Formation of the Mongol Empire. Genghis Khan - the great conqueror and founder of the Mongol Empire
In the middle of the XII century. the first Mongol state was formed - Hamag Mongol ulus ("State of all Mongols"), which, however, disintegrated around 1160 due to the rivalry and struggle for power among members of the khan's house.
At the turn of the XII and XIII centuries. the unification of the Mongol-speaking and part of the Turkic-speaking ethnic groups of Central Asia under the rule of Temujin took place, who in 1206 was elected the supreme ruler with the title of Genghis Khan at a meeting of representatives of the Mongol nobility (kurultai). The whole of Mongolia was divided into 95 military-administrative regions - "thousands", which were supposed to exhibit about a thousand mounted warriors led by noyons. According to the code of laws of the new Mongolian state "Yase", people in "thousands" were attached to their place of residence. All services (economic, military) were improved, the armed forces were formed, unquestioningly obeying the authority of Genghis Khan as the representative of Heaven on Earth and the orders of his commanders. Around 1211, the state of Genghis Khan began to be called Ehe Mongol ulus ("Great Mongol State").
Having conquered all the Mongol tribes, Genghis Khan in 1209 and 1211. collided with large states lying to the south of the Great Steppe - the Jin Empire and the Tangut state of Xi Xia. In 1215 Beijing (Yanjing) was taken by the Mongols. In 1218 Semirechye was conquered.
The first invasion of Central Asia and Iran by the Mongol army took place in 1219 - 1222. Here Genghis Khan collided with the states of the Kara-Kitai and Khorezmshahs.
Khorezmshah Muhammad ibn Tekish (1200 - 1220) rejected Genghis Khan's proposal to conclude an agreement on peace and patronage. As a result, Mongolian detachments took Otrar, Khojent, Urgench and other cities; Bukhara and Samarkand surrendered without a fight. In 1221 Khorezm was captured. The hostilities were transferred to the territory of modern Afghanistan, where the fight against the Mongols was continued by the son of the Khorezmshah - Jalal ad-Din (1220 - 1231). However, in 1221 the army of the latter was defeated.
Despite the fact that by 1225 the main Mongol army had gone to Mongolia, the detachment of commanders Jebe and Subetai continued the war in the west. Through Northern Iran, he invaded Transcaucasia, where he devastated part of Georgia and Azerbaijan, along the coast of the Caspian Sea he penetrated into the lands of the Ases (Ossetians) (1222) and, having defeated them, went out into the Polovtsian steppes. In the battle on the river. Kalke On May 31, 1223, the Mongol detachment defeated the united Russian-Polovtsian army.
Shortly before his death, Genghis Khan divided the conquered lands between his sons: Tului (Tolui) received Mongolia; Ogedei (Ogedei) - Western Mongolia, Tarbagatai and, probably, Altai; Chagatai - the territory from the Southern Altai to the Amu Darya and from the borders of the Uyghur possessions to Samakand and Bukhara, as well as Balkh and Khorezm (they made up the Chagataid ulus); the heirs of Jochi received lands to the west of the Irtysh, including the Volga region, the lower reaches of the Don and the Caucasus.
At the kurultai of 1229, the third son of Genghis Khan, Ogedei, was elected the Mongol Great Khan. The Mongol conquests continued in three directions: in the east, the conquest of North China was completed (1231 - 1234) and in 1231 - 1232. a war with Korea began, most of which was conquered by 1273. The conquest of Iran also continued. The Mongol army under the command of Noyon Chormagun devastated Khorasan and entered Iran. Under the onslaught of the Mongols, the last Khorezmshah Jalal ad-Din retreated to South Kurdistan along with the remnants of his troops. In 1231 he was killed. In 1243 Khorasan and the captured regions of Iran were transferred to the emir Argun.
In 1236 the Mongol army invaded the Volga-Kama Bulgaria; in 1237 a campaign against North-Eastern Russia began. In the Polovtsian steppes (1238 - 1240), the Mongolian army waged a protracted war with the Polovtsians, made campaigns to the Crimea, to the Mordovian land. In the fall of 1240, the campaign of Batu Khan (Batu) to Russia began. In the spring of 1241, the Mongol army went further west. After the capture of Hungary, the Polish, Moravian and Slovak lands were subjected to ruin. Through Austria and Croatia, Batu Khan moved to the Adriatic Sea. However, already in 1242 he began to retreat.
After the conquest of Transcaucasia (1236), the Mongol army defeated the Rum Sultanate in Asia Minor. In 1251, at the kurultai, it was decided to organize a new campaign to the west, at the head of which was put one of the brothers of the great khan Mongke (Mongke) (1251 - 1259), Hulagu-khan (1256 - 1265). In 1256 Hulagu conquered Iran. In 1258 Baghdad fell. Mongol troops penetrated into Syria, preparing to invade Egypt, but in 1260 they were defeated by the Egyptian Mamluk troops.
In the second half of the XIII century. Mongolian troops captured the countries surrounding the South Sung empire: the state of Dali (1252 - 1253), Tibet (1253). In 1258, they invaded southern China, which was conquered a little later by the Great Khan Kublai (1260 - 1294), the founder of the Yuan state. In 1281 an attempt was made to conquer Japan, but the ships of the Mongolian fleet were destroyed by a typhoon. Expansion into Southeast Asia also failed.
The Mongol conquest caused serious damage to the economic development of the conquered countries. Many rural settlements and cities were destroyed; agricultural oases have been converted into nomadic pastures and camps. The process of naturalization of the economy began, the strengthening of the role of cattle breeding at the expense of agriculture, the reduction of domestic and international trade, which led to a general decline.
There are a large number of unique people in the history of the world. They were simple children, often raised in poverty and did not know good manners. It was these people who changed the course of history radically, leaving behind only ashes. They were building a new world, a new ideology and a new outlook on life. To all these hundreds of people, humanity owes its life today, because it is the mosaic of past events that has entailed what we have today. Everyone knows the names of such people, because they are constantly on the lips. Every year scientists can provide more and more interesting facts from the life of great people. In addition, many secrets and riddles are gradually revealed, the disclosure of which a little earlier could lead to horrific consequences.
Acquaintance
Genghis Khan is the founder of the first great khan of which he was. He rallied various scattered tribes in Mongolia. In addition, he conducted a large number of campaigns to neighboring states. Most military campaigns ended in complete victory. The empire of Genghis Khan is considered the largest of the continental in the entire history of the world.
Birth
Temujin was born in the Delyun-Boldok tract. The father named after the captive leader of the Tatars Temujin-Uge, who was defeated just before the birth of the boy. The date of birth of the great leader is still not known exactly, since different sources indicate different periods. According to documents that existed during the life of the leader and his biographers, Genghis Khan was born in 1155. Another option is 1162, but there is no exact confirmation. The boy's father, Yesugei-bagatur, left him in the family of the future bride at the age of 11. Genghis Khan had to stay there until he came of age, so that the children got to know each other better. The little girl, a future bride named Borta, was from the Ungirat clan.
Father's death
According to the scriptures, on the way back home, the boy's father was poisoned by the Tatars. At home, Yesugei had a fever, he died three days later. He had two wives. Both of them and the children of the head of the family were expelled from the tribe. Women with children were forced to live in the forest for several years. They managed to escape by a miracle: they ate plants, the boys tried to fish. Even in the warm season, they were doomed to starvation, since they had to make provisions for the winter.
Fearing revenge by the heirs of the great khan, the new head of the Targutai tribe, Kiriltukh, pursued Temujin. The boy managed to escape several times, but was eventually caught. A wooden block was put on him, which absolutely limited the martyr's actions. It was impossible to eat, drink, or even drive the annoying beetle off his face. Realizing the hopelessness of his situation, Temujin decided to run away. At night he reached the lake, in which he hid. The boy completely immersed himself in the water, leaving only his nostrils on the surface. Snoopers of the head of the tribe carefully looked for at least some traces of the escaped. One person noticed Temujin, but did not betray him. In the future, it was he who helped Genghis Khan escape. Soon the boy found his relatives in the forest. Then he married Borte.
Becoming a commander
The empire of Genghis Khan was created gradually. At first, nukers began to flock to him, with whom he attacked neighboring territories. Thus, the young man began to have his own land, army and people. Genghis Khan began to form a special system that would make it possible to effectively manage the rapidly growing horde. Around 1184, Genghis Khan's first son, Jochi, was born. In 1206, at the congress Temujin was proclaimed a great khan from God. From that moment on, he was considered the complete and absolute ruler of Mongolia.
Asia
The conquest of Central Asia took place in several stages. The war with the Karakitai Khanate ended with the Mongols receiving Semirechye and Eastern Turkestan. In order to gain the support of the population, the Mongols allowed Muslims to worship in public, which was forbidden by the Naimans. This contributed to the fact that the permanent sedentary population completely sided with the conquerors. The population considered the arrival of the Mongols "the grace of Allah", in comparison with the harshness of Khan Kuchluk. The inhabitants themselves opened the gates to the Mongols. It is for this that the city of Balasagun was named "the meek city". Khan Kuchluk could not organize a strong enough resistance, so he fled from the city. Soon he was found and killed. Thus, the way to Khorezm was opened for Genghis Khan.
The empire of Genghis Khan absorbed Khorezm, a large state in Central Asia. His weak point was that the nobility had complete power in the city, so the situation was very tense. Muhammad's mother independently appointed all relatives to important government posts without asking her son. Having thus created a circle of powerful support, she led the opposition against Muhammad. Internal relations were greatly aggravated when the heavy threat of the Mongol invasion hung. The war against Khorezm ended with neither side gaining a significant advantage. At night, the Mongols left the battlefield. In 1215, Genghis Khan agreed with Khorezm on mutual trade relations. However, the first merchants who went to Khorezm were captured and killed. For the Mongols, this was an excellent reason to start a war. Already in 1219, Genghis Khan, together with the main military forces, opposed Khorezm. Despite the fact that many territories were taken by siege, the Mongols plundered cities, killed and destroyed everything around. Muhammad lost the war even without a fight, and realizing this, he fled to an island in the Caspian Sea, having previously given power into the hands of his son Jalal ad-Din. After long battles, the khan overtook Jelal ad-Din in 1221 near the Indus River. The enemy army numbered about 50 thousand people. To cope with them, the Mongols used a trick: having carried out a roundabout maneuver over rocky terrain, they attacked the enemy from the flank. In addition, Genghis Khan used a powerful guards unit of bagatur. Ultimately, Jalal ad-Din's army was almost completely defeated. He with several thousand soldiers fled from the battlefield by swimming.
After a 7-month siege, the capital of Khorezm, Urgench, fell, and the city was taken. Jelal ad-Din fought against the troops of Genghis Khan for a long 10 years, but this did not bring significant benefits to his state. He died defending his territory in 1231 in Anatolia.
In just three short years (1219-1221), the kingdom of Muhammad bowed before Genghis Khan. The entire eastern part of the kingdom, which occupied the territory from the Indus to the Caspian Sea, was under the rule of the great khan of Mongolia.
The Mongols conquered the West through the campaign of Jebe and Subedei. After capturing Samarkand, Genghis Khan sent his troops to conquer Muhammad. Jebe and Subedei passed through the whole of Northern Iran, and then captured the South Caucasus. The cities were captured by certain treaties or simply by force. The troops regularly collected tribute from the population. Soon in 1223, the Mongols defeated the Russian-Polovtsian military forces on However, retreating to the East, they lost in. Small remnants of a huge army returned to the great khan in 1224, while he was at that time in Asia.
Hiking
The first victory of the khan, which took place outside Mongolia, happened during the campaign of 1209-1210 against the Tanguts. Khan began to prepare for war with the most dangerous enemy in the East - the state of Jin. In the spring of 1211, a great war began, which claimed many lives. Very quickly, by the end of the year, the troops of Genghis Khan owned the territory from the north to the Chinese Wall. By 1214, the entire territory, covering the north and the Yellow River, was in the hands of the Mongol army. In the same year, the siege of Beijing took place. Peace was obtained through exchange - Genghis Khan married a Chinese princess who had a huge dowry, land and wealth. But this step of the emperor was only a trick, and as soon as the Khan's troops began to retreat, waiting for the right moment, the Chinese resumed the war. For them it was a big mistake, because in speed the Mongols defeated the capital to the last stone.
In 1221, when Samarkand fell, the eldest son of Genghis Khan was sent to Khorezm in order to begin the siege of Urgench, the capital of Muhammad. At the same time, the younger son was sent by his father to Persia for plunder and seizure of territory.
Separately, it is worth noting what happened between the Russian-Polovtsian and Mongolian troops. The modern territory of the battle is the Donetsk region of Ukraine. The Battle of Kalka (year 1223) led to the complete victory of the Mongols. First, they defeated the forces of the Polovtsians, and a little later the main forces of the Russian army were defeated. On May 31, the battle ended with the death of about 9 Russian princes, many boyars and soldiers.
The campaign of Subadei and Jebe allowed the army to pass through a significant part of the steppes, which was occupied by the Polovtsians. This allowed the military leaders to appreciate the merits of the future theater of military operations, study it and think over a reasonable strategy. The Mongols also learned a lot about the internal structure of Russia, they received a lot of useful information from the prisoners. Genghis Khan's campaigns have always been distinguished by their thoroughness, which was carried out before the offensive.
Rus
The invasion of the Mongol Tatars to Russia took place in 1237-1240 under the rule of Chingizid Batu. The Mongols actively attacked Russia, inflicted strong blows, waiting for good moments. The main goal of the Mongol-Tatars was the disorganization of the warriors of Russia, sowing fear and panic. They avoided battles with a large number of warriors. The tactic was to dissociate a large army and smash the enemy piece by piece, exhausting him with harsh attacks and constant aggression. The Mongols began battles by throwing arrows in order to intimidate and distract opponents. One of the significant advantages of the Mongolian army was that the control of the battle was organized in the best way. The managers did not fight next to ordinary soldiers, they were at a certain distance, so as to maximally cover the angle of view of military operations. Instructions were given to the soldiers using various signs: flags, light, smoke, drums and pipes. The Mongol attack was carefully thought out. For this, powerful reconnaissance and diplomatic preparation for battle were carried out. Much attention was paid to isolating the enemy, as well as fanning internal conflicts. After this stage, it concentrated near the borders. The attack took place along the entire perimeter. Starting from different sides, the army strove to get to the very center. Penetrating deeper and deeper, the military destroyed cities, stole cattle, killed soldiers and raped women. In order to better prepare for the attack, the Mongols sent out special observation detachments that prepared the territory and also destroyed the enemy's weapons. The exact number of troops on both sides is not reliably known, since the information differs.
For Russia, the Mongol invasion was a severe blow. A huge part of the population was killed, the cities fell into decay, as they were thoroughly destroyed. Stone construction stopped for several years. Many crafts have simply disappeared. The sedentary population was almost completely eliminated. The empire of Genghis Khan and the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars to Russia were closely related, since for the Mongols it was a very tasty morsel.
Khan's empire
The empire of Genghis Khan included a vast territory from the Danube to the Sea of Japan, from Novgorod to Southeast Asia. During its heyday, it combined the lands of Southern Siberia, Eastern Europe, the Middle East, China, Tibet and Central Asia. The 13th century marked the creation and flourishing of the great state of Genghis Khan. But already in the second half of the century, the huge empire began to split into separate uluses, which were ruled by the Chingizids. The most significant fragments of the huge state were: the Golden Horde, the Yuan Empire, the Chagatai ulus and the Hulaguid state. And yet the borders of the empire were so impressive that no commander or conqueror could achieve more.
Capital of the empire
Karakorum city was the capital of the entire empire. The word literally translates as "black stones of the volcano." It is believed to have been founded in 1220 by the Karakorum. The city was the place where the khan left his family for the duration of campaigns and military affairs. Also, the city was the residence of the khan, in which he received important ambassadors. Russian princes also came here to resolve various political issues. The 13th century gave the world many travelers who left notes about the city (Marco Polo, de Rubruk, Plano Carpini). The population of the city was very diverse, since each quarter was isolated from the other. The city was inhabited by artisans, merchants who came from all over the world. The city was unique in terms of the diversity of its inhabitants, because among them there were people of different races, religions and thinking. Also, the city was built up with many Muslim mosques and Buddhist temples.
Ogedei built a palace, which he called "The Palace of Ten Thousand Years of Prosperity." Each Chingizid also had to build his own palace here, which, naturally, was inferior to the building of the son of the great leader.
Descendants
Genghis Khan had many wives and concubines until the end of his days. However, it was the first wife, Borta, who gave birth to the most powerful and famous boys to the commander. The heir to the first son of Jochi, Batu, was the creator of the Golden Horde, Jagatay-Chagatay gave the name to the dynasty that ruled over the central regions for a long time, Ogaday-Ogedei was the successor of the Khan himself, Tolui ruled the Mongol empire from 1251 to 1259. Only these four boys had a certain power in the state. In addition, Borta gave birth to a husband and daughters: Hodzhin-bags, Chichigan, Alagai, Temulen and Altalun.
The second wife of the Merkit Khan Khulan-Khatun gave birth to a daughter Dairusunu and sons of Kulkan and Kharachar. Genghis Khan's third wife, Yesukat, gave him a daughter, Charu-noynon, and the sons of Chakhur and Harhad.
Genghis Khan, whose life history is impressive, left behind descendants who ruled the Mongols in accordance with the Great Yasa of the Khan until the 20s of the last century. The emperors of Manchuria, who ruled over Mongolia and China from the 16th to the 19th century, were also the direct female heirs of the Khan.
The decline of the great empire
The fall of the empire lasted 9 long years, from 1260 to 1269. The situation was very tense, since there was a pressing question of who would transfer all power. In addition, it is worth noting the serious administrative problems faced by the management apparatus.
The fall of the empire happened because the sons of Genghis Khan did not want to live according to the laws established by their father. They could not live according to the main postulate "On the good quality, strictness of the state." Genghis Khan was shaped by a harsh reality that constantly demanded decisive action from him. Life constantly tested Temujin, starting from the early years of his life. His sons lived in a completely different environment, they were protected and confident in the future. In addition, we should not forget that they valued their father's possessions much less than he himself.
Another reason for the collapse of the state was the struggle for power between the sons of Genghis Khan. She distracted them from the vital affairs of the state. When it was necessary to resolve important issues, the brothers were engaged in sorting out the relationship. This could not but affect the situation in the country, the world status, the mood of the people. All this led to a general deterioration in the state in many respects. Dividing the empire of their father among themselves, the brothers did not understand that they were destroying it by dismantling it into stones.
Death of a great leader
Genghis Khan, whose history is impressive to this day, returning from Central Asia, marched with his army through Western China. In 1225, near the borders of Xi Xia, Genghis Khan was on a hunt, during which he fell and was badly hurt. By the evening of the same day, he developed a strong fever. As a result of this, a meeting of managers was called in the morning, at which the question of whether or not to start a war with the Tanguts was considered. The council was also attended by Jochi, who did not enjoy special trust at the top of the government, since he regularly deviated from his father's instructions. Noticing this constant behavior, Genghis Khan ordered his army to go against Jochi and kill him. But due to the death of his son, the campaign was never completed.
Having recovered his health, in the spring of 1226, Genghis Khan with his army crossed the border of Xi Xia. After defeating the defenders, and giving the city to plunder, the khan began his last war. The Tanguts were completely defeated on the outskirts of the Tangut kingdom, the path to which became open. The fall of the Tangut kingdom and the death of the khan are very connected, because the great leader died here.
Causes of death
The scriptures say that Genghis Khan's death came after he accepted gifts from the king of the Tangut. However, there are several versions that have equal rights to exist. Among the main and most probable causes are the following: death from illness, poor adaptation to the local climate, the consequences of falling from a horse. There is also a separate version that the khan was killed by his young wife, whom he took by force. The girl, fearing the consequences, committed suicide that very night.
Tomb of Genghis Khan
Nobody can name the exact burial place of the great khan. Various sources disagree on the hypotheses for a number of reasons. Moreover, each of them indicates different places and methods of burial. The grave of Genghis Khan can be located in any of three places: on Burkhan Khaldun, on the northern side of Altai Khan, or in Yehe Utek.
The monument to Genghis Khan is located in Mongolia. The equestrian statue is considered the largest monument and statue in the entire world. The opening of the monument took place on September 26, 2008. Its height is 40 m without a pedestal, the height of which is 10 m. The entire statue is covered with stainless steel, the total weight is 250 tons. Also, the monument to Genghis Khan is surrounded by 36 columns. Each of them symbolizes the khan of the Mongol Empire, from Chinggis to Ligden. In addition, the monument is two-story and houses a museum, art gallery, billiards, restaurants, a conference room and a souvenir shop. The horse's head serves as a viewing platform for visitors. The statue is surrounded by a large park. The city authorities plan to equip a golf course, an open theater and an artificial lake.
One of the original centers of world civilization in the XIV-XV centuries. was the empire of Genghis Khan. Initially, it was a medieval early feudal state that arose as a result of wars of conquest and included a great variety of nationalities and regions. The main principle underlying its existence was administrative coercion. Almost all the time the empire existed, there was a struggle for power among many khans. Personal ambitions, self-esteem, selfishness, unbridled disposition, and self-will are intertwined into a single ball. This greatly weakened social harmony, causing protests and discontent among the peoples who inhabited a huge territory. At the same time, this civilization was an example of one of the large and powerful centers that achieved significant success in urban planning, cattle breeding and agriculture. The achievements of the empire of Genghis Khan in the field of statehood and culture are especially high.
By the beginning of the XIII century. Temuchin, the head of one of the Mongol tribes, conquered other Mongol and Turkic tribes, as well as the Tatars. In 1206 he formed a state and, becoming its ruler, took the name Genghis Khan for himself. The state is spread over a vast territory. These were the steppes of Central Asia (north of China and south of Lake Baikal). In less than 18 years (from 1206 to 1220 with short interruptions) Genghis Khan conquered North China and Central Asia, Iran and Baghdad. Then Genghis Khan annexed Transcaucasia to his possessions and in 1223 came close to the territory of the North Caucasus, where the Polovtsy from the Kipchak tribes lived. In the face of the danger of Mongol enslavement, the Polovtsian khans entered into a military alliance with the Russian princes. But the decisive battle on the Kalka River on May 5, 1223 again showed the indestructible power of the Mongols. After this battle, the territory of the Mongol Empire began to stretch from the Pacific Ocean to the Black Sea.
The ruler of the empire, Genghis Khan, was an outstanding statesman and a skilled military leader. His code of laws - "Great Yasa" - was known not only in Mongolia, but also beyond its borders.
In the creation of the great empire, together with the Mongols, another nationality, the Tatars, took part. The attitude of the Mongols to the Tatars was ambiguous. On the one hand, they were allies of the Mongols in the conquest campaigns, on the other, Genghis Khan himself accused them of taking part in the poisoning of Yesugei Bagatur, his father. Genghis Khan even ordered to exterminate them, but this was unrealistic due to their large numbers. At the same time, Genghis Khan himself had two wives of Tatar origin and an adopted Tatar son. Finally, a high post and an important position in the country (supreme judge and military leader) was also held by the Tatar Shiki-Khutuku.
The Mongols used the Tatars in the vanguard of the advancing forces and imposed the name of the Tatars, odious for them, on other peoples in their army.
The birth of an empire
Genghis Khan died in 1227 when he was 72 years old. Before his death, he divided the empire between his sons. Mongolia itself and Northern China received Udege, Central Asia (Maverannahr) and South Kazakhstan (Semirechye) - Chagatai. The Iranian possessions went to Tuluy, and the eldest son of Jochi retreated Khorezm, the Kipchak steppe and lands that still needed to be conquered - Russia, the Finno-Ugric lands and the Volga Bulgaria.
The territories conquered by the Mongols were called uluses, and the Mongol rulers from the clan of Genghis Khan were called Chinggisids. By the will of fate, Jochi died before Genghis Khan, and his ulus passed to his son Bat, but the name Jochiev remained behind the ulus.
Batu's two attempts to conquer the territory of the Volga Bulgars were unsuccessful (in 1229 and 1232). In 1235, at his request, the All-Mongol kurultai helped him to gather a huge army of 140,000 soldiers. And in the fall of 1236, Batu's army conquered the Volga Bulgaria. Such cities as Djuketau, Bulgar, Sulyar, etc., could not resist the power of the Mongol army.
The Laurentian Chronicle says that “in the summer of 6744 (1236) the same autumn the Tatars came from the eastern countries to the Bulgarian land of godlessness and took the glorious great Bulgarian city, and beat them with weapons from the old man to the unago and to the real baby, taking a lot of goods and their city was burnt with fire and all the land of their captivity. "
Inspired by the victory, Batu without a break in the same year launched an offensive on the Kipchak lands, the conquest of Desht-i-Kipchak continued until 1238. In 1237, the Mongol army invaded Russian territory. The Ryazan principality was the first on its way. In 1240, all of Russia was under the yoke of the Mongol-Tatars, and Prince Alexander Yaroslavovich (Alexander Nevsky) entered into an alliance with Batu, recognizing his power over himself.
After Russia, the Mongols conquered Hungary and, perhaps, would have advanced further to Europe, but at this time Ugede Khan died in Karakorum. All the rulers of the house of Genghis Khan gathered at a kurultai to elect a new head of the empire. Guyuk became the Great Khan. Batu, having set up a golden tent on the Akhtuba River (Lower Volga), became the ruler of a new state - the Golden Horde. His possessions stretched in the west from the Carpathian Mountains to the Danube and in the east - from the Irtysh to the Altai Mountains. The rulers of the conquered countries came to the Golden Horde and received labels from Batu, certifying their right to rule the lands on behalf of the khan.
Juvaini in his book "The History of the Conqueror of the World" wrote: "Batu at his headquarters, which he had within Itil, marked the place and built a city, and called it Saray ... Merchants from all sides brought him goods; whatever it was, he took and for each thing gave a price several times more than what it was worth. " Another contemporary, Guillaume Rubruck, described his impression of an audience with Batu as follows: “He himself sat on a long throne, wide as a bed, and entirely gilded, next to Batu sat one mistress ... A bench with kumis and large gold and silver bowls , decorated with precious stones, stood at the entrance. "
Batu ruled the Golden Horde until 1255. He died at the age of 47, and the throne was first taken by his son Sartak, and then (in 1256–1266) by his brother Berke.
The concept "Golden Horde" (in Turkic - Altyn-Urda) meant the gilded residence of the ruler of the state. At first it was a tent embroidered with gold, later it was a luxurious palace covered with gilding.
During the reign of Berke, the development of the state continued, the foundations of which were laid by Batu (an effective management system was created, which consisted, in particular, in the collection of taxes, duties and tributes; for this purpose, the entire population was rewritten at home). At the same time, Berke left the Mongol Empire, ceased to pay tribute to the Great Khan Hublai, and converted to Islam. Egyptian historian al-Nuwayri (early XIV century) testified that “Berke - the first of the descendants of Genghis Khan adopted the religion of Islam; (at least) we were not told that any of them would become a Muslim before him. When he became a Muslim, most of his people converted to Islam. "
So the Golden Horde became an independent state, and its capital was the city of Sarai. After Berke, Batu's grandson Mengu-Timur began to rule the state. He actively collaborated (economically) with Dutch, German, Italian cities and cities of Central Asia; at this time, gold coins began to be minted in the Golden Horde.
After the death of Mengu-Timur, a period of internecine struggle for the throne began. The main intriguer of the palace coups was Nogai, a large feudal lord of Turkic-Tatar origin. Due to his belonging to the Tatar nationality, Nogai himself could not apply for the post of ruler of the state. Therefore, he consistently promoted his proteges to this post - the weak-willed Tuda-Mengu (the younger brother of Mengu-Timur), Tulya-Bug, Toktai (the son of Mengu-Timur). An acute military conflict soon arose between Toktay and Nogai. Nogai's army suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Toktai troops. In 1300 Nogai was killed in the Black Sea steppes, and his severed head was solemnly presented to Toktay. So the ambitions of the local feudal nobility were suppressed and the supreme power of the khan was strengthened.
At the peak of power
After Toktay's death, the political situation in the Golden Horde again escalated. Despite the fact that according to the will, the eldest son of Toktai, Ilbasar, was supposed to rule the country (he was supported by nomadic feudal lords), as a result of political intrigues, the throne was taken by the grandson of Mengu-Timur, Khan Uzbek, who ruled the country from 1312 to 1342. And this period was the most productive. The Golden Horde entered the period of its political, economic and cultural flourishing. To a large extent, this was due to the personality of Uzbekkhan himself, his indisputable talent as a politician and an outstanding organizer.
Many of his contemporaries wrote about Uzbek and gave him the highest praise. For example: “He is one of those seven kings who are the greatest and most powerful kings of the world” (Arabic writer Ibn Battuta); "He (Uzbek) was a brave and courageous man, religious and pious, he respected jurists, loved scientists, listened to (their advice), trusted them, was merciful to them, visited the sheikhs and showed them good" (Arab geographer and historian al-Aini ); "This is a young man of handsome appearance, excellent character, wonderful Muslim, brave and energetic" (Arab historian-chronicler al-Mufaddal).
Secretary of the Egyptian Sultanate, a famous Arab encyclopedic scholar of the XIV century. And al-Omari wrote that "from the affairs of his state, he (Uzbek) pays attention only to the essence of the case, without going into the details of the circumstances, and is content with what is reported to him, but does not seek out details regarding the collection (taxes) and spending."
Under Uzbek Khan, the Golden Horde became a powerful centralized state, with which the countries of Eurasia reckoned. Uzbek Khan's policy was continued by his son Janibek, during whose reign the lands in the Eastern Caucasus were conquered (at present it is the territory of Azerbaijan), the role of Islam increased, science and artistic creativity received further development.
In 1357, Janibek's son Berdibek, an evil and vengeful man, became the ruler. A year later, they conspired against him and killed him. Berdibek was the last descendant of Batu Khan.
The dynasty of Genghis Khan ruled the entire Mongol empire, the dynasty of Genghis Khan's eldest son, Jochi, headed the Golden Horde. Just as someone who did not belong to the Chinggisids could not claim the post of ruler of the empire, so any khan, not being Juchid, had no right to rule the Golden Horde. When in the 1260s. The Mongol Empire fell apart into independent states, they were still considered the ulus of the great empire of Genghis Khan. It is characteristic that the system of political administration, the foundations of which were laid by Genghis Khan, practically did not change during the entire existence of the states he conquered. To a greater extent, this applies to the Golden Horde. Moreover, after its collapse, the system of power remained unchanged in the newly formed Tatar principalities.
State structure
The supreme ruler of the empire was the khan. He relied on the State Council - a sofa, which consisted of relatives (husbands, sons, brothers), as well as large feudal lords, military leaders and higher clergy.
Power in the empire was divided into military and civil. The first was carried out by the Grand Duke - bekleri-bek. He commanded the khan's army. The second was in the hands of the vizier, who was also in charge of control over the state treasury. Under the State Council, there was a post of scribe - bitikchi. In essence, he was acting secretary of state and had considerable political weight. A wide layer of middle and small feudal lords existed between the khan and the surrounding elite and the people. Many of them were civil servants at the same time, thanks to which they were exempted from taxes and taxes.
In the Golden Horde, for example, government officials received tarhan labels. The label of Khan Timur-Kutluk with the following content has been preserved: “My Timur-Kutlukov word: right wing and left wing to the ulans, tysyatskiy, sotskiy, desyatskiy, beks headed by temnik Edigey; inland villages for darugs, kazis, muftis, sheikhs, sufis, scribes of chambers, customs officers, tax collectors; to passers-by, passing ambassadors and messengers, patrols and outposts, coachmen and sternmen, falconers and leopards, boatmen and pavement workers, bazaar people ... "
There was also a position to carry out especially important government orders. The official in this post (necessarily of a noble family) possessed a tablet - paitsza, which was given by the khan. Paiza was made of silver, gold, bronze, cast iron, it could also be made of wood. The official who presented the paizu was provided with everything necessary on his trips - food, lodging for the night, guides, means of transportation.
There was a bukaul post in the military department. It was so important that even the rulers of the uluses obeyed the bukaulu. His responsibilities included distribution, quartering and dispatch of troops, provision of provisions and much more.
The court in the empire was ruled by both Muslim judges (qadis) and civil judges (arguchi). The first were guided by the Sharia, the second - by the laws of the “Great Yasa”. Control over the collection of tribute was carried out by the Baskaks (military representatives of the authorities) and Daruhachi (civilians who ruled a certain area). Thus, the empire possessed a well-developed system of central and local government, a customs service, a strong army, and a judicial and tax authority.
Economic life
In different states that were part of the Mongol Empire, certain branches of the economy developed. In the Golden Horde, for example, agriculture and cattle breeding were dominant. The agricultural regions were the Volga Bulgaria and the Crimea, as well as Transnistria.
Cattle breeding prevailed in the southern steppe and semi-desert areas. Almost all travelers noted a large number of cattle both in the Golden Horde and throughout the Mongol Empire. For example, the Italian Plano Carpini wrote: “They are very rich in cattle: camels, bulls, sheep, goats and horses. They have such a large number of livestock, which in our time does not exist in the whole world. "
As for agriculture, it was more developed in the Crimea, Volga Bulgaria and Khorezm. Even before the Mongol Empire was formed, these lands yielded large crops of wheat, millet, legumes and barley. Subsequently, fruits such as peaches, apricots, apples, pears, quince, pomegranate, and grapes began to be grown here.
The most popular vegetables are cabbage, rutabagas and turnips. A contemporary noted that “the land there is fertile and yields a dozen or so wheat harvest ... And the millet harvest is one hundred percent. Sometimes the harvest is so plentiful that they leave it in the steppe. "
Ibn Batuta testified that, in particular, there are a lot of horses in the empire and they cost a trifle, they, the Turks, feed on them ... It happens that one Turk has (several) thousands of them. " His compatriot Joseph Barborough confirmed: "I happened to meet merchants on the way who drove horses in such numbers that they covered the entire steppes."
Fishing was widespread in the Golden Horde. Especially many sturgeons were found in the waters of the Caspian Sea and in the Yaik River. As for hunting, it was mainly falconry and leopard and was considered the privilege of the khans and their entourage.
There was a lively trade between the states of the Mongol Empire. The most important trade caravan routes passed through the Golden Horde. In particular, it was the Great Silk Road, along which goods from China were delivered to Central and South Asia. And cities such as the capital of the Golden Horde (Sarai), Khadzhitarkhan (now Astrakhan), Urgench (the central city of Khorezm), Bulgar, Solkhat (Crimea) and Saraichik (in the lower reaches of the Yaik) were the most important transit points for international trade. The caravans consisted of camels and horses.
Often the horses themselves became the object of trade. Thus, Josephus Barborough wrote that the Tatars supply 4,000 horses to Persia in a batch, and large bulls to Italy, Romania, Poland and Germany. As for other goods traded by the states of the empire, they were bread, wine, honey, fish of valuable species, salt, furs, leather, silk, paints, pearls, porcelain, silverware and much more.
In addition to land, there was sea and river trade. Through the ports of Soldaya (now Sudak), Kafa (Feodosia), Chembalo (Balaklava), located on the southern coast of Crimea, goods were sent to Europe, North Africa and Western Asia. Finally, in the cities of the empire themselves, local trade flourished in numerous bazaars.
Almost all merchants and travelers noted that the way to China through the Golden Horde is convenient and safe at any time of the day. The historian Ibn-Arabshah described part of the journey as follows: "It used to be that caravans leave Khorezm and go on carts, without fear or fear, right up to (the) Crimea, and this crossing (takes) about three months."
The cities of the empire, in addition to the functions of trading hubs, were the focus of crafts and culture.
Of the cities listed above, contemporaries especially singled out Saray. As already mentioned, Batu Khan built Saray, the capital of his possessions, and his brother Berke erected a city several tens of kilometers above Saray Batu. This city was named Saray al-Jadid (translated from Arabic - "New Saray").
Al-Omari wrote about the city built by Berke: “The city of Saray was built by Berke-khan on the bank of the Turanian river (Itila). He (stands) on saline land, without any walls. The khan's place of residence there is a large palace, on top of which there is a golden new moon (weighing) two Egyptian kintars. The palace is surrounded by walls, towers and houses in which his emirs live. In this palace, their winter quarters. This is a river the size of the Nile, large ships sail along it and go to the Russians and Slavs. The beginning of this river is also in the land of the Slavs. He, that is, the Sarai, a great city, containing markets, baths and institutions of piety, a place where goods are sent. The city of Saray is one of the most beautiful cities that has reached an extraordinary size, on a flat land, crowded with people, with beautiful bazaars and wide streets ... It has thirteen mosques for Friday services ... In addition, there are many other mosques. "
The states of the empire were famous for their highly developed crafts, and the exchange of craftsmen was often observed. So, masters from the Volga Bulgaria, Iran, and the Caucasus came to the Golden Horde. Often, national handicraft settlements arose in one city.
Eyewitnesses were struck by the beauty of the rulers' palaces, mosques, mausoleums, caravanserais and other buildings. The buildings in the cities of the Golden Horde were especially beautiful. Their main decoration is white and blue tiles with floral and geometric patterns and ornate Arabic letters that cited the Koran and oriental poetry. Often the tiles were covered with gold leaf and glass glaze. The interior decoration consisted of mosaic and majolica panels with gilding and multi-colored tiled bricks. The distinctive style of the Golden Horde ceramics is demonstrated by the red clay dishes found during excavations with geometric, plant and animal images, decorated with glaze against the background of shiny thick glaze.
Jewelry was also highly developed. Craftsmen used such techniques as filigree, filigree, granulation, engraving. Intricate ornamentation covered jugs, bowls, goblets, weapons, lamps, as well as necklaces, bracelets, rings and medallions.
The minting of coins from silver, copper and gold reached considerable proportions. The most common were Indian gold dinars, copper pools and silver dirgems (in the Jochi ulus).
Culture and Science
Science, education and culture were highly developed in the states of the empire. Often scientists and cultural figures from one state, visiting other countries of the empire, remained there to live and work. It is known that foreign doctors lived in Sarai, and such sciences as astronomy and geodesy were also developed in the city (this fact is confirmed by archaeological excavations, during which parts of astrolabes and quadrants were found). Ibn-Arabshah wrote: “The barn became a center of science and a mine of blessings, and in a short time (such) a good and healthy share of scientists and celebrities, literary and artisans and all kinds of honored people, such as was not recruited in the crowded cities of Egypt, nor in his villages. " Sarai was also the most populous city: more than 100,000 people lived in it (while, for example, in Rome the number of inhabitants was 35,000, in Paris - 58,000).
Indicative is the fate of the poet Saif al-Sarai, who was born, lived, studied and worked first in Sarai, and then moved to Egypt, where he died in 1396. In Egypt, he created his famous poems "Gulistan bit-Turki" and "Suhail and Guldursun ".
In the countries of the empire, Arabic writing and literature became widespread. The immortal creations of Firduosi, Rudaki, al-Maari, Omar Khayyam are vivid examples of eloquence and poetic inspiration. The works praise such qualities as kindness, generosity, justice, modesty. Especially many poems are dedicated to love and fidelity. These feelings are displayed as the most noble and lofty. Moral purity and spirituality are the main features of the heroes of their works of art.
Empire decline
As already noted, in the second half of the XIII century. as a result of the national liberation movement, the great empire of Genghis Khan disintegrated into independent states. Natural disasters (for example, a severe drought), and the plague epidemic that arose in China and then spread to other lands, and internecine power struggles surrounded by rulers also contributed to the weakening of central power. But, perhaps, one of the main reasons for the collapse of the empire was the consolidation of forces in the conquered lands to fight for independence. This process was especially vividly manifested in the form of a conflict between the Russian prince Dmitry Ivanovich and the Golden Horde.
At the end of the XIV century. Prince Dmitry openly challenged the Golden Horde Khan, ceasing to pay tribute. On the Kulikovo field on September 8, 1380, Prince Dmitry defeated the army of Emir Mamai. However, the new khan of the Golden Horde, Tokhtamysh, went to Moscow in 1382, and Dmitry Donskoy again had to recognize the power of the Golden Horde.
The Egyptian historian al-Maqrizi wrote: “In 833 (1429-1430) and the years preceding him in the lands of Sarai and Desht and in the Kipchak steppes, there was a severe drought and an extremely large pestilence, from which many people died, so that they survived (Tatars) with herds, only a few genera. "
Meanwhile, revolts and demonstrations continued on a vast territory. Many of them were brutally suppressed, but the reprisals could not eliminate the tendency of the growth of the political power of the vassal states. In the first half of the 15th century. in the same Golden Horde, the economic situation deteriorated sharply again due to the epidemic and drought.
In the 1430-1440s. the internecine struggle in the Golden Horde reached its greatest strength. In addition, the political power of Moscow increased: Prince Vasily II contributed to the discord between the Golden Horde khans, supporting the grandson of Tokhtamysh (Seid-Akhmed) in the struggle against the former ruler, Ulu-Mukhamed. And finally, at this time there was a strong outflow of the population from the Golden Horde. Tired of endless wars, diseases and hunger, hundreds of thousands of pastoralists and farmers left for neighboring states - Russia, Lithuania, Romania, Poland.
Even the noble princes of the Golden Horde passed on to the service of the great Moscow prince, exchanging Islam for Orthodoxy.
It is known that one of the last rulers of the Golden Horde, Ulu-Mukhamed, in 1438, fleeing from his enemies, was forced to flee to the Russian city of Belev, located on the Oka. Vasily II sent an army against him, but the khan resisted.
Prince Vitovt wrote in a letter to the Livonian Order: “Countless Tatars have arrived from the borders of Kiev, who are tired of the war ... And they ask for a friendly reception from you”.
Gradually, separate territories began to fall away from the Golden Horde. The eastern regions of the Jochi ulus ceased to obey the Golden Horde, the Crimea took the path of secession, the left-bank steppe territory of the Volga, headed by the descendants of Udegei, took shape as an independent state. Speaking about the disintegration of the empire of Genghis Khan, it should be emphasized that this was an objective natural-historical process. Virtually all feudal states have undergone economic fragmentation and disintegration. The Great Mongol Empire of Genghis Khan was no exception. A society built on violence caused protest and discontent, the government lost the support of the bulk of the population.
On the ruins of its former greatness
The great empire of Genghis Khan disintegrated into separate states, such as China, Iran, and the United Arab Emirates. The Golden Horde was transformed into the Astrakhan, Kazan, Kasimov, Crimean and Siberian Khanates and the Nogai Horde (the latter existed until 1502). The Kazan and Crimean Khanates left the greatest trace in history. These were strong and influential states, especially the Kazan Khanate. It was conquered by Ivan the Terrible in 1552.
The centuries-old existence of the great empire influenced the subsequent course of history. Many of its constituent systems of power and administration were used by other states, in particular by Ivan IV, when at the end of the 15th century. laid the foundations of the Russian state. The spiritual and material values of Genghis Khan's empire were no less important.
The German diplomat Sigismund Herberstein in his book "Notes on Muscovite Affairs" wrote: "The kingdom of Kazan, the city and the fortress of the same name are located on the Volga, on the far bank of the river, almost seventy miles below Nizhny Novgorod; from the east and south along the Volga this kingdom borders on desert steppes, from the summer east Tatars, called Sheiban (Siberian) Tatars, are adjacent to it ... Behind the Kazan Tatars, we first of all meet Tatars with the nickname Nogai, who live beyond the Volga, near the Caspian Sea, along the Yaiku River ... Astrakhan, a rich city and a great Tatar marketplace, from which the whole surrounding country was named, is ten days' journey below Kazan ... "
Ch ingiskhan- one of the greatest conquerors and rulers in history. Under him, the Mongol state stretched from the Pacific Ocean to the Caspian Sea and from the southern edge of Siberia to the border with India, and the heirs included the great civilizations of China and Iran within its borders. By the middle of the 13th century, the rulers of the steppes, having almost completely subjugated the Russian land, reached the territories of modern Poland and Hungary. History has preserved stories of the horrific cruelty of the Mongol horsemen, but it is worth noting that they were no less courageous, and their ruler was distinguished by remarkable organizational abilities and was an excellent strategist and politician.
The Mongols belong to the group of Altai peoples, which also includes the Tungus-Manchu and Turkic ethnic groups. The ancestral home of the Mongol tribes was the land lying southeast of Lake Baikal. Tatar tribes lived in the steppes south of the Mongols, then the Ongut territories were located, and even further south - Jin, the state of the Tungus Jurchens, who ruled North China. In the southwest, behind the Gobi Desert, there was Xi Xia- a state founded by the Tanguts, a people related to the Tibetans.
To the west of the Mongol nomads, the territory of the Kereites, a Mongolized Turkic people, stretched. To the northeast of the lands of the Mongols lived related tribes of the Merkits. Further to the north were the lands of the Oirots, and to the west, in the region of the Greater Altai mountains, were the Naimans. The basis of the economy of the Mongols, who led a nomadic lifestyle, was cattle breeding and hunting. Shepherds lived in portable yurts built of wood and felt, while the northern Mongols who hunted built their dwellings out of wood. Attempts to unite the scattered tribes were made more than once - most often to repel the attacks of the Tatars. The first was probably Kabul Khan, but only his great-grandson, who became the creator of one of the greatest empires in world history, achieved success.
Genghis Khan was born in the Delpun-Boldan tract, on the right bank of the Onon River. His father, Yesugei-bagatur, named his son Temuchin, in memory of the victory over the ruler of the Tatars, who bore this name. Having reached the age of 9, the boy was betrothed to 10-year-old Borte, the daughter of Dai-Sechen from the Ongir tribe. After the solemn ceremony, his father returned home alone and, having stopped by to visit the Tatars, was poisoned. With the last of his strength, Yesugei-Bagatur was able to get home and before his death wished that power over the clan passed to Temuchin. However, members of the clan immediately rebelled against Yesugei's wife and children, and they were actually left to fend for themselves.
They were in need and starving, feeding on the rhizomes of plants and hunting small animals; their situation was so difficult that quarrels began between family members over food. As a result of one of the quarrels, Temuchin and Kasar killed Bekter, who, in all likelihood, took the prey from them. Soon, during one of the attacks of the former tribesmen on their camp, Temuchin was captured and taken to the enemy camp. However, he managed to escape. As a young man, the future great ruler went to Dai-Sechen for Borte, promised to him as a child.
The son-in-law was received cordially, and soon he entered the Uighur clan; now he was considered a real warrior and had his own family. But Temuchin decided to regain all the influence and power that once belonged to his father. For help and protection, he turned to his brother-in-law, the leader of the Kereites Togrul, who promised him protection and support. Temuchin attached particular importance to the attack on the Merkits, who had recently kidnapped his wife Borte. With the help of Togrul, as well as with the support of one of his vassals and childhood friend Jamukha, he organized a campaign that ended in a brilliant victory (euro fence price).
And although after a while Jamukha and Togrul became enemies of Temuchin and were defeated by him, at that time participation in the campaign on the side of the famous commanders brought the first loud glory to the future creator of the great empire. Temuchin on the Teb-Tengri kurultai was elected khan of the Mongols and received the name Genghis Khan, which can be translated as “Sovereign of sovereigns”. Nevertheless, for several more years he did not use it to the fullest: Temuchin was neither the only nor the strongest candidate for this title, and many were ready to challenge this decision of the Magi. For almost six years he had to fight both with hostile steppe peoples and with his former allies - with his brother Jamuqa, with whom they were once bound by an oath of eternal friendship.
He conquered the Tatars, ordering then to kill all men taller than the axis of the cart, Merkits, Naimans, as well as Kereits, headed by his long-term patron Togrul. When Genghis Khan subdued all the peoples of Central Asia - some with weapons, others with the help of diplomacy - a new kurultai of the steppe leaders gathered at the headwaters of the Onon River. It was then that Temuchin-Genghis Khan was proclaimed a kagan - a great khan. Having become the ruler of the steppe peoples, Genghis Khan began to strengthen his power, actively taking up the implementation of state and military reforms. Taking into account the large number of peoples and tribes, as well as the huge area of territories that were now in his power, the kagan began to strengthen the existing clan ties by vassal dependence.
The military power in the state of Genghis Khan was placed above civil or economic power: for example, the ruler of the Mingan - a group of a thousand soldiers - was at the same time the administrative head of the tribes that fielded these soldiers, as well as the lands in which they lived. It is not surprising, therefore, that one of the first decisions of the new supreme ruler of the Mongols was the appointment of the heads of 95 Mingans, who were chosen among the tried and true warriors. The army was divided into detachments according to the tens system: the smallest detachment, numbering a dozen soldiers, was called arban, the largest - jaun - consisted of a hundred people, the Minggan already mentioned was next, and the largest military unit that had the opportunity to act independently on the battlefield was called tumen and numbered 10 thousand people. A separate tumen, of which Genghis Khan himself became the head, became something like the imperial guard. Iron discipline reigned both in the army and in the state administration, and the death penalty for misconduct was by no means uncommon.
In the huge steppe power of Genghis Khan, there was no single legislation: customs and laws of individual clans or tribes reigned here, and relations between tribes were regulated by their leaders. However, the ruler of the Mongols realized that uniform laws would help to truly unite and strengthen his state, and ordered to create "Blue Book", in which all decisions made by his trusted advisor Shigei Kutuk began to be recorded. By that time, Mongolian speech was transferred to paper using an alphabet based on the Uyghur script; there was also a special chancellery dealing exclusively with state affairs.
In the business management system, the principle of remuneration for special merits was of particular importance: such could be, for example, exemption from tribute, the right to take part in feasts in the khan's tent, and for slaves - release. Having put in order the affairs of the state, Genghis Khan sent his troops to the south and west. Here the warriors of the steppe had to face urban, sedentary civilizations. Preparation for the conquest of Northern China, which was ruled by the Jurchens, was the conquest of the Tangut state of Xi Xia.
The actual campaign against the Jurchen state began in 1211. As usual in large campaigns, the Mongol army advanced in several directions at once, and in a small number of battles the Jurchen troops were defeated and the country devastated. However, Genghis Khan was interested not so much in the conquest of new territories as in rich booty, and at once three Mongol armies again attacked North China; they captured most of these territories and reached the city of Zhongdu. As a result of negotiations, it was decided that the defeated would pay Genghis Khan a huge indemnity.
A year later, another war broke out with the Jurchens. At first, Genghis Khan personally led the Mongol army in China, but then returned to his native steppes, entrusting the further leadership of a successful campaign to his generals. Around the same period, the Mongols also occupied the territory of the Korean Peninsula. Even before the attack on China, Genghis Khan headed west. The tribes of the Uighurs submitted to him, and two years later - the Karluts. He seized the state of that part of the Kitans, who at one time, under pressure from the Jurchens, moved from China to the west. Thus, the Mongol ruler and commander reached the borders of the Khorezm state, which, in addition to Western Turkestan, also occupied the territories of modern Afghanistan and Iran. The Khorezm state, which was under the active influence of Persian culture, formed at the end of the 12th century and was not much older than the empire of Genghis Khan; ruled by the shah Muhammad II.
It came to war, the immediate reason for which was the murder of merchants and ambassadors of Genghis Khan in the border town of Otrar. The Mongolian army, the total number of which is estimated at 150-200 thousand soldiers, was much smaller than the Khorezm army, but better organized and trained; besides, Shah Muhammad oriented his troops towards defense, breaking them up into garrisons and placing them mainly near the border fortresses. Mongolian detachments marched simultaneously along the border and deep into Khorezm - and won victory everywhere. Genghis Khan took Bukhara and Samarkand; he expelled the surviving local residents, and destroyed the cities after plundering. A similar fate befell Urgench, the capital of Khorezm, in the spring of next year. By the end of the campaign, most of the Khorezm lands were in the hands of Genghis Khan, and the ruler of the steppe empire returned to Mongolia, leaving his garrisons on the conquered lands.
During this war, Genghis Khan allowed two of his generals - Jebe and Subedei- go on a reconnaissance campaign to the west. An army of about 30 thousand soldiers set off along the southern coast of the Caspian Sea, reached the Caucasus and attacked Georgia, and then turned south to Baghdad, the capital of the Caliphate ruled by the Abbasid dynasty. Once again heading for the Caucasus, the conquerors successfully crossed it and defeated the combined Polovtsian-Russian army on the Kalka River. After that, the warriors of Genghis Khan devastated the Crimea, and from there they turned back to Mongolia.
Returning after the end of the Khorezm campaign, Genghis Khan divided the lands of his empire among the four sons; these parts became known as ulus. The eldest of the sons - Jochi- received the western ulus, Chagatayu father gave land in the south. Ogedeyu, which due to its balanced character was declared the heir - the eastern part of the state. The youngest of sons, Toluyu, the kagan designated the ancestral lands of the Mongols over the Onon River. Genghis Khan went on his last military campaign, wanting to punish the Tangut state of Xi Xia for insufficient support during the war with Khorezm.
The Mongol Empire is a medieval state that occupied a huge territory - about 38 million km2. This is the largest state in world history. The capital of the empire was the city of Karakorum. The history of modern ...
The Mongol Empire is a medieval state that occupied a huge territory - about 38 million km2. This is the largest state in world history. The capital of the empire was the city of Karakorum.
The history of modern Mongolia begins with Temujin, the son of Yesugei Bagatur. Temujin, better known as Genghis Khan, was born in the 50s of the XII century. At the beginning of the 13th century, he prepared reforms that formed the basis of the Mongol Empire. He divided the army into tens of thousands (darkness) thousands, hundreds and tens, thus eradicating the organization of troops on the basis of the tribal principle; created a corps of special warriors, which was divided into two parts: day and night guards; created an elite unit from the best warriors. But with religion, the Mongols have a very interesting situation. They themselves were pagans, and adhered to shamanism. For some time the role of the dominant religion was taken by Buddhism, but then the inhabitants of the Mongol Empire again returned to shamanism.
Genghis Khan
Around the same time, in the middle of the XIII century, Temujin became Genghis Khan, which translates as "great ruler" (Genghis Khan). After that, he created the Great Yasa - a set of laws that regulated the rules for conscription into the army. This led to the creation of a huge horde of 130 units, which he called "thousands". The Tatars and Uighurs created a written language for the Mongols, and in 1209, Genghis Khan began to prepare for the conquest of the world. This year the Mongols conquered China, in 1211 the Jin Empire collapsed. A series of victorious battles of the Mongol army began. In 1219, Genghis Khan began to conquer territories in Central Asia, and in 1223 he sent his troops to Russia.
At that time, Russia was a large state with serious internecine wars. Genghis Khan did not fail to take advantage of this. The troops of the Russian princes failed to unite, and therefore the battle on the Kalka River on May 31, 1223 was the first prerequisite for the beginning of the centuries-old Horde yoke.
Due to its enormous size, it was almost impossible to rule the country, so the conquered peoples simply paid tribute to the khan, and did not obey the laws of the Mongol Empire. Basically, the life of these peoples did not differ much from the one to which they are accustomed. The only thing that could darken their happy existence was the size of the tribute, which at times was overwhelming.
After the death of Genghis Khan, his son came to power, who divided the country into three parts - according to the number of sons, giving the oldest and most unloved a small piece of barren land. However, the son of Jochi and grandson of Genghis Khan - Batu - apparently did not intend to give up. In 1236 he conquered the Volga Bulgaria, and after that, for three years, the Mongols crushed Russia. From that moment Russia became a vassal of the Mongol Empire and paid tribute for 240 years.
Batu Khan
Moscow at that time was the most common fortified fortress. It was the Tatar-Mongol invasion that helped it acquire the status of the "main city". The fact is that the Mongols rarely appeared on the territory of Russia, and Moscow became a kind of collector of the Mongols. Residents of the whole country collected tribute, and the Moscow prince passed it on to the Mongol Empire.
After Russia, Batu (Batu) went further west - to Hungary and Poland. The rest of Europe was shaking with fear, waiting from minute to minute for the advance of a huge army, which was quite understandable. The Mongols killed the inhabitants of the conquered countries, regardless of gender and age. They were especially pleased with the abuse of women. The cities that remained unconquered were burned to the ground by them, and the population was destroyed in the most cruel way. Residents of the city of Hamadan, which is located in modern Iran, were killed, and a few days later the commander sent an army to the ruins to finish off those who were absent from the city at the time of the first attack and managed to return to the return of the Mongols. Men were often drafted into the Mongol army, given the choice to die or swear allegiance to the empire.
It is also believed that the plague epidemic in Europe, which broke out a century later, began precisely because of the Mongols. In the middle of the XIV century, the Genoese Republic was besieged by the Mongol army. A plague spread among the conquerors, which claimed many lives. They decided to use the infected corpses as biological weapons and began to catapult them onto the city walls.
But let's go back to the XIII century. From the middle to the end of the thirteenth century, the following were conquered: Iraq, Palestine, India, Cambodia, Burma, Korea, Vietnam, Persia. Conquests from the Mongols every year became less and less, civil strife began. From 1388 to 1400, the Mongol Empire was ruled by five khans, none of whom survived to old age - all five were killed. At the end of the 15th century, a seven-year-old descendant of Genghis Khan, Batu Mongke, became Khan. In 1488, Batu Mongke, or, as it was called, Dayan Khan sent a letter to the Chinese emperor asking him to accept the tribute. In fact, this letter was considered an agreement for free interstate trade. However, the established peace did not prevent Dayan Khan from raiding China.
Through the great efforts of Dayan Khan, Mongolia was united, but after his death, internecine conflicts flared up again. At the beginning of the 16th century, the Mongol Empire again disintegrated into principalities, the main among which was the ruler of the Chahar Khanate. Since Ligdan Khan was the oldest among the generation of Genghis Khan's descendants, he became the khan of all Mongolia. He tried unsuccessfully to unify the country in order to avoid the threat from the Manchus. However, the Mongol princes were much more willing to unite under the Manchu rule than the Mongol one.
In the end, already in the 18th century, after the death of the last of the descendants of Genghis Khan, who ruled in one of the principalities of Mongolia, a serious struggle for the throne broke out. The Qing empire took advantage of the moment of the next split. Chinese commanders sent a huge army into Mongolia, which by the 60s of the 18th century destroyed the once great state, as well as almost all of its population.