Russian culture of the XIV-XVII centuries. Culture of Moscow Rus XIV - XVII century

Culture of the Moscow Kingdom (14-17 centuries)

The Mongolian period covers the time of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. He lasted about two and a half centuries - from 1243 to 1480. During this period, Russian culture suffered significant losses, which made first of all on crafts. Some of them are the production of jewelry, products from precious metals, Technique of the septo-enamel - disappeared at all. Others due to simplification of technology, the quality level has noticeably reduced. For a whole century - from the middle of the 13th century to the middle of the 14th century - stone construction almost completely ceased. This circumstance, in turn, had a negative impact on the development of painting, especially on the fresco painting.

In the Mongolian period, Novgorod and Pskov, as well as Moscow and Tver become the main centers of Russian architecture. The main type of construction is still the iconic - the temple and the church. The classic style of the Novgorod temple, which established in the second half of the 14th century, retains the traditions of Russian wooden architecture, it is distinguished by peoples, festivity and painting. It is such such as the Church of Fyodor Stratilate on the Creek and the Savior Church in Ilyin Street in Novgorod. In Pskov creatures, the marked features are even more intensified. Moscow architecture develops in the 15th century and reaches his heyday by the end of the century, together with deliverance from the Mongol-Tatar addiction.

The most successfully in the Mongolian period is developing an iconography. By the 14th century, Russian iconography completes the development of the Byzantine painting and becomes quite mature and independent. It develops a lot of original schools - Novgorod, Pskov, Moscow, Tverskaya, Rostov, Vologda, each of which creates outstanding works.

A huge contribution to the development of Russian icon painting was made by Feodan Greek, transferred in the 70s of the 14th century on Russia from Byzantium. In Novgorod, he created beautiful frescoes in the church of the Savior in Ilyin. In Moscow, together with Andrei Rublev and Prokhor, the iconostasis of the Old Blagoveshchensky Cathedral in the Kremlin painted. He owns the icons "Donskoy Our Lady", "Holy Apostles Peter and Paul" in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. Its works are distinguished by internal tension and drama, bright expressiveness.

The highest heyday iconography reaches in the work of Andrei Rublev (approx. 1360 and - approx. 1430). In addition to the participation mentioned above in the painting of the Blagoveshchensky Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin, he, together with Daniel, he participated in the creation of paintings and icons of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergiye Lavra, as well as the Spassky Cathedral of Andronikov Monastery in Moscow.

The highest achievement of the creativity of Andrei Rublev was the famous "Trinity", written on the plot from the biblical myth about three angels, embodying the trinity of God. Icon conquers perfect composition, amazing blue color harmony with pink and green. Some blessing peace comes from it, unusual purity, mysterious light.

Andrei Rublev had a huge impact on the entire subsequent iconography. Its influence manifested in the work of another outstanding painter - Dionysius, who participated in the murals of the Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin, wrote the icons of Metropolitan Peter and Alexy, "Salmon in the Forces", created beautiful frescoes in the Faratov Monastery in Belozerskiy region.

Thanks to the work of Andrei Rublev, Feofan Greek, Daniel Black, Dionysius and other artists, Russian iconography reached unsurpassed heights. In this form of art, Russia is recognized as the same championship as for Egypt - in the relief, ancient Greece - in the sculpture, Byzantium - in mosaic. The main topic of the Russian Icons is the Mother of God, having many options: "freezing", "comforter", "inadvertent joy", etc. Total there are about 800 items of various types of icons of Our Lady, revered as a patronage of the Russian people and the state.

Along with the icon painting in the third period, literature and public thought are also developing. Here the main theme of patriotism, the idea of \u200b\u200buniting Russia to combat the Mongol-Tatar domination, the glorification of heroism in this struggle. This is precisely this constitutes the content of the poetic story "Zadonchina", as well as the "Tale of Mamaev's Boy" dedicated to the Kulikovskaya victory. In the development of social thought, Sergius Radonezh (1321 - 1391) was made of a huge contribution - an outstanding church figure and thinker.

The next and last stage in the evolution of the ancient Russian culture falls on the 16th and 17th century and continues from 1480. Until 1698. During this period, together with the release of Mongol-Tatarism, the formation of a single communal culture is also occurred. This became one of the greatest achievements in the development of Russia.

In the 16th century in Russian culture there are completely new phenomena. The main one is a typography, followed by radical changes in the entire culture. Russia in this area lagged behind Western Europe in the century. And in 1564, Dyakon Ivan Fedorov publishes his first book - "Apostle". Once in Lviv, he publishes the first Russian letter (1574) - "for the benefit of the Russian people." In total in the 16th century in Moscow, 20 books were published mainly by theological content.

In the 16th century there is a sharp rise in the national identity of the Russian people. Russia is developing the political concept of the origin of the Russian state, its place and role in the world. The history of the Origin of Russian Great Princes from the Roman Emperor of August and the Visantine Emperor of the Royal Regalia from the Byzantine Emperor Konstantin Monomakh is outlined in the "Tale of the Princes of Vladimir" in the legends of the Legends.

The idea of \u200b\u200bMoscow as about the Third Rome, formulated by the Pskov Starter of Philofey in his messages Vasily 3 (1510 - 1511), where he, in particular, writes: "Two Rome fell, the third costs, and the fourth will not be." According to the Philife, the Center for Christianity was consistently moved from Rome of "Old" in the "Second Rome" - Constantinople, and from there to Moscow. Byzantium has changed Christianity, agreed in 1439 on the Ulya with the Catholic Church. Only Moscow remained faithful to Orthodoxy and therefore is the global center of Christianity. Hence the idea of \u200b\u200bthe Messianic role of Russia, which, while maintaining and continuing the true Christian faith, keeping genuine spirituality, thereby saves the world from evil and bad.

In the mid-16th century there is a powerful surge in Russian public thought, which caused the appearance in the literature of a new genre - journalism. Russian thought is actively discussed by the character of the emerging state, the role of the law and autocratic will, the ratio of "church" and "kingdoms", spiritual and secular power. The nature of the autocratic power is a dispute between Ivan Grozny and Prince Andrei Kurbsky. Relying on the idea of \u200b\u200bthe divine origin of the royal power, Ivan Grozny claims that he has the right to judge and punish not only for affairs, but also for the thought.

In general, in the 16th century there is a revival in all areas of life, including artistic culture.

The architecture among the main events includes the creation of the Moscow Kremlin, which became one of the most beautiful architectural ensembles of the world. He, as it were, won the victory of the Russian people in the liberation struggle and the final statement of Moscow as the center of Russia. Its ensemble includes three magnificent cathedrals. The first one is the five-chapted Assumption Cathedral (1475 - 1479), built by the Italian architect Aristotle Fiorewanti, served as a place of construction at the Grand-Magnish throne. He hit the contemporaries "Majesty, height, lightness, beability and space." It is distinguished by parade, rigor and restraint.

The second is the three-headed Blagoveshchensky Cathedral (1484 - 1489) - the elegant and exquisite court cathedral with the church of the county (1484 - 1486), is connected to the palace complex, which included the reception hall - the Granovy Chamber (1487 - 1492), built by Marco Ruffo and Pietro Solyario.

The third - Arkhangelsk Socar (1505 - 1509) - was built using secular elements and served the Veliko-Princely Tomb. The ensemble also includes high and impressive colpural temples - the bell tower "Ivan Great" (1500 - 1508). In addition, the Kremlin was introduced new brick walls More than two kilometers long with 18 towers, which are not only reliable fortifications, but also by real works of art.

The Moscow Kremlin has become a peculiar result of the entire preceding development of Russian architecture. He absorbed the best achievements of Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod-Pskov and other schools, and at the same time laid the foundations for the further rise of Russian architecture, for the formation of a communary national architecture.

The new phenomena includes tent style, which emerged at the beginning of the 16th century, which continues the traditions of Russian wooden architecture and rustles with the Byzantine type of the Cross-Dome Temple.

The monument of stone tantar architecture was the church of Ascension in the village Kolomna (1530 - 1 532). The most famous monument of such architecture was the Cathedral of Pokrov on the RBV, also known as the Temple of Vasily Blessed (1555 - 1561), built by Russian architectural bonsum and a postman in memory of the Tick of Kazan. The ensemble of the Pokrovsky Cathedral from 9 t--like temples placed on a general basis. The central temple was crowned with a large tent, and around it there are bulbous dome of the other eight temples. The bold and original composition, the bright colorfulness and elegance of the domes made a cathedral of the rarest masterpiece of world art. The Pokrovsky Cathedral also became a majestic symbol of the unification of Russian lands and principalities in a single state.

Basic concepts:military Tale, "Kulikovsky Cycle", Travel Literature, Ageiography, Feofan Greek, Andrei Rublev, Dionysius, Russian Press Engineering, Apostle, Book Miniature, Chetty Mini, Domostroy, Stallow, Shatter Style, "Naryshkinskoy Baroque", Sampling, Secularization , "Moscow - Third Rome", Parsuna, Solving, Old Believers, Josephlane, Easiness, Rhymed Poetry, Personal Singing, Songs of the "Rassky Cycle"

Russian culture XIV - XV centuries. The culture of Moscow Rus corresponds historic period Approximately XIV to the XVII century. It is a multi-belt and reflects all the difficult events that occur at this time in Russian land.

Under the onslaught of Mongol-Tatars, regions of cultural activity are changing. South (Kiev and Zdneprovye) is inferior to the Northeast (Northeast Rus and Moscow), so that Russian culture can preserve its originality and fundamental traits. The first signs of the starting stabilization are found already at the end of the XIII century. A special place here belongs to Novgorod and Pskov, stagnant in the harsh likholica of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, and managers not only to preserve, but also to increase the artistic traditions of Russia.

By the beginning of the XIV century, Novgorod appears a major trading center, a high culture city. Novgorod originality is manifested in the architecture, works of fine art, epics (legends on the merchant and singer Sadko and Bogatyr Vasily Buslaev), poetic creativity.

I.E. Grabar, emphasizing the peculiarity of Novgorod art, writes: "One glance to strong, the centerast monuments of Veliky Novgorod is enough to understand the ideal of Novgorod, - a good warrior, not very sad ... But herself on his mind. ... in his architecture, as he himself, Simple, but strong walls, devoid of an annoying pattern, which from his point of view "To anything", mighty silhouettes, energetic masses. The ideal of Novgorod is strength, and his beauty is the beauty of power. Not always folded, but always great, for strongly, majestically, conquering. "

The epic-novel was born here, containing more household strokes compared to Kiev, as well as the scomerculos - the epics of a socially accuratory nature with the seal of a coarse humor. The creators and performers of the epics, as a rule, were crumbs, with the art of which is associated with the appearance in the city of Puppet Theater. People's Theater. Petrushki, who had the popularity of the people for several centuries, was founded in Novgorod. Noteworthy is the theatricalization of the church rite, which demonstrates the opposite effect of secular art on the art of church. Presentations on religious stories, walking in scenery, costumes, with a rich musical accompaniment, were a bright spectacle and enjoyed success. According to N.A. Berdyaeva, similar pagan elements were constantly played in the Russian worldview of a significant role. He emphasized that "in the Russian element, the donisian, ecstatic element is always preserved and continued ... The enormous power of the Russian choral song and dance is connected with this.

The highest perfection was reached in Novgorod bannant singing (the rich tradition of the brew) and art was folded bell tongsSubsequently, an essential sign of Russian music of the XIX and XX centuries (the bells were reproduced in the Opera Boris Godunov Mussorgsky, "Pskovysian" and "Tale of the Invisible Grade County" Roman Corsakov, in the music of Rakhmaninov, Shostakovich).

From the middle of the XIV century in Russia, the period of cultural lift begins, named Academician D.S. Likhachev, which, nevertheless, did not move as in the west in Renaissance. The full influence of the church ideology on spiritual life up to the XVII century did not allow our country to go along the Western way to form humanistic principles. However, it is impossible to deny the promotion of humanity in Russian Orthodoxy of the XIV century. It is him that he owns a special role in the formation of the spiritual unity of Russia in the conditions of the Mongol-Tatar yoke.

A huge contribution to the awakening of the national self-consciousness and the raising of the people against Inozem residents was made by the founder and the igumen of the Holy Trinity Monastery Rev. Sergius Radonezh, who became an expressant of the Russian ideal of holiness. Compared to the Domongolian times of Sergius, it is another type of Rev., who stood at the origins of the new mobility of the deserts. Personal aspirations about the unity of the Russian Earth, he managed to turn into the religious and moral and political ideal of his era into the religious and political ideal. The legislator of the Dum of the entire people blessed Dmitry Ivanovich on ratish feat ("Go to the boots boldly, without hesitation, and win"), consecrated the upcoming progress of warriors on the oppressants of Russia. The appearance in the ranks of the Russian militia of two warriors in black schifs (Alexander Perevost and Andrei Oshmy, sent prep. Sergius Radonezh) made an indelible impression on people and strengthened their will to victory.

Indicating the significance of the figure of the prep. Sergius Radonezh in lifting patriotism historian V.O. Klyuchevsky writes: "The people who are accustomed to tremble at one name of Tatarin, finally gathered with the Spirit, got up to the enslavers and not only found the courage to get up, but he went to look for Tatar Halomba in the open steppe and fell on the enemies with an uncomfortable wall, buried them under their thousands of bones. " After the victory in the Kulikov field, until the complete overthrow of Tatar domination should have passed a long one hundred years, but the increased sense of its own strength achieved as a result of the combination of Russian lands around Moscow, it was impossible to cross. Of course, the true flourishing of cultural life began after the Kulikov battle.

The spiritual consolidation of the Russian people, the educational activities of the monasteries, the construction of which by themselves, as a rule, the architectural monuments are also promoted. There were unique collections of handwritten, and later printed books, schools of icon painting developed. For example, with Josepho-Voloq (Volokolamsk), the monastery, founded in 1479 by the preacher Joseph Volotsky, was organized by the school. And such monastic enlighteners, as a writer Epiphany Woven, Saint Feofan Greek, Rev. (since 1989, Holy) Andrei Rublev, Inok Daniel Black, Saint Dionysius Glushitskaya made an invaluable contribution to the development of Russian culture.

The history of Russian culture is inseparable from the history of the Russian Orthodox Church. Inside it, there were two opposing ideological directions, but oriented, in essence, to the general task - the opposition of the secularization policy of the state. The final resolution of this long-term confrontation is not in favor of the church, implemented as a result of the church reform of Peter I, by and large, and means the logical and historical completion of the cultural period under consideration. The main stumbling block between Iosiflasia (the flow based on the Volokolamsky Igumen, the writer Joseph Voltsky (1439 - 1515) and nonstusting (focused in the Volga and headed by the older Nõl Sororsky (1433 - 1508) was the sphere of state-church relations. This dispute was largely predetermined not only The nature of the political struggle, but also the ideological and philosophical essence of the artistic culture of Moscow Rus. He also carried into himself in himself the embryo of the resonant concept "Moscow - the Third Rome".

The postulate of Joseph Volotsky: "Sovereign ... We all have a common sovereign that the Lord God arranged the Almighty in his place and planted on the royal throne, the court and the mercy of to betray him and the church and monastic and all Orthodox Christianity of All Russia land the power and care was handed him," Largely explains why his opponent lost his opponent. In the context of the idea of \u200b\u200bintegrity, the unity of Russia, the Iosiflant line was in practice, as it is impossible more relevant and useful. Strengthening the Moscow autocracy, according to Joseph Volotsky, the church should contribute powerful economically (that is, which owns the lands in populated peasants who use their work), which was evaluated by contemporaries as a compliance. Intelligencers, in fact, from the very beginning, the principles of conservative humanism preached to the announcement of their flow, and sought to create a church independent of secular power. The political loss was not able to eclipse the cultural and moral importance of incubation, which promoted the ideals of the "clean" spiritual life, free from worldly passions, aimed not to material wealth and storage, and the truth, good, human dignity and conscience. These covenants became characteristic features of Russian culture.

In the XIV - XV centuries, the courage and the courage of Russian warriors challenges in the patriotism of military stories filled with the spirit of the patriotism - one of the key literary genres ("Tale of the Takery of the city of Vladimir", "the word about the killed Russian land", "The Tale of Ryazan Batym", " Talk about the exploits and life of the Grand Duke Alexander Nevsky "). The "Monuments of the Kulikovsky Cycle" includes the famous "Tale of Mamaev Boy", created in the first quarter of the XV century, giving detailed description Victory Dmitry Donskoy over Mama, as well as the "Zadonchchina" poem, written, as it is considered, Sophonia Ryazanz in the 80s - 90s. XIV century. The author of the poem took for a sample ancient monument Kiev literature "Word about the regiment of Igor". Combines two works, between which two centuries flew out, one ideological meaning - a call to the unification of Russian principalities to save the country from enemies. A large chronicle "Tale of the invasion of Tokhtamysh to Moscow is adjacent to this cycle.

The amazing literary phenomenon was "walking for the three seas" of the Tver merchant Afanasiya Nikitina, testifying to the interest of Russian people to the "thievesal kingdoms, thirty states". The traveler described in detail and colorfully described his impressions of the distant India of the XV century 30 years before the path to this country was opened by your de Gama.

Wide distribution receives genre of life (agiography). His origins are Metropolitan Cyprian ("Life of Metropolitan Peter"), Pahomi Logoet (Pakhomy Serb; "Life of Kirill Belozersky"), which influenced the development of the Russian literary language and the spread of Christian ideals. But perhaps the most famous author The gortgled genre was the writer-monk epiphany woven ("Life of Stefan Perm", "Life Sergius Radonezh"). It is characterized by an emotional and expressive style of verbal praise, called "weaving words". It is at the agiographs that this feature of this period is most fully revealed, as "abstract psychologist: if earlier the subject of the description was the actions of the characters, now their psychology opens for the reader (but not the nature of which will be discussed only in the XVII century); Writers expressed, although quite schematically and straightforwardly, they sought to show the personality of a person, his emotional response to the events of the outside world.

Already by the 90s, the XIV century, Moscow art had all the characteristics of the "big style", in which there is no student imitation and provincial limitations. Moscow after for long years Rivalry with Novgorod and Tver turns not only in the political and spiritual, but also the artistic capital of a large Orthodox state. Its authority is recognized in Russian lands, and in Constantinople. Contacts with Byzantium, Bulgaria, Serbia develop. Large spiritual figures arrive, artists, artisans.

A significant impact on the formation of the metropolitan style was the activities of Feofan Greek (1340 - 1410). The identity of this Byzantine icon painter for Old Russian art has a huge role. Faoofan spent on three decades of his life in Russia, painting temples, decorating a manuscript and creating icons. His picturesque manners fully corresponded to the rise of the national identity of the people. Artistic perfection and spiritual depth of the images of this author appeared as an inimitable ideal of creativity. People admired the formation, an exceptional talent, an extraordinary creative twinge of Feofan, who served as an example for Russian icon painters. Epiphanas wisdom calls it a "glorified sage, a cunning philosopher," the mind of thinking high and wise, intelligent eyes seeing reasonable kindness. The influence of the master on the church art of the XIV - XV century was very fruitful.

In the works of Feofan Greek, two main lines of the Byzantine spiritual life are embodied: on the one hand, the classical beginning, expressed in the contemplation of the beauty of the created world, and on the other, the aspiration to Askise, which consists in renunciation from the total material. The master has developed his own letter of writing in line with the expressive style of the Byzantine painting of the XIV century, distinguished by some sketchiness, dynamism and free pattern. The Byzantine works of Feofan have not been preserved, the nature of his letters can be judged on the basis of the works created in Russia. Only a small part of them came to us: the painting of the Church of the Savior Transfiguration on Ilyin Street (in Novgorod is great), the icons Transfiguration and the Virgin of the Don, Icon of Assumption (on the turnover of the Don; maybe not his brushes); of book miniatures - initials "Gospel of Cats". Together with the seed black and students, Feofan Greek painted the church of the Nativity of the Virgin (1395) and the Arkhangelsk Cathedral (1399), and, together with Prokhor, the Annunciation Cathedral (1405). For the latter, the master with students fulfilled both a deesus rank (the second row of a high iconostasis of the temple). This is the first iconostasis in Russia with figures in full growth. In addition to the listed works, there are other miniatures and icons that cannot be fully confidently attributed to the works of this master. For example, the growth icon of the Apostles Peter and Paul, stored in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, as well as the icon of a small "Fat ages". From miniature - registration of Psaltiri Ivan Grozny. Studies of possible works of Feofan Greek are still continuing.

The lifeless influence of the icon painter of Faofan Greek experienced and brilliant Andrei Rublev (approx. 1360-1370 - 1427), whose art became proud of our country. The master appreciated the expression, psychologism, the dynamism of the images of its predecessor, but in his own work, they argued other, deeply national art ideals, combined with the value of spiritual power and the greatness of man. It can be assumed that in the early period of his creativity he studied and worked in Byzantium and Bulgaria. Inok Andrei communicated with the best people of his time - military monitoring, philosophers, publicists, theologians. The icon painter was well acquainted with the epiphany wisdom. In spirit, Andrei Rublev is a student of Sergius Radonezhsky, all his life called for the cessation of strife in Russia. It was he who was devoted to the most famous icon of the Creator - "Trinity", reflecting the idea of \u200b\u200bpeace, harmonic consent, love to neighbor. To understand its greatest humanistic value, attention should be paid to historical context The birth of this work. Reflecting on the Rublevskaya Trinity, the famous scientist-theologian P.A. Florensky writes: "Among the rolling circumstances of time, among the contention, civil strife, universal wild, and Tatar raids, among this deep misery, crushing Russia, opened with a spiritual side of the endless, unperturbable, indispensable world, the" mini world "of the world's world. Emief and hatred reigning in everyday life, mutual love, flowing in eternal consent, in an eternal silent conversation, in the eternal unity of the spheres of the horses ... This inexpressible phase of mutual decorations, this premium silence is a gloalous, this infinite friend before another submission - we consider it creative content Trinity. "

The theme of the icon is the Old Testament Tale of the Hospitality of the forefather Abraham - the admission and treats of the three wanderers who came to heave Abraham and his wife Sarah about the birth of the son of Isaac. Christians see in this event facing the New Testament history of the meaning. Wanderers are also an indication of God's trollery, and to the incarnation of the Son's God and his atoning sacrifice, and on the establishment of the sacrament of communion. By time Rublev existed a long and quite uniform fine tradition This biblical episode. But Icon Rubleva presented a new image of a familiar plot, which was based on the original iconographic solution - impeccable from the position of theological reading and at the same time clothed into the perfect artistic form. It does not have ordinary narrative details, the live concrete episode is inferior to the sublime image of the eternal council and the predetermination of the Christ's sacrifice. The entire field of the furnace is busy three figures of angels, calmly sitting around the table with a treat; Their poses, movement, views become the subject of the dramatic action of the icon, the object of contemplation and theological reflection. Never so convincingly with the means of art did not revealed the trocheus of the Divine, one by nature, but multiple in persons-icing. The figures of angels are flat, but everyone is perceived as a free person who is in absolute union with the rest. The right hand of the Central Angel, traditionally identified with Christ, blesses the bowl standing on the table from the Taurus head - the image of the Old Testament Victim. The outlines of the bowl are repeated in the form as if the growing upstream space dividing two side angels: the silhouette of the central angel is "reflected" within the borders of the table, outlined by the bottom of their figures. A thin pattern, a slight fit of the figures, the narrowness of the spatial plans contributes to the musical rhythm of such relations. The artist's brushes here is inherent antique sense of measure, proportions. Rublev extremely delicately operates categories of space and volume, remaining in the designated framework of the icon painter canon. The image of a ruble trinity occurs as if on the verge of transition of the time stream human life In eternity and, on the contrary, timeless existence in historical reality.

Icon of the Trinity was recognized as a mandatory model of the decree of the 100-eyed Cathedral of 1551: "Peaki icon painter icons from ancient translations, both Greek icon painters wrote, and as He wrote Ondrey Rublev and other notorious icon painters, and to sign the holy tripler, and from their concern to implement anything." Today it is kept in state Tretyakov Gallery, Once a year, she was transferred to the Museum Church of St. Nicholas in Tolmachy, where the icon participates in festive worship and becomes accessible to worship.

The main works of Andrei Rublev more or less confidently include the iconostasis and murals of the Blagoveshchensky Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin, the painting and the iconostasis of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the icon "Our Lady of Vladimirskaya" for the Assumption Cathedral in Zvenigorod, Deesus Chin from the Cathedral of the Virgin Mary in Savvino-Storozhevsky Monastery , painting and iconostasis of the Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergiev Monastery, the painting of the Spassky Cathedral of Savior Andronikov Monastery in Moscow. Many works are made jointly with another wonderful artist of the "Golden Age" of the Russian Icon Daniel Black (about 1350 - 1428).

The legacy of Andrei Rubleva is inseparable from the history of Russian culture. Each of his image turns into a philosophical, artistic contemplation, this is the perfect harmony, where truths, love and beauty are connected. The charm of the art of Rublev is due, perhaps, not so much with the highest skill, not doubting how much with grace and holiness concluded in his works.

In the second half of the XV century, Dionysius became a special successor of Rublev traditions (approx. 1440 - 1502), the largest artist of this period. Among its grand work works of the christmas temple of the Virgin in Feraphantov Monastery, Icons for the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, the icon "Our Lady of Odigitria" for the Ascension Monastery, the Life Icons of Metropolitan Peter and Alexey, the Church of the Church of the Assumption of Our Lady in Josepho-Volokolamsky Monastery. The spiritual ideals of Dionysius were formed in the Wednesday of the scribes and philosophers of that time - Vasian Dark, Spiridona-Savva, ideological opponents of Joseph Volotsky and Nile Sorovsky, which was reflected in his work. The author's work demonstrates increased interest in the problem of human personality, her self-building. If the focus of the focus of Rublev was the life of the innermost, then Dionysius in the idea of \u200b\u200ba spiritual path of man adds an element of external "landscaping" through constant improvement, disassembly and education of his soul. In his work, there is no acute drama, peculiar to Feofhan Greek, there is no here and the philosophical depths of Andrei Rublev. A certain deep stiffness is given by the desire for a parade pomp at the reign of Ivan III, the requirement of glorifying the magnitude of Moscow statehood. The elegant world of donisian is filled with ease, light, joyful flavor. The masters of a talented painter circle created the icon of the Pokrov's Virgin from the Suzdal Pokrovsky Monastery, painted an altar barrier and the Altar of the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow, the Resurrection Cathedral in Volokolamsk. In the subsequent century, his students adequately continued their teacher, however, according to most researchers, the name Dionysius marks the last era of the heyday of Russian painting.

The ideological "Moscow is the third Rome". At the turn of the XV - XVI centuries, the Russian land unification process is completed, Moscow Rus goes to the European Arena political life as a powerful single state. The young autocracy required not only military and political support, but, first of all, the pecification of spiritual. Naturally, the culture of the country is entirely subordinated to the service of serving the Russian state. Clearly and strictly substantiate the idea of \u200b\u200bautocracy, the older of the Pskov-Pechersk Monastery was a philosopher in the "Messages on Stargotians" (about 1524).

However, the first steps towards the birth of his concept, called "Moscow - the Third Rome", so important to understand the ideology of the Moscow kingdom, can be found much earlier. In the XV century, the Moscow Lost Walled and developed the idea of \u200b\u200bRussian unity. It had a tendency to attribute Moscow a central place in history. The design of the concept was preceded by the essay of the Moscow Metropolitan Zosima "Poskalia", in which for the first time Moscow is openly and officially declared the reign hail. In the 10s of the XVI century, the Tver Monk Spiridon-Savva was the "Message of the Monomakh Vental", where the continuity of the power of the Moscow Prince from August-Caesar, the Roman Emperor, is approved. On the basis of "Messages", in turn, "Tale of Princes Vladimir" was created, containing a number of legends on the origin of Russian great princes from August and about acquiring Vladimir Monomakh Tsarist Regalia from the Byzantine Emperor Konstantin Monomakh. It is also known that Philofee called Moscow by the third Rome under the influence of the Bulgarian translation of the Chronicles of Konstantin Manassea, who proclaimed Tarnovo "New Tsargrad".

The archetypal source of the doctrine of the Philof is helplessly, the cult of the icons of the Vladimir Mother of God can be considered, thanks to which, according to the annilates in 1395, Moscow was miraculously preserved from the Army of Tatar Khan Tamerlane. Between the cult of the main Constantinople icon of Our Lady of Odigitria, which guarded the Byzantine capital, and the cult of the Vladimirovsk icon, a clear parallel can be traced. The latter defends Moscow, and this means that the patronage of the Virgin moved to the Russian city, thereby equal and similar to Constantinople - the second Rome - and has the right to call himself the third Rome.

According to the phylfife, only Moscow retained the true Christian faith, the "first Rome" and "Second Rome" (Constantinople) fell victims of heresy. The conquest of Konstantinople by the Turks (1453) actually coincided with the final overthrow in Russia of Tatar domination (1480), so both of these events naturally contacted and interpreted as a movement of the Center for World Such. "Two Rome fell, the third costs, and the fourth will not be."

Researchers Yu.M. Lotman and B.A. Uspensky emphasizes the duality of the idea of \u200b\u200b"Moscow - the Third Rome": the symbol of Byzantium decays into two symbolic images - Constantinople was understood as a new Jerusalem (Holy Theokratic City) and at the same time - as a new Rome, the imperial state capital of the world. Both ideas are embodied in understanding Moscow as a new Constantinople, on the one hand, and the third Rome - on the other [there]. Thus, the concept of Philof was intended to form the ideological appearance of Moscow, to justify the actions of the government to create a strong centralized state.

Russian artistic culture of the XVI century. The new political concept was deeply reflected, above all, in the literature of the XVI century, full aspiration and accuracy. Book culture that supports autocratic power is represented by such works as "Stagov", "Great Mini-Chietia", "Domostroy". In them, a cultural stabilization program was laid, which determines the order in all areas of life: the spiritual, worldly, house.

In each of the twelve volumes of the Great Mine-Chetyich (reading for months), written under the leadership of the Novgorod Archbishop of Macaria, the lives of the saints were collected, the memory of which was noted in a certain month. Nattery is conducted in life genre From the position of the highest spiritual sense that he instructs to leaving "every everyday care" and thinking about the eternal ".

"Domostroy" Sylvester Protopopa contains rules private life, brownie construction. This is the ideal model of the Orthodox world in its maximum approaching to a person, his household worries and trifles of life.

"Fine" includes decisions of the 100-eyed Church Cathedral of 1551 and reflects the collision of various views on comfortable problems church ritual, spiritual life of man and society. The book sounds the appeals of Ivan the Terrible to protect the Christian faith from the "godmomeric books", from "Argannikov and Guselnikov", from "iconnikov", writing not "from ancient samples", and "self-examination." "Strojv" enshrines the official ideology and offers the prohibition of any innovations of church and cultural nature.

Defended the idea of \u200b\u200bstrong state power talented publicist of the first half of the XVI century I.S. Peresvetov, who wrote the "Talk of Tsar Konstantine", "Tale of Magomete-Saltan", "Predictions of philosophers and doctors of Latin about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich" and others. His formula of the Tsarist Authority is the expression: "The state without a thunderstorm is that a horse without a zlosis" .

The special paradoxical world is the compositions of the very beginning of Grozny, on the one hand, the preaching of God's commandments, and on the other hand, the fussy fuss on the verge of abandoned. Among his literary texts, Messages to Prince A.M. Kurbsky, who fled from Moscow to the Livonia. In them, King Despot tried to prove the need for unlimited autocratic power to prosper a Moscow state.

Analyzing the cultural mechanism of marginal behavior of Ivan Grozny, Yu.M. Lotman shows that the main reason for the extreme unpredictability of the king is a kind of conscious experiment on the implementation of the theory of permissiveness, the desire for overcoming any prohibitions. In the behavior of the king, the scientist points to the following points: a) the fulfillment of the role of the alignment of the alignment; b) unpredictable transitions of Ivan the Terrible from holiness to sin and on the contrary, arising from the infinity of his power); c) the execution of the role of the yurody, in which the role of God, the devil and a sinful person are combined; d) the permanent implementation of opposite actions: on the one hand, the limitless lord, and on the other hand, the defenseless exile.

In general, according to Yu.M. Lotman, at the heart of the actions of the king lay the Samodoria, erected into the state norm. His behavior did not differ in the sequence, but was a number of unpredictable explosions. However, it is precisely the change of explosions of cruelty and excesses of repentance just and allows us to talk about the undoubted orderliness. Perhaps the personality is able to highlight essential trends in the development of culture, and in the personality of Ivan the Grozny, the various appearance of Russian culture, "aware of themselves in the categories of the explosion" [in the same place, p. 269]. This consists of specifics and at the same time the drama of its destinies.

It is almost impossible to prohibit the development of culture in any historical period, nevertheless, the decisions of the outline cathedral had serious consequences for the art that flourished in the XVI century. As L. Lifshitz notes, it turned into a regulatory system, where only what is consecrated by the tradition, the authority of the church and the state is appreciated. Personal spiritual experience was replaced by the amount of knowledge, precisely defining the meaning of all phenomena of life. The problems of the relationship of the individual with God and the world were translated into a plan relationship with the state. Even moral norms were now considered at an angle of vision of state benefits. From art, according to art historian, the poetic intonation of calm contemplation is given.

The big event of the country's cultural life in the XVI century was the acquaintance of our compatriots with the achievement of European technical thought - a typography, which became a state monopoly. In 1553, the first typography opened in Moscow. An outstanding enlightener Ivan Fedorov 10 years old organized a printed courtyard. The first Russian dated book was different, the "apostle", printed in 1564, was characterized by a high design. For unknown reasons, Ivan Fedorov left the limits of the Moscow state, but the case was continued by his students (Nikifor Tarasyev, Timofey Nevezh, Andronica Timofeev Nevezhi).

The development of the metropolitan architecture of the late XV-XVI centuries is due to the close cultural relations of Moscow, the elevation of which put an end to the separation of the principalities. On this basis, the traditions of the Vladimir-Suzdal and Pskovo-Novgorod architecture occurs. Monumental construction had state importance for the capital. The Kremlin became a symbol, the walls of which were re-erected during the reign of Ivan III. Rebuild the Kremlin invited Italian engineers Pietro Antonio Solari, Marco Ruffo, and others who managed to maintain the old location of the walls, making them even more majestic. Under their start, they built a Tainytsky, waterway, Spasskaya, Borovitsky Tower. After completing the construction of walls and towers, the Kremlin became one of the best fortresses of the whole of Europe.

The idea of \u200b\u200bthe statehood of that period was responsible and the construction of a new Assumption Cathedral, designed to surpass the Novgorod Sophia in his greatness and become the main temple of Russia. The talented architect of Fiorobani managed to combine the beauty of ancient Russian architecture with his renaissance glances. Such features of the Vladimir Assumption Cathedral as a five-clue, forces, the arcatent belt on the facades, promising portals were repeated in Moscow, which in majesticity still exceeded its original sample.

After the construction of the Assumption Cathedral in the Kremlin, new buildings were built: the Arkhangelsk Cathedral, located on the central square, designed to be a tomb for the Moscow kings (Italian architect Aleviz is new); Annunciation Cathedral, serving the houses of the Tsarist family and the Grand Princes, the only major temples of the Moscow Kremlin, created by Russian masters.

In the XVI century, the modification of the prevention (so called the monologue-edible artistic culture of Russia of this period art historian G.K. Wagner) was expressed in the emergence of new types of temples - tents and tables. In the architecture, the modification was associated with the fact that the Renaissance language had to convey a sufficiently distracted symbolism coming from Christian antiquity. The Church of Ascension in Kolomensky became the first and, perhaps, the most perfect monument of the tutar architecture (t--like structures with the design of the top of the tent). In Kolomna temple, a gap with the Byzantine tradition is noticeable, an original architectural idea is embodied. He became the emblem of the sacred state of the sovereign, a monumental symbol of the power of the Moscow state. The birth of a new architectural form, differing from the usual five-key, was inspired by contemporaries. Temples, imitating the Kolomensk Church, appear (for example, the Church of the Resurrection in the village of Gorodnya near Kolomna).

Another wonderful architectural monument, which reflected the main tendencies of the architecture of the 16th century, became the temple of the Pokrov of the Virgin on the Ravy, better known as the Cathedral of Basil Blessed, erected to commemorate the victory over Kazan. Barma and Postnik, master managed, managed to achieve the unity of different stylistics and the origins of the elements: actually Russian, renaissance and gothic. In its volume planning solution, the forms of the Ascension Church in Kolomensky, the Church of the Resurrection in the Kremlin, built by the Petroca Small, and Multiprobous Temples of the Cathedral of the Monastery of the Monastery; In constructive decisions and decorations - forms borrowed from structures created by the Italians who worked in Moscow and from the Gothic architecture of Western neighbors.

The erected building became a temple icon, in the appearance of which was reflected by the idea of \u200b\u200bthe inseparalness of sacred history and creatible then political history "Moscow is the third world." The powerful correlation of the architecture of the Cathedral of Vasily blissful with abstract concepts demonstrates the strengthening of allegorism characteristic. A close analogy of this grand temple is considered the wonderful Tent Church of the Transfiguration in the village of Selo Island, built around at the same time.

The negative moments of the decisions of the precision cathedral could not not affect the architecture. The requirement of didactic clarity, forcing the architects to resort to the analogies, leads to a certain weighing of forms and complication of composite principles. The features of the aristocracy and grace, inherent in the temples of the period of the Board of Vasily III, and remained still in the architecture of the thirties of the XVI century.

I prevented the stamp and organic development of the Russian school icon painting. Starting from the middle of the XVI century, the official art of Moscow Russia gradually loses its advantages. According to M.V. Alpathov, the template begins to prevail in it, grade increases. It is not surprising that between the icons of the XV century and the icons of the XVI century there is an as significant difference as between Greek originals and Roman copies. In the iconopisses of the XVI century, a symbolic-allegorical genre with its edification and morality is widely spread. In the compositions of the icons could be combined by distracted religious ideas and concrete images taken from the life, which was unacceptable for the Iconopy of the XV century. The circle of the scenes depicted includes life with its details. Especially this concerned icons written in honor of the new Russian saints. So, life prep. Sergius of Radonezh was often portrayed not by canon, but according to the "self-reading" of the artist (Rostom Life Icon Sergius Radonezh). Icon "The Church of the Militant" ("Blessed Hospitality of the Heavenly Tsar"), which exalted apotheosis of the Moscow troops under the leadership of Ivan the Terrible, clearly demonstrates ideological and political motives in the painting of the XVI century.

Next civilization cycle in development domestic culture associated with the formation of the Russian national self-consciousness in the epoch of the Moscow Kingdom (XVI-XVII centuries)

Mongol-Tatar invasion 1237-1241. And the invasion of German knights in the north-west of ancient Russia put the country to the edge of death. On the fierce battles with the invaders and the terrible devastation of the Russian Earth tell the chronicles of the Battle of the Battle on Kalka in 1223, "the word about the killed Russian land", "Life of Alexander Nevsky"

Mongol-Tatar Igo delayed the development of Russia: on its land were destroyed cities, villages, the craft culture was partially lost, the population population sharply decreased.

Only from the second half of the XIV century. The rise of Russian culture begins, due to the first major victory over foreign conquerors in the Kulikovsky battle (1380). This event has become an important step On the path of the liberation of the country from the Mongol-Tatar yoke. This victory restored the fame and power of the Russian Earth. At this time, the leading role of Moscow is determined, which leads the struggle for the combination of Russian lands.

Moscow Princes, overcoming the feudal fragmentation of Russia, led the struggle against the Golden Horde and by the end of the XV century. Completed the process of creating a single and independent state. In written sources of the XV century. The words "Russia", "Russian Earth" appear.

The formation of Moscow Russia was determined in many ways to be complex and controversial communications with the Golden Horde. The socio-political system, which formed in a young state, carried the features of strong oriental influence, especially from the middle of the XIV century, when the Horde adopted Islam.

After the fall of Constantinople in 1451, the Russian Orthodox Church acquires independence and is distinguished from the Western Christian world. Rus is aware of himself by the only protector of Christianity. She places the mission of the rescue of Orthodoxy, aware of Himself "Holy Rus", and its capital of Moscow - the Third Rome. If in the West society in this period is gradually freed from the influence of the church, then in Moscow, on the contrary, there is an increase in the impact of the church on the life of the state and the daily lives of people. The clergy Joseph developed the theory of theocratic absolutism, which strengthened the authority of secular power and strengthened the position of the Church. Heretics (who demanded a cheap church, denied the theological dogmas about God's trollery, denied monasticism and church land tenure, fought for freedomity in literature and science) were convicted in 1490 by the church cathedral and in the XV century. Canonical requirements have been tightened.

It is from the XVI century. The history of the culture of the Russian people in his own sense begins, since at this time the specific features of the Russian national self-consciousness were formed:

A joint of spirituality expressed in Orthodoxy with the desire for freedom;

Collectivism and a weakly expressed personal consciousness;

Commitment to the values \u200b\u200bof Orthodoxy;

The priority of state began, the interests of the Power; Power is the main thing national treasure And her interests are above personal interests.

Achievements of Russian culture 14-17 centuries

Russian masters built a number of largest fortress structures: in 1367, a white-stone Moscow Kremlin was built, but at the end of the XV century. Kremlin Dmitry Donskoy dilapidated and built by the Moscow Kremlin of bricks, thick walls with a length of more than 2 km with 18 towers, Pskov and Novgorod Kremlin of the beginning of the XV century., Stone Kremlin in Kazan, Astrakhan, Smolensk in the XVI century. Assumption Cathedral (XV century), the Annunciation Cathedral (the house church of the Grand Princes, was built in 1489), the Arkhangelsk Cathedral (the tomb of the Moscow princes, was built in 1508). The pomegranate chamber (the throne room for the reception of ambassadors was built in 1491) created a unique appearance of the Moscow Kremlin. Architecture XV-XVI century. Reflected the increased international authority of Russia by the living embodiment of the ideas of the Epoch of the Russian National State. The highest achievement of the Russian architecture of the XVI century. It became a construction tool type temple.This new type of stone temple borrowed its forms from folk wooden architecture. The achievement of the construction equipment was the construction of a 62 m Tent Church of the Ascension in Kolomna 62 m (easily striving up a huge height of the "pillar" was crowned with a high stone twenty-meter shatter of exceptional beauty), in 1560. The temple of Vasily blissful (47 m height), the Ensemble of Pokrovsky Cathedral consisting of 9 temples of different heights. In general, the architecture of the XV-XVI centuries. On scale, variety and originality of creative solutions belongs to the most bright stages in the history of Russian architecture.

The formation of a single state entailed the development of adventures scientific knowledge For state needs (measurement of land plots, compilation of geographical maps, determination of the soil fertility, the development of arithmetic, medicine).

In 1466-1472. The Tverskaya merchant of Athanasius Nikitin was dry in India and left the detailed notes "walking in three seas". (The sea route to India was opened in the West later, in 1498 by the Portuguese of Vasco da Gama.)

From the XIV century And especially at the end of the XV century. Received the development of artillery, the guns were invented, charged not from the blow, and from the "state part". In the West, this type of guns was invented much later. The giant "king gun" was installed in XV in.in the Moscow Kremlin.

The patriotic rise after the Kulikov battle increased interest in the brilliant past Rus, to its culture. The work of Sophonia Ryazan "Zadonchchina", dedicated to the historical victory over the Tatars, included the memories of the "word about the regiment of Igor." Historical literature XVI in. Improved the tasks of strengthening autocracy, strengthening his union with churches. Summarizing chronicle works are created - the facial chronicle arch - a peculiar worldwide story from the creation of the world to the middle of the XVI century.

In the XVI century The gap between the folklore and writing begins to overcome (for the first time to print books in Russia in 1553, but anonymously, and then, from 1563, Ivan Fedorov, with Ivan Grozny, opened the printing house for the means of the royal treasury, the first printed book "Apostle" (1564 g .), The first Russian lettering (1574) .. until the end of the XVI century. About 20 church-religious content books were published).

The arbitrariness of the rules was presented to "Domostroy", which defended the patriarchal in the family and the despotic power of the head of the family.

Moscow painting XV-XV centuries. I did not know yourself equal. Feofan Greek (1340-1405) carried out the painting of the Cathedrals and Terems of Moscow, for example, the iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral. Frescoes (painting on crude plaster with paints divorced on water), the icons of the Food of the Greek are distinguished by monumentality, expressiveness, he embodied the inner strength and spirituality of the saints.

The greatest artist Rusi Andrei Rublev (1360-1430) created masterpieces of icons: "Trinity", "Savior", "Archangel Mikhail", "Transfiguration", painted the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the Blagoveshchensky Cathedral, and others. The art of Andrei Rublev was imbued with an elevation Light mood, feeling of harmony, consent, peace and humanity, golden flavor. Among the preserved works of Andrei Rublev Fresco on the theme "Terrible Court" in the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (1408), even here the images of the ruble are full of humanity, there is no excessive severity. Andrei Rublev was the first Russian painter, in the work of which national features were bright: high humanism, a sense of human dignity.

Large master of iconic painting at the turn of the XVI century. There was Dionysius. For Icon Pouring XVI. Characterized by the exaltation of the art of political ideas and events. Dionysius painted the Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin, the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin of the Farates Monastery and others. Its icons and frescoes are marked with a sophisticated pattern, magnificent decorativeness, festivity and elegacity. The proportions of human bodies are lengthened, the movements of lush and are important, the topics of the painting are devoted mainly to the Lady - the patroness of Moscow. Much attention It was paid to mosaic and fresco.

For Russian art, traditionalism, religious character, locality, closure, authoritarian style of thinking and strictly subordination canon was in the eye, the image of the icon was in the eye, as it were "turned out" to the viewer, strictly followed the colors: Yellow - Divine, Red, White - Color blood and the joy of God; cherry - uniting; Black - the secrets of God.



Topic: Russian Culture IX XVII centuries.

1. Features of the culture of ancient Russia.

The development of ancient Russian culture was directly connected with the evolution of Eastern Slavic society, the establishment of the state, the strengthening of connections with neighboring countries. It is associated with the development of society and the state. In the Domongolsky period, the culture of ancient Russia reached a high level, created the foundations for the cultural development of subsequent eras.

Writing. Chronicles. Literature.

Writing Narget - Brothers Kirill and Methodius (IX Century) - cyrillic .

Literacy spread quite widely, as evidenced by:

· Manuscript on Parchment (Ostromirovo Gospel, Celebrates 1073 and 1076)

· Graffiti (inscription Vladimir Monomakh on the wall of the Sofia Cathedral in Kiev)

· Epigraphy (inscription on Tmutarakan stone)

· Beresian diplomas (everyday records, scratched so-called "writing" on the slices of Berestov)

The first book in Russia - Ostromiro Gospel (Made by order of the Novgorod Postener of Ostromir during the time of Yaroslav Wise).

Lettering.

« Tale of temporary years - The first decade of the XII century is a monk Nestor of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. This is a communional chronicle arch, the text of which includes the chronicles of the XI century and other sources. The history of Russia in PVL is associated with the World Status and the history of Slavs. PVL is based on the basis of most surviving chronicle archives.

Literature.

· Oral folk art - epics. The epics of Kiev cycle (about the heroes Ilya Muromster, Alya Popovech, Dobryne Nikitich, Prince Vladimir) and the Novgorod cycle (merchant Sadko).

· Preaching and teachings - the first literary work - "Word and Law and Grace" Metropolitan of Hilarion, "Teaching" Vladimir Monomakh

· Saints (Agiography) - "Reading about the life and emotion of Boris and Gleb" (Nestor)

· Heroic Epos - "Word about the regiment of Igor" , It is written in Kiev on the occasion of the attack of Polovtsy Khan Konchaka (1185)

· Publicistics - "Word" and "Prayer" Daniel Sharpener (XII - beginning XIII)

Architecture of ancient Russia.

· The first stone church - the Tenty Church in Kiev (end of the X century)

· Cross-dome temple (Byzantium), in the XII century - single-oiled temples

· Sophia Cathedral (1037, in memory of the defeat of Pechenegs, 13 domes) and the Golden Gate in Kiev, Sofia Cathedral in Novgorod (1052)

· Vladimir-Suzdal Principality: XII century - Assumption Cathedral and Dmitrovsky Cathedral in Vladimir, Church of Pokrov on Novly (1165)

Art.

· Mosaic - an image made of colored stones (Our Lady of Oranta - praying in the Sofia Cathedral)

· Fresco - painting by water colors for raw plaster (frescoes of the Sofia Cathedral in Kiev)

· Iconopcripting meal paintinghaving a cult destination (Angel Choose Vlassee (Novgorod School))

Applied art.

· Grains - jewelry jewelry with metal grains

· Engraving - jewelry decoration pattern cut on metal

· Filigree - jewelry in the form of a patterned grid of thin twisted wire

2. Culture Rus XIII. - XV centuries.

XIV.- XV centuries.

The main events of the Russian history of the XIV-XV centuries were: the process of association of Russian lands into a single state and the struggle with the Mongolian ig. Accordingly, the key features of the culture of steel: a) the idea of \u200b\u200bthe national revival and the state association; b) the idea of \u200b\u200bnational independence.

Folklore.

· The main theme of the folklore of this period was the struggle against the Mongolian invasion and the Ordan Iga. In the XIII-XV centuries, genres historical song and legend .

· Many folklore worksBased on real historical facts, we transformed genuine events in accordance with people's desires. For example, a song about clicks, based on the history of the uprising of 1327 in Tver.

· Special cycle of epic - about Sadko and Vasily Buslaev - formed in Novgorod.

Writing and literature.

· Same important works writing remained chronicles containing both information about natural and historical phenomena and literary works, theological reasoning. Chief Centers: Novgorod, Tver, Moscow. Moscow Children began at Ivan Kalita. Examples: Troitskaya Chronicle (1408, Moscow as the Center for the Association of Russian Lands), Russian Chronograph - World History with brief information on the history of Russia (middle of the XV century).

· The most famous works of literature of the XIII century - "The Word about the death of the Russian Earth" and "the story of the ruin of Ryazan Batym", which included the legend of Evpato Kolovrat.

· At the end of the XIV - the beginning of the XV century, the poetic works were created on the victory on the Kulikov field "Zadonchina" and "Tale of Mamaev Boy" . "Zadonshchyna", the author - Sophonia Ryazan ("The Word about the Grand Dmitry Dmitry Ivanovich and about his brother Vladimir Andreevich's brother, as the Sugorant of his king Maama won,") and the "Tale of Mamaev Battle" - the most advanced works about Kulikovsky battle.

· In the XIII-XV centuries, many lives of Saints were created in Russia: Alexander Nevsky, Metropolitan Peter, Sergius Radonezh and others.

· A common genome of medieval Russian literature was a story ("Tale of Peter and Fevronia", telling about the love of the peasant and prince).

· Preserved in Russian literature and genre of "walking", that is, the descriptions of the travels ("walking in the three seas" of the Tver merchant Afanasiya Nikitina, the first of the Russian people who visited India).

Public thought.

· The XIV-XV century were in Russia the time of sharp religious disputes. Already in the 70s of the XIV century, heresy of Strigolnikov appeared in Novgorod and Pskov.

· Lossies led by Neil Sorovsky believed that the monks please fade by the works of their own hands, and not someone else's labor. Therefore, they refused churches in the right to own villages with peasants. Their opponents - Josephlane, supporters of Ihuman Joseph Volotsky, insisted on the right of the church to own lands with peasants so that the church could lead wide charity. At the same time, non-stoppers relatively tolerant treated with heretics, believing that they should be admitted, as those who were mistaken, and Iosiflane demanded mercilessly to execute heretics and considered unacceptable any doubt in faith.

Architecture.

· In the Moscow principality, stone construction turned into the second quarter of the XIV century. Moscow Kremlin:

· Construction of a white-stone Moscow Kremlin (1366 - Dmitry Donskoy, White Kremlin),

· XV century, Ivan III - construction of a modern Kremlin (from red brick, elements of Italian architecture - "Lastochkin Tail").

· The most famous buildings of the end of the XV century were the majestic Assumption Cathedral , built in the Moscow Kremlin under the leadership of the Italian architecture Aristotle of Phiorewanti and the Annunciation Cathedral, built by Pskov Masters.

Art.

In the visual art of the XIII-XV centuries, the work of two great artists is distinguished: Feofan Greek and Andrei Rublev.

· Feofan Greek, who came from Byzantium, worked in Novgorod and Moscow. For its frescoes and icons is characterized by special emotional tensions, color saturation. Images of mefan stern, ascetic. Examples: Church of Savior-on-Ilyinka in Novgorod, Arkhangelsk and the Annunciation Cathedrals in Moscow.

· Other manner was inherent in Andrei Rublev (the last third of the XIV is the first third of the XV century, the monk Trinity-Sergius Monastery). Rupisti Rublev survived in the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. Examples: Annunciation Cathedral in Moscow, Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, Trinity Cathedral (the famous "Trinity"), "Savior".

· END XV - the beginning of the XVI century - Dionysius (Icons of the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin).

3. Culture of Russia XVI century.

Main events and characteristic features of cultureXVI century.

The main events of the Russian history of the XVI century were: the creation of a centralized state and the approval of the despotic rule. According to the key features of the culture of steel: a) the idea of \u200b\u200bthe National Association; b) the idea of \u200b\u200bthe formation of a single nationality.

Folklore.

· In the XVI century, genre blooms historical song . Historical legends had a lot of distribution. Songs and traditions were usually devoted to outstanding events of that time - the take of Kazan, campaign to Siberia, wars in the West or outstanding personalities - Ivan Grozny, Yermak Timofeevich.

· In the folklore of the XVI century, the plots of the Kiev epic cycle and events of a closer past are often mixed.

Writing and typography.

· In the middle of the XVI century, the chronicles prepared a new chronicle arch, called the Nikonovsky Chronicles (as one of the lists belonged to the Patriarch Nikona in the 18th century). Nikonovsky chronicle has absorbed the entire preceding chronicle material from the beginning of Russia until the end of the 50s of the XVI century.

· 1564 - Top of typography in Russia : Ivan Fedorov and his assistant Peter Mstislavts - "Apostle" (not a single typo, a clear font), then "chase", the first letter (the printed courtyard was placed by the Kremlin on the Kremlin on Nikolskaya Street, fled from Moscow to the Grand District Lithuanian).

Literature and public thought.

· At the beginning of the XVI century, the theory "Moscow - the third Rome" was put forward by the elder the phyloofe. The first Rome fell, the second Rome - Constantinople - also, the third Rome - Moscow, is forever, and the fourth Rome will not be.

· Flawering publicistics : PERSONAL IVAN IV (defended the interests of the nobility, speaking for strengthening the autocratic power), Correspondence by Ivan the Terrible with the escaped Prince Andrei Kurbsky (defended the interests of the aristocracy, speaking against autocracy). The common authors had the fact that they performed for a strong state and strong royal power. At the same time, the political ideal of Kurbsky was the activities of the elected Rada, and for Ivan Perestec - a strong ruler, based on the nobility.

· Summarizing housekeeping guidance, behavior in everyday life "Domostroy" written by Sylvester in the middle of the XVI century. "Domostroy" means "home-based", so it can be found in it a variety of tips and instructions.

· Literacy rate among the population was different. Training was conducted in private schools, which usually contained spiritual title. The first grammar textbooks appear ("Talk of the Dressing Teachings") and arithmetic ("Typhyry Accounting Wisdom").

Architecture and visual art.

· From the end of the 15th century, a new stage has come to the development of Russian architecture, associated with the completion of the country's association. The scale of stone construction has increased. A single Russian architectural style has begun to form, in which the features of Moscow and Pskov architecture prevailed.

· Stone construction is developing: the Kremlin ensemble is finalized (the Granovy Chamber in the Kremlin - the Breasting Palace, here Ivan IV celebrated the capture of Kazan, Peter I - Poltava Victory), Arkhangelsk Cathedral (Tomb of the Grand Princes and Kings), Ivan the Great Bell Truck (82 meters Honor Ivan III).

· From the XVI century, the tent style in architecture is dominual (came from wooden architecture), the best sample is the church of Ascension in Kolomensky (at the birth of Ivan IV) - "very wonderful height and lightness".

· Pokrovsky Cathedral (Basil's Church of Blessed) - In the memory of the capture of Kazan (October 2, 1552 - the Intercession of the Virgin), architects Postnik Yakovlev and Barm. Eight domes are located around the central tent, none of which repeats the other in shape and drawing. The contemporary color color of the cathedral received in the XVII century, was originally white.

· The iconography develops, the so-called "Parsuna" appear - images of people having portrait similarities.

· In the XVI century, the development of craft continued. Certificate high art Russian founders serves as a king gun, cast by Andrey Chokhov at the end of the XVI century.

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4. Culture of Russia XVII century.

Features of the development of culture in the XVII century.

The XVII century occupies a special place in the history of Russian culture. This age - transitional from the traditional medieval culture Moscow Rus to the culture of the new time. Most modern researchers It believes that the most important cultural transformations of Peter I were prepared by all course of the history of Russian culture of the XVII century. The most important feature of the Russian culture of the XVII century is widespread, the gradual destruction of medieval whole of religious consciousness. Sampling touched on all sides of cultural development: education, literature, architecture, painting. This applies predominantly urban population, while the village culture has long remained completely within the tradition of tradition.

The main events of the Russian history of the XVII century were: the transition from medieval history to the history of the new time, the weakening of the influence of the Church. Accordingly, the main line of culture was the beginning of the prudency of culture, that is, the destruction of medieval religious consciousness and penetration into the culture of secular elements.

Education and writing. Literature.

· The number of competent people is increasing. He was taught chickens and orders for church books. But in the first half of the XVII century, private schools appeared, where they taught not only literacy, but also rhetoric, ancient languages, foreign languages \u200b\u200b(German) and philosophy. Teachers often had scientists Ukrainian monks. In 1687, the first higher educational institution was created in Russia - the Slavic-Greco-Latin Academy (Lichuda Brothers). The Academy was built according to the sample of European universities. Teaching was conducted in Greek and Latin.

· A typography is developing: the first printed tank (Karion Isomin), textbooks, liturgical books, official documents (Cathedral Code). Libraries were created as a state (ambassador of the order) and private (Ordina-Nachichkin, Golitsyn).

· In the literature of the XVII century, fundamentally new genres appeared: satire , drama , poetry . Satyrian stories - about Yershchovich, about Shemyakin Court, where the wrong and mercenary court was muffled. The emergence of Russian poetry and drama is associated with the name of Simeon Polotsk (educator of royal children). The autobiographical genre came to Russian literature due to the "life" of the Avvakum Protopopa. Oral folk creativity - songs about Stepan Rasin.

· Under Alexei Mikhailovich in Russia was formed theatre , in 1672. The theater was created under the influence of the young wife of the king, Natalia Kirillovna. It put the plays on the biblical plots that continued for several hours.

Architecture.

· At the end of the XVII century, a new architectural style appeared - Naryshkinskoye (Moscow) Baroque. Its distinctive features are painting, complication of the plan, combination of red (brickwork) and white (stone thread) of the facade colors. A characteristic model of this style is the church of the Intercession in the films, built in 1693 in the estate of the Naryshkin, the Novodevichy Monastery.

· Secular buildings: Wooden royal palace in Kolomenskoye, Brick Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin, Chambers of Averkia Kirillov.

· The Moscow Kremlin stopped being a defensive structure, in the XVII century, the Kremlin towers are decorated with tents, a clock appears on the Spasskaya Tower.

Art.

In the pictorial art of the XVII century, the influence of tradition remained in other areas of culture, which was explained by the control of the church authorities for compliance with the icon painting canon. And, nevertheless, it was in the XVII century that the transformation of icon painting began.

· A school for learning painting, a picturesque workshop, actually the Academy of Arts, who was headed by Simon Ushakov, was created at the Armory Chamber.

· Simon Ushakov is the largest artist of the XVII century: "saved the wrong", "Trinity".

· In the XVII century, the beginning of portrait painting was laid - parsuna . The images of Alexei Mikhailovich, his son Fedor Alekseevich, Patriarch Nikon, Prince Skopina-Shuisky.

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Topic: Culture of Russia XVIII century.

For the development of the culture of dominant sections of Russian society, the final celebration of the secular beginning, a decisive following European samples, a deep gap with traditional folk culture. In the second half of the XVIII century, the original national culture of the European type was formed in Russia. The successes of culture reflected the progressive development of the state and society as a whole. Atmosphere formed atmosphere of special noble spirituality prepared the rise of Russian national Culture In the XIX century.

Education and science.

- 1701 - School of Mathematical and Navigation Sciences in Moscow, in the Sukhareva Tower (later - the Marine Academy in Kikina Chambers in St. Petersburg). Later an artillery school, medical school, engineering school.

- 42 "Typhyr Schools" were created for training provincial nobles.

- Education took a secular character, the first place was taken by mathematics, astronomy, engineering.

- new textbooks appeared. "Arithmetic, siren science numeral" magnetic.

- 1700 - the announcing is not from the creation of the world, but from the Nativity of Christ, the beginning of the year is not September 1, and on January 1.

- 1702 - The first printed newspaper "Vedomosti" (with Alexei Mikhailovic, the handwritten newspaper "Courarans" was published for the needs of the court), the editor of which was Peter I.

- 1708 - Transition to civil font.

- 1755 - At the initiative of Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov and with the support of Ivan Ivanovich Shuvalov, Moscow University was created. The University's Charter provided for teaching in Russian (in European universities, teaching was conducted on Latin). The university consisted of philosophical, legal and medical faculties. There was no theological faculty.

- Ekaterina II - a system of educational and educational institutions Under the leadership of Ivan Petsky.

- 1764 - Smolny Institute of Noble Maiden.

- Peter I opened the first museum in Russia - Kunstkamera, where various antiquities were collected, anatomical collections. When Kunstkamera had a rich library.

- 1741 - Witus Bering expedition examined the North-West Coast of America and proved that Asia was separated from America.

- The famous inventor of Petrovsky Time - Andrei Konstantinovich Narzov.

- 1718 - Peter conceived to create the Russian Academy of Sciences, ordered to invite the largest foreign scientists. The Academy opened in 1725 year, after the death of the emperor. The creation of the Academy of Sciences attracted European scientists to Russia, among which world celebrities, like mathematicians L. Eileler and D. Bernoulli. German historians of the city of Bayer worked in Russia and, which made a significant contribution to the formation of Russian historical science. Under Catherine II, the Academy of Sciences was headed by Ekaterina Romanovna Dashkov.

- Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov: Received in 1731 to the Slavic Greco-Latin Academy, from where he was transferred to St. Petersburg University at the Academy of Sciences, and then sent to study to Germany. In 1745, he became the first Russian professor, a member of the Academy of Sciences. Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin wrote about Lomonosov: "He created the first university. He, it is better to say, he himself was our first university."

- In the XVIII century, historical science has achieved significant success. Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev. "Russian history" in 5 volumes.

- The famous self-taught inventor - Ivan Petrovich Kulibin: elevator projects, "self-eraphor stroller", unionic bridge over neu, telescope, microscope, barometer.

- Ivan Ivanovich Polzunov managed to improve the steam car, with the work of which he met in England. A similar car was created in England James Watt only in twenty years.

Literature. Public thought.

- the most important direction in the Russian and European literature of the middle of the XVIII century was classicism . Classicism found an expression, first of all, in poetry: Antihalia Kantemir, Vasily Trediakovsky and especially Mikhail Lomonosov and Alexander Sumarow. The most prominent Russian poet of the late XVIII century, who wrote in the style of classicism, became Gavril Derzhavin. Classicism includes the comedies of Denis Fononvizin "Brigadier" and "inexpensive."

- In the second half of the XVIII century, the style is folded sentimentalism . The most important genres This style was a sensitive story and a trip. Nikolai Karamzin "Poor Lisa".

- Public thought developed under the influence of enlightenment. The largest investigation figure was Nikolay Novikov. Magazines "Drone", painter. "

- The radical form of educational ideology is presented in the work of Alexander Radishchev. "Traveling from St. Petersburg to Moscow" and Oda "Volost". The extreme radicalism of Radishchev prompted Catherine II to call it the "Buntocker worse than Pugachev."

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Architecture and visual art. Sculpture. Theatre.

- For the Petrovsky era, the predominance of civilian stone construction over the cult is characteristic. The architectural style of the era has become "Russian (Petrovskoe) Baroque" with characteristic pomp, solemnity, fancy forms. The largest architects of the era: Domenico Trezini (Summer Palace of Peter, Petropavlovsky Cathedral, Building of the 12 Colleges in St. Petersburg), Ivan Kovdov (Seating courtyard in Moscow).

- In the middle of the XVIII century, the prevailing architectural style was baroque . The largest Russian architect of this time was Bartolomeo Rastrelli. He built a winter palace, a Smolny Monastery ensemble, Strogan's Palace in St. Petersburg, a large Ekaterininsky Palace in the Tsarskoye Selo, a large palace in Peterhof.

- in the second half of the XVIII century classicism . Vasily Bazhenov, Matvey Cossacks and Ivan Starov. The famous work of Bazhenova - Pashkov House in Moscow (the old building of the Russian State Library). He also developed a project of the Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg. Matvey Cossacks: Moscow University buildings, Senate in Moscow, noble assembly, a number of estates and churches. Ivan Starov is the author of the Tauride Palace and the Trinity Cathedral in the Alexander Nevsky Laurele in St. Petersburg.

- At the beginning of the XVIII century, the secular beginning ended in painting . The main genre of the era is a portrait. The largest painters of the era: Ivan Nikitin (portraits of Peter I, Natalia Alekseevna), Andrei Matveyev (Self-portrait with his wife).

- The second half of the XVIII century is the heyday of Russian painting, primarily portrait. The largest portraits of the XVIII century were Fedor Rockots (portrait of Catherine II, Paul I, a portrait of a justist), Dmitry Levitsky (Smolianok portraits) and Vladimir Borovikovsky (portrait of a loop).

- outstanding master sculpture was Fedot Ivanovich Shubin, who created the Gallery of sculptural portraits public figures and commander of Russia. But the most famous sculpture Russia created the Frenchman Etienne Maurice Falcona - the author of the "copper rider".

- In the first quarter of the XVIII century, publicly available russian Theater. . In the second half of the XVIII century, the first State Theater (Fyodor Volkova Truppe from Yaroslavl) was opened in St. Petersburg, serfs in landlord estimates (Actress Praskovya Pearlchugova-Kovaleva) were created.

Topic: Culture of RussiaXIX century

Trends in the development of culture: full regulation by the state of development of all regions of culture, the general democratization of culture; When preserving and deepening a break between elite and folk forms of culture, their synthesis was observed.

Education and science

State policy in the field of education. 1802 The Ministry of Folk Enlightenment of 1803 was created. The provision on the device of educational institutions was provided for the creation of a 4-cops of a non-alone education system: parish schools (peasants), county schools (citizens), gymnasium (nobles), universities. In 1858, the first female gymnasium was opened in St. Petersburg - Mariinskaya.

Derptsky, Vilensky, Kazan and Kharkov universities were opened; Chief Pedagogical Institute in St. Petersburg (from 1819 - University); Tsarskostsky (Alexandrovsky) Lyceum; Demidov's lyceum in Yaroslavl. University charter 1804 g Autonomy of universities: the rector was elected by the Council of Professors. The University Charter of 1835 completely destroyed autonomy and clearly regulated all parties to university life, to control which the court of the academic district was established; A high training fee was introduced.

In 1830, a circular was issued about the opening of public libraries in all provincial cities Russia (by the middle of the century 39 libraries were opened).

1864 it was approved the provision on the initial national schools, which provided to public institutions and individuals the right to open primary schools.

1864 by the charter of gymnasiums and defditions. The Charter proclaimed the principle of unconsciousness of secondary education, but established a training fee. In accordance with the charter, the seventh gymnasiums were divided into classical and real (technical can not be entered into the university). 1862 Women's Gymnasiums

children Kucherov, Lakeev, Parachk, Small Lavers

In gg Most of the highest female courses were closed.

Approved in 1882 temporary regulations on the press of strict administrative supervision of newspapers and magazines;

- Geography. Ethnography. and () The islands of the Pacific Ocean, the coast of China, Sakhalin islands, the Kamchatka Peninsula. Bellingshausen and () -ntarctica. Information about the islands of the Pacific and Ice Oceans, Alaska, Sakhalin, Korea coast, and other territories were collected by Russian travelers ,. -Maklay, -thyan-Shansky, who studied the lands of Central and Southeast Asia, Ussuri Territory, Australia. founded Russian geological school.

- Mathematics. Opened in 1826 Neevklidova geometry. A great contribution to the study of applied mathematics introduced. conducted research in the field of mathematical physics, analytical and heavenly mechanics. laid the foundations of electrochemistry and electrometallurgia, the bases of metallography. (,)

- Chemistry. Zinc has developed an aniline synthesis technology used in the textile industry as a paint fixer. created a periodic system chemical elements; And laid the foundations of modern organic chemistry.

- Astronomy. Ya. Struve created in 1839 in Pulkovo (near St. Petersburg) an exemplary astronomical observatory.

- Medicine. The foundations of military field surgery were laid, an ether anesthesia and antiseptic drugs applied, introduced a fixed gypsum bandage, a world fame received his atlas topographic anatomy. Developed the theory of blood transfusion.

- Biology. Investigated the phenomenon of photosynthesis and proved the applicability of the law of conservation of energy to the organic world. laid the foundations of evolutionary paleontology. The creator of the Russian physiological school made a great contribution to the development of microbiology, pathology, anatomy and surgery. He founded the first bacteriological station in Russia. V.V. Dokuchaev created modern genetic soil science.

- Technics. Jacobic electromotor; Opened galvanoplasty, Shilling created the first electromagnetic telegraph, connecting Petersburg and Kronstadt. Cherepanovy built the first railroad and the car for her with steam rod. On April 25, 1895, Popov demonstrated a radio receiver. Apple created an arc light bulb, and invented the incandescent lamp. The possibility of creating aircraft explored.

- Humanitarian sciences. The history of the state of Karamzin. - History of Russia from ancient times in 29 volumes. He founded Russian medievalism, - Slavovyov. - course lectures on Russian history. and engaged in learning universal history.

At the beginning of the XIX century. Domestic folklorism is born. In 1804, K. Danilov was published the first Russian collection of folklore ancient Russian poems. Society of fans of Russian literature created in 1811 at Moscow University. Domestic philology gained development in the works, etc.

The symbol of recognition of an important public role of science was the institution in 1831 at the St. Petersburg Academy of Demidov Prizes, which were issued in 1832-65. For the best published works on science, technology, art and were considered the most honorable scientific reward in Russia.

Literature.

Distinctive features: high humanistic ideals, extraordinary political pointedness, citizenship, propaganda of liberation ideas and the search for social justice.

Patriotic moods and the theme of the war of 1812 found reflections in a number of Bassen, in verses and prose, and other authors.

Despite the relatively short period of time, the literature of this period is different variety of styles:

- Styles: Classicism Camely in the gifts and, in early work and. Sentimentalism. His specific traits (sentimental idealization of reality, sensitivity, attention to person personality, his inner world, mental experiences) were most brightly manifested in creativity. Romanticism. Passive-contemplative romanticism has become. In the work, -Marlinsky was manifested by a civilian, revolutionary direction of romanticism, characterized by a call for the struggle for the liberation of the people from serfdom. Romanticism influenced early creativity and.

- Realism. The formation and flourishing of Russian realism in the first half of the XIX century. related to creativity (grief from the mind), (Evgeny Onegin, Captain's daughter, History of the village of Goriukhina, etc.), (on the death of the poet, the hero of our time), (dead souls, the auditor, a collection of Mirgorod's Agenda). An outstanding poet-realist is (who in Russia live well, crying children). In the 40-50s of the XIX century. The famous writers whose creativity has reached their heyday in the second half of the century (, ",).

The development of dramaturgy is associated with creativity and.

Shchedrin became one of the largest masters satyrian genre. Outstanding writers, A. Pechersky (), and others acquired wide fame.

- Literary journals. "Domestic notes", "Contemporary", "Russian Word" (democratic ideas). Great merit in the development of the democratic direction in Russian journalism belongs. Magazines "Moskvatikan" and "Library for reading", the newspaper "Northern Bee united representatives of the conservative direction. Their publishers (and, and also) defended the idea of \u200b\u200bthe beneficiaries of autocracy and conducted a struggle with a democratic direction in the literature.

Painting. Sculpture

- Genres: Portrait. Romanticism is inherent in the portrait of artists (portrait), (lace, portrait of a son), (Self-portrait, portrait of the poet). , and N. N.G.. Historical genre. (Copper Fri.), (The last day of Pompeii). (The phenomenon of Christ the people) works by Surikov, Repin, Ge ,. Household genre (genre painting) became. (Harvest, sleeping shepherd). (Major's walling, Fresh cavalier. Landscapes: , Repin and many other artists. Battle painting - Movement.

- Splint. To the lubki treated. A series of caricatures-lubkov, ridicuing Napoleon and his army, received great distribution.

- Sculpture. , monument to minin and a fire, a monument to Lomonosov in Arkhangelsk; Created 21 medallion, depicting the scenes of the Patriotic War of 1812; At the portals of the colonnade of the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg, the Statues of Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly were established by the sculptor. Sculptural groups on Anichkovo Bridge in St. Petersburg (famous horses), a monument to the Basinoisha in the summer garden and the statue of Emperor Nicholas I in front of St. Isaac's Cathedral.

Samples eclectics There are a temple-monument to the heroes of the Pulve, created by the Russian architect,; The composition of the Millennium of Russia in Novgorod, erected by the project with participation. Guardian also owns a monument in Moscow. , created a series of sculptures to national, historical and biblical topics (Ivan Grozny, Ermak, Nestor-Chronicler, Yaroslav Wise, Christ in front of the judgment of the people).

IN 1856. It was necessary to start the collection that became the basis of the future Tretyakov art gallery.

Realism . Movements. In November 1863, 14 graduates of the Academy (, and others) came out of it and created Artel Artists in St. Petersburg. In 1870, at the initiative in St. Petersburg, a partnership of mobile art exhibitions was created. The partnership united N. N. Ge, and others. Movies sought to bring the art to the people. To this end, they organized exhibitions in provincial cities. In the partnership went:, A. M. and, DR.

Architecture

Creating large architectural ensembles: ensembles of the Palace and Senate Square of the architect; Manezh Square, created by architects (University Building) and (Manege Building); Ensemble of the Exchange on the Arrow of the Vasilyevsky Island architect J. Tom de Tomona; Alexandrovsky Garden at the Kremlin Wall and the Theatrical Square ensemble, created by O. and Beauva, etc.

Ampir. The largest masters of an ampury in Russia were (Kazan Cathedral and the Mountain Institute in St. Petersburg), (the building of the Admiralty), (Palace and Senate Square, Mikhailovsky Palace), and.

Eclecticism. This direction is characterized by an arbitrary connection of elements of various styles (sometimes it is also called infantlessness or multiple). Isaac's architect Cathedral A. Montferran, Church of Christ the Savior -. The variety of eclecticism is a pseudorussian style, (ancient Russian architecture, thread, embroidery). Among the most famous buildings of this style include: terems in the Abramtsev near Moscow (architect); The buildings of the Historical Museum (s), the City Duma () and the Upper Trading Rows are now gum () in Moscow.

Theatre

- Smallin Moscow (1824) The largest master of romanticism was. The founder of realism was the actor. About Herzen wrote: He created the truth in the Russian scene, he became the first not theater on the theater. On the scene of the Small Theater shone P. Sadovsky, S. Shumsky, as well as beginners at the time Actors M. Yermolov, A. Skumbatov-Yazzhin.

- Alexandrinskyin St. Petersburg (1832) Realistic traditions developed a wonderful actor. The Aleksandrinsky Theater glorified by its art of P. Streptov, K. Varlamov until the completion of the restructuring of the Grand Petrovsky Theater in 1836, operas, water and ballet productions also walked on the stage of the Alexandrin theater.

In the 60-70s. Private theaters and theatrical circles began to occur, the development of which contributed by the abolition of the monopoly of state (imperial) theaters in 1882. Much fame received created in 1888 in Moscow opera singer And the artist, the Society of Art and Literature, which occupied mainly stage activities (put the plays of V. Shakespeare,). One of his leaders was the future director. With society, a musical-dramatic school was created.

In addition to dramatic performances, ballet and opera were very popular, in the development of which large and Maryanian theaters played an important role, as well as a Russian private opera, founded by a well-known entrepreneur and a patron.

Music

In the XIX century Secular professional music continued to develop. Alyabyev, - Russian city romance. (Life for the king) and the fabulous epic genre (Ruslan and Lyudmila) Patriotic song, which became the state anthem of Russia after the collapse of the USSR.

The development of musical criticism (.) In 1859, the composer created Russian in St. Petersburg music society. 1866 Moscow Conservatory was opened. 1862 free music school

- Mighty couch. The Balakirevsky circle was formed at the end of the 50s-early 60s., It included wonderful composers, and-kissakov. Composers of a mighty bunch studied and popularized the domestic folk music, called for creating national music, introduced an invaluable contribution to the development of democratic and national traditions in Russian musical culture. The rising people became the main acting face of Opera and Hovhanshchina; In the operating operations of the Sherryzad, Roman Corsakov and Polovtsy dance of Borodin used songs and melodies of different peoples of the Russian Empire.

Realistic and democratic trends in Russian music developed the greatest composer of the epoch, creating outstanding samples of Opera (Eugene Onegin, Peak Lady, Iolanta), ballet (Swan Lake, Nutcracker, Sleeping Beauty), Symphony and Chamber Music (more than a hundred romances).

The culture of the first halfXX century

Education

At the end of the XIX early XX century. Literacy rate has grown from 1897 (21%) to 1917 (31%) by 1.5 times. The number has increased gymnasium and real schoolswhose graduates could come to technical universities without an exam. There was a network supreme primary schoolswho gave the opportunity to go to high school. System developed professional - Mountain, River, Rail, Factory and Commercial schools .

Development of pedagogical education. By 1914, 47 teacher institutions existed in Russia and over 170 teacher seminaries (schools). In 1905, the autonomy of universities was restored, the election of rectors and deans and so on. Developed book business.The largest publishing companies such as M. Wolf partnership, publishing And others released folk books.

The science

The science. Significant success achieved the founder of aerodynamics ; mathematician ; Most important discoveries in the field of physics ; Geochemist and biochemist who laid the foundations of modern ecology ; Physiologist, Nobel Laureate (1904) ; Immunologist, also received the Nobel Prize (1908) ; Father cosmonautics and etc.

Flewing religious and philosophical direction. In the collections of the problem of idealism (1902), milestones (1909), works , combined the development of ideas and About the new religious consciousness.

Historical sciencedeveloped in labor , -Silvan, -Danilevsky,. The methods of historical research were improved, new topics were raised, historiography became an independent branch.

Literature. Style directions.

Realism.At the end of the XIX - early XX century. Save critical realism - , . We received wide fame Maxim Gorky (), Mamin-Siberian and etc.

Modernism. Thesis on the intrinsicness of art, connected with the ideas of Russian thinkers and D. Merezhkovsky about the religious sense of creativity, gave the beginning of the Russian itself symbolism . His theorist in the mid-1890s. performed . Bruces together with other symbolists ( , A. white (),),

Such mythopoietic perception led to the takeoff of poetry, which made it possible Determine the beginning of the XX century. as silver Age Russian poetrywho comes after the long domination of social prose.

Other Modernist Direction - axism It was a reaction to symbolism. , M. Tsveyev, created new lyrical poetry, returned from the world of symbols to the earthly person, but not to its social problems, but to the world of human feelings.

Avant-garde. In the 1910s. From the idea of \u200b\u200bthe intrinsicity of artistic creativity rose a thought about his self-sufficiency. Apologetics of subjectivism, denial of traditional culture, activism expressed in the activities of supporters of the art of the future - futurists . V. Khlebnikov, D. Burluk, I. Northerner, In 1912, made a manifesto Silence to public taste, Where they called on the basis of absolute freedom to create art, to create reality.

In Russian Painting and graphicspreviously, new trends have emerged in the literature.

Realism. On the one hand, at the turn of the centuries, the traditions of the academic school were preserved, primarily in the canvases . Continued to act a partnership of mobile exhibitions (A. M. and, and etc.).

Modernism. On the other hand, already in the 1880s. In domestic painting there were new trends based on the appeal of artists to historical plots. So, , Ka Korovin, founder of Russian or decorative impressionism, and who did the way from Academism to modern. In the canvases of the artist-symbolist The emphasis was already on fantastic fiction and inexpensive.

In the late 1890s. Modern in Russian visual arts openly declared its principles. In 1898, the Society of Artists was created World of Art , issued the same magazine. His participants , K. Somov, To which serov and korovin adjoined, proclaimed the autonomy of art, the primacy for creativity of the problem of beauty. Formally, not counting yourself with symbols, they stood on the positions of the transformation of reality with the help of picturesque and graphic symbols and metaphors.

Peculiar was the work of artists - followers -Musatovacreated by society Blue Rose (, - stock)and worked on the symbolistic theory of painting.

Avant-garde. Appearance in 1910 Society Jack of Diamonds (,), and then - Oslenic tail (, D. Burluk) I marked the transfer of refreshing leadership to the Russian avant-garde, which art historians called the Russian explosion. Larionov and Goncharov developed Russian cubism - cubeturism.

At the same time developed expressionism, whose followers also made a jump in freeness. Abstract art theorist. ; founder suprematism K. Malevich; Creator analytical painting ; household symbolist Everyone in its own way claimed the domination of creativity over the forms, creating new worlds in its works.

IN architecture, unlike literature and painting, in the second half of the XIX century. There was no single style, in the 90s. XIX century Used as a leading new style modern. Father Russian Modern became . In the same style built , . I am neoclassicismhow in combination with modern (, ) and in pure form ( , ).

In development Sculptureneoclassical style in works , combined with modernism in the sculptures of impressionists (Monument to Alessandru III in St. Petersburg), (monument in Moscow). In the multifaceted work of the artist-universalist Antique plastic connected with modern and folklore motifs.

In musicthe same trends showed. Developed traditions of Tchaikovsky and mighty bunch Roman Korsakov and. Improved classic musical principles Composer-Novator and brilliant pianist . At the same time sought new forms , , in the work of which the phenomena of musical symbolism, impressionism and expressionism are tangible.

Theatrical art.

Theatre of Drama. In 1898 , creator of a new acting system, and --Dedchenko Bashed with help Moscow Art Theater. who became the center of innovative experiments. In 1904 Created Theatre of Drama In St. Petersburg, where the plays of Chekhov, Gorky, Ibsen were also raised. Directors made their contributions to the development of the new Russian theater V. Meyerhold and V. Vakhtangov.

Development Opera Artmanifested not only in new productions Big and MariinskyBut also in the creation of provincial and private opera houses. Operas created by entrepreneurs received great fame (1885) and (1904). Total vocal school reached a heyday in the executive art , .

Ballet. Along with the development of classic ballet in the work of the choreographer M. Petipa. Modern production M. Fokina And Stravinsky's ballets made up the artists-Miriskusniki Benoa, Bakst, Korovin. In academic and innovative performances danced A. Pavlova, V. Nizhinsky And the whole of the dance stamps that have gained world fame.

Cinema Appeared in Rossi immediately after its invention and began to develop rapidly, becoming the most massive form of art. By 1914, St. 4 thousand electrometras and illusions. Russian cinema where put pictures Ya. Protazanov, played actors I. Mozhukhin, V. Cold, A. Koonen, acquired world recognition.

Culture 20-30sXIX.century

From the mid-20s, it acquired a special meaning ideological All directions of cultural development. Intensified authoritarian and bureaucratic style leadership science, literature, art. Sectoral Culture Authorities - Soyucino (1930), All-Union Committee on Radio and Radio Broadcasting (1933), All-Union Committee for Art (1936), All-Union Affairs Committee (1936), and others were established.

In 1928, the All-Union culture of literacy was announced (the number of Cultarmia was about 1 million people). Volunteer teachers have trained more than 34 million people for free. Since 1930, in the country was introduced universal mandatory primary education In 1939, the task of transition to universal secondary education was set up. With 1938 in all national schools, an obligatory study of the Russian language was introduced, and since 1940, the teaching of foreign languages \u200b\u200bin secondary schools.

The science

In 1927, for this was created All-Union Association of Science and Technology Employees for Socialist Construction. By 1933, the Academy was subordinate to the Council of Europe, its composition has significantly changed, a number of its members - prominent scientists were repressed.

Natural and technical sciencesAcademic scientific schools operated (production of synthetic rubber), (geological exploration of oil). Significant were scientific developments V. I. Vernadsky, Physiologist ; Physicov and , Mathematicians and , biologists and , Arctic research . Research was conducted in the field of nuclear physics. In 1933, a reactive research institute was created (in 1936, the largest cyclotron in Europe) was launched). In 1928, the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences. (Vaschnil), which headed .

Humanitarian sciencesshould have been released from bourgeois ideology. The only correct ideology was proclaimed Marxism-Leninism.

Centralization and bureaucratization of party-state-government artistic culture. Soviet literature and art were subordinated to the tasks of socialist construction in the USSR. In accordance with the Decree of the Central Committee of the CSP (b) of 01.01.01. " On the restructuring of literary and art organizations"All existing first literary associations (Polycholet, RAPP, etc.) were eliminated, the creative intelligentsia was united in the Unions of Soviet architects, composers (1932), writers, artists (1934).

Literature.Created in 1934 the Union of Soviet writers became the body of the party's policy in the literature. Formally, he was headed by M. Gorky, but practical work was led by the Board led by the first secretary, a personnel party worker.

Most works of writers of various rank were dedicated revolution, Civil War or Socialist Construction. Appeal to these topics led to the creation of a number of significant works, in particular, who returned in 1928 from emigration. M. Gorky, M. Sholokhov (Quiet don), N. Ostrovsky(How steel tempered) and others. Problems of production with varying degrees of talent revealed M. Shaginyan, V. Kataev, F. Gladkov.

The development of the international situation, the approach of the new war, the desire of Stalin to put Soviet statehood on the historical foundation, the thesis on the need to form a socialist patriotism led in the second half of the 30s. to raise value historical novelin which worked - (Peter the First), (Kabala Svyatosh), Yu. Tyanyanov (Death of Vazir-Mukhtar), V. Shishkov (Emelyan Pugachev), V. Jan. (Gengiz-Khan).

Outstanding writers of that time M. Zoszogenko, I. Ilf and E. Petrov Worked in the genre Satiy; S. Marshak, A. Gaidar, K. Chukovsky, S. Mikhalkov Created works for children. At the same time, even in conditions of universal ideology, a number of writers and especially poets were outside the revolutionary pathos and production enthusiasm. These were primarily M. Tsvevaeva, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, B. Pasternak and etc.

4.4. Painting and sculpture.In the visual art, the process of combining and unification under the party control took place. In 1934, the Union of Soviet artists was created. In painting during the first five-year plates, the main revolutionary topics remained: -Obkin Death of the Commissioner, A. Daineka Defense Petrograd, B. Johanson Interrogation of the Communist and others. In these works, as well as in the works I. Grabar, I. Grekova, P. Corina Paphos of the era, historical-patriotic motifs realized in highly artistic form.

In 1932, the last exhibition of avant-garde artists led by Malevich and Filonov, in the future their work was forgiven from the expositions of museums. In the sculpture relevant monumentalism - V. Mukhina Worker and collective farmers

Architecture and urban planning. In 1932, the Union of Soviet architects arose. Spring brothers (Palace of Culture Zila, DniproNes) , et al. continued to develop the ideas of constructivism and functionalism. In gg Construction of the building of the Mausoleum (architect A. Shushev), Dome of the Moscow Planetarium (1928, span height 28 m). House of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, Hotel Moscow, the Moscow-Volga Channel, built the Moscow metro (the first stage was Published in 1935).

Music. In 1932 was founded Union of Soviet composers. In these years, the Soviet composers created works of different genres - Opera Quiet Don I. Dzerzhinsky, ballets Flame of Paris and Bakhchisarai fountain B. Astafieva, ballet Romeo and Juliet and Cantata Alexander Nevsky S. Prokofiev. In these years, composers worked A. Khachaturian, D. Shostakovich. Among the authors of the mass song, operetta and kinometers - V. Lebedev-Kumach, T. Krrennikov, I. Dunaevsky and etc.

TheatreThe Theater also approved the principles of socialist realism. In accordance with them, Soviet dramaturgy represented performances on revolutionary events, about life and weekdays soviet man (Pieces Sun. Vishnevsky Optimistic tragedy; A. Kornechuk Plato Greets; N. Pogodina Man with a gun and others). Recompute were such productions as the days of turbine on the play . However, a classic repertoire was preserved and developed. Works, V. Shakespeare were widely put in the Moscow Male Theater, Mkate, etc.

The theater worked the actors of the older generation ( I. Moskvin, A. Apple, V. Kachalov, O. Knipper-Chekhov), as well as a new one formed in the post-Betymer period ( V. Schukin, A. Tarasova, N. Mordvinov, etc.).

Cinema. In the 30s. In cinema there were significant changes, which include the emergence of sound movies. Directed S. Uutkevich (Counter), S. Gerasimova (Seven bold, Komsomolsk), brothers Vasilyvy (Chapaev), I. Heifitsa and L. Zarkha Deputy Baltic). G. Aleksandrov (Volga Volga, Circus, Merry Guys); historical movies S. Eisenstein (Alexander Nevskiy), V. Petrov (Peter the First), V. Pudovkin and M. Doller (Suvorov), as well as films Kozintsevand etc.

5.1. Fight against formalism in art. The ideas of class art led to the fight against the so-called formalism In the work of some writers, artists, composers. Formalism was declared all that did not fit into the narrow framework of social realism. The struggle drove to the injury of cultural and artists, during which they suffered D. Shostakovich

• () - or the biography of the largest Russian poet of the beginning of the XX century.
• () - About the creator of the opera "Prince Igor", going on the scenes of the whole world, the "Bogatyr" symphony and other wonderful works, which our homeland is proud of
• () - about who "managed to rise to such a height, which got into the level with the greatest thinkers of his time"
• () - or a fighter for the coming "Kingdom of Socialism"
• () - "Mind and your deeds are immortal in the memory of Russian, - why did my love experience you?"

The consequences of a vague time

Time of Troubles It was completed with large territorial losses for Russia. Smolensk was lost on long decades; Western and considerable part of East Karelia are captured by the Swedes. Without having resigned with the national and religious negle, almost the entire Orthodox population has left these territories, both Russians and Karelians. Rus lost access to the Finnish bay. The Swedes left Novgorod only in 1617, only a few hundred inhabitants remained in a fully ruined city.

Troubled time led to a deep economic decline. In many areas of the historic center of the state, the size of the Pashnya decreased 20 times, and the number of peasants 4 times. In Western counties (Rzhevsky, Mozhaisk, etc.), the processed land was from 0.05 to 4.8%. The lands in the possessions of the Josepho-Volokolamsky monastery were "all before the foundation are broken and peasants with wives and children are lined up, and those who were raised in full ... and the peasants of tens of five or six after Lithuanian ruin were patched and they still do not know how to utter a loaf. In a number of areas, and by 20-40 years of the XVII century, the population was still lower than the level of the XVI century. And in the middle of the XVII century, the "Living Pashnya" was in requisitioned by the region amounted to no more than half of all lands taken by pesting books.

Culture of Russia in the 14th - 17th centuries.

With the X century Almost half of the European part of Russia became part of the feudal old Russian state, where distinctive artistic culture with a number of local schools (South-Western, Western, Novgorod-Pskov, Vladimir-Suzdalskaya), which has accumulated the experience of building and landscaping cities, which created the wonderful monuments of ancient architecture, Frescoes, mosaic, icon painting. Its development was interrupted by the Mongol-Tatar invasion, which led an ancient Russia to economic and cultural decline and to the separation of the South-Western land, included in the Polish-Lithuanian state. After the stagnation of stagnation in those located in Russia Old Russian lands From the end of the XIII century. The Russian (Great Russian) artistic culture begins to develop. In its development, tangible than in the art of ancient Russia, the impact of urban bases that became an important social force in the struggle for the relief of the Mongol-Tatar yoke and the unification of the Russian lands were manifested.

Headed already in the XIV century. This struggle is high-rise Moscow synthesizes the achievements of local schools and from the XV century. becomes an important political and cultural center, where the deep faith is imbued with the beauty moral naval The art of Andrei Rublev and a commensurate person in his greatst architecture of the Kremlin. Apotheosis of the ideas of the union and strengthening of the Russian state embodied temples-monuments of the XVI century. With the development of economic and public relations in the XVII century. The separation of individual areas is completely eliminated, and international relations are expanded, secular features are growing in art. Without leaving in general almost until the end of the XVII century. Outside religious forms, art reflected the crisis of official church ideology and gradually lost the integrity of the worldview: direct life observations destroyed the conditional system of church iconography, and the details borrowed from the Western European architecture were conflicted with the traditional composition of the Russian temple. But this partly prepared a decisive liberation of art from the influence of the Church, which was committed to beginning of XVIII in. As a result of Peter I. Reforms.

From the XIV-XVI centuries. Several wooden churches have been preserved. Earlier - "tankers", reminiscent of the hut with a two-tie roof and annexes. Church of the XVI century. - High, octaigrated, covered with a tent, and an extension from two or four sides have curvilinear kats-shi - "barrels". Their slender proportions, contrasts of figural "barrels" and a strict tent, harsh chopped walls and carving galleries and the poles, their inseparable communication with the surrounding landscape - high mastery certificates folk Master - "Standers" who worked by artels.

In the first decades after the Mongol-Tatar invasion, painting is being revived. In the context of internationally reduced international and interregional relations in the 2nd half of the XIII century and at the beginning of the XIV century. Finally crystallizes the old schools of painting and new ones are formed.

From the end of the XIV - early XV centuries. Enharged artistic role Moscow. Hereofan Greek, Prokhor with Goroda, Andrei Rublev, Daniel Black. In the iconostasis of the Blagoveshchensky Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, Feofan has slightly increased the size of the Christ icons, the Mother of God and the Saints and reached a clear expressiveness of the silhouette ("Deesus Chin"). This chin was of great importance for the subsequent development of Russian high iconostasis.

In the XVII century In Russian art, a new genre has appeared - a portrait. Until the middle of the XVII century. The authors of the porters still follow the iconographic principles, and their work differ little from the icons. Later, not without the influence of foreigners who worked in Russia, techniques appear in the portrait western European painting, the features of the face are definitely fixed, the volume of the figure is revealed, although the interpretation of clothes remains flat, and the image as a whole is frozen-motionless.

The walls of the Yaroslavl and Kostroma icon painters who also worked in Moscow, Rostov, Romanov and the Borisoglebsk Sloboda, Vologda, the Trinity-Sergiye Lavra and other cities were marked by an inexhaustible fantasy, the interest of the surrounding reality. The masters were able to give the enjoyment and decorativeness of multifigure, full dynamics of multicolor paintings, covering walls and vaults of temples with a picturesque carpet. A series of scenes is composed of narrative cycles with a plurality of finely fitted household parts and with motifs of real landscapes. These murals, as well as the icons in the Yaroslavl Church of Ilya Prophet and a few excellent icons of the seeds of the Kolmogodenta, are permeated with the optimistic globility of people, even timidly, but joyfully discovering the beauty of earthly life.

The art of the XVII century, preferably narrative and decorative, sought to literature and external expressiveness, which was achieved often due to the very free interpretation of iconographic scenes and the saturation of their household details. This, as well as the constant interest of artists to the portrait and to the image of real buildings and the landscape prepared Russian art to the transition to the path of secular development. This transition was impossible, however, without the decisive liberation of art from the influence of the Church, without the introduction of a secular basis, which was carried with Peter I reforms.

The sculpture occupied a special place in the russian life of the Russian Middle Ages. The official church belonged to her negatively as a remnant of idolatry, but could not not be considered popular in the folk medium. In those moments of history, when the union of all the forces of the people was especially important, the sculpture received access to the temple, serving an effective conductor of actual ideas. Therefore, the plots prevail in it, which in the folk consciousness were associated with the heroic or high moral and aesthetic beginning.

For the XIV - XVII centuries. The sculpture did in general terms the same evolution as painting, from a lapidalkin, generalized interpretation of static figures to greater narrative and freedom in motion transmission. Not related directly to the Byzantine tradition, the sculpture was freely in the incarnation of a local understanding of the ideals of moral beauty and strength. Separate local schools are felt by the essay of pre-Christian traditions. These traditions, although they caused decisive measures from the Church to eradicate, found their direct development in the People's Sculpture of the XVIII - XIX centuries.

Thus, in the XIV-XVII centuries. Art in Russia developed under the great influence of the church. The architectural monuments prevail churches, in painting monuments - icons. There was also a strong influence of the Byzantine motives on the development of Russia in this period. Only part of the crafts are not affected by this effect on their own. The exit of Russian art from under the influence of the church began only at the end of the XVI - early XVII centuries, which gave a powerful impetus for development.

Peter I Great (Peter Alekseevich; On May 30, 1672 - January 28, 1725) - the last king of the All-Russia Ruisiiz of the Romanov dynasty (since 1682) and the first emperor of the All-Russian (from 1721).

All state activities of Peter I can conventionally divided into two periods: 1696-1715 and 1715-1725.

The peculiarity of the first stage was a hurry and not always thoughtful, which was explained by the leading of the Northern War. The reforms were aimed primarily on the collection of funds for warfare, were carried out by a violent method and often did not lead to the desired result. In addition to state reforms, in the first stage, extensive reforms were carried out in order to modernize the lifestyle. In the second period of reform were more planned.

A number of historians, for example V. O. Kleevsky, indicated that Peter I reforms were not something fundamentally new, but were only a continuation of those transformations that were carried out during the XVII century. Other historians (for example, Sergey Solovyov), on the contrary, emphasized the revolutionary nature of Peter's transformations.

Historians who conducted the analysis of Petrovsky reforms adhere to different views on his personal participation in them. One group believes that both in the preparation of the reform program and in the process of their implementation, Peter did not play a major role (which was attributed to him as a king). Another group of historians, on the contrary, writes about the great personal role of Peter I in conducting certain reforms.