northern province of France). The Norman conquest lasted in England from the middle of the 11th century to the end of the 14th century. The Normans at this time were at a higher level of development, the British borrowed from them new concepts of a more progressive social system - developed feudalism. During the Norman conquest in England, there seemed to be two languages ​​- the language of the conquerors - the Norman dialect of French - the language of the ruling classes, official documents, school education - and the language of the conquered - English.

Words borrowed during the Norman Conquest include both everyday words and vocabulary reflecting the social order and lifestyle of the conquerors. The following main groups are distinguished:

a) words that were used to describe the conquered country: country, coast, river, valley, lake, mountain, village, border, frontier, etc .;

b) family relations: parent, cousin, aunt, uncle, niece, nephew;

c) units of time: hour, minute, second; season - autumn;

d) words that refer to the organization of a feudal society, governing the country, life at court: feudal, state, government, parliament, crown, court, office, duke, duchess, baron, vassal, noble, prince, count, gentle, people, peasant, rule, serve, command, obey, authority, liberty, power, glory, danger, nation, property, sir, madame, chivalry, police, palace, castle, etc .;

e) legal terms: justice, judge, privilege, crime, accuse, jail, prison, client, defendant, process, attorney, etc .;

f) military terminology: war, peace, army, navy, soldier, chief, captain, battle, enemy, victory, defense, resistance, destroy, etc .;

g) words related to a person, his lifestyle, emotional state: ease, joy, delight, pleasure, leisure, comfort, enjoy, disease, honor, reason, grief, despair, desire, passion, courage, envy, etc .;

h) names of professions: barber, carpenter, butcher, broker, merchant, painter, tailor, surgeon, etc.

i) clothes, household items: coat, cloak, frock, garment, gown, robe, boot, fur, ornanent, jewel, button, mirror, carpet, curtain, blanket, table, chair, pen, pencil, fashion, etc.

j) food, food preparation: boil, broil, fry, roast, mince, dine, dinner, supper, flour, sugar, beef, pork, mutton, veal, salad, juice, cabbage, onion, cucumber, biscuit, etc.

Many other words, which belong to a wide variety of groups, were borrowed by English from French at that time. Nouns: age, affair, action, air, baggage, beauty, branch, cage, cattle, chance, company, consent, coward, cry, damage, difference, error, example, exercise, experience, face, favor, honor, labor, marriage, language, question, etc. Adjectives: able, ancient, brief, certain, clear, considerable, cruel, different, difficult, easy, familiar, famous, favorable, fine, foreign, poor, sure, etc. Verbs: achieve, approve, arrive, attend, blame, catch, carry, consider, count, cover, demand, deny, deserve, finish, enter, examine, excuse, increase, fail, form, marry, refuse, suffer, paint, perform, travel, etc.

The French language remained the most important source of lexical borrowings in subsequent historical periods. During and after the Renaissance, in addition to Latin and Greek, French borrowings also played an important role. They came from the Parisian dialect.

Among the borrowings from Parisian French, one can single out political vocabulary, especially after the French bourgeois revolution of the 17th century (1650): society, aristocracy, democracy, republic, regime, bourgeois, tyranny, ideology, etc .; words related to trade and industry: commerce, manufacture, economy, economic. Cultural ties with France are reflected in borrowings such as: artist, ballet, baroque, vase, memoir, essay, cartoon, pricis, brochure, envelope, etc. French cuisine and fashion continued to interest the British, which is confirmed by subsequent borrowings: cuisine, pastry, champagne, cutlet, picnic, canteen, menu, restaurant, café, blouse, vogue, etc. Military terms continued to come from French: troops, battalion, brigade, platoon, cadet, cannon, bayonet, rocket, barricade, barracks, parole, campaign, etc. Various words borrowed in the 18th - 20th centuries: comrade, pilot, entrance, attitude, detail, zero, apartment, bureau, development, fiancée, garage, chauffeur, interview, detach, embarass, etc.

There are some peculiarities of spelling and pronunciation that are typical for French loanwords: combinations of letters ch chauffeur, echelon, chef; (s) qua square, quaint; que question, picturesque; ou route; g prestige, garage; digraph oi point, joint; spelling v and j at the beginning of a word: vase, veal, just, journal; in some words, the French letters and and z fianci, communiqui, façade have been preserved.

IV. Borrowings from other languages.

Other languages ​​that have contributed to the development of English vocabulary include the following:

1. Celtic... Celtic borrowings, along with Latin ones, are among the most ancient. They are relatively few in number and have been preserved in place names: Kent, Avon (river), Exe / Esk (river), Thames, London (Llyn "river" + dūn "hill, fortress") and some words: д.а. dūn, modern down, dunn - grayish brown, modern. dun, assa - modern. ass ‘donkey’, binn ‘nursery, feeder’ - modern. bin ‘zazrom’.

2. Dutch Language... In the 14th - 17th centuries. thanks to intensive trade with Holland, Flanders borrowed words related to navigation: dock, deck, yacht, cruise, freight, etc. and trade: bale, pack, spool, brandy, booze, etc. Painting words: sketch, easel, landscape were borrowed during the heyday of the Flemish school of painting.

3. Italian language... Most of the borrowings relate to the field of arts, architecture, especially music: cupola, balcony, loggia, opera, sonata, aria, solo, concert, soprano, piano. Also, various words related to the field of finance firm "firm", bank "bank (in French)" reflecting Italian traditions, realities: carnival, gondola, macaroni, pizza, umbrella, influenza, malaria, propaganda, bandit.

4. Spanish... Direct borrowings from Spanish include (from the 16th century): embargo, cargo, armada, flotilla, breeze, junta, renegade, guerilla, negro, mullatto, caste, sherry, cigar, cockroach, etc. Through the Spanish conquistadors, words from Latin American countries were borrowed from the Spanish language: tomato, cocoa, potato, barbecue, canoe, maize, hurricane, cannibal, tobacco, etc.

5. German: zinc, cobalt, quartz, nickel, paraffin, vitamin, kohlraby, sauerkraut, schnitzel, schnaps, plunder, iceberg, waltz, kindergarten, leitmotif, Zeitgeist, rucksack, blitz, blitzkrieg, ablaut, etc.

6. Russian language... Borrowings from the Russian language are divided into 2 groups: a) pre-revolutionary: samovar, tsar, steppe, vodka, kvass, borsch, troika, astrakhan, sable, sterlet, sevruga, babushka; b) post-revolutionary: Soviet, bolshevik, sputnik, perestroika.

You can name borrowings from languages ​​that were colonies of Great Britain, for example, words that came from the Indian subcontinent (17th century): jungle, loot, jute, pyjamas, khaki, yoga, verandah, etc.

From oriental languages: Malay-Polynesian gong, taboo, boomerang, Arabic coffee, sofa, sash, hashish, sheikh, Chinese tea, silk, from Turkish pasha, bazaar, caftan, jackal, from Japanese geisha, kimono, harakiri from Tatar horde, koumiss. Through the American version, their languages ​​were borrowed from the North American Indians: opossum, skunk, mocassin, tomahawk, wigwam, etc. As you can see, many of the borrowings of this kind are limited in use, most of them are used to designate objects related to the culture of various peoples.

English is considered one of the richest languages ​​in the world. It contains about 200 thousand words of active vocabulary. Few languages ​​can match it in vocabulary richness. The reason for this is the derivational ability of the English language, as well as its ability to borrow words from other languages. Everyone knows that the vocabulary of the English language has absorbed a really huge number of words from different languages ​​of the world, in this regard, we would very much like to know from which languages ​​the vocabulary was borrowed and, finally, from which language of the world the most words were borrowed.

When a word is borrowed from one language to another, it is very difficult to predict what fate awaits it. A word can develop a new system of meanings for it and enter into new relationships in combination with other words of the vocabulary of the borrowing language, move away from its original state and therefore cease to be felt as a foreign element in the language. So, for example, it happened with the noun stomach, which, while continuing to be an anatomical term, acquired widespread use and entered phraseological phrases such as to have no stomach for something (to have no taste or desire for something), haughty stomach (arrogance), etc. This process is observed in other languages ​​as well. The influence of one language on another does not go unnoticed. This process is observed in all languages ​​of the world, therefore this topic is relevant for all nations and nationalities. Of course, the language continues to expand through borrowings and borrowings contribute to the enrichment of the vocabulary of the language.

We believe that the topic of this research work is relevant for our time, since borrowing is an integral part of our modern life.

From our point of view, the main centers of attraction for new borrowings are

1. Everyday life in its everyday and cultural aspects:

Sushi, geisha, tenaki-sushi - Japanese;

Mashine - French

Harem - Arabic

Hamburger - German

Pizza, spaghetti, macaroni - Italian.

2. Social and political life:

Glasnost, perestroika, nomenclatura - Russian;

Viking - Scandinavian

Hara-kiri, samurai - Japanese;

Bank, balcony, umbrella - Italian.

3. The sphere of culture (literature, cinema, theater, music, painting, etc.):

Ballet - French

Karaoke, ikebana - Japanese;

Piano, opera, sonata - Italian.

4. Scientific and technical sphere:

Mechatronics - French

Tenaki is Japanese.

5. World of sports:

Kimono, aiki-jitsu, aikido - Japanese.

Summing up the above, it should be emphasized that without this layer it is impossible to imagine the entire corpus of the new vocabulary of the English language. And, of course, foreign language borrowings played a huge role in the development of the English language.

3. Research methods

Collecting, processing, interpreting the material, as well as analyzing international words and questioning students in the knowledge of the meaning of international words, allowed us to study this topic deeper and solve the research problem.

4. Goals and objectives of the study

The aim is to investigate the process of interpenetration of words in English as it interacts with other languages. Identify sources, motivation, scope of borrowing, broaden horizons and vocabulary.

The objectives are to:

1) identify where and why the borrowed word came to the English language;

2) determine what changes were caused by its appearance in the vocabulary of the English language;

3) identify international words in English and point out some discrepancies in Russian and English;

4) establish the main methods of borrowing;

5) find out why English has a greater ability to borrow foreign words than any other language.

General characteristics of borrowings of the English language

2. 1. The role and conditions of borrowing in the vocabulary

The role of borrowings in different languages ​​is not the same and depends on the specific historical conditions of the development of each language. In English, the percentage of borrowings is much higher than in many other languages, since, for historical reasons, it turned out to be very permeable, in contrast to many languages. The English language, more than any other language, has the ability to borrow foreign words in conditions of direct direct contact with other languages: first in the Middle Ages from foreign invaders replacing each other on the British Isles, and later in the conditions of trade expansion and colonial activity of the British themselves.

Borrowings are one of the important ways to enrich the vocabulary, but not the only one, or even the most important one.

We are interested in where and why the borrowed word came from and how it took root in the language, how it changed its meaning and what changes it caused by its appearance in the vocabulary of the language that adopted it.

The largest Russian linguist of the 19th century, A. A. Potobnya, paid attention to the creative element in the process of borrowing. "To borrow," he said, means to take in order, perhaps, to bring more into the treasury of human culture than you receive. "

A borrowed word usually takes on one or more meanings of the words closest to it, already existing in the language. In this case, some secondary importance can become central or vice versa. It can also happen, and often happens, the ousting from the language of words that closely coincide in meaning with the new word. This happens because the continued existence in the language of absolute or almost absolute synonyms is always eliminated either by delimiting their meanings, or by displacing unnecessary words from the language.

It should be emphasized that the consolidation of a borrowed word in the language does not necessarily lead to the displacement of the corresponding original. The changes in vocabulary caused by it can be expressed in stylistic grouping or in the delimitation of meanings. For example, a borrowed word from the French language people pushed aside the original word folk. At the same time, the word folk has received an additional meaning. It is used when they talk about their own: family, fellow villagers, fellow countrymen, compatriots. This word is widespread in folk colloquial speech and folk art, and it is not for nothing that it is part of the term folklore.

One or another influence of one language on another is always explained by historical reasons: wars, conquests, travel, trade, etc., which lead to more or less close interaction of different languages. The intensity of the influx of new borrowed words in different periods is very different. Depending on the specific historical conditions, it either increases or decreases.

Borrowing vocabulary can occur orally and in writing. In the case of orally borrowed words, the words take root completely faster in the language. Words borrowed in writing retain their phonetic, spelling and grammatical features longer.

2. 2. The main ways of borrowing

The main methods of borrowing vocabulary are phonetic method, transliteration and tracing.

The phonetic method is such a borrowing of words in which its sound form is preserved. In this way, the words football (football), trailer (trailer), jeans (Jeans) and others are borrowed from the English language. In English, borrowed, for example, from the French regime, ballet, bouquet and others.

Transliteration is another way of borrowing, in which the spelling of a foreign word is borrowed: the letters of the foreign word are replaced by the letters of the native language. This method is used to borrow the words cruise, motel, and club from English into Russian. Many proper names are also transliterated when borrowing from English: Washington (English Washington), Texas (English Texas ["teksəs]), London (English London). In English there are many words of Greek, Latin and French origin, which have been preserved its graphic features, although they are read according to the rules of the English language.

Calculation is a method of borrowing, in which the associative meaning and structural model of a word or phrase are borrowed. When tracing, the components of a borrowed word or phrase are translated separately and combined according to the pattern of a foreign word or phrase. For example, the German noun Vaterland, translated piece by piece, gave the English tracing paper Fatherland; the Russian noun suicide is the Latin kalka suicide (sui itself, cide - murder); the English noun self-service, borrowed into Russian, has the form self-service. This method was used to borrow the following phrases: vicious circle - vicious circle; masterpiece - a masterpiece; rep pate - a pseudonym; blue stocking blue stocking, scientist woman and others.

2. 3. Sources of borrowing

1. French borrowings

The influence of the French language on English was especially strong during the period of French rule in the country (XI-XV centuries), when the national English language had not yet taken shape. The invasion of England by the French in 1066 marked the beginning of the so-called period of the Norman conquest. For a long time, French was the official language of England, and bilingualism existed in the country.

During this period, words related to feudal relations (feudal, baron, vassal) were borrowed; almost all titles (peer, prince, count) and addresses sir and madam; words associated with the dominant government and the state in general (state, people, nation, government, power, authority, etc.); words related to monetary relations (money, property); words denoting family relationships (parent, cousin, uncle, aunt, etc.); a large number of military terms (army, battle, victory, war, etc.); words denoting pleasure, entertainment (feast, pleasure, delight, comfort, etc.); legal terms (accuse, court, crime, etc.), etc.

New English took shape during the Renaissance. Scientific works of this period are already written in English, but since before that, during the Middle Ages, the language of science was Latin and since the Renaissance was characterized by an interest in the monuments of ancient culture, the use of style, rhetorical methods of constructing Greek and Roman authors, then absolutely Naturally, the replenishment of the dictionary and the creation of new scientific terminology went largely through borrowings from Latin, as well as from the Greek languages. This is how, for example, the terminology of philosophy, law, medicine, etc. was created.

In addition to French, a number of European languages, to a greater or lesser extent, participated in the enrichment of the vocabulary of the English language, for example, Latin, Dutch, Italian, Spanish.

2. Latin borrowings

A considerable number of words were borrowed from Latin into English. Here are the most common ones: street - paved (road); port - port; wall - shaft; vacuum - vacuum; wine - wine; inertia - inertia; mile is a thousand steps.

All these words were borrowed orally and entered the main vocabulary of the English language.

The largest number of words borrowed by English from Latin are the so-called book borrowings. These are words that have penetrated the language not as a result of direct, live communication between peoples, but through written documents, books, and so on. Most of the Latin book borrowings that were not previously attested in English are from the Renaissance period in England. A list of these words cannot be given within the framework of this work, for this you need to compile a special dictionary.

3. Dutch borrowings

Even in the Middle Ages, there were quite close trade and industrial ties between England and the Netherlands. England recruited a fairly significant number of Dutch and Flemish craftsmen of various specialties, mainly shipbuilders and weavers, to work in the guild enterprises. There are especially many words of Dutch origin in the terminology of shipbuilding and navigation. These are, for example: cruise - to cruise, dock - dock, geef - reef (hole in the sail for the rope), skipper - skipper, yacht - yacht, etc. Weaving terms of Dutch origin that entered English in the Middle English and earlier New English periods ... Such as: to gloss - to make the fabric shine, rock - spinning wheel, spool - bobbin, stripe - a piece of fabric.

And also a special group of Dutch loanwords in the English language are art criticism terms that have come to the vocabulary of the English language. For example, landscape is a landscape, maulstick is a drill, etc.

4. Italian and Spanish borrowings

Italian also made a significant contribution to the vocabulary of the English language, beginning around the 16th century. During the Renaissance, Italian culture, especially in the field of music, painting, architecture, literature, had a great influence on the culture of England; this was reflected, in particular, in the borrowing of many words related to the listed areas, already directly from the Italian language and in most cases with the preservation of their original form. These are the musical terms allegro, aria, legato, libretto, opera, sonata, soprano, tempo, trio; terms from the field of fine arts, for example, fresco, studio, terra cotta, etc. The words such as grotto, granite, fiasco, incognito, soda, umbrella have also come into wide use in England; including words that convey typical details of Italian life in the perception of English tourists, for example, macaroni, spaghetti, etc. In connection with the development of trade relations between England and Italy, such Italian words as bank - bank, Lombard - Lombard (from the name of the Italian region of Lombardy, from where many usurers and money changers came out in the Middle Ages), traffic - trade and others.

The Spanish language has introduced a number of its words to the vocabulary of the English language, and has also served as a transmitter of many words from various languages ​​of the native population of America.

In the English vocabulary, you can count several dozen Spanish words borrowed directly from the Spanish language. For example, words such as: armada - navy, banana - banana, barbecue - grill, bonanza - accumulation of rich ore, booby - goof, bravado - bragging, canyon - gorge, canoe - kayak, chilli - red pepper, chocolate - chocolate, cigar - cigar, negro - negro, potato - potato, tobacco - tobacco, tomato - tomato, tornado - whirlwind, vanilla - vanilla.

5. German borrowings

There are also a number of borrowed German words in modern English vocabulary. Most often, the influence of the German language manifests itself in the form of a phrase, such as: bolt from the blue - a bolt from the blue, chain-smoker - a heavy smoker, homesickness - homesickness - a masterpiece, place in the sun - a place in the sun, song without words - songs without words, storm and stress - storm and onslaught, swan song - swan song, one-sided - one-sided, time-spirit - the spirit of the times, superman - superman, world-famous - world famous. Especially a lot of words and expressions came from the terminology of classical German philosophy, for example, world-outlook - worldview.

6. Russian borrowings

The history of Russian borrowings in English reflects the history of trade and political relations between Russia and England. The Russian language began to influence English much later than other European languages, such as Latin, French, German, Italian, and Spanish.

Historical borrowings include a group of words from the pre-revolutionary, revolutionary and Soviet periods: arsheen (arshin), tzar (king), desyatin (tithe), kulak (fist), okhrana (guard), bolshevik (bolshevik), politbureau (politburo), sovnarhoz (economic council), etc.

Everyday vocabulary demonstrates the originality of the way of Russian life: babushka (grandmother), blin (pancake), kovsh (ladle), zakuska (appetizer), kasha (porridge), samovar (samovar), vodka (vodka), etc. Words of this group are found when describing Russian life.

Biogeographic vocabulary is composed of words for plants, animals, natural phenomena and zones: badiaga (badyaga), zubr (bison), tur (tour), sable (sable), suslik (gopher), beluga (beluga), buran (blizzard) , purga (blizzard), steppe (steppe), etc.

Socio-political vocabulary is represented by words denoting the socio-political structure of Russia at the present stage: perestroika (perestroika), glasnost (glasnost), intelligentsia (intelligentsia), Russianness (Russian spirit), Duma (Duma), apparat (apparatus), chinovnik ( official), starosta (headman), etc.

The vocabulary associated with art includes words of the original Russian meaning: balalaika (balalaika), bylina (epic), gusli (gusli), prisiadka (squatting).

Army vocabulary - represented by such famous words as Kalashnikov (Kalashnikov), Katyusha (Katyusha), stavka (rate), feldsher (paramedic).

In conclusion, it should be noted that Russian borrowings also played a large role in improving the modern philosophical and political terminology of all languages, including English.

After examining all sources of borrowing in English and analyzing statistics from the Internet (see annexes page 19), we can confidently state that the percentage of borrowings from other languages ​​is very high.

2. 4. International words

International words constitute a special group. It often happens that, denoting an important new concept, a word is borrowed not into one any language, but into many languages. Thus, an international vocabulary fund is being created, which includes the international terminology of various areas of human activity: politics, philosophy, science, technology, art, as well as many abstract words.

International, or international words, borrowed from one source, have graphic and sound similarities and, coinciding to some extent in meaning, constitute, as it were, the common property of a number of languages ​​due to the vocabulary of the ancients, i.e. Latin and Greek (democracy, proletarian, philosophy , atom, modern, program, system).

Another part of them comes from modern languages: soviet, kolkhoz, sputnik - from the Russian revolution, bourgeois, telegraph - from French football, telephone, cruise, motel, club, analysis, army, communism, culture, nation, function, instruction, international, geometry, geography, mathematics, physics, philosophy. It also includes a large number of terms of physics, chemistry, biology, physiology, etc.

From the above examples, we see that very many terms belong to the international vocabulary, that is, they are the property of not only English, but also a number of other languages.

Practical part

As a result of borrowing, the English language was replenished with international words, which are words that are found in many languages ​​of the world, but have minor phonetic differences associated with the peculiarities of the pronunciation of each language. For example: address, telegraph, socialism.

We conducted a survey among the students of our lyceum, in order to show the discrepancies in some meanings in Russian and English.

40 students had to write what a particular word means in Russian and what meaning it has in English.

We have chosen several such international words: control, family, general, magazine, original, atom.

Here are the results we got by analyzing the answers to the assignments.

The first word was - control

All 40 students (100%) know the original meaning of the word ‘control’. 10 students (25%) know that this word has many meanings and can take on meanings - ‘management’, ‘leadership’, ‘power’.

The second was the word - family

All 40 students (100%) know that in English family means only ‘family’ or ‘gender’, and ‘last name’ is never meant in English.

In the third word we took - general

All 40 students (100%) answered that general is the same as the Russian word ‘general’. 30 people (75%) answered that more often this word general appears as an adjective with the meaning ‘main’, ‘general’, ‘ordinary’.

The fourth word we took was - magazine

All students (40 people - 100%) answered that the word magazine does not correspond to the Russian ‘store’, but means ‘magazine’. And two (5%) also translated the word as ‘military supply warehouse’.

The fifth word was - original

All students (40 people - 100%) answered that the noun in Russian and English coincides with its meaning, but 35 students (87.5%) know as an adjective in the meaning of ‘original’, ‘authentic’.

And the last word was - atom

An international word was proposed, which coincides in its direct meaning, but differs in the possibilities of figurative use.

All 40 people (100%) translated this word as ‘atom’ but not a single student knows the figurative meaning of this word ‘baby’, ‘baby’, as is sometimes the case in English. Talking about little Paul Domba, Dickens calls him ‘the atom’; this metaphor can be translated into Russian in one word - ‘baby’.

Based on the above, we can draw conclusions:

1. Many international words differ not only in external form, but also in meaning.

About 19% of students do not know the main meaning of international words in English.

2. The questionnaire survey and the subsequent conversation with the students made it possible to replenish their vocabulary, deepen the students' knowledge about the origin and meaning of many international words.

Therefore, this research work has practical value and is of great interest to students.

Conclusion

Having familiarized ourselves with the works of scientists available to us, in the field of the history of the English language, dealing with the problems of linguistic contacts and borrowings, we revealed such an interesting fact that borrowings in English are striking not only in their number, but also in the variety of languages ​​from which they are borrowed.

In the course of historical development, English has borrowed a huge amount of vocabulary from other languages. The most active donor languages ​​are French (mechatronics, prince, people, money, parent, army, comfort, coach, etc.); Japanese (hara-kiri, sushi, karaoke, ikebana, samurai, geisha, kimono), at the moment Japanese is one of the leading donor languages; Latin (street, port, wine, mile, etc.); Dutch (dock, reef, yacht, rock, spool, landscape, etc.); Italian (sonata, umbrella, balcony, bank, macaroni, spaghetti, etc.); Spanish (banana, barbecue, bravado, canyon, chili, chocolate, potato, tomato, etc.); German (superman, homesickness, hamburger, delicatessen etc.); Russian (tzar, spetsnaz, limitchiki, glasnost, perestroika, etc.).

The vocabulary of the English language will also be replenished from other languages: happy, low, ill, ugly, weak, Viking (scand.); haiduk, hussar (Hungarian); polka, mazurka (Polish); algebra, harem (Arabic); psychology, alphabet, sympathy (Greek).

Having carried out, as far as possible, a thorough analysis of the borrowed words in the English language, we can draw the following conclusions.

Firstly, foreign language borrowings are one of the types of enrichment of the vocabulary of the English language.

Secondly, the vocabulary of the English language has absorbed a really huge number of words from the most diverse languages ​​of the world, and the reason for such a huge number of borrowings and the variety of languages ​​from which they are borrowed lies in the specifics of the historical development of England. This specificity lies in the fact that the English people were constantly in direct contact with many foreign-speaking peoples, first as a defeated people, later as a result of the transformation of England into a colonial power as a people - a colonizer. In addition, in a certain historical period in England, Latin and French acted on the position of the functional languages ​​of various spheres of social activity. Although the English language emerged victorious from the struggle against the languages ​​of the conquerors, although it was forcibly implanted in the colonial countries, nevertheless, it could not help absorbing into its vocabulary many words from the languages ​​with which it came into contact. It is these historical circumstances that explain such an abundance of borrowings in the language.

Thirdly, under the influence of borrowing, many of the original words fell out of use or changed their meaning. For example, the noun bar in French means ‘bar’, ‘bolt’, and in English this word is translated as ‘bar’, ‘restaurant’, which meanings it has not acquired in French.

Borrowings are also interesting because they are able to reflect changes in the cultural and historical life of the country.

We live in a very unstable time, a time of change. These changes affect primarily the socio-political sphere of life. therefore, it can be assumed that, to a greater extent, words will be borrowed from this group. It is hoped that these words will have a positive connotation.

And in conclusion, I would like to note that in our time, the French language retains the leading position among European donor languages.

INTRODUCTION

The development of human society is the development of all its constituent cultures, and, accordingly, all languages. Cultures undergo a certain historical development and independently of other cultures, and (to a very large extent) in interaction with them. Contacts occur in all spheres - politics, economics, art, everyday life - and lead to significant changes in the way of life, worldview, and, of course, in language. Cultures mutually borrow phenomena and concepts; languages ​​- their designations. Thus, there is an enrichment of the cultures and languages ​​of different peoples. The term "enrichment", however, should not be understood as the unquestioning acceptance of any borrowings into the language system, which often happens and leads to its oversaturation with alien and unjustified elements in the presence of its own, familiar designations for various phenomena.

Borrowing should be deliberate; if possible, use the means of your own language, avoid extraneous inclusions. However, one should not go to the other extreme - a complete rejection of any borrowings and attempts not only to avoid new ones, but also to replace the borrowed elements already fixed in the language with the original ones. The need for such a replacement is not only highly controversial, but also hardly feasible on the scales suggested by some linguists: many of the newest borrowings come into the language as designations for new phenomena that have no analogues in a given culture; words borrowed by many languages ​​become internationalisms and in the current era of globalization greatly facilitate international communication.

As you know, vocabulary is the most dynamic aspect of the language at any time. It represents the smallest degree of abstraction in the language, since the word is always subject-oriented; it can be borrowed, formed, formed anew or from the elements available in the language.

In our work, we consider borrowing as one of the main ways of word formation in the English language. Words of foreign language origin are called borrowings.

A significant contribution to the development of knowledge about borrowing was made by such linguists as N.V. Gabdreeva, V.A. Buryakovskaya, N.N. Volostnova, G.K. Gimaletdinova, N.M. Ermakova, M.N. Zakamulin, E.Kh. Khabibullina, T.E. Listrova-Pravda, N.M. Mekeko, L.G. Town Hall, D.R. Rakhmatullina, A.R. Timergaleeva and others.

In view of the above, the theme of our thesis was: "Borrowings in the English language and methods of translation."

The relevance of our work is determined by the fact that borrowed vocabulary occupies more and more active positions in the lexical system of languages, in particular in English and Russian, thereby significantly influencing the functioning of truly national linguistic units of a particular language.

The object of the research is borrowed vocabulary in English.

The subject of the research is ways of translating borrowed vocabulary from English into Russian.

The purpose of the study is to consider the features of the functioning of borrowings in English and to determine the specifics of their translation from English into Russian.

To achieve the goal of our research, we set the following tasks:

to consider the essence of the concept and the sphere of functioning of the borrowed vocabulary;

analyze various classifications of borrowings;

research the sources of borrowings in English;

consider ways of transferring borrowings;

in practice, analyze the use of one or another translation method.

Study structure. The work consists of an introduction, two sections - theoretical and practical, a conclusion and a list of used literature.

CHAPTER 1. DEFINITION OF THE CONCEPT OF BORROWING AND RESEARCH OF THE ASPECTS OF THEIR STUDY

.1 Borrowed vocabulary: the essence of the concept and the scope of functioning

Borrowing is a process as a result of which a foreign language element appears and becomes fixed in the language; also such a foreign language element itself. It is an integral part of the functioning and historical change of the language, one of the main sources of vocabulary replenishment; it is also a full-fledged element of the language, which is part of its lexical richness, serving as a source of new roots, derivational elements and precise terms. Borrowing in languages ​​is one of the most important factors in their development. The borrowing process is at the very core of linguistic activity. Sound and formal uniformity within one language is the result of borrowing by some individuals from others; in the same way, the borrowing of lexicon elements of one language by another language occurs through the interaction of their speakers. The share of borrowed elements in languages ​​is large, although it is not possible to accurately calculate their number, both due to the constant increase in the number of foreign language elements penetrating into the language, and due to the action of the assimilation process, which makes it difficult to establish the origin of the word. In each language, the following layers can be distinguished: words inherent in all languages ​​of one family; words common to a group, a subgroup of related languages; original words of a specific language; borrowed words.

Borrowing lexical elements from one language to another is a very ancient phenomenon and is already known to the languages ​​of the ancient world.

In the course of its development, the English language encountered many languages, from which it borrowed a variety of words. They are not the same in terms of number and proportion in the vocabulary of the English language.

The enrichment of the vocabulary of a language at the expense of the vocabulary of other languages ​​is usually the result of different political, economic, trade relations. Note that there is no generally accepted definition of the concept of culture, but if we consider culture as a "set of production, social and spiritual achievements of people", then everything that is related to the surrounding person, the reality perceived and transformed by him, from everyday objects to abstract philosophical categories, to one degree or another associated with culture. In this case, in any interethnic interaction, there is an exchange of cultural information, which, in turn, cannot but be reflected in the language.

Often, when borrowing, a new word comes along with a new reality that did not exist in the culture of speakers of the borrowing language, and therefore is not fixed in the linguistic picture of the world. In some cases, the borrowed word comes as a synonym for a word that already existed in the vocabulary of the borrowing language (for example, the words import and export appeared as synonyms for Russian import and export).

International vocabulary occupies a special place among the borrowings.

Scientific and technological progress is spreading more and more, and along with it international words - "internationalisms" come to the languages ​​of different countries.

International vocabulary is (from Lat. Inter - between + natio, nationis - people) words of common origin that exist in many languages ​​with the same meaning, but are usually formalized in accordance with the phonetic and morphological norms of a given language. The main part of international vocabulary is made up of terms from the field of science and technology (geography, history, philosophy, logic, aspirin, flu, microscope, telegraph), social and political life (party, constitution, socialism, communism, revolution, dictatorship, administration, republic) , economy (import, export, bank, credit, interest), literature and art (drama, comedy, tragedy, poet, opera, ballet, style). International words also include those that are usually unchanged by many languages ​​from the language of the people who created these words together with the corresponding objects or phenomena. English. sports, Russian. Leninism, collective farm, satellite.

In the languages ​​of Western countries, these words are most often borrowed with inevitable changes from the vocabulary fund of the Greek and Latin languages, as well as from the later French and English that joined them.

For a word to be considered international, it must generally appear in the following modern languages:

firstly, in most of the so-called Romance languages ​​- French, Spanish, Italian and others;

besides, at least in some Slavic languages ​​- for example, in Russian and Serbian.

In languages ​​where the tendency to abandon international vocabulary in favor of Russian words has taken root - we will call them "purist" for brevity (for example, in Icelandic or Finnish), there are almost no such words.

The widespread prevalence of borrowings is primarily due to the internationality of the literary process, the presence of a wide literary exchange between individual countries, and their mutual diffusion. Literary situations cannot be invented indefinitely. Once entering the reader's mind, leaving a deep imprint there, a poetic image, theme, technique can involuntarily affect the work of later writers, who reproduce it quite closely.

Borrowing in languages ​​is one of the most important factors in their development. The borrowing process is at the very core of linguistic activity.

Sound and formal uniformity within one language is the result of borrowing by some individuals from others; in the same way, the borrowing of lexicon elements of one language by another language occurs through the interaction of their speakers.

The share of borrowed elements in languages ​​is large, although it is not possible to accurately calculate their number, both due to the constant increase in the number of foreign language elements penetrating into the language, and due to the action of the assimilation process, which makes it difficult to establish the origin of the word.

In each language, the following layers can be distinguished: words inherent in all languages ​​of one family; words common to a group, a subgroup of related languages; original words of a specific language; borrowed words.

The meaning of the borrowed word in the receiving language can be broadened or narrowed. Expansion of meaning is associated with a metaphorical transfer of a name to another denotation, based on the similarity of objects. So, the word volcano comes from the name of the Roman god of fire and metal Vulcan; The word flak, borrowed from the German language, originally had only the meaning of "anti-aircraft gun", in English it acquired the meanings "anti-aircraft fire", "opposition, resistance", and in the American version of English "verbal fire, squabble, squabble". Also, when the meaning is expanded, the word can acquire new connotative meanings, for example, the word ersatz “substitute, surrogate” has acquired a dismissive connotation of “low quality, fake”, which is absent in the German language. The opposite tendency - the narrowing of the meaning - leads to a reduction in the circle of denotations denoted by a given word, as a result of which the word goes into the category of special ones and becomes stylistically marked. So, the word ansatz, which has many meanings in German, ("prefix, nozzle; sediment; formation; beginning, foundation; inclination") in English is used only as a scientific term "approach to solving a problem." The Latin velum "curtain, veil, veil" in English has lost its meaning over time and is now used as the scientific term "soft palate".

Sometimes, in the receiving language, the derived meaning of the word becomes more common than the main one, for example, claim is more often used in the meaning of “to assert” rather than “claim”, issue is “question”, not “release”, source is “source of information”, not "source".

Below we will consider the main reasons for borrowing.

The reasons for this phenomenon are varied, but the same for all languages; among them there are intra-linguistic and external, extralinguistic ones. Intra-linguistic include the following:

) the need to name an object or phenomenon due to the absence of the designated phenomenon in the cognitive base of the receptor language. This is the main and most ancient reason for borrowing; along with a new phenomenon for the people, its name also enters the language of the people (bistro, gondola, elephant);

) the need to name an object or phenomenon, due to the inaccuracy of the existing name. In the presence of original and foreign words with a similar meaning, the English word has a more general meaning, and the borrowed one has both a general meaning and additional shades (Latin effluvium has not only the meaning of the English words exhalation, emanation "exhalation, selection", but also a connotative meaning " accompanied by an unpleasant smell "; borrowed from the German angst conveys the meaning of" fear for no apparent reason ", which is not inherent in the English word fear" fear in general ").

Extra-linguistic reasons are as follows:

) socio-psychological: the expression of connotations that the corresponding unit does not possess in the receiving language; for example, the creation of the effect of "prestige" (the French boutique "a small store selling expensive, often unusual goods and located in an expensive area" and the Latin emporium "large shopping center" are used not only to clarify the neutral English word shop when designating stores of these types, but also in order to emphasize the prestige of a particular place of trade).

) activation of international relations, the process of globalization, causing the emergence of a large number of internationalisms - words of one language, borrowed by many languages ​​of the world.

As you can see, the appearance of borrowed lexemes in a language can be due to a number of specific reasons that can explain the presence of one or another borrowing in a particular language.

1.2 Classification of borrowings

There are many classifications of borrowed vocabulary proposed at different stages of the development of linguistic teachings. Let's consider the main ones.

Classification by source of borrowing

First of all, it must be remembered that the source of the borrowing is the language from which the word is taken into the English vocabulary. In this case, the origin of the word may be different. So, for example, the source of the borrowing of the word paper is the French language (papier), while by its origin it is the Greek word papuros, papyrus. The word cinnabar (cinnabar, bright red) is borrowed from Latin (cinnabaris), where it came from Greek (kinnabari), which in turn borrowed this word from one of the eastern languages.

Sources of loan words in the English language are numerous for historical reasons. Over the centuries, Britain entered into various contacts with many countries, was subject to invasions and conquests, and later became the "ruler of the seas" and the metropolis for a large number of colonies. All this led to intensive linguistic contacts, which resulted in the mixed character of the English lexical composition. The most significant influences on English vocabulary were Latin, French and Scandinavian languages.

Latin borrowings entered the English language in several waves. The earliest stratum dates back to the time when the Germanic tribes of the Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians entered into trade and military contacts with the Romans even before they migrated to Britain. At this time, the designations of objects of material culture were mainly borrowed - English, sire (lat.sarra), butter (lat.butyrum), copper (lat.cuprum), etc. Before the capture of the Germans, Britain was under the rule of the Roman Empire for about four hundred years ... It was during this period that such borrowed words as street (lat. Via strata), wall (lat. Vallum), mint (lat. Menta, moneta), etc. appear in English. Some of the borrowings of this period have survived only in toponyms. An example of the Latin word we find now in place names is the element -Chester (Latin castra - "camp") in Chester, Colchester, Manchester, Lancaster Gloucester, Worcester; the -wich element in Greenwich, Harwich goes back to the Latin vicus - "village". The next wave of Latin borrowings was associated with the Christianization of Britain. These include the words of the corresponding thematic group - priest (lat. presbuteros), minster (lat.monastermm), candle (lat.candela, candela), creed (lat.credo), etc. In addition, in the same period in English includes quite a few Latin words denoting everyday objects, as well as those associated with gardening and gardening, - chest (lat. cista, "box"), silk (lat. sericum, "silk"), coriander (lat. coriandrum) , parsley (lat. petroselinum), rose (lat. rosa), etc. Since monasteries were also centers of scientific and literary life in Britain, the vocabulary of the English language was replenished during this period with the corresponding vocabulary: school (lat. schola), verse (lat. . versus), circle (lat. circulus), as well as many scientific terms. Latin borrowings of the Middle English and Early New English periods are mainly scientific words and abstract nouns (formula, fraction, magnanimity, fatal, jovial, beneficial, vernacular). Borrowings of Latin term elements stand somewhat apart, since the process of their penetration into the English language is often artificial. We find a large number of examples of this, in particular, in medical terminology (oculist, osteotomy, etc.).

Contrary to popular belief, French borrowings appeared in English long before the Norman conquest. The number of borrowed words that have survived to this day is small, but they testify to the existence of linguistic contacts between the British and the Normans, a Scandinavian people who have lived since the 9th century. on the northern coast of France, in the Duchy of Normandy and speaking the northern dialect of French. Among the surviving borrowings of this period are the words proud, tower, chancellor (we give the modern form of the words).

Starting with the Norman conquest in 1066 and up to the 16th century. French borrowings are pouring into the English language in a powerful stream. The English vocabulary is replenished with words from different thematic groups, reflecting the peculiarities of life in Britain at that time. Thus, the French words country, valley, river, border, etc. appear to describe the country. A large group of words is associated with the naming of social relations. Native English words in this thematic group are few; this is king, queen, earl, lord, lady. The borrowed words are emperor, duke, duchess, baron, count, dame, damsel, etc., which convey new concepts that have entered the life of the British. The Normans became the new rulers of the country, and this was reflected in the language by the presence of French borrowings in the thematic group "Governance of the Country": sovereign, crown, administration, parliament, guardian, reign, etc. Norman dialect: justice, crime, plaintiff, evidence, dungeon, etc., as well as military vocabulary: war, navy, peace, captain, admiral, victory, conquer, etc.

In the XII-XVI centuries. French borrowings come mainly with religious concepts, as well as in connection with the spread of French fashion, cuisine, crafts: chastity, innocence, devotion; barber, butcher, merchant, coin; garment, cotton, towel; fry, boil, mutton, cabbage.

In the XVII century. the bulk of French borrowings are commercial and industrial terms: capital, commerce, insurance, bank, machine, investment, etc. In the 18th century. to them are added the political terms of the French Revolution: aristocrat, democracy, despot, section, etc. Later, the flow of borrowings from French gradually dries up; the English language already includes single words of various thematic groups (garage, chauffer, development, fiancee, etc.).

Scandinavian borrowings also largely determined the mixed character of the English vocabulary. This was largely facilitated by the direct coexistence of the British with the Danes on the territory of England during the period of Danish rule (X-XI centuries). Unlike Latin borrowings that came through written sources, Scandinavians appeared mainly as a result of oral communication. Only a few words of Scandinavian origin can be found in Old English written records. Only by the end of the XII century. with the advent of written sources reflecting dialectal forms, there is evidence of earlier oral borrowings from the Scandinavian languages. The belonging of both English and Scandinavian languages ​​to the same Germanic group allowed their speakers at least to understand each other, and in this process there was a strong mutual influence of languages. Mainly nouns, verbs and adjectives were borrowed. Dividing them into thematic groups is difficult due to the very large variety; the semantics of most words are general: husband, fellow, drag, bag, snare, leg, calf, skin, skirt; cast, take, guess; ill, wrong, low and many other words. In modern times, borrowings from the Scandinavian languages ​​are rare; an example is the Swedish word ombudsman - a person appointed by an institution (such as a government or a university) to receive a report on complaints made by ordinary people against the services of that institution.

Borrowings from other languages ​​are very diverse. You can read about them in detail in the classic work of NN Amosova "Etymological foundations of the vocabulary of modern English", as well as in numerous articles on this topic in linguistic journals. Here are just a few examples.

Trade and industrial relations between England and Holland led to the appearance in English of a large number of Dutch terms from the field of shipbuilding and navigation (bowsprit, buoy, cruise, dock, reef, yacht) and weaving (rock - spinning wheel, spool - bobbin, stripe - flap) ... Popularity in Europe XVI-XVII centuries. Dutch art was reflected in the borrowing of the terms of art history (easel, etch, landscape); Dutch colonization of South Africa brought vocabulary related to the ethno and geographic characteristics of this country (bushman, kraal, veldt).

Borrowings from Romance languages ​​(Spanish, Italian, Portuguese) also reflect the history of relations between these countries and Britain.

A large number of Italian words from the field of culture and art have penetrated into the English language since the 16th century. These are musical terms (adagio, allegro, basso, opera, trio, sonata), vocabulary related to literature and visual arts (cameo, fresco, studio, intaglio; canto, stanza). A number of words are introduced into the English language through the description of Italy by British travelers (volcano, lava, casino, gondola, cicerone). Some words were borrowed for political and commercial concepts (fascism, bank, traffic). Recently, Italian borrowings have been recorded mainly in American English, which is easily explained by the ethnic composition of the United States. Examples of such late borrowings are the words pasta, paparazzi, mafia.

Spanish borrowings are especially numerous in the 16th-17th centuries, when, on the one hand, England and Spain challenge each other's primacy in the foreign policy arena, master the territories of the recently discovered America, and on the other hand, Spanish literature is in its prime, introducing the rest European Spanish realities. Among the Spanish loanwords are armada, banana, barbecue, canyon, cargo, chocolate, cigar, cocoa, hurricane, potato, ranch.

English also borrows some Portuguese words, but their number is small, and most of them, in turn, were borrowed into Portuguese from other languages, in particular the languages ​​of India, Indochina, Africa. Portuguese borrowings include the words cobra, Madeira, tank, veranda, mandarin, banana.

Speaking about Russian borrowings, it should be remembered that they can be divided into three groups - the so-called early Rusicisms, Sovietisms and later borrowings that entered the English language since the late 80s. XX century Early Russianisms for the most part reflect the specific features of nature, material culture, state structure of Russia (altyn, boyar, borzoi, samovar, vodka, nihilist, tundra, taiga). Russian borrowings-Sovietisms are mainly associated with the realities of the Soviet political system: Komsomol, artel, Soviets. Along with them, words related to space exploration also entered the English language: sputnik, cosmonaut. Russian borrowings that appeared in English at the end of the 20th century also reflect socio-political changes in the life of Russia (perestroika, glasnost).

Classifications by the degree of assimilation of borrowings

Coming into the recipient language, the word is assimilated in different ways in the new system. First of all, let's take a look at what happens to the borrowed word form. In some cases, it is very easy to recognize a "stranger" by the graphics and / or phonetics uncharacteristic for the English language. The word retains its material shell, while its morphological composition is also partially processed. If, at the same time, the semantics of the prototype is preserved in the word, then it is classified as a foreign word and refers to full borrowings (domino, protege, tete-a-tete). Also, words partially processed in phonetic and grammatical terms can be attributed to complete borrowings. They are clearly felt as borrowed, but subject to the pronunciation and grammatical norms of the English language (reason, culture, exhibition).

With the further existence of borrowing in the language, it enters into various combinations with other words, which often leads to a change in its semantics in comparison with the prototype. So, the Latin word caseus (cheese), being borrowed in English in this sense, later acquired a figurative, terminological meaning "bobbin". The Old French verb alouer, "to hire," has morphed into the modern English allow, "to allow." Typical examples of such borrowings are the English canister (from the Latin canistrum - "wicker basket"), coffin (from the Old French coffin - "box"), and travel (from the French travailler - "to work"). Borrowings of this type are called relative and make up the majority in the English vocabulary, which is easily explained by the influence of the receiving language system on the newly included elements.

Particularly distinguished are morphemic borrowings, which are words created from foreign-language morphemes within the English language. These include many terms, such as anion, cation (from the Greek. Ana - "up", cata - "down" and ion - "going"); telephone, phonograph, teletype. The above classification is based mainly on the formal features of borrowed words. The distribution of types of borrowings according to the degree of assimilation of the semantics of words looks somewhat different.

Here, first of all, the so-called barbarisms, or words of local color, stand out. They are used in the recipient language only in connection with the specifics of the area from which they are borrowed. As a rule, in form these are complete borrowings, that is, they retain the shape of the prototype. Examples of barbarisms are ciao (Italian "hello"), rajah (from Hindi, "ruler", "prince"), wigwam (from the language of the Indians, "hut"), etc. The sphere of using such words is rather narrow and the degree of assimilation is very small.

The next group is words that have been partially assimilated, but limited in scope. First of all, these are terms and book words, in particular the so-called poetisms (etymon, homonym, lexical; pensive, oration, gregarious, matron). H. H. Amosova calls them specialized borrowings. Partially assimilated words can retain formal characteristics of the prototype, for example, some grammatical forms (genius - genii, geniuses), pronunciation variants (garage-), graphic originality (ballet, queue). The boundaries of this group are blurred, the types overlap.

The least recognizable, and therefore, the most consistent with the standards of the English language, a group of loanwords is fully assimilated words. Having entered the English language from different sources, over time and under the influence of the system of the recipient language, they have changed phonetically, grammatically and semantically so that native speakers recognize them as native. Fully assimilated words form the core of the vocabulary along with the original ones. Examples of this type are the Scandinavian verb take, Latin wall, French table, and many others. The words completely mastered by the English language, H. H. Amosova proposes to call primordial.

Speaking about the borrowing of foreign language elements, one should pay attention to at what structural levels of the language borrowings occur, i.e. it is transferred from one language to another - phonemes, morphemes, words and other elements.

According to V.M. Aristova, borrowing of phonemes and morphemes should not be equated, for example, with borrowing words, since units or elements of different language levels behave differently when borrowing. Therefore, the linguist proposes to distinguish between primary elements that are able to independently transfer from one language to another, carry basic speech information and are endowed with relative independence, and secondary elements that are not capable of independent transition to another language.

The primary elements are lexical, semantic, syntactic and stylistic elements, the secondary ones are phonetic, phonological and morphological.

The famous linguist L.P. Krysin believes that the elements that pass from one language to another can be units of different levels of the structure of the language - phonology, morphology, syntax, vocabulary, semantics. Moreover, the borrowing of words is a typical case of borrowing; borrowing phonemes is a rare case, which depends on the degree of contact between two languages; borrowing of morphemes occurs mainly as part of a word, the selection of morphemes is carried out on the basis of a verbal series, which includes words with a common lexical meaning, which are characterized by the repetition of any structural element (for example, a businessman, bartender, athlete), syntactic or structural-syntactic borrowing occurs when the construction of phrases in speech is influenced by foreign language syntactic structures; semantic borrowing is the appearance in a word of the meaning "under the onslaught" of a foreign language sample.

As for the classification of borrowings according to the scope of their application in human activity, here we can distinguish two main groups of vocabulary that are enriched in exactly this way - general colloquial and professional vocabulary (terminology).

The most important in the modern theory of borrowing is the classification of borrowings based on the nature of the borrowed material. Traditionally, it is customary to distinguish two main types of borrowing - direct borrowing and tracing. In direct borrowing, both the material form (sound and graphic) and the meanings of the prototype word are taken from a foreign language, and with tracing - only the meanings or the semantic structure of the foreign language lexical unit.

Among direct or material borrowings (from D.S. Lotte - original borrowings), the following subspecies can be distinguished:

) lexical borrowings, in which the material form of the word and its content are borrowed, for example: receiver - "a reservoir for the accumulation of gases or vapors" (English receiver);

) borrowing the material form of the word, i.e. borrowing only a foreign-language form of a word in oral (phonetic borrowing) or written (graphic borrowing) and filling this form with new content, for example: jam - thick jam (eng. jam);

) morphemic borrowing, which is the borrowing of root and derivational morphemes to form new words, for example: tele- (gr.) + -type (eng.).

When tracing (from D.S. Lotte - translatable borrowings) does not borrow

the material form of a lexical unit, but only its meaning or structure. The following subspecies can be distinguished here:

) word-formation tracing, in which only the structure of a foreign-language lexical unit is borrowed, on the basis of which a word is formed from the corresponding elements of the recipient language, for example: skyscraper,

) semantic (semantic) tracing, in which a national word has a meaning that was absent in the corresponding foreign word,

) phraseological tracing, in which translation is carried out "according to words" of foreign stable phrases, for example, to make progress - to make progress (to have success).

In addition to the above two main types of borrowings and their subspecies, a third type can be distinguished, which is called mixed borrowing. These include cases when one part of a word can be borrowed, and the other - translated or one that already exists in the receptor language.

Among the mixed borrowings there are:

half-calques, when one part of the word is borrowed materially, and the other is traced, for example, TV + video,

semi-borrowing, when one part of the word is borrowed, and the second exists in the language, for example, mont + nick, counter + nut.

Since our thesis will consider ways of translating borrowings from English into Russian, we consider it appropriate to consider the classification of borrowings that are presented directly in Russian. In the future, this can help in a qualitative analysis of the ways of translating borrowed tokens from English into Russian.

Let's consider borrowings in Russian from a stylistic point of view.

The stylistic assessment of the use of borrowed words in various texts should take into account all the features of the vocabulary of foreign language sources: the degree of mastering it in the Russian language, stylistic fixation, the absence of corresponding Russian names or, on the contrary, the possibility of synonymous replacement of a foreign word, the time of its appearance in the language, the frequency of use in speech, etc. etc. According to these criteria, a classification of borrowed words according to the degree of their mastery in the Russian language is proposed for consideration. In this case, the selected lexical layers will have significant differences in the stylistic sense. Such a grouping of borrowed words in a stylistic sense is set by a practical goal - to determine recommendations for the use of such borrowings in speech.

The modern Russian language has in its arsenal an unlimited number of borrowings that go back to foreign sources. these borrowings can be subdivided into several groups according to the degree of their mastery in the Russian language.

Words that have lost any signs of non-Russian origin (bread, mug, umbrella, shop, cat, horse, dog, sail, icon, cutlet, potato, saucepan, plate).

Such words do not stand out against the background of Russian vocabulary either phonetically, morphologically or stylistically - "foreign language" has no effect on their use in speech.

Words that retain some external features of a foreign language origin: consonances not characteristic of the Russian language (neckline, phoneme, timbre, tempo); non-Russian suffixes (boyfriend, activist, correspondent, lecturer); non-Russian prefixes (transliteration, antioxidant); some of these words do not inflect (avenue, hindi, coffee, metro). This group includes words that, denoting phenomena that have firmly entered our life, are widely used in speech as the only names for common objects and concepts. Such borrowed words stylistically merged with the primordial Russian vocabulary.

Borrowed vocabulary contains a significant part of common words from the field of science, politics, culture, art, known not only in Russian, but also in other European languages, the so-called Europeanisms or internationalisms, for example: file, interface, printer, consultation, supermarket, presentation.

Borrowed words that penetrated into the Russian language under the influence of salon-noble jargon (amorous - "love", rendezvous - "date", plezir - "pleasure", sentiment - "sensitivity"). The words of this group were largely archaized, as they found more common synonyms for themselves in Russian.

Exotisms are borrowed words that characterize the specific national characteristics of the life of different peoples and are used to describe non-Russian reality, for example: Italian borrowings - gondola, tarantella, Spanish - mantilla, castanets, hidalgo, etc. Along with other foreign language lexical elements, exoticisms stand out as words that are not fully lexically mastered by the Russian language.

Foreign language inclusions in Russian vocabulary (sorry, okay, prodigy), which often retain non-Russian spelling (game over (English) - the game is over, "Kamo vadis", "quo vadis" (Latin) - Where are you going ?, per aspera ad astra (lat.) - through thorns to the stars Foreign language inclusions usually have lexical equivalents in the Russian vocabulary, but stylistically differ from them and are fixed in one or another sphere of communication as special names or as an expressive means that gives speech a special expression. foreign language inclusions is their distribution not only in Russian, but also in other European languages.

Barbarisms are foreign words or expressions that have not been fully assimilated into the Russian language and are perceived as foreign words in violation of the generally accepted linguistic norm. For example: comme il faut, pager, hacker. Barbarisms can only conditionally be attributed to borrowed vocabulary, which has a limited scope of use; in fact, they remain outside the limits of the Russian dictionary.

So, dividing the borrowed vocabulary into several groups, we can trace the gradual strengthening of the "foreign" coloring in them, which must certainly be taken into account in the stylistic assessment of its use in speech. Borrowed words, which have already spread widely and have become entrenched in the structure of interstyle vocabulary, are not of particular interest from the point of view of stylistics. Borrowed words and expressions that have a limited scope of use are subjected to stylistic assessment. Nevertheless, the peculiarities of this type of vocabulary and its functioning must certainly be taken into account by specialists who work in the field of linguistics.

1.3 Sources of loan in English

English is traditionally open to borrowings from a wide variety of languages.

Even in the early Middle Ages, the English language adopted a large number of borrowings from the Scandinavian languages ​​(including such basic words as skin "skin", ill "sick" and even she "she"). The most massive flow of borrowings is medieval, after the Norman conquest, from the Old French language; as a result, almost half of the English vocabulary is of Romanesque origin. In modern times, a large number of scholars of Latinisms and new borrowings from continental languages ​​entered the language.

Consider Celtic borrowings. Borrowings from Celtic languages ​​in English are few, and in most cases refer to dialectal vocabulary or to the vocabulary of the lower strata of the population. Of interest is the counting system of British sheep breeders, derived from the numerals of the extinct Cumbrian language. The syntactic tracing paper from the Celtic languages ​​is in its origin the Continuous tenses system, which is absent in other Germanic languages.

The first layer of Latin borrowings is the words that entered the English language during trade contacts on the continent, for example: wine "wine", pear "pear", "pepper" pepper.

The second layer of Latin borrowings is the words borrowed during Christianization: mass "mass", school "school", priest "priest", devil "devil" and others.

A significant number of Latin words entered the English language during the XI-XIII centuries, during the Norman period. However, these words, for the most part, have already undergone, to a greater or lesser extent, phonetic, grammatical and semantic changes in the Norman dialect of the French language, which borrowed these words from Latin.

The largest number of words borrowed by English from Latin are the so-called book borrowings. These are words that have penetrated the language not as a result of direct, live communication between peoples, but through written documents, books, and so on. Book borrowing is qualitatively different from other types of borrowing. First of all, they are less susceptible to all kinds of changes, especially semantic ones. This is logical to explain by the fact that book borrowings, for a long period of time, were limited to the sphere of their use - the literary form of a given language. Further, these borrowings are usually abstract, abstract or terminological in nature.

Most of the Latin book borrowings in English fall on the period of the XVI, as well as the XV-XVI centuries, that is, the Renaissance in England. There are over a thousand Latin words in the writings of Wycliffe, Langland, and Chaucer that have not previously been attested in English. During the Renaissance, words from the field of medicine, literature, theology, technical terms and so on appear. It is impossible to list these words within a short chapter. To do this, you need to compile a special dictionary.

Most of these borrowings can be distinguished by morphological features, for example, verbs that have the -ate- suffix in the infinitive, formed from the past participle of Latin I conjugation verbs, as separate, translate, meditate, exaggerate, congratulate; verbs with the suffix -ute- in the infinitive, derived from the base of the past participle of the group of Latin verbs of the III conjugation, like prosecute, execute; adjectives derived from the Latin present participle with stems in -ant- and -ent-, for example, evident, transparent, patient, triumphant, apparent, obedient.

The following centuries - XVII, XVIII - witnessed book borrowings from Latin. In most cases, these are the so-called "learned words", often preserving the features of the morphological nature of Latin words, such as inertia, sanatorium, genus, radius, curriculum, datum, vacuum.

Finally, in modern English there are borrowings that have completely retained their Latin appearance, that is, they have not undergone and are not currently being subjected to any linguistic assimilation. These words and expressions are used in the language as a kind of quotation from the Latin language. The scope of their use is very limited: they are usually used in the styles of scientific prose, in business documents, in the sublime oratorical style of speech. These borrowings include expressions such as: alma mater, bona fide, ex officio, conditio sine qua non, and so on.

As noted in the previous chapter, in the process of borrowing words in one language from another, there are cases when the same word is borrowed twice. This is possible only in cases of long-term historical and cultural ties between peoples whose languages ​​come into contact. This is precisely the history of the influence of the Latin language on English. Many Latin words have appeared in English twice: once from the French language, and once from the Latin language itself. The second borrowing is usually removed from the first by a significant amount of time necessary for the newly borrowed word to be considered new. Etymological Franco-Latin doublets are obtained.

Some word-formative elements - prefixes and suffixes - should also be referred to the number of Latin borrowings of a book character. These word-formation morphemes were not borrowed from the Latin language as independent lexical units; they were borrowed as part of whole words and only later were interpreted as word-forming morphemes. Nevertheless, in linguistic literature they are usually called borrowed affixes.

Thus, the Latin language has had a significant impact on the enrichment of the English language with new words. This is largely due to the fact that the Norman conquest of England, which brought with it a huge number of French words, paved the way for a relatively free influx of Latin words due to etymological kinship. In historical lexicology, it is sometimes difficult to determine whether a particular word got into English from French or Latin.

Scandinavian borrowings also occur in the vocabulary of the English language. They came from Danish as a result of the Scandinavian conquest (from about 870). This group of loanwords is not very numerous, but very frequent words belong to it. Here are some examples:

they, them instead of hie, hem (hem is preserved in colloquial expressions like I met "em yesterday);

take, cut, get, instead of which English words would give in modern language * nim, * snide, * werth;

Are, fellow, gear, ill, happen, happy, husband, kick, law, leg, low, odd, rove, rug, scale, scalp, skill, skin, skip, skull, tight, ugly , wrong, etc.

nay, fro, skirt, dike, sky, screech, for which the English parallels have been preserved nay, from, shirt, ditch, welkin, shriek;

suffixes in toponymy: -by, -beck, -thorp (e), -fell, -toft, -thwaite from the Scandinavian words byr "village", bekkr "stream", thorp "village", fjall "mountain", topt "estate ", Thveit" fenced area "and others; examples of names: Rugby, Welbeck, Scunthorpe, Micklefell, Lovestoft, Applethwaite;

Flock, mug, and a few others came through the Anglo-Norman language;

nag, ombudsman, ski, skive, slalom, slam - words reflecting new realities for the British entered from modern Scandinavian languages ​​in the XIX-XX centuries.

Scandinavian loanwords are difficult to distinguish from proper English words, since Danish and Old English were closely related languages. A characteristic difference is that in Danish words / k /, / g /, / sk / were preserved, while in English they turned into hissing: / k / and / g / - under certain conditions, / sk / - always.

French loanwords are the most numerous in the English language.

In 1066 England was conquered by the Normans. Normandy was a French duchy; it acquired its name after the French king Charles the Simple, unable to cope with the Vikings, gave them this territory under the treaty of 912. By 1066, the Vikings had long adopted the French language and assimilated with the local population. They came to England as carriers of the French language (Norman dialect), French culture and the French feudal system. After the Norman conquest, power was completely in the hands of the Normans; Duke William the Conqueror also removed the English priests and replaced them with Norman ones. The indigenous population continued to speak English, while the Norman dialect formed the Anglo-Norman language, which became the state language and existed until the end of the XIV century. During this time, English has learned a huge number of French words. Of the 80,000 most commonly used words in the English language, approximately 22,500 are French borrowings (all periods of history).

Borrowings especially clearly reflect the Norman influence in the field of government, in military affairs, in the organization of the church and in urban life:

court, servant, guard, prince, vassal, government, serf, village (yard, serf, guard, prince, vassal, government, serf, village);

army, battle, banner, victory (army, battle, banner, victory);

religion, chapel, prayer, to confess

City, merchant

The artisans living in the village retained their English names, while the urban ones began to be called in French: butcher "butcher", mason "mason", tailor "tailor". Animals are called English words, but their meat is called French: beef "beef", mutton "mutton", pork "pork", veal "veal".

More than half of the words in the English language are of French origin as a result of the Norman conquest (1066). It is curious that all the names of animals are originally English words, and the meat of these animals is French borrowings, for example: cow-beef (cow - beef), pig-pork (pig - pork), deer - venison (deer - venison), sheep - mutton (lamb sheep).

French borrowings in English are used, as a rule, to achieve more formality, for example: commence instead of begin, to be content instead of to be glad.

The above words (you can add common words to them, such as: composition, continue, frequency, etc.), being French borrowings, are pronounced in English. In this case, we are interested in those expressions that entered the English language without any changes, for example: appetit! (bon apeti ) - Bon Appetit! voyage! (bon voayage) - Bon voyage! blanche (carte blanche) - carte blanche, freedom of action. a-tete (tete-a-tete) - tete-a-tete, alone. a-Vis (vis-a-vis) - sitting opposite, the interlocutor, face to face. (resume) - a short biography in the "resume" format. - Respondez s il vous plait - please answer, answer (in business correspondence).

A translator, encountering words and phrases of foreign origin in an English text, should refer to the English-English (explanatory) dictionary, where they are explained, or to the corresponding bilingual dictionary, for example: krieg (German) - lightning war vita (Italian) - vista sweet life (sp.) - good view.

A large number of borrowings are found in the American version of the English language due to the fact that the United States, as you know, is not in vain called the melting pot of nations.

Many place names in the USA are written and pronounced in Spanish, for example, the cities of San Francisco, San Diego, La Jolla [la hoya], San Antonio, Sacramento, Rio Grande river, Rio Vista street, etc. As we already know, these names are transmitted in Russian by sound reproduction, that is, transcription, for example: Rio Vista street (and not "view of the river").

A large number of Spanish words and phrases are used in the southwestern United States thanks to the cowboys who settled these lands in the middle of the 19th century. The Americans learned them from the inhabitants of Mexico: rodeo, ranch (Spanish - rancho), etc.

As a result of French colonization, such names appeared as the river Cache la Poudre ("hide the gunpowder") in Colorado, the city of Des Moines (Des Moines), the capital of Iowa (although in this case the pronunciation of the name of the city was not preserved completely in French).

Italian words have also entered English (with Italian spelling and pronunciation), for example: lasagna (lasagna) ravioli (ravioli), pasta (pasta), spaghetti (spaghetti). The same can be said about the names of European dishes, which in English appeared from the Yiddish language, for example, latkes (latkes) - potato pancakes, blintzes (blintzes) - pancakes, gefilte fish (gefilte fish) - stuffed fish.

The list of loanwords in English could be continued.

In English (both written and oral), a large number of words, phrases and abbreviations from the Latin language are used.

Some Latinisms have entered common vocabulary, for example: 5AM - at 5 am or vice-versa - on the contrary. Basically, Latin expressions are characteristic of the writing form of the academic, official style. Therefore, they should be known to those who read English scientific literature or use English for academic purposes in writing.

Examples of Latinisms: hoc - for this case fide - sincerely, sincerely - approximately laude - with honors. (et cetera) - and so on alia - among others

Thus, we can note that borrowed vocabulary occupies a significant place in the lexical system of any language, in particular English. In order to study the features of its functioning within the framework of a specific language system, it is advisable to pay considerable attention to the specifics of the arrival of this vocabulary in the language and to the study of the conditions that led to the arrival of these borrowings.

It should be noted that borrowing in different languages ​​has a different effect on the enrichment of the vocabulary. In some languages, they did not have such an impact that could significantly affect the vocabulary of the language. In other languages, borrowing in different historical epochs had such a significant impact on the vocabulary of the language that even service words, such as pronouns, prepositions borrowed from other languages, replaced the original service words. Since a living language is a constantly developing phenomenon. Something new comes, unnecessary, superfluous disappears, then for scientists working in the field of lexicology, there are many questions that need to be resolved.

CHAPTER 2. ANALYSIS OF BORROWING TRANSFER METHODS

.1 Methods of translation of borrowings

Let us first of all note that, in general terms, it is possible to outline two ways of translation followed by the translator: Direct or literal translation and indirect (indirect) translation.

Indeed, there may be a case where a message in the source language is perfectly translated into a message in the target language, because it is based either on parallel categories (structural parallelism) or on parallel concepts (metalinguistic parallelism). But it can also happen that the translator ascertains the presence of a "gap" in the target language, which must be filled with equivalent means, ensuring that the overall impression of the two messages is the same. It may also happen that, due to structural or metalinguistic differences, some stylistic effects cannot be conveyed in the target language without changing to one degree or another the order of the elements or even lexical units. It is clear that in the second case, it is necessary to resort to more sophisticated methods, which at first glance may cause surprise, but the course of which can be traced in order to strictly control the achievement of equivalence.

The first way of translation: borrowing.

The easiest way to translate is borrowing, which allows you to fill in a gap, usually of a metalinguistic nature (new technique, unknown concepts). Borrowing would not even be such a translation method that we might be interested in, if the translator did not sometimes need it in order to create a stylistic effect. For example, to bring the so-called local flavor, you can use foreign terms and talk about "versts" and "poods" in Russia, and "dollars" and "parties" in America, about "tequila" and "tortilla" in Mexico, etc. It is better to translate such a phrase as The coroner spoke by borrowing Le coroner prit la parole (I took the word coroner) than to look for more or less equivalent among the ranks of French judicial officials.

There are also old borrowings, which in essence are no longer such for us, because they figure in the lexical composition of our language and have already become familiar: alcool, redingote, paquetbot, acajou, etc. The translator is primarily interested in new borrowings and even borrowings of the individual character. It should be noted that often borrowings enter the language through translation, among them semantic borrowings, or "false friends of the translator", which should be especially wary of, appear.

The problem of local color, solved with the help of borrowings, affects primarily the sphere of style and, therefore, the message itself.

The main ways of borrowing vocabulary are transcription, transliteration and tracing.

Transcription (phonetic method) is such a borrowing of a dictionary unit, in which its sound form is preserved (sometimes somewhat modified in accordance with the phonetic characteristics of the language into which the word is borrowed). In this way, the words football (football), trailer (trailer), jeans (jeans), etc. are borrowed from the English language. In English, they are borrowed from the French regime, ballet, bouquet, etc.

Transliteration is a borrowing method in which the spelling of a foreign word is borrowed: the letters of the borrowed word are replaced with the letters of the native language. When transliterating, the word is read according to the rules of reading the native language. By transliteration from English into Russian, the words cruise, motel, and club are borrowed.

Many proper names are also transliterated when borrowing from English: Washington, Texas, London. In the English language there are many words of Greek, Latin and French origin, which have retained their graphic features, although they are read according to the rules of the English language.

Calculation, transcription and transliteration as methods of borrowing should be distinguished from the methods of translation of the same name. Not differing in their mechanism, they differ in their final results: during translation, the vocabulary does not increase, while when borrowing, new vocabulary units appear in the box.

Since the process of assimilation of foreign language elements begins from the moment they are introduced into the language by translators, it is appropriate to say a few words about the technique of translating specifically foreign names. When translating words and expressions with an incomprehensible associative meaning, as well as when translating the names of realities, transcription, less often transliteration, tracing and explanatory translation (transferring the meaning of a foreign word or phrase by means of the native language without preserving the motivation and form) can be used. For example, the translation of the word the Speaker by the phrase chairman of the House of Commons ", the word backbenchers by the phrase" ordinary members of the English parliament ", etc. With an explanatory translation, a footnote may contain the translated word, in this case "speaker" and "backbangers", in transcription. When tracing, transcription and transliteration, it is sometimes necessary to resort to comments.

The second way of translation: tracing.

Calculation is a special kind of borrowing: we borrow from foreign language one or another syntagma and literally translate the elements that make up it. In this way, we get either a tracing of an expression, and we use the syntactic structures of the target language, introducing new expressive elements into it, for example Compliments de la Saison (literally: "seasonal greetings"), or a tracing of the structure, and we introduce new constructions into the language, for example, Science-fiction (literally "science fiction").

As in the case of borrowings, there are old stable tracing documents that can only be mentioned in passing, since they, like borrowings, can undergo semantic evolution, becoming "false friends". More interesting for the translator is the new tracing paper, with the help of which he avoids borrowing, filling in the gaps (compare: French economiquement faible - economically weak, tracing from German). In such cases, apparently, it is better to resort to word formation based on the Greco-Latin fund or to use hypostasis (the transition from one part of speech to another by conversion). This way it would be possible to avoid such tortured cripples as: Thérapie occupationelle (Occupational Therapy); "Banque puor le Commerce et le Développement", le quatre Grands, le Premier français and others like them, which, according to some translators, can serve as the clearest example of the extreme squalor of thought.

The third way of translation: literal translation

Literal translation, or word-for-word translation, means the transition from the source language to the target language, which leads to the creation of a correct and idiomatic text, while the translator only monitors the observance of the mandatory norms of the language, for example: I left my spectacles on the table downstairs - I left my glasses on the table below; Where are you? - Where are you?; This train arrives at Union Station at ten - This train arrives at Central Station at 10 o'clock.

In principle, literal translation is the only reversible and complete solution to the issue. There are many examples of this in translations made from languages ​​belonging to the same family (French - Italian), and especially between languages ​​belonging to the same cultural orbit. If it is possible to state the presence of some cases of literal translation from German into English, it is because there are metalinguistic concepts that can also reflect the facts of coexistence, periods of bilingualism and conscious or unconscious imitation, which is associated with political or intellectual prestige. This can also be explained by a kind of convergence of thoughts and sometimes structures that can be observed among the languages ​​of Europe (compare, for example, the formation of a definite article, the similarity of the concepts of culture and civilization, etc.).

The translator should apply a special approach to the translation of international vocabulary, which, as noted earlier, occupies a special place among borrowings.

Difficulties in translating international vocabulary lie in the fact that a translator, especially a beginner, often forgets about such a concept as "usage of a word" ( target language), especially in the field of word collocation. Meanwhile, "words associated and identified (due to the similarity in terms of expression) in two languages, in terms of content or use, do not completely correspond or even completely do not correspond to each other. That is why words of this type were called faux amis du traducteur in French linguistics. - "false friends of the translator".

In a number of cases, the translator has every right to convey the root meaning of a word literally, but only when the sense of language and experience tells him that the translation he offers for a given specific situation is precisely an adequate transmission of the original thought. Here are some examples: code point - code point, color correction - color correction, correlator - correlator.

At the same time, this provision (the admissibility of literal translation of terms and terminological combinations in a number of individual rare cases) can also serve as a source of translation errors. As noted by the researcher of scientific and technical translation A.L. Pumpyansky, the main reasons leading to errors include:

) conviction in the uniqueness of words and grammatical forms;

) mixing the graphic appearance of the word;

) erroneous use of analogy;

) translation of words with more specific meanings than they actually have;

) inability to find a Russian meaning for translating English words and lexical and grammatical combinations;

) ignorance of the patterns of presentation of English scientific and technical material and the method of its transmission into Russian ".

Thus, we see that the first two causes of errors noted by A.L. Pumpyansky, are mistakes as a result of ignorance of the peculiarities of international vocabulary.

In the literature, the following possible discrepancies in the meanings of international and corresponding Russian words are noted.

The Russian word coincides with the English one, but not in all meanings, but only in one or two. This group of international vocabulary includes a relatively large number of words, the translation of which presents significant difficulties.

The polysemantic word satellite, which has passed into the Russian language from the English language, is used mainly in only one meaning: a satellite state, a puppet state. In English, the word satellite has several meanings:

) satellite, satellite;

) artificial satellite;

) a member of the retinue, a participant in a ceremonial cortege, an accompanying person;

) henchman, adherent;

) satellite state;

) satellite city;

) satellite (chromosomes).

In other cases, the situation is different: the Russian word has a number of meanings, and only one of them corresponds to the English one. This is usually observed when the word is borrowed from some third language: for example, the Russian word audience is broader in meaning than the English auditorium. In Russian, you can say the audience of readers; in English, the word auditorium in this sense is not used, and the equivalents in English for conveying this meaning will be such units as the readership, the reading audience, the readers, or even market (cf. the book has a good market).

Some words that are similar in form often have different basic meanings. Words in this category require special attention from the translator, since they can easily be misleading and cause gross errors. Thus, activities is translated as activity, not as activity; communal is mainly used in the sense of "public" and very rarely - "communal"; aspirant - an applicant for something, but never a graduate student; direction - direction, not direction (cf. board of directors; management); magazine - a magazine, but certainly not a store; obligation - an obligation, not a bond; sympathetic - sympathetic, while the first that suggests itself, but the wrong option is sympathetic (cf. sympathetic strike - a strike of solidarity, not a strike of sympathy); typography - typography, not typography; fabric is a textile product, not a factory.

The transfer of words similar in sound (or having a similar graphic form) from one language to another during translation is especially often observed in related languages, for example, in Russian and Ukrainian. “It seems to many, - writes O. Kundzich, - that when such a word is transferred from one language to another, it retains all its qualities, that these qualities are contained in the word itself, and do not arise in relation to this word with the entire system of this language. I mean such qualities as nationality or bookishness of a word, emotionality or terminology, positivity or negativity of meaning, poetry, solemnity, and so on - to the finest shades in their endless variations and their ratios. "

2.2 Practical analysis of the translation of borrowings

Borrowing vocabulary tracing translation

Having analyzed the features of the translation of borrowed tokens, we will consider the expediency of using one or another translation method using the example of specific lexical units.

Consider the following borrowed tokens: Microsoft, Windows, Apple, AOL, CD-ROM, MS-DOS, Yahoo, Rambler, Google, Yandex, Corel Draw, 3D Max, Total Commander, Internet Explorer.

In this case, there is a graphical reproduction of the borrowing without any changes to the original spelling. As you can see, this primarily concerns names - names of corporations, search servers, operating systems and software products (often in the form of abbreviations and acronyms). Thus, the above borrowed lexical units in the Russian translation text will fully retain their graphical form.

The next row of borrowed tokens is translated by the transcription method: computer - computer, printer - printer, display - display, file - file, overlay - overlay, plotter - plotter, pixel - pixel, setup - setup. It should be noted that certain lexical units, such as, for example, display, file, setup in a specific contextual environment can be translated using the national Russian correspondence as follows: display - screen, file - document, setup - setting. At the same time, the translation of the word file as "document" can also be regarded as a translation by another borrowed equivalent or the international word "document".

Transliteration is often applied to the translation of terminological tokens, which in turn are international tokens. Examples include the following words: processor - processor, modem - modem, monitor - monitor.

As noted earlier, tracing also occupies a rather important place among the main methods of translating borrowed lexical units.

In this case, we are dealing with a word or expression, which is a translation in parts of a foreign language word from the material of the native language. The following lexical units can serve as practical examples of translation with the oncology method: external command - external command; digital signature - digital signature; peripheral controller - peripheral controller.

Cases of translation of cripples are interesting, in which one of the elements is transliterated, and another element of the target language, which itself at one time or even until recently was a borrowing-neologism. For example: proxy server - proxy server; swapping manager - swapping manager, content provider - content provider.

Let us also consider in practice the translation of borrowings in a descriptive way.

Descriptive (explanatory, descriptive) translation is a way to convey non-equivalent vocabulary, providing for the disclosure of the meaning of a borrowed unit using a detailed description (in phrases, phrases, etc.). For example: Digitizer - encoder, subsystem or device that generates digital data for an input analog signal; A transponder is a telecommunications device that takes a signal in one form and transmits it in another form.

Speaking about the practical translation of borrowings, one cannot fail to mention the fact of the assimilation process that some borrowed lexical units go through.

After entering the language, the borrowing undergoes the process of assimilation - the adaptation of the word to another language system, expressed in changing the pronunciation, spelling of the word, changing its grammatical properties in accordance with the rules of the receiving language and often in changing the semantics. The semantic changes in the borrowed elements are the most interesting, since they can be quite significant, but not noticeable without a deep etymological study.

We proceed from the assumption that the assimilation of terminology is its adaptation in phonetic, grammatical, semantic and graphic terms to the system of the recipient language. The degree of assimilation can be different, but, as a rule, fully and partially assimilated terms are distinguished. The degree of assimilation is determined by many factors, among which one of the most important is morphological, semantic or syntactic derivation, i.e. the formation of derivative words in the target language from the corresponding simple borrowings in morphological structure: to xerox - to photocopy.

Speaking about the assimilation of computer terms, for example, one should mention those terms that have become or are becoming part of computer slang - a colloquial type of vocabulary that is considered below the generally accepted standard: words that are not used in a standard language or have a special lexico-semantic content.

Consider below the translation of borrowed tokens that function in the economic sphere using the example of individual sentences. Key method, which our company uses to deliver some information about know-how to our customers, is colorful circulars. - The main way that our company uses to inform the population about the latest news is colored advertising brochures, which are sent to homes.

The main attention in this proposal, in our opinion, should be paid to the borrowing-pseudo-internationalism circular, which belongs to the legal-legal sphere of functioning. This borrowing is translated into Russian in a descriptive way "advertising brochures that are sent home". Transliteration, as a method of translation, is excluded in this case, since the word “circular” in Russian is most associated with regulatory documents. Therefore, in this case, the only possible translation method is descriptive (dicriptive) .fact, what we are talking about is a sphere of illegal financial services meant to reimburse VAT at the expense of state budget, to convert capital into cash, to carry out schemes with securities and insurance (more accurately, export money, using reinsurance), etc. - In fact, we are talking about the sphere of illegal financial services aimed at refunding VAT from the state budget, transferring capital into cash, introducing schemes for working with securities and insurance (more precisely, withdrawing funds abroad through reinsurance), etc.

First of all, in this example, you should pay attention to the borrowing reinsurance. It refers to the financial and economic sphere of functioning. We translated this borrowing into the Russian equivalent "reinsurance". It is worth noting that the structure of the borrowed lexeme is completely preserved in the Russian language: the prefix re-, which in English indicates the repeated execution of an action, was transformed into the Russian prefix re-. Also, the form of the noun was preserved when translating this borrowing.

This sentence also contains the borrowed lexeme illegal, which refers to the legal-legal sphere of functioning. This borrowed lexeme was translated by us by means of transcription as "illegal". The same borrowing can be translated by the Russian analogue "illegal", but in order to preserve the pragmatic load of English borrowing illegal in Russian, we decided to leave the borrowed morpheme in translation.

You should also pay attention to borrowing accurately, which relates to the social sphere of functioning. This borrowing was translated by the Russian analogue "more precisely". As for borrowing-internationalisms budget and capital, they relate to the financial and economic sphere of functioning and are translated into Russian by means of transliteration as “budget” and “capital”. Special attention should be paid to the borrowed lexeme capital, which could also be translated by the borrowed international synonym "assets" (from the English Assets), but in order to be as close as possible to the original text during translation, we decided to leave the original lexeme "capital" ...

In our opinion, we should also consider the borrowed vocabulary, which is present in the next sentence.

In the event of cancellation of the charter by the Charterer, for any reason, except as mentioned in Clause 3, after signing this Agreement, all advance payments made up to the date of cancellation will be retained by the owner, and the owner reserves the right to refund the said deposits only if he succeeds in letting the yacht to another Charterer for the same period and under the same conditions. - In the event that the charter is canceled by the charterer after signing this contract for any reason other than those specified in clause 3, all advance payments made prior to the date of cancellation remain with the owner and the owner reserves the right to refund said payments only if, if he can lend the yacht to another charterer for the same period and under the same conditions.

Borrowed lexeme charter refers to the financial and economic sphere of functioning. This borrowing is translated into Russian by means of transliteration as "charter". One root borrowing in relation to the above word is the lexeme Charterer, which functions in the same area, but is translated into Russian by the following correspondence - "charterer". The borrowed lexeme reason refers to the social sphere of functioning and its correspondence in Russian is not the word “reason”, but “reason”.

There is also a borrowed lexeme advance payments in this sentence, which is of a purely business nature and is translated by such a correspondence as "advance payments." To translate this borrowed token, transcription was also applied, namely to translate the borrowing advance. Let's move on to the next borrowing date, which relates to the social sphere of functioning. In order to translate it into Russian, we used the transcription method and received the word "date".

Consider borrowing reserve as well. It belongs to the social sphere of application. In this case, to translate this borrowing, we have selected the corresponding Russian analogue "saves". The same lexeme could be translated by the transcription method as “reserves”, but in this context and in the conditions of the combination of this borrowing with the word “right”, the latter option is unacceptable for us.

The borrowing period belongs to the social sphere of functioning. It is translated into Russian by means of transliteration as "period". As for the borrowed lexeme deposits, it is mainly used in business discourse and in this case is translated as “payments”. The same word can be translated and transliterated as "deposits", but this equivalent is acceptable in the context of "bank deposits". In our case, we have completely different situational conditions, therefore transliteration, as a translation method, does not suit us here. But the Russian analogue of "payment" fully reproduces the contextual meaning of borrowing deposits in this sentence.

There is one more borrowing in this example - conditions. It refers to the social sphere of functioning. It should be noted that this word was translated by the Russian equivalent of "conditions". This lexeme can in no way be translated as "condition".

Consider the translation of another sentence in which borrowed lexemes function. Corporate supervision forms an appropriate background for the Management Board to pursue objectives that are to the best interest of the company and its shareholders; it also ensures effective performance monitoring which further encourages the managers to use the company's resources and capabilities in a more efficient manner. This leadership also provides effective oversight of the company's operations, which further encourages managers to make more efficient use of the company's resources and capabilities.

Borrowing corporate supervision refers to the financial and economic sphere of operation. It can be viewed as a borrowing, which in the Russian language fully retains its structure: adjective + noun - "corporate leadership".

Terminological borrowing Management Board operates in the financial and economic sphere. Before the translation of this borrowing, we also applied the translation method of omission and in the Russian translation we received simply "The Board". The borrowed lexeme monitoring, which is mainly used in the scientific and technical sphere of functioning, we translated by means of synonymous substitution, choosing another borrowing - "control". The same borrowing can be translated using transliteration, and, in our opinion, synonymous translation is more suitable for this context.

Borrowing resources, which is related to the social sphere of functioning, we have translated as “resources”, using the method of transcription.

Let us analyze another proposal. Investors also participate in the operation of the company: two Leipzig energy companies are shareholders of the company, the value of their shares increased by 5 per cent in 2003. - Foreign investors also participate in the activities of the company: shares of the company , the value of which increased by 5% in 2003, are in the hands of two energy companies in Leipzig.

This proposal contains borrowing by foreign investors, which exists in the form of a phrase and refers to the financial and economic sphere of operation. When translating this borrowing by means of transcription (tracing), the grammatical structure of this borrowing was preserved: adjective + plural noun - “foreign investors”.

The next borrowed token in this clause is operation. If we talk about the sphere of its functioning, it is the social sphere. It is in this example that the borrowing operation is translated by the Russian analogue "activity". If this borrowing were in a different context, then it could be translated from English into Russian by transcribing as "operation", but in this case, such a translation is impossible.

As you can see from the examples discussed above, the use of one or another translation method is mainly determined by the contextual environment of the borrowed lexeme and varies depending on the text in which it is used. Therefore, a translator who deals with borrowed vocabulary should fully comprehensively analyze the context of a certain sentence or text in order to choose the most accurate and correct translation option and at the same time preserve the pragmatic load laid down by the author of the source text.

CONCLUSION

In the process of writing this thesis, we carefully analyzed the borrowed vocabulary from the point of view of its concept and scope of functioning. We also considered various classifications of borrowed vocabulary proposed by specialists at various stages of linguistic studies. Consideration of the sources of borrowings in the English language from a chronological point of view occupies a significant place in our work.

In the practical part, we analyzed the ways of translating loanwords from English into Russian. At the same time, in practice, using the example of specific sentences, we proved the expediency of using one or another method of translation.

Thus, completing our research, we came to the following conclusions.

Borrowing as a process is multifaceted; it has definite causes, types and results. The reasons for borrowing lie both within a certain language system and outside it. The need arising within the language to borrow a foreign language element is explained by the inaccuracy of the existing name or its absence due to the novelty of the designated object for the culture using this language. External reasons for the appearance of borrowings arise as a result of contacts between people speaking different languages. Borrowed words facilitate communication, and also often carry a socio-psychological load in the form of connotations that are absent in the correspondences of the receiving language.

The modern vocabulary of the English language has changed and supplemented over the centuries and now has a large number of words in its stock, which also had an ambiguous influence on the formation of its vocabulary.

The Latin language, from which many borrowings came, mainly played an intermediary role.

We can confidently conclude that the English language, accepting words from other foreign languages, did not violate its specificity. On the contrary, he enriched himself with the best linguistic elements that he could absorb in all history.

We also came to the conclusion that the main means of translation of borrowings are transcription, transliteration, transcription, tracing, synonymous replacement.

Borrowing as an element of the language also has its own specifics: such elements exist at different levels of the language, but not in equal quantities. The largest number of them is at the level of words, the smallest at the level of stable phrases. Despite the long and deep process of assimilation that borrowing undergoes in the receiving language, it is not too difficult to establish the foreign language of an element when knowing the criteria for its definition for a particular language.

All translation methods are applicable to transfer borrowed elements in one language to another language. Their use is due to the opinion of the translator regarding the appropriateness of one or another method and variant of translation in a particular situation, since several variants are often possible. The criteria of relevance are: the purpose of the text, and depending on it - the accuracy of the transfer of information or its expressiveness; the level of expected preparation of the reader in this area; style of text.

Upon completion of writing our thesis, we concluded that borrowed tokens require a lot of attention in translation in order to avoid unpredictable errors. Therefore, a careful analysis of the grammatical and contextual factors of each individual sentence should be the primary task of the translator who deals with the translation of borrowed vocabulary.

We see the prospect of further research on this topic in the possibility of using its results in the analysis of borrowed vocabulary and methods of its translation in a certain sphere of functioning - economic, social, political.

LIST OF USED LITERATURE

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COURSE WORK

in the discipline "Fundamentals of the theory of language learning"

Lexicology

Borrowings in English

INTRODUCTION .. ……………………………………………………………………… ...… 3

1. DISCLOSURE CONCEPT OF LANGUAGE BORROWING. HIS DIFFERENT TREATMENTS ............................................... ............................………………………….…5

2. REASONS FOR BORROWING FOREIGN LANGUAGE WORDS. HISTORY OF STUDYING THE REASONS OF BORROWING .............................................. ............................................nine

3. LIVE ENGLISH AS A PERMANENTLY DEVELOPING

PHENOMENON ….......................................……………………… .......................…………...15

3.1. Examples of languages ​​and loanwords that influenced modern English ......................................... .................................................. ..............................16

4. RESULTS OF THE BORROWING PROCESS. THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE BORROWING IN THE FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE ......................................... .................................................. ……………………….twenty

CONCLUSION ..... ………………………………………………… ... ……………… ..24

LIST OF REFERENCES AND USED SOURCES …………………………………………………………… ... ……… ... 26

INTRODUCTION

Relevance of the topic: The presented work is devoted to the topic "Borrowing in English". The problem of this study has relevance in the modern world. This is evidenced by the frequent rise and further study of the issues of linguistic borrowing, which extend their influence on the most diverse spheres of activity, both of certain generations, and on the development of nations as a whole. No language is "pure" - there are borrowing admixtures in every language. English is no exception. It contains words from Latin, French, Italian, Spanish, Chinese, Japanese, Hindi and many other languages. And, consequently, the study of the above problem was and will be relevant, due to the close connection of language borrowings with the general history of the past and the prospects for the development of languages ​​in the future.

Target: Studying the topic "Borrowing in English" from the point of view of the latest domestic and foreign research on a similar problem of language borrowing as a process. Determination of the role of language borrowing in the formation and development of the English language.

Based on the set goal, the following were determined Tasks :

To study the theoretical aspects and nature of linguistic borrowings involved in the formation and development of the English language;

Determine the criteria and possibilities of language borrowing in speech;

Outline the development trends of the subject "Borrowing in English".

Object this study is the analysis and identification of the nature of linguistic borrowing of the English language.

Subject research is the analysis of the conditions of language borrowing in English, consideration of individual issues formulated as the objectives of this research,

1. DISCLOSURE CONCEPT OF LANGUAGE BORROWING. HIS DIFFERENT TREATMENTS.

Borrowing- this is a process as a result of which a certain foreign language element appears and is fixed in the language; also such a foreign language element itself. It is an integral part of the functioning and historical change of the language, one of the main sources of vocabulary replenishment; it is also a full-fledged element of the language, which is part of its lexical richness, serving as a source of new roots, derivational elements and precise terms.

Borrowing in languages ​​is one of the most important factors in their development. The borrowing process is at the very core of linguistic activity.

Sound and formal uniformity within one language is the result of borrowing by some individuals from others; in the same way, the borrowing of lexicon elements of one language by another language occurs through the interaction of their speakers.

The share of borrowed elements in languages ​​is large, although it is not possible to accurately calculate their number, both due to the constant increase in the number of foreign language elements penetrating into the language, and due to the action of the assimilation process, which makes it difficult to establish the origin of the word.

In each language, the following layers can be distinguished: words inherent in all languages ​​of one family; words common to a group, a subgroup of related languages; original words of a specific language; borrowed words. Using the English language as an example, it looks like this:

Indo-European words (common to many languages): mother , brother , daughter , wolf , meat , hear , hundred , be , stand ;

Germanic words: bear, finger, say, see, white, winter ;

West German words: age, ask, give, love, south;

English proper (Anglo-Saxon words): lady, lord, boy, girl ;

Borrowing:

Relative languages: knight, low, flat, fellow, sale(since ancient times), rummer, napper, fitter(from Dutch);

From another language system: Soviet, sputnik, steppe, taiga(from Russian), judo, samurai, sumo(from Japanese), xylophone, epoch, echo(from the Greek).

This is a generally accepted classification of the vocabulary of the English language. But it cannot be called unambiguously correct. For example, words taken for Indo-European may well be borrowed from other proto-languages, because trade and other relations between peoples have existed since ancient times.

Words borrowed in the most ancient times and completely assimilated by the receiving language are not perceived as foreign, and establishing their origin is often difficult even for a linguist ( table- from French).

It is often difficult to establish which language from the group or subgroup is the source of the word (word figure could come directly from Latin figura, and through the French figure). Another difficulty is the distinction between the terms "word origin" and "source of borrowing".

Many words are borrowings of the second or more degree (for example, the word valley came into English from Latin through French).

Despite some inaccuracies, this classification demonstrates the scale of the phenomenon: we see that most of the words of the English language are borrowed - in an earlier or later era, from a close or distant language system.

Borrowing words is a natural and necessary process of language development. Lexical borrowing enriches the language and usually does not harm its originality at all, since at the same time its basic vocabulary is preserved, and, in addition, the grammatical structure inherent in the language remains unchanged, the internal laws of linguistic development are not violated. There can be many reasons for this process: military-political dependence, intensive linguistic contacts associated with resettlement or geographic proximity; the spread of religion and culture or a high level of technical civilization inherent in another linguistic community; long-term purposeful language policy of one region in relation to another. As a rule, in the process of influence of one linguistic community on another, there is an interaction of several of the named factors. But the most important driving force behind borrowing is the borrower's awareness that another language can bring values, achievement, or lifestyle that inspires acceptance. In other words, another linguistic community is perceived as more progressive.

Loan words can be dealt with in different ways. The history of the English language, which studies the structure of the language, its phonetic, grammatical and lexical features in different periods of the development of the language, studies the vocabulary of the English language at each given period of its development. Therefore, in the history of a language, borrowings from other languages ​​are usually considered in relation to a given period of the language's existence. In other words, all borrowings are considered simultaneously in a given particular era. In this paper, examining the state of the vocabulary of the English language as a whole, borrowings are considered by the languages ​​from which these borrowings came to the studied English, at all periods of their development. What is the task of the course work.

Borrowings in different languages ​​affect the enrichment of vocabulary in different ways. In some languages, they did not have such an impact that could significantly affect the vocabulary of the language. In other languages, borrowing in different historical epochs had such a significant impact on the vocabulary of the language that even service words, such as pronouns, prepositions borrowed from other languages, replaced the original service words. Since borrowing as a process is inherent in every language and inherent in the lexical composition of the English language in particular, this topic is always important and relevant, it has enough material for consideration and research.

2. REASONS FOR BORROWING FOREIGN LANGUAGE WORDS. HISTORY OF STUDYING THE REASONS OF BORROWING.

Many linguists have been studying the reasons for borrowing foreign words at the beginning of the 20th century. However, the identification of the reasons for borrowing was carried out without a sufficiently clear differentiation of linguistic and external, non-linguistic reasons. So, in the work of L.P. Krysin it is indicated that

E. Richter considers the need for naming things and concepts to be the main reason for borrowing words. Other reasons are also listed, which are different in nature - linguistic, social, mental, aesthetic, etc., the need for new linguistic forms, the need for dismemberment of concepts, for a variety of means and their completeness, for brevity and clarity, for convenience and etc. The very process of linguistic borrowing was considered by him as inextricably linked with cultural and other contacts of two different linguistic societies, and as a part and result of such contacts.

Following L.P. Krysin, M.A. Breiter identifies the following reasons for borrowing:

1) Lack of a corresponding concept in the cognitive base of the receptor language. He noted cases when borrowings were used to designate concepts that were new to the language of the receptor and were not available in the source language. Since this does not quite correspond to Breiter's first reason, it is clarified: in the language-receptor, there is a need to designate an "actively pulsating" phenomenon in life; the exact word is not immediately found in your language, but in another language (in a foreign language) there are two units that, when combined, are suitable for a name (in English). That is, it is not so much borrowing as the formation of a new English word from non-English elements. The author gives various examples that are understandable to native English speakers, but do not have an equivalent in another language (from where the borrowing took place). Here we can talk about the separate borrowing of two elements and combining them into a complex name in the receptor language. This model of word composition is productive in various languages ​​and corresponds to word-formation processes in others. The actualization of this derivational model exists in languages ​​at the so-called everyday level, words that are not used in scientific works, but are widespread in the daily life of a particular people. Such words are rarely used in official documents, but such borrowing wording is widespread in the media, which indicates the particular popularity of such words. The variability of their writing does not always indicate the first stage of assimilation, since such variability may be the result of the illiteracy of the compiler of a document containing such a borrowed word.

2) The absence of an appropriate (more accurate) name (or its "loss" in competition with borrowing) in the receptor language.

MA Breiter notes that about 15% of the newest words are borrowed due to the absence of a corresponding name in the receptor language. It is noted that the line between this and the previous group is blurred, since in some cases it is difficult to assert whether this concept is new for the receptor language. The author also includes those borrowings that, for some reason (easier to pronounce, shorter, more transparent in their etymology, more specifically in semantics), have displaced (partially or completely) previously mastered or primordial linguistic units to this group. Sometimes it is not about repression, but about the redistribution of semantic roles: in some situations it is appropriate to use only a foreign-language word, in others - native English. The use of borrowings can be regarded as a result of overcoming the wide polysemy of the original word. In this case, one can use the formulation of LP Krysin "the need for specialization of the concept."

The reason for borrowing often determines the function of a foreign language word.

In the case of the coexistence of borrowing and the original or previously mastered name, the function of the borrowed one is to designate the realities of another culture or stylistic labeling of the text, and English equivalents are used to describe reality.

3) Providing a stylistic (emphatic) effect. The emphatic function can also be due to homophony, which connects interlingual meanings. The effect of this factor is infrequent and is designed for a high degree of linguistic competence of speakers.

4. Expression of positive or negative connotations that do not have an equivalent unit in the receptor language. The author points out that among native speakers of the Russian language there is a widespread idea that, for example, Japanese technologies are more progressive than Angian ones, foreign banks are more reliable, and foreign goods are of higher quality. This attitude, according to the author, is widely used in advertising, where borrowings are used to actualize positive connotations.

It should be noted that the excessive use of borrowings in advertising and in the media causes a negative reaction from a rather large, and mainly "old" segment of the population, therefore, creating a positive connotation with the help of borrowings is a controversial issue at all times.

Referring to the list of reasons for borrowing, proposed by L. P. Krysin, the above statements are confirmed. L.P. Krysin emphasizes the use of foreign language vocabulary and, at the same time, social aspects:

1. The need to name a new thing, a new phenomenon, etc.

2. The need to distinguish between conceptually close, but still different concepts.

3. The need for specialization of concepts - in a particular area, for one purpose or another.

4. The tendency is that an integral, not dismembered into separate constituent objects and should be designated "whole", and not a combination of words.

5. Socio-psychological reasons and factors of borrowing: the perception by the whole collective of speakers or part of it - a foreign language word as more prestigious, "scientist", "beautifully sounding", as well as the communicative relevance of the designated concept.

In view of the above, it can be noted that the intra-linguistic reasons for borrowing are mainly indicated. Also, it was mentioned about the external, extralinguistic reasons for borrowing foreign vocabulary: the activation of relations with other peoples, states, changes in the mentality of English-speaking people.

The borrowing of many historical periods, in part or in full, corresponds to the reasons listed above.

The range of concepts and phenomena of purely English origin is limited. Therefore, it is considered simpler and more effective to borrow an already existing nomination together with the borrowed concept and subject.

In almost every thematic group, most of the borrowings are lexemes that have appeared in the English language as a result of satisfying the need to name a new thing or concept.

Words that form quasi-synonymous series have semantic differences that can be easily identified.

The terminology of computer technology that has developed on the basis of the English language is easily replenished with new terms of foreign language origin. A similar process can be observed in sports terminology, as well as in the vocabulary of uncodified language subsystems, such as drug addicts, prostitutes, hippies, musicians and others, where Anglicisms or tracings from English words predominate.

The tendency to establish a correspondence between the indivisibility of an object and single-element, single-lexemism is observed when an empty cell is filled, which corresponds to a certain meaning, but denoting - in the form of a separate word - is absent (instead, a descriptive turnover is used). As already indicated above, this reason for borrowing is closely related to the first reason and almost always they should be considered together, although the second reason can be called narrow, more specific: the speaker saves speech effort, language involves filling a cell with a nomination.

Among the socio-psychological reasons influencing the process of borrowing can be called an increase in the number of speakers and knowledge of various languages. A large flow of people leaving the country, living in other countries for a long time and returning back is the reason for the frequent switching to other languages, the so-called "code-switching". In such cases, the speaker does not just use borrowings in speech, he switches from one language to another. The influence of emigration on the borrowing process is not as high as a broad knowledge of various languages ​​is essential for the borrowing process.

Many linguists point to the not very frequent, but still the prestige of a foreign language in some situations in comparison with English.

L. P. Krysin calls this phenomenon "an increase in rank": a word that in the source language refers to an ordinary object, in the borrowing language refers to an object that is more significant, more prestigious in one sense or another, and so on. The expressiveness of novelty is one of the persistent reasons for borrowing as more prestigious, significant, expressive. Borrowings have the advantage over English synonyms that they certify the speaker socially in certain areas higher, emphasize the level of awareness and claim the superiority of a certain group (youth) using this vocabulary.

A powerful impetus for the development of the process of borrowing foreign language vocabulary is its use in the speech of authoritative personalities during popular programs. Many well-known television programs in England also feature non-English speaking people, after which the level of English borrowing increases, especially among young people. Among the socio-social reasons for the entry of borrowings into the English language, L. P. Krysina also attributed the "communicative relevance of the concept" and the word corresponding to it. If a concept affects important areas of human activity, then the word denoting this concept naturally becomes used. Over time, the relevance of a word can be lost, and vice versa, a word borrowed at the beginning of the century can reach its peak at the end of the century.

So, external reasons for borrowing "fit" with internal (for example, communicative relevance) through socio-psychological, this is especially noticeable in the shift of the antinomy "speaker / listener" in favor of the former in a pronounced tendency to replace the Russian descriptive phrase with one word. The number of English-speaking people who know foreign languages ​​has increased significantly. It often happened that in a speech situation a borrowed word becomes more prestigious than an English one, the expression of its novelty is attractive, it can emphasize a high level of information content of the speaker. The use of borrowings in the speech of an authority figure (or in advertising) can be the impetus for its assimilation into English speech.

3 ... LIVE ENGLISH AS A CONSTANTLY DEVELOPING PHENOMENON.

Since English is a living language, this factor suggests that English is a phenomenon: constant and evolving. Something new comes, the superfluous disappears. The problem is that in the course of its long history of development, the English language has absorbed a significant number of foreign words, which in one way or another have penetrated into the dictionary. (See Appendix # 1) These words include both service words and derivational morphemes. This speaks not only of the expansion and richness of English.

Such a large number of borrowed words in the English language has given rise to some linguists to argue that the English language has lost its identity, that it is a "hybrid language". Even in the early Middle Ages, the English language adopted a large number of borrowings from the Scandinavian languages ​​(including such basic words as "skin" - skin and even "she" - she). The most massive flow of borrowings is medieval, after the Norman conquest, from the Old French language; as a result, almost half of the English vocabulary is of Romanesque origin. In modern times, a large number of scientific terms and new borrowings from continental languages ​​entered the language. But these facts do not touch the doubts of linguists about the originality of the language. Most of the words in English have been and will remain native. At the same time, English itself is the largest provider of borrowings.

3.1. Examples of languages ​​and loanwords that influenced modern English.

Words from other languages ​​"loanwords".

The trend of borrowing foreign words continues to this day. They come from different languages ​​of the world, often from the realm of modern technology (computer, Internet, biotechnology, sports, entertainment, business and social change).

Many words borrowed from other languages ​​are words for different kinds of food. For example, latte (an Italian word for coffee with a lot of milk), taqueria (a kind of restaurant in Mexican Spanish), and radicchio (from Italian; means a kind of lettuce).

Words from American English.

The importance of American English is growing every day. This is due to America's dominant position in the economic market and enormous influence over other nations through film, music, and other cultural spheres. There are a number of words that are not new in the United States, but have recently become widely used around the world. For example, majorly (the slang is extremely) became widespread, and thus entered the list of new English words (without the AmE mark) in some dictionaries. Borrowing American words, referring mainly to the world of business, youth, pop music, the Internet and computers, is a very bright trend in the British language.

Aliens from the French.

In 1066 the Normans conquered England, and French became the language of prestige and power. During this period, many words from the French language passed into English. Especially those related to power (duke, duchess, count, countess), government (parliament, government) or law (accuse, attorney, crime). Other borrowings related to fashion (dress, apparel), art (music, poem) and moral qualities (courtesy, charity).

Words that existed in English to convey the same phenomena as borrowings did not necessarily disappear. They often got along side by side with the French, but were used in a simpler context. For example, the lower classes of English society left in their lexicon such words as cow, sheep, swine (all of them are taken from the ancient English period). At the same time, the French words beef, mutton, pork entered the speech to denote these animals when it came to food (meat). This is due to the fact that meat was eaten mainly by wealthy people from high society, who were required to know French.

Borrowings from Latin.

Latin, the language of the church, has always played an important role. In some cases, English, French and Latin words with the same meaning exist side by side in the English language. For example, help (English), aid (French), assistance (Latin) or book (English), volume (French), text (Latin). Many Latin words were borrowed by English in the 16th and 17th centuries. Basically, they were part of the written language and were used in the field of intellectual labor (species, specimen, tedium, squalor, antenna). Some of the words came into the language in their original form (see listed above), but there were also those that adapted to the English spelling (history, maturity, polite, scripture). In the 17th century, English-speaking citizens became concerned that Latin words were flooding the English language. Playwright Ben Johnson ridiculed this trend in his play Poetastar (1601). One of her characters produced words, many of which were supposed to be comic and exaggerated: barmy froth, chilblained, clumsy, clutched, conscious, damp, defunct, fatuate, furibund, glibbery, incubus, inflate, lubrical, magnificate, oblatrant, obstupefact, prorumpted, puffy, quaking custard, reciprocal, retrograde, snarling gusts, snotteries, spurious, strenuous, turgidous, ventositous.

Despite the fact that the words were invented to ridicule the then existing reality, many of them have become entrenched in the language and are still used in everyday speech. For example, clumsy, conscious, damp, defunct, puffy, reciprocal, retrograde, spurious, and strenuous.

In the 17th century, English was in contact with other significant European languages, and this was reflected in a variety of borrowings, for example, from French (colonel machine, cartridge), Spanish (armada, banana, galleon) and Italian (ballot, carnival, madrigal).

Celtic borrowings.

Borrowings from Celtic languages ​​in English are few, and in most cases refer to dialectal vocabulary or to the vocabulary of the lower strata of the population. Of interest is the counting system of British sheep breeders, derived from the numerals of the extinct Cumbrian language. The syntactic tracing paper from the Celtic languages ​​is in its origin the Continuous tenses system, which is absent in other Germanic languages.

Scandinavian borrowings.

From Danish as a result of the Scandinavian conquest (from about 870). This group of loanwords is not very numerous, but very frequent words belong to it. Here are some examples: they, them instead of hie, hem (hem is preserved in colloquial expressions like I met "em yesterday); take, cut, get, instead of which English words would give in modern language * nim, * snide, * werth; are , fellow, gear, ill, happen, happy, husband, kick, law, leg, low, odd, rove, rug, scale, scalp, skill, skin, skip, skull, tight, ugly, wrong and others nay, fro, skirt, dike, sky, screech, for which English parallels have been preserved nay, from, shirt, ditch, welkin, shriek; toponymic suffixes: -by, -beck, -thorp (e), -fell , -toft, -thwaite from the Scandinavian words byr "village", bekkr "stream", thorp "village", fjall "mountain", topt "manor", thveit "fenced area" and others; examples of names: Rugby, Welbeck, Scunthorpe, Micklefell, Lovestoft, Applethwaite; flock, mug and some others came through the English-Norman language; nag, ombudsman, ski, skive, slalom, slam - words reflecting new realities for the British entered from modern Scandinavian their languages ​​in the XIX-XX centuries.

Scandinavian loanwords are difficult to distinguish from proper English words, since Danish and Old English were closely related languages. A characteristic difference is that in Danish words / k /, / g /, / sk / were preserved, while in English they turned into hissing: / k / and / g / - under certain conditions, / sk / - always.

European borrowings of the XX century.

In the first half of the 20th century, a large number of words of the German language penetrate into the British natural science vocabulary, including individual morphemes, for example eigen-. The penetration of German vocabulary continues during the Second World War to denote military terms and practically ceases after the war.

Puristic tendencies.

At various times, purists have tried to clear the English language of foreign words, replacing them with Anglo-Saxon ones. One linguistic nationalist said, “Avoid Latin derivatives; use short, expressive Anglo-Saxon monosyllabic words. " (English Avoid Latin derivatives; use brief, terse Anglo-Saxon monosyllables). The irony is that the only Anglo-Saxon word in this dictum is Anglo-Saxon.

4. RESULTS OF THE BORROWING PROCESS. ROLE OF LANGUAGE BORROWING IN THE FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

The phenomenon of borrowing has a great impact on the language, causing serious changes in it. As a result of this process, foreign elements appear in languages ​​- words and parts of words - which for the most part do not clog the language (which, however, happens with thoughtless borrowing), but enrich the fund of its lexical and morphological possibilities. Often there are hybrid words - words, some of which are borrowed, and the other part - originally exists in a given language (artless - borrowed root art-, dislike - borrowed suffix -like). Words related to barbarism and exoticism appear. Mixed languages ​​emerge (Creole, Pidgin-English). Numerous international and pseudo-international words appear, which will be discussed in more detail below. These are the most obvious results of the borrowing process. But there are others, less pronounced, but no less significant from this.

One of the results is the emergence of a large number of doublets (words of identical origin) with different phonemic structure and meaning, since they were borrowed from different sources or in different historical periods, or are the result of a special development of the word in the language. In English, the main source of doublets are words of Latin origin, which came directly from Latin or through the French language (canal - channel, major - mayor, liquor - liqueur, fact - feat). Some doublets appeared as a result of borrowing from different dialects of the same language (assay - essay (from different dialects of French)) or from the same language at different periods of time (dish - earlier, disk - later borrowing from Latin). Also, doublet pairs arise when the connection between the meanings of a polysemantic word is lost; so the Latin persona became two English words: person and parson. There are also exceptional cases of etymological triplets: cattle - chattel - capital (all words come from the Latin capital).

Secondary borrowing is another of the results of this process. In this case, in the language, along with the previously borrowed and assimilated word, a new word appears, which in form coincides with the previously borrowed one, but has a different meaning, up to homonymy. For example, along with the previously borrowed word pilot in the meaning of "specialist controlling an aircraft", at the end of the twentieth century, the word pilot appeared in the meaning of "an athlete driving a high-speed sports vehicle", which also came from French. Another newer borrowing is pilot, which means "print trial". Also, a new meaning of a word may appear already in the receiving language as a result of the functioning of this borrowing in it; for example, the word format was borrowed from the German language by means of French in the meaning of "size of a printed edition, sheet", and later acquired the meaning of "a form of organization and presentation of data in computer memory." In such cases, the question arises whether these words are homonyms or meanings of a polysemantic word. To solve it, the traditional principle of the presence of common semantic components is applied: if they exist, we can talk about the meanings of a polysemantic word (pilot as a pilot and pilot as an athlete), in the absence - about homonymous relations (pilot as a trial release of a printed publication in relation to other meanings of the word) ...

Borrowings had a very important influence on the grammar of the English language. By borrowing the typical French structure of + Noun for expressing a membership relation (legofthetable), English has lost endings. Also, under the influence of borrowings, 2/3 of the original English words were ousted from the language (Anglo-Saxon equivalents of the words face, money, war and others). Many original words have acquired a reduced stylistic connotation compared to borrowings (compare the English calf, pig, cow and the corresponding words of Scandinavian origin veil, pork, beef).

One of the consequences of the borrowing process are international and pseudo-international words. International are the words that have become widespread in many languages ​​of the world as a result of the simultaneous borrowing in several languages. These are mainly words of Greek-Latin origin (Greek: autonomy, system, analysis; Latin: principle, nation, volume, progress). Also, internationalisms include words from other national languages ​​(Italian sonata, façade, balcony; French etiquette, omelette, gallant; Arabic algebra, alcohol, coffee; Indian jungle, punch, verandah; Russian steppe, nihilist). National variants of internationalisms differ not only in spelling and pronunciation, but also in meaning, which should be taken into account when translating. So, in French and English, the word ambition has a neutral meaning "striving for a goal", while Russian ambition has a negative connotation; family (English), familia (Spanish), Familie (German) have the meaning of "family", the Russian word surname in this meaning is rarely used and is considered outdated. Such cases often lead to the emergence of "false friends of the translator", or pseudo-international words - lexical units of two languages, similar in sound and spelling, but partially or completely diverging in meaning. Pseudo-international words can be divided into groups according to the degree of similarity:

1) words that have the same spelling and pronunciation, but completely different meanings (accurate - accurate, not neat; complexion - complexion, not complexion; magazine - a magazine, not a store);

2) words that, in addition to spelling and pronunciation, coincide in some meanings, but not always in the most common (authority - power, less often - authority; pretend - to pretend, less often - to pretend; solid - solid, not just solid) ;

3) words that are close, but not identical in spelling and sound, and, accordingly, have different meanings (adapt - to adapt, adopt - to accept; data - data, date - date; later - later, the latter - the last of those listed, letter - letter, letter);

4) the names of measures, consonant, but not the same in quantity (pound (English from Latin through German) - 453.59 g, Pfund (German) - 500 g, pound (Russian) - 409.5 g, ; centner (English from Latin through German) - 45.36 kg, Zentner (German) - 50 kg, centner (Russian) - 100 kg.)

CONCLUSION.

Borrowing as a process is multifaceted; it has definite causes, types and results. The reasons for borrowing lie both within a certain language system and outside it. The need arising within the language to borrow a foreign language element is explained by the inaccuracy of the existing name or its absence due to the novelty of the designated object for the culture using this language. External reasons for the appearance of borrowings arise as a result of contacts between people speaking different languages. Borrowed words facilitate communication, and also often carry a socio-psychological load in the form of connotations that are absent in the correspondences of the receiving language. Borrowing can occur between different languages, both close and distant in terms of kinship. The effects of this process on the receiving language are varied; they affect not only the lexical level of the language, but also grammar, which is clearly seen in the example of the English language, the grammatical system of which has radically changed as a result of the loss of cases caused by the influence of the French language.

Borrowing as an element of the language also has its own specifics: such elements exist at different levels of the language, but not in equal quantities. The largest number of them is at the level of words, the smallest at the level of stable phrases.

Borrowings in English have been reviewed and studied from the point of view of the latest domestic and foreign research. The role of language borrowing in the formation and development of the English language is indicated in view of the fact that the process of borrowing gives the perspective and the possibility of the development of the language itself in the process of "building up" the vocabulary and its connection in the international arena with other languages. The initially set tasks of this course work were also fulfilled, since, having familiarized themselves with the numerous works of scientists in the field of lexicology, it was found that, despite the high percentage of borrowings, English cannot be classified as a language of international origin or as one of the Romance languages. The local element contains a huge number of words, and the grammatical structure has remained intact. The criteria and possibilities of language borrowing in speech remain practically unchanged to this day.

Trends in the development of the subject "Borrowing in English" are just as relevant in view of the constant need to study both the history of the past and the construction of future prospects for the state and development of the English language as a language of international scale and use.

Thus, the modern English vocabulary has changed and supplemented over the centuries and now has a large number of words in its stock. But, despite this, he did not turn into a kind of "hybrid" and in no way lost his identity. English remained the language of the Germanic group with all the characteristic features inherent in it throughout its development, and the changes that it underwent in connection with borrowings only enriched its vocabulary.

LIST OF REFERENCES AND USED SOURCES.

1. Breiter M.A. Borrowing in English: History and Perspectives: A Guide for Foreign Students of Russian Studies. - Vladivostok: Dialogue publishing house. 2003.
2. Vinokur G.O. Notes on English word formation. - Moscow, 1999.
3. Krysin L. P. Foreign words in modern life. English language of the late twentieth century. - Moscow, 1996.
4. Krysin L. P. Foreign words in English. - Moscow, 2006.
5. Rosen E.V. New words and stable phrases in the German language. - Moscow, 1991.

6. Antrushina G.B., Afanasyeva O.V., Morozova N.N. "Lexicology of the English language", Higher education, Bustard, 2003.

7. Reutovich, Yu.S. Lexical assimilation of German loanwords in English / Yu.S. Reutovich // Theory of communication. Language meanings. Issue 2. Sat. scientific. articles: MSLU. - Moscow, 2002.

8. Cheremisina, T.I. The functional aspect of unassimilated loanwords in modern English. - Moscow, 2001.

9. Kabakchi, V.V. English language of international communication / Cross-culturalEnglish. - SPb: Perm, 2004.

10. Vinokurova V.N. Regularities of the development of the semantic structure of lexical borrowings in modern English, 2005.

11. Brunner I. V. Lexicology of Modern English.- Moscow., 1999.

12. Sekirin V.P. Borrowings in English. - Moscow, 2004.

13 Atrashevskaya, O.T. Lexical fields with semantically correlative primordial and borrowed units. Communication theory. - Moscow 2006.

14. Latyshev, L.K. Translation technology / L.K. Latyshev. - M.: NVI-TEZAURUS, 2001 .-- 280s.

16. Smirnitsky A.I. Lexicology of the English language. - Moscow, 2000.

15. Fadeev V.I. Russian words in English. - Novosibirsk, 1999.

16. Ozhegov S.I., Shvetsova N.Yu. Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language.- Moscow, 1995.

17. Muller, V.K. / Big English-Russian dictionary / V.K. Muller, A.B. Shevnin, M. Yu. Brodsky. - Yekaterinburg, 2005.

18. Wikipedia is a free encyclopedia: http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki.

19. For those who need English: http://www.study.ru/index.html.

20. Khomenko, S.A., Tsvetkova, E.E., Basovets, I.M. Fundamentals of theory and practice of translation from English. - Moscow, 2004.

APPENDIX №1 "The composition of borrowings in English".

Ministry of Higher and Professional Education of the Russian Federation

Perm State Technical University

Department of Foreign Languages ​​and Psychology

Borrowings in English

Performed:

Art. gr. PRF98-6

Vityukhovskaya Yana

Checked:

O. V. Solovyova

Perm 2000

Introduction. 2

I Etymological structure of the vocabulary of the English language 3

II The role of borrowings in the development of the vocabulary of the English language 6

III Borrowing classification 9

IV Source of borrowing 12

V The problem of assimilation of loan words 17

Conclusion 21

Bibliography 22

Introduction.

The topic of this course work belongs to the field of lexicology. As you know, vocabulary is the most dynamic aspect of the language at any time. It represents the smallest degree of abstraction in the language, since the word is always subject-oriented; it can be borrowed, formed, formed anew or from the elements available in the language. In my work, I consider borrowing as one of the main ways of word formation in the English language.

The work is structured in accordance with the goals that the author sets for himself:

1) consider the most important sources and ways of penetration of loanwords into the English language

2) determine their role and place in the vocabulary of the English language

3) consider the features of borrowing words based on etymological analysis

the objectives of the course work also include learning to identify the origins of the forms and phenomena reflected in any modern word. To do this, I examined in detail the history of Britain, the history of the language, and also carried out an analysis of words (which is a practical part of the work). I also made an attempt to systematize and classify borrowings, based on the research of specialists in the field of linguistics.

The work consists of five chapters and a conclusion. The theoretical provisions were developed on the basis of achievements in the field of borrowing and etymology of the English language. The practical part consists in the etymological analysis of words.

I Etymological structure of the vocabulary of the English language.

Modern language is a product of a long historical development, in the process of which the language undergoes many-sided changes due to various reasons. Changes affect all sides (levels, tiers, aspects) of the linguistic structure, but they act in different ways. The historical development of each level depends on the specific reasons and conditions that stimulate shifts in the lexical composition of the language, in its phonetic (phonological) organization, in its grammatical structure.

The development of language is characterized by the processes of growth and decay. So, in the English language, analytical forms, a complex system of verbal shaping are developing, but the declension system breaks up and the personal endings of the verb drop out of words from the vocabulary, new ones appear through borrowings or new formations.

The history of the language reveals all the processes that took place in the language at different stages of its existence, the reasons (factors) of changes that are inherent in the language itself are called linguistic (or interlinguistic), and the factors associated with the history of the people, with the general development of human society, extralinguistic ... These 2 concepts and 2 sides of the history of the language constantly touch.

The accumulation of knowledge about the history of the development of different aspects of the language should eventually lead to such a level of final preparation, when with the help of an etymological dictionary, and to a large extent without it, one can explain the origins of forms and phenomena reflected in any modern word.

Table 1. Etymological structure of the English dictionary. language.

This table needs some explanation. First, you should pay attention to the fact that the second column contains not only more groups, but also contains more words. This is due to the high percentage of borrowed words in the English language (75%), which came as a result of numerous historical events and international connections.

In terms of vocabulary, English should be classified as a language of international origin, or at least one of the Romance languages ​​(since French and Latin words predominate). But given the relative frequency of word spread, it's clear that the Anglo-Saxon heritage takes its toll. the local element in English contains a huge number of frequently repeated words such as articles, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, as well as words for everyday objects (child, water, come, good, bad, etc.)

Moreover, the grammatical structure, essentially Germanic, remained intact by foreign influences.

It should also be noted that at different times, purists tried to clear the English language of foreign words, replacing them with Anglo-Saxon ones. One linguistic nationalist wrote: “Avoid Latin derivatives; use short, expressive Anglo-Saxon monosyllabic words. " (AvoidLatinderivatives; use brief, terseAnglo-Saxonmonosyllable) The irony is that the only Anglo-Saxon word in this slogan is "Anglo-Saxon."

Now let's go back to the first column of the table, which represents the local element, the core of the English vocabulary. The column consists of three groups and only the third is dated. Words of this group appeared in English in the 5th century or later. That is, after the Germanic tribes migrated to the British Isles. As for the Indo-European and Germanic groups, they are so old that they cannot be dated.

The Indo-European element refers to words common to all or more languages ​​of the Indo-European group. The English words of this group denote elementary concepts, without which human communication is impossible. They can be combined into the following groups:

1.family relationships: father, mother, brother, son, daughter

2.particles: foot, nose, lip, heart

3.animals: cow, swine, goose.

4.plants: tree, birch, corn

5.time of day: day, night.

6. heavenly bodies: sun, moon, star

7.adjectives: red, new, glad, sad

8.numbers from 1 to 100

9.personal and demonstrative pronouns (except they)

10.Large number of verbs: be, stand, sit, eat, know

The Germanic element represents words common to all or most languages ​​of Germanic origin. Some of the main groups of Germanic words are similar to the groups of the Indo-European element:

1.particles: head, hand, arm, finger, bone

2.animals: bear, fox, calf

3.plants: oak, fir, grass

4.natural phenomena: rain, frost

5.seasons: winter, spring, summer

6.landscapes: sea, land

7.human dwelling and furniture: hous, room, banch

8.sea vessels: boat, ship

9.adjectives: green, blue, gray, white, small, thick, hight, old, good

10.verbs: see, hear, tell, say, answer, make, give, drink

it should be noted that the English element proper, in a certain respect, is opposed to the first two groups. It is not only approximately dated, but these words have another feature: they are definitely English and have no common origin with words of other languages, while Indo-European and Germanic words can be found in a common root.

II The role of borrowings in the development of the vocabulary of the English language

The role of borrowings (borrowings, loan-words) in different languages ​​is not the same and depends on the specific historical conditions of the development of each language. In English, the percentage of borrowings is much higher than in many other languages, since, for historical reasons, it turned out to be very permeable, as opposed to, for example, Icelandic. The English language, more than any other language, had the opportunity to borrow foreign words in conditions of direct direct contact: first in the Middle Ages from foreign invaders replacing each other on the British Isles, and later in the conditions of trade expansion and colonial activity of the British themselves. It is estimated that the number of native words in the English dictionary is only about 30%.

It would be vulgar to think that the role of a word in a language is determined by whether it is borrowed or original. Nevertheless, all the most common prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs of time and place, all auxiliary and modal verbs, almost all strong verbs and almost all pronouns, adjectives with adjectives with complementary degrees of comparison, all numerals, with the exception of second, million, billion, and finally , many nouns denoting the most common and constantly participating in the act of communication are the original words in modern English.

The general law on the unevenness of changes in the elements of the language as applied to the problem of borrowings is formulated as follows: the most permeable elements of the language included in the vocabulary of the language, less permeable are the settled elements of the fund, and the grammatical structure of the language is almost not exposed to foreign influences.