Generic classification of works of art. literature

This is an objectively subjective kind of literature (Hegel) This is an objective picture of the world and its subjective development.

The generic form is dialogue. From the point of view of the generic features of the content, dramatic works should be characterized in the queue from the position

A) conflict

Drama(Greek dráma, literally - action), 1) one of the three types of literature (along with the epic and lyrics; see. Literary genus ). Drama (in literature) belongs simultaneously theater and literature : being the fundamental principle of the performance, at the same time it is perceived in reading. Drama (in literature) formed on the basis of the evolution of theatrical art: the highlighting of actors connecting pantomime with a spoken word, marked its emergence as a kind of literature. Its specificity is composed of: plot, that is, reproduction of the course of events; the dramatic tension of the action and its division into stage episodes; the continuity of the chain of characters' utterances; absence (or subordination) of the narrative principle (see. Narration ). Designed for collective perception, Drama (in literature) always gravitated towards the most acute problems and became popular in the most striking examples. According to A.S. Pushkin, the appointment Drama (in literature) in that "... to act on the crowd, on the multitude, to occupy his curiosity" (Polnoye soborny soch., vol. 7, 1958, p. 214).

Drama (in literature) deep conflict is inherent; its fundamental principle is the intense and effective experience of people of socio-historical or "eternal", universal human contradictions. The drama, available to all types of art, naturally dominates in Drama (in literature) According to V.G.Belinsky, drama is an important property of the human spirit, awakened by situations when the cherished or passionately desired, requiring implementation, is under threat.

Dramatic conflicts are embodied in action - in the behavior of the heroes, in their actions and deeds. Majority Drama (in literature) built on a single external action (which corresponds to the principle of "unity of action" of Aristotle), based, as a rule, on the direct confrontation of heroes. In this case, the action can be traced from strings before interchanges , capturing large periods of time (medieval and eastern Drama (in literature), for example, "Shakuntala" Kalidasa), or is taken only in its climax, close to the denouement (ancient tragedies, for example, "Oedipus the king" of Sophocles, and many Drama (in literature) new time, for example, "Bride" by A. N. Ostrovsky). Classical aesthetics of the 19th century tends to absolutize these principles of construction Drama (in literature) Considering after Hegel Drama (in literature) as a reproduction of colliding acts of will (“actions” and “reactions”), Belinsky wrote: “The action of the drama should be focused on one interest and be alien to secondary interests ... it is necessary in the mechanism of its course and development ”(Complete collection soch., vol. 5, 1954, p. 53). Moreover, “... the decision in choosing a path depends on the hero of the drama, and not on the event” (ibid., P. 20).

The most important formal properties Drama (in literature): a continuous chain of statements that act as acts of behavior of the characters (i.e., their actions), and as a consequence of this - the concentration of the depicted on closed areas of space and time. Universal composition base Drama (in literature): scenic episodes (scenes), within which the depicted, the so-called real, time is adequate to the time of perception, the so-called artistic. In folk, medieval and oriental Drama (in literature), as well as in Shakespeare, in Pushkin's Boris Godunov, in Brecht's plays the place and time of action change quite often. European Drama (in literature) 17-19 centuries is based, as a rule, on a few and very extensive stage episodes that coincide with acts of theatrical performances. An extreme expression of the compactness of the exploration of space and time is the "unity" known from N. Boileau's "Poetic Art", which survived until the 19th century. ("Woe from Wit" by A. Griboyedov).

Dramatic works in the vast majority of cases are intended for staging on stage, there is a very narrow range of dramatic works that are called drama for reading.

Dramatic genres have their own history, the features of which are largely determined by the fact that historically, from antiquity to classicism, inclusive, it was a two-genre phenomenon: either the mask was crying (tragedy) or the mask was laughing (comedy).

But in the 18th century, a synthesis of comedy and tragedy-drama appears.

Drama has supplanted tragedy.

1)tragedy

2) comedy

4)farce play with a pronounced satirical orientation of a small volume

5)vaudeville-genre content is close to the genre content of comedy, in most cases humorous. The genre form is a one-act play with genres and couplets..

6) tragicomedy frontal connection of depicted suffering and joy with the corresponding reaction of laughter and tears (Eduardo de Filippo)

7) dramatic chronicle. A genre close to the genre of drama, which, as a rule, does not have one hero, and events are given in a stream. Bill Berodelkovsky, Storm,

The largest number comedy has historically had genre variants: the Italian scholarly comedy; comedy of masks in Spain; , Cloak and swords, There was a comedy of character, position, a comedy of manners (household) buffoonery, etc.

RUSSIAN DRAMATURGY. Russian professional literary drama took shape at the end of the 17th and 18th centuries, but it was preceded by a centuries-old period of folk, mainly oral and partly handwritten folk drama. At first, archaic ritual actions, then - round dance games and buffoonery fun contained elements characteristic of drama as an art form: dialogicality, dramatization of action, playing it out in faces, depicting one or another character (dressing up). These elements were reinforced and developed in folklore drama.

The pagan stage of folklore Russian drama is lost: the study folk art in Russia began only in the 19th century, the first scientific publications of large folk dramas appeared only in 1890-1900 in the journal Ethnographic Review (with comments by scientists of that time V. Kallash and A. Gruzinsky). Such a late beginning of the study of folklore drama led to the widespread opinion that the emergence of folk drama in Russia dates back only to the 16th and 17th centuries. There is also an alternative point of view, where the genesis Boats derived from funeral customs pagan Slavs... But in any case, the plot and semantic changes in the texts of folklore dramas, which took place over at least ten centuries, are considered in cultural studies, art history and ethnography at the level of hypotheses. Each historical period left its mark on the content of folklore dramas, which was facilitated by the capacity and richness of associative links of their content.

Early Russian literary drama. The origin of Russian literary drama dates back to the 17th century. and is associated with the school and church theater, which arises in Russia under the influence school plays in Ukraine at the Kiev-Mohyla Academy. Fighting Catholic tendencies coming from Poland, Orthodox Church in Ukraine used folk theater... The authors of the plays borrowed plots from church rites, painting them into dialogues and interspersed with comedy interludes, musical and dance numbers. In genre, this drama resembled a hybrid of Western European morality and miracle. Written in a moralizing, lofty declamatory style, these works of school drama combined allegorical characters (Vice, Pride, Truth, etc.) with historical characters (Alexander the Great, Nero), mythological (Fortune, Mars) and biblical (Joshua, Herod, etc.) etc.). Most famous works - Action about Alexis, a man of God, Action on the Passion of Christ and others. The development of school drama is associated with the names of Dmitry Rostovsky ( Dormition drama, Christmas drama, Rostov action and others), Feofan Prokopovich ( Vladimir), Mitrofan Dovgalevsky ( The Powerful Image of God's Humanity), Georgy Konissky ( Resurrection of the dead) and others. Simeon Polotsky also started at the church-school theater.

Russian drama of the 18th century After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, the theater was closed, and revived only under Peter I. However, the pause in the development of Russian drama lasted a little longer: in the theater of Peter's times, translated plays were mainly played. True, at this time, panegyric performances with pathetic monologues, choirs, musical divertissements, and solemn processions became widespread. They glorified the work of Peter and responded to topical events ( Triumph of Orthodox Peace, Liberation of Livonia and Ingermanland and others), however, they did not have much influence on the development of drama. The texts for these performances were rather of an applied nature and were anonymous. Russian drama began to experience a rapid rise from the middle of the 18th century, simultaneously with the formation of professional theater in need of a national repertoire.

In the middle of the 18th century. the formation of Russian classicism (in Europe, the flowering of classicism by this time was long in the past: Cornelle died in 1684, Racine - in 1699.) V. Trediakovsky and M. Lomonosov tried their hand in classicist tragedy, but the founder of Russian classicism (and literary drama in general) was A. Sumarokov, who in 1756 became the director of the first professional Russian theater. He wrote 9 tragedies and 12 comedies, which formed the basis of the theater's repertoire of the 1750-1760s. Sumarokov also belongs to the first Russian literary and theoretical works. In particular, in Epistle about poem(1747) he defends principles similar to Boileau's classicist canons: a strict separation of genres of drama, adherence to "three unities"... Unlike the French classicists, Sumarokov was based not on ancient subjects, but on Russian annals ( Khorev, Sinav and Truvor) and Russian history ( Dmitry the Pretender and etc.). Other major representatives of Russian classicism, N. Nikolev ( Sorena and Zamir), Y. Knyazhnin ( Rosslav, Vadim Novgorodsky and etc.).

Russian classicist drama had one more difference from French: the authors of tragedies wrote comedies at the same time. This eroded the strict framework of classicism and contributed to the diversity of aesthetic trends. Classicist, enlightenment and sentimentalist drama in Russia do not replace each other, but develop almost simultaneously. The first attempts to create a satirical comedy were already made by Sumarokov ( Monsters, Empty Quarrel, Dickhead, Dowry by Deception, Narcissus and etc.). Moreover, in these comedies he used stylistic devices folklore inter-talk and farces - despite the fact that in theoretical works he was critical of folk "games". In the 1760s-1780s. the genre of comic opera is becoming widespread. She is given tribute as classicists - Princess ( The misfortune of the carriage, Batter, Braggart and others), Nikolev ( Rosana and Lyubim), and comedy-satirists: I. Krylov ( Coffee pot) and others. Directions of tearful comedy and philistine drama appear - V. Lukin ( Mot Corrected by Love), M. Verevkin ( It should be so, Exactly the same), P. Plavilshchikov ( Bobyl, Sidewalker), etc. These genres not only contributed to the democratization and increased popularity of the theater, but also formed the foundations of the psychological theater, beloved in Russia, with its traditions of detailed development of multifaceted characters. The pinnacle of Russian drama of the 18th century. can be called almost realistic comedies V.Kapnista (Yabed), D.Fonvizina (Undergrowth, Foreman), I. Krylova (Fashion shop, Lesson for daughters and etc.). Interesting is Krylov's "joke-tragedy" Trumph, or Podshipa, in which satire on the reign of Paul I was combined with a stinging parody of classicist techniques. The play was written in 1800 - it took only 53 years for the classicist aesthetics, innovative for Russia, to begin to be perceived as archaic. Krylov paid attention to the theory of drama ( Note on comedy "Laughter and sorrow", Review of the comedy A. Klushin "Alchemist" and etc.).

Russian drama of the 19th century By the beginning of the 19th century. the historical gap between Russian drama and European drama has come to naught. Since that time, Russian theater has been developing in a general context. European culture... The variety of aesthetic trends in Russian drama is preserved - sentimentalism ( N. Karamzin, N. Ilyin, V. Fedorov and others) gets along with a somewhat classicist romantic tragedy (V. Ozerov, N. Kukolnik, N. Polevoy, etc.), lyric and emotional drama (I. Turgenev) - with a caustic pamphlet satire (A. Sukhovo-Kobylin, M. Saltykov-Shchedrin). Light, funny and witty vaudeville is popular (A. Shakhovskoy, N. Khmelnitsky, M. Zagoskin, A. Pisarev, D. Lensky, F. Koni, V.Karatygin and etc.). But it is precisely the 19th century, the time of great Russian literature, that becomes the "golden age" of Russian drama, giving authors whose works are still included in the golden fund of world theatrical classics.

The first play of a new type was a comedy A.Griboyedova Woe from Wit... The author achieves amazing skill in the development of all components of the play: characters (in which psychological realism is organically combined with high degree typification), intrigue (where love twists and turns are inextricably intertwined with civil and ideological collision), language (almost the entire play was entirely divided into sayings, proverbs and catchphrases, preserved in living speech today).

plays A. Chekhova. Ivanov, Gull, Uncle Ivan, Three sisters, The Cherry Orchard do not fit into the traditional system of dramatic genres and actually refute all the theoretical canons of drama. There is practically no plot intrigue in them - in any case, the plot never has an organizing meaning, there is no traditional dramatic scheme: the outset - the twists and turns - the denouement; there is no single "end-to-end" conflict. Events all the time change their semantic scale: large becomes insignificant, and everyday little things grow to a global scale.

Russian drama after 1917. After the October Revolution and the subsequent establishment of state control over theaters, the need arose for a new repertoire in line with modern ideology. However, from the most early plays, perhaps, today we can name only one - Mystery Buff V. Mayakovsky (1918). Basically the same contemporary repertoire of the early Soviet period was formed on topical "agitation" that lost its relevance for a short period.

New Soviet drama, reflecting the class struggle, took shape during the 1920s. During this period, such playwrights as L. Seifullina ( Virinea), A. Serafimovich (Maryana, the author's adaptation of the novel Iron stream), L. Leonov ( Badgers), K. Trenev (Lyubov Yarovaya), B. Lavrenev (Fault), V. Ivanov (Armored train 14-69), V. Bill-Belotserkovsky ( Storm), D. Furmanov ( Mutiny), etc. Their drama as a whole was distinguished by a romantic interpretation of revolutionary events, a combination of tragedy with social optimism. In the 1930s, V. Vishnevsky wrote a play, the title of which accurately determined main genre new patriotic drama: Optimistic tragedy(this name has changed the original, more pretentious options - Hymn to sailors and Triumphant tragedy).

Late 1950s - early 1970s marked by a vibrant personality A. Vampilova... During his short life, he wrote only a few plays: Farewell in June, Eldest son, Duck hunt, Provincial jokes (Twenty minutes with an angel and The metranpage case), Last summer in Chulimsk and unfinished vaudeville Peerless Tips... Returning to Chekhov's aesthetics, Vampilov determined the direction of development of Russian drama for the next two decades. The main dramatic successes of the 1970s-1980s in Russia are associated with the genre tragicomedy... These were plays E. Radzinsky, L. Petrushevskaya, A. Sokolova, L. Razumovskaya, M. Roshchina, A. Galina, Gorin, A. Chervinsky, A. Smirnova, V. Slavkin, A. Kazantsev, S. Zlotnikov, N. Kolyada, V. Merezhko, O. Kuchkina and others. Vampilov's aesthetics had an indirect but tangible influence on the masters of Russian drama. Tragicomic motives are tangible in the plays of that time, written by V. Rozov ( Boar), A. Volodin ( Two arrows, Lizard, motion picture script Autumn marathon), and especially A. Arbuzov ( My sight for sore eyes, Happy Days unhappy person , Fairy tales of the old Arbat,In this sweet old house, The winner, Cruel games). In the early 1990s, playwrights of St. Petersburg created their own association - "The Playwright's House". In 2002 the association " Golden mask", Teatrom.doc and the Moscow Art Theater named after Chekhov organized the annual festival" New Drama ". In these associations, laboratories, competitions, a new generation of theater writers who became famous in the post-Soviet period was formed: M. Ugarov, O. Ernev, E. Gremina, O.Shipenko, O. Mikhailova, I. Vyrypaev, O. and V. Presnyakovs, K. Dragunskaya, O. Bogaev, N. Ptushkina, O. Mukhina, I. Okhlobystin, M. Kurochkin, V. Sigarev, A. Zinchuk , A. Obraztsov, I. Shprits and others.

However, critics point out that today a paradoxical situation has developed in Russia: modern theater and modern drama exist, as it were, in parallel, in some isolation from each other. The loudest directorial quests of the early 21st century. associated with the staging of classical plays. Modern drama, however, conducts its experiments more "on paper" and in the virtual space of the Internet.

What is drama? The answer to this question will depend on the context in which the word was used. First of all, this is a kind of literature intended for stage performances, implying the interaction of characters with the outside world, which is accompanied by an explanation of the author.

Drama is also works that are built according to a single principle and laws.

Features of drama

• The action should take place in the present tense and develop rapidly in the same place. The viewer becomes a witness and must be in tension and empathize with what is happening.
• The performance can cover a time span of several hours or even years. However, the action should not last more than a day on stage, as it is limited by the possibilities of the viewer.
• Depending on the chronology of the work, a drama can consist of one or several acts. Thus, the literature of French classicism is usually represented by 5 acts, and 2 acts are characteristic of Spanish drama.
• All the characters in the drama are divided into two groups - antagonists and protagonists (non-stage characters may also be present), and each act is a duel. But the author does not have to support anyone's side - the viewer can only guess from hints from the context of the work.

Drama construction

The drama has a plot, a plot, a theme and an intrigue.

• The plot is a conflict, the relationship of characters with events, which, in turn, include several elements: exposure, setting, development of action, climax, decline of action, denouement and finale.
• A story is a sequence of real or fictional events related to each other. Both the plot and the plot are a narration of events, but the plot is only the fact of what happened, and the plot is a cause-and-effect relationship.
• A theme is a series of events that form the basis of a dramatic work, which are united by one problem, that is, what the author wanted the viewer or reader to think about.
• Dramatic intrigue is the interaction of characters that affects the expected course of events in a work.

Drama elements

• An exposition is a statement of the current state of affairs that gives rise to a conflict.
• The plot is the establishment of a conflict or prerequisites for its development.
• Climax - highest point conflict.
• The denouement is a coup or crash of the main character.
• Finale - resolution of the conflict, which can end in three options: the conflict is resolved and has a happy ending, the conflict is not resolved or the conflict is resolved tragically - the death of the protagonist or any other conclusion of the hero from the work in the finale.

The question "what is drama" can now be answered with one more definition - this is the theory and art of constructing a dramatic work. It has to rely on the rules of plot construction, have an idea and a main idea. But in the course historical development drama, genres (tragedy, comedy, drama), its elements and means of expression changed, which divided the history of drama into several cycles.

The origin of drama

For the first time, wall inscriptions and papyri at the time of Ancient egypt, which also included the opening, climax and denouement. The priests who had knowledge of the deities influenced the consciousness of the Egyptian people precisely because of myths.

The myth of Isis, Osiris and Horus represented a kind of Bible for the Egyptians. Further, drama received its development in Ancient Greece in the 5-6th century BC. e. In ancient Greek drama, the genre of tragedy was born. The plot of the tragedy was expressed in the opposition of a good and just hero to evil. The finale ended with the tragic death of the protagonist and was supposed to cause strong feelings in the viewer for deep cleansing of his soul. This phenomenon has a definition - catharsis.

The myths were dominated by military and political themes, since the tragedies of that time themselves more than once participated in wars. The dramaturgy of Ancient Greece is represented by the following famous writers: Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides. In addition to the tragedy, the genre of comedy also revived, in which Aristophanes made the main theme of the world. People are tired of wars and the lawlessness of the authorities, therefore they demand a peaceful and calm life. The comedy originated from comic songs, which were sometimes even frivolous. Humanism and democracy were the main ideas in the work of comedians. The most famous tragedies of that time are the plays "Persians" and "Chained Prometheus" by Aeschylus, "King Oedipus" by Sophocles and "Medea" by Euripides.

On the development of drama in the 2-3rd century BC. e. influenced by the ancient Roman playwrights: Plautus, Terentius and Seneca. Plautus empathized with the lower strata of the slave-owning society, ridiculed the greedy usurers and merchants, therefore, taking ancient Greek stories as a basis, he supplemented them with stories about the difficult life of ordinary citizens. There were many songs and jokes in his works, the author was popular with his contemporaries and subsequently influenced European drama. So, his famous comedy "Treasure" was taken as a basis by Moliere when writing his work "The Miser".

Terence is a member of a later generation. He does not focus on expressive means, but delves deeper into the description of the psychological component of the character of the characters, and everyday and family conflicts between fathers and children. His famous play "The Brothers" just reflects this problem most vividly.

Another playwright who made a great contribution to the development of drama is Seneca. He was the tutor of Nero, the emperor of Rome, and occupied a high position under him. The tragedies of the playwright have always developed around the revenge of the protagonist, which pushed him to terrible crimes. Historians attribute this to the bloody atrocities that took place then in the imperial palace. Seneca's Medea later influenced Western European theater, but unlike Euripides's Medea, the queen is represented negative character, thirsty for revenge and not experiencing any worries.

Tragedies in the imperial era were replaced by another genre - pantomime. This is a dance accompanied by music and singing, which is usually performed by one actor with a sealed mouth. But even more popular were circus performances in amphitheatres - gladiator fights and chariot races, which led to the decline of morals and the collapse of the Roman Empire. For the first time, playwrights gave the audience the closest idea of ​​what drama was, but the theater was destroyed, and the drama was revived again only after a half-millennium break in development.

Liturgical drama

After the collapse of the Roman Empire, drama was revived again only in the 9th century in church rites and prayers. The church, in order to attract as many people as possible to worship and control the masses through worship of God, introduces small spectacular productions, such as the resurrection of Jesus Christ or other biblical stories. This is how the liturgical drama developed.

However, people gathered for the performances and were distracted from the service itself, as a result of which a semi-liturgical drama arose - the performances were transferred to the porch and everyday plots based on biblical stories that were more understandable to the audience began to be taken as a basis.

Revival of drama in Europe

Further, drama received its development in the Renaissance in the 14-16th century, returning to the values ​​of ancient culture. Plots from ancient Greek and Roman myths inspire Renaissance authors

It was in Italy that the theater began to revive, a professional approach to stage performances appeared, such a musical type of work as opera was formed, comedy, tragedy and pastoral revived - a genre of drama, the main theme of which was rural life. Comedy in its development gave two directions:

• a learned comedy designed for a circle of educated people;
• street comedy - improvisational mask theater.

The most prominent representatives of Italian drama are Angelo Beolko ("Coquette", "Comedy without a title"), Giangiorgio Trissino ("Sofonisba") and Lodovico Ariosto ("Comedy about a chest", "Furious Orlando").

English drama strengthens the position of the theater of realism. The myths and mysteries are being replaced by a socio-philosophical understanding of life. The founder of the Renaissance drama is considered to be the English playwright - Christopher Marlowe ("Tamerlane", " Tragic story Doctor Faust "). The theater of realism received its development under William Shakespeare, who also supported humanistic ideas in his works - Romeo and Juliet, King Lear, Othello, Hamlet. The authors of this time listened to the desires of the common people, and the favorite heroes of the plays were simpletons, usurers, warriors and courtesans, as well as modest heroines who sacrifice themselves. The characters adapt to the plot, which conveyed the realities of that time.

The period of the 17-18th centuries is represented by the drama of the Baroque and Classicism eras. Humanism as a direction fades into the background, and the hero feels lost. Baroque ideas divide God and man, that is, now man is left to influence his own destiny. The main direction of Baroque drama is mannerism (the impermanence of the world and the precarious position of man), which is inherent in the dramas Fuente Ovejuna and The Star of Seville by Lope de Vega and the works of Tirso de Molina - The Seville Seducer, Pious Marta.

Classicism is the opposite of Baroque in the main in that it is based on realism. Tragedy becomes the main genre. A favorite theme in the works of Pierre Corneille, Jean Racine and Jean-Baptiste Moliere is the conflict of personal and civic interests, feelings and duties. Serving the state is the highest noble goal for a person. The tragedy "Sid" brought great success to Pierre Corneille, and two plays by Jean Racine "Alexander the Great", "Thebaida, or Brothers-Enemies" were written and staged on the advice of Moliere.

Moliere was the most popular playwright of that time and was under the patronage of the reigning person and left behind 32 plays written in the most different genres... The most significant of them are "Madcap", "Doctor in Love" and "Imaginary Sick".

During the Enlightenment, three movements developed: Classicism, Sentimentalism and Rococo, which influenced the drama of England, France, Germany and Italy in the 18th century. The injustice of the world towards ordinary people has become a major theme for playwrights. The upper classes share seats with the common people. "Educational theater" frees people from the established prejudices and becomes not only entertainment, but also a school of morality for them. The philistine drama (George Lilo The London Merchant and Edward Moore The Gambler) is gaining popularity, which sheds light on the problems of the bourgeoisie, considering them as important as the problems of royalty.

Gothic drama was presented for the first time by John Goma in the tragedies Douglas and Fatal Discovery, whose themes were of a family and everyday character. French drama was represented mostly by the poet, historian and publicist Francois Voltaire ("Oedipus", "Death of Caesar", " Prodigal son"). John Gay ("The Beggar's Opera") and Bertold Brecht ("Threepenny Opera") opened new directions for comedy - moralizing and realistic. And Henry Fielding almost always criticized the English political system through satirical comedies ("Love in Various Masks", "The Coffee Shop Politician"), theatrical parodies ("Pasquin"), farces and ballad operas ("The Lottery", "The Intriguing Maid") , after which the theater censorship law was introduced.

Since Germany is the ancestor of romanticism, German drama was most developed in the 18-19 centuries. The protagonist of the works is an idealized, creatively gifted person opposed to the real world. F. Schelling had a great influence on the worldview of romantics. Later, Gothald Lessing published his work Hamburg Drama, where he criticized classicism and promoted Shakespeare's ideas of enlightenment realism. Johann Goethe and Friedrich Schiller create the Weimar Theater and improve the school of acting. The most prominent representatives of German drama are considered Heinrich von Kleist ("The Schroffenstein Family", "Prince Friedrich of Homburg") and Johann Ludwig Tieck ("Puss in Boots", "The World Inside Out").

The flourishing of drama in Russia

Russian drama began to develop actively back in the 18th century under the representative of classicism - A.P. Sumarokov, who was called the "father of Russian theater", whose tragedies ("Monsters", "Narcissus", "Guardian", "Cuckold by Imagination") were focused on the work of Moliere. But it was in the 19th century that this direction played an outstanding role in the history of culture.

Several genres have developed in Russian dramas. These are the tragedies of V.A. Napoleonic Wars, satirical comedies by I. Krylov ("A Mad Family", "Coffee Pot) and educational dramas by A. Griboyedov (" Woe from Wit "), N. Gogol (" The Inspector General ") and A. Pushkin (" Boris Godunov "," Feast in time of plague ").

In the second half of the 19th century, realism firmly established its position in Russian dramas, and A. Ostrovsky became the most prominent playwright of this trend. His work consisted of historical plays ("Voivode"), dramas ("Thunderstorm"), satirical comedies ("Wolves and Sheep") and fairy tales. The protagonist of the works was a resourceful adventurer, merchant and provincial actor.

Features of the new direction

The period from the 19th to the 20th century introduces us to a new drama, which is naturalistic drama. The writers of this time tried to convey the "real" life, showing the most unattractive aspects of the life of the people of that time. A person's actions were determined not only by his inner convictions, but also by the surrounding circumstances that influenced them, therefore the main character of the work could be not one person, but even a whole family or a separate problem, event.

The new drama presents several literary movements. They are all united by the attention of playwrights to the state of mind of the character, a believable transmission of reality and an explanation of all human actions from a natural scientific point of view. It was Henrik Ibsen who was the founder of the new drama, and the influence of naturalism was most clearly manifested in his play "Ghosts".

V theater culture In the 20th century, 4 main directions begin to develop - symbolism, expressionism, dadaism and surrealism. All the founders of these trends in drama were united by the rejection of traditional culture and the search for new means of expression. Maeterlink ("The Blind", "Joan of Arc") and Hoffmannsthal ("The Fool and Death"), as representatives of Symbolism, use death and the role of man in society as the main theme in their plays, and Hugo Ball, a representative of Dadaistic drama, emphasized meaninglessness human existence and complete denial of all beliefs. Surrealism is associated with the name of André Breton ("Please"), whose heroes are characterized by incoherent dialogues and self-destruction. Expressionist drama inherits romanticism, where the protagonist confronts the whole world. Representatives this direction in the drama were - Gan Yost ("Young Man", "The Hermit"), Arnolt Bronnen ("Rebellion against God") and Frank Wedekind ("Pandora's Box").

Contemporary drama

At the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, modern drama lost its positions and moved into a state of searching for new genres and means of expression. In Russia, the direction of existentialism was formed, and then it developed in Germany and France.

Jean-Paul Sartre in his dramas ("Behind Closed Doors", "Flies") and other playwrights choose the hero of their works a man who is constantly thinking about the thoughtless living of life. This fear makes him think about the imperfection of the world around him and change it.

Under the influence of Franz Kafka, the theater of the absurd arises, which denies realistic characters, and the works of playwrights are written in the form of repetitive dialogues, inconsistency of actions and the absence of cause-and-effect relationships. Russian drama chooses universal human values ​​as the main theme. She defends the ideals of man and strives for beauty.

The development of drama in literature is directly related to the course historical events in the world. Playwrights different countries being constantly under the impression of socio-political problems, they themselves often led the direction in art and thus influenced the masses. The heyday of drama fell on the era of the Roman Empire, Ancient Egypt and Greece, during the development of which the forms and elements of the drama changed, and the theme for the works either brought new problems to the plot, or returned to the old problems of antiquity. And if the playwrights of the first millennia paid attention to the expressiveness of speech and the character of the hero, which is most clearly expressed in the work of the playwright of that time - Shakespeare, then representatives of the modern trend strengthened the role of atmosphere and subtext in their works. Based on the above, we can give a third answer to the question: what is drama? These are dramatic works united by one era, country or writer.

Much needed and useful lesson! :)) At least it came in handy for me.

The concepts of "genus", species "," genre "

A literary genus is a series of literary works that are similar in the type of their speech organization and cognitive focus on an object or subject, or the act of artistic expression itself.

The division of literature into genders is based on the distinction between the functions of the word: the word either depicts the objective world, or expresses the state of the speaker, or reproduces the process of verbal communication.

Traditionally, there are three kinds of literary, each of which corresponds to a specific function of the word:
epic (pictorial function);
lyrics (expressive function);
drama ( communicative function).

Target:
The depiction of the human person is objective, in interaction with other people and events.
Thing:
The external world in its plastic volume, spatio-temporal extent and event saturation: characters, circumstances, social and natural environment in which the heroes interact.
Content:
The objective content of reality in its material and spiritual aspects, presented in characters and circumstances artistically typified by the author.
The text has a predominantly descriptive-narrative structure; a special role is played by the system of subject-figurative details.

Target:
Expression of thoughts and feelings of the author-poet.
Thing:
The inner world of a person in its impulsiveness and spontaneity, the formation and change of impressions, dreams, moods, associations, meditations, reflections caused by interaction with the outside world.
Content:
The subjective inner world of the poet and the spiritual life of mankind.
Features of the organization thin. speech:
The text is distinguished by increased expressiveness, a special role is played by the imaginative capabilities of the language, its rhythmic and sound organization.

Target:
The depiction of the human person in action, in conflict with other people.
Thing:
The external world, presented through the characters and purposeful actions of the characters, and the inner world of the heroes.
Content:
The objective content of reality, presented in characters and circumstances artistically typified by the author and suggesting a stage embodiment.
Features of the organization thin. speech:
The text has a predominantly dialogical structure, which includes the heroes' monologues.
Literary type - resistant type poetic structure within the literary genus.

Genre is a group of works within a literary type, united by common formal, content or functional features. For each literary era and trends typically have their own distinct system of genres.

Epic: types and genres

Large forms:
Epic;
Novel (Genres of the novel: Family and household, Socio-psychological, Philosophical, Historical, Fantastic, Utopian novel, Upbringing novel, Love story, Adventure novel, Travel novel, Lyro-epic (novel in verse))
Epic novel;
An epic poem.

Medium forms:
Story (genres of story: Family and household, Socio-psychological, Philosophical, Historical, Fantastic, Fairy-tale, Adventure, Story in verse);
Poem (genres of the poem: Epic, Heroic, Lyric, Lyric-epic, Dramatic, Ironically-comic, Didactic, Satirical, Burlesque, Lyric-dramatic (romantic));

Small forms:
Storytelling (story genres: Essay (descriptive-narrative, "moral-descriptive"), Novelistic (conflict-narrative);
Novella;
Fairy tale (fairy tale genres: Magic, Social and household, Satirical, Socio-political, Lyrical, Fantastic, Animalistic, Scientific and educational);
Fable;
Essay (essay genres: Fiction, Publicistic, Documentary).

The epic is a monumental epic work of national problems, monumental in form.

A novel is a large form of an epic, a work with an expanded plot, in which the narrative is focused on the fates of several personalities in the process of their formation, development and interaction, deployed in artistic space and enough time to transfer the "organization" of the world and analyze it historical essence... As an epic of private life, the novel presents individual and social life as relatively independent, not exhaustive and not absorbing each other's elements. The story of individual fate in the novel takes on a general, substantial meaning.

A story is an average form of an epic, a work with a chronicle, as a rule, plot, in which the narration is focused on the fate of an individual in the process of its formation and development.

A poem is a large or medium-sized work of poetry with a narrative or lyrical plot; in different genre modifications it reveals its synthetic nature, combining moral and heroic principles, intimate experiences and great historical upheavals, lyric-epic and monumental tendencies.

Narrative - Minor Epic Form fiction, small in volume of the depicted phenomena of life, and hence in the volume of the text, a prose work.

The novella is a small prose genre, comparable in volume to a story, but different from it in a sharp centripetal plot, often paradoxical, in a lack of descriptiveness and compositional rigor.

Literary tale - an author's fictional prose or poetic work, based either on folklore sources, or purely original; the work is predominantly fantastic, magical, depicting the wonderful adventures of fictional or traditional fairy-tale heroes, in which magic, a miracle, plays the role of a plot-forming factor, serves as the main starting point for characterizing the characters.

Fable is a small form of didactic epic, short story in poetry or prose with a straightforward moral conclusion that gives the story allegorical meaning... The existence of a fable is universal: it is applicable to different occasions. Art world fables includes a traditional circle of images and motives (animals, plants, schematic figures of people, instructive plots), often painted in tones of comic and social criticism.

An essay is a kind of a small form of epic literature, which differs from a story and a novella in the absence of a single, quickly resolving conflict and in a more developed descriptive image. The essay touches not so much on the problems of the formation of a personality's character in its conflicts with the established social environment, as on the problems of the civil and moral state of the “environment” and has a great cognitive diversity.

Lyrics: thematic groups and genres

Thematic groups:
Meditative lyrics
Intimate lyrics
(friendly and love lyrics)
Landscape lyrics
Civil (socio-political) lyrics
Philosophical lyrics

Genres:
Oh yeah
Hymn
Elegy
Idyll
Sonnet
Song
Romance
Dithyramb
Madrigal
Thought
Message
Epigram
Ballad

Oda is the leading genre of high style, characteristic primarily of the poetry of classicism. The ode is distinguished by canonical themes (glorification of God, the fatherland, wisdom of life, etc.), techniques ("quiet" or "rapid" attack, the presence of deviations, permitted "lyrical disorder") and types (spiritual odes, solemn - "pindaric", moral - "Horatian", love - "anacreontic").

The Anthem is a solemn song based on poems of a programmatic nature.

Elegy is a genre of lyrics, a poem of medium length, meditative or emotional content (usually sad), most often in the first person, without a distinct composition. "

Idyll is a genre of lyrics, a small work that paints an eternally beautiful nature, sometimes in contrast with a restless and vicious person, a peaceful virtuous life in the bosom of nature, etc.

A sonnet is a poem of 14 lines, forming 2 quatrains and 2 tercets or 3 quatrains and 1 couplet. The following types of sonnets are known:
“French” sonnet - abba abba ccd eed (or ccd ede);
“Italian” sonnet - abab abab cdc dcd (or cde cde);
“English sonnet” - abab cdcd efef gg.

The wreath of sonnets is a cycle of 14 sonnets, in which the first verse of each repeats the last verse of the previous one (forming a “garland”), and together these first verses are added to the 15th, “main” sonnet (forming a glossa).

Romance is a small poem written for solo singing with instrumental accompaniment, the text of which is characterized by melodic melody, syntactic simplicity and harmony, completeness of the sentence within the boundaries of the stanza.

Dithyrambe is a genre of ancient lyrics that arose as a choral song, a hymn in honor of the god Dionysus, or Bacchus, and later in honor of other gods and heroes.

Madrigal is a small poem of predominantly love-complimentary (less often abstract-meditative) content, usually with a paradoxical accent at the end.

The Duma is a lyric-epic song, the style of which is characterized by symbolic pictures, negative parallelisms, retardation, tautological turns, unity of speech.

The message is a genre of lyrics, a poetic writing, the formal sign of which is the presence of an appeal to a specific addressee and, accordingly, such motives as requests, wishes, exhortations, etc. The content of the message by tradition (from Horace) is mainly moral, philosophical and didactic, but there were numerous messages are narrative, panegyric, satirical, love, etc.

An epigram is a short satirical poem, usually with a sharp "one" at the end.

Ballad is a poem with a dramatic plot development, which is based on extraordinary story, reflecting the essential moments of interactions between a person and society or interpersonal relationships. The characteristic features of the ballad are a small volume, a tense plot, usually saturated with tragedy and mystery, an abrupt narration, dramatic dialogism, melodiousness and musicality.

Synthesis of lyrics with other kinds of literature

Lyro-epic genres (types) - literary and artistic works that combine the features of epic and lyric poetry; storytelling of events is combined in them with emotional-meditative statements of the narrator, creating an image of the lyrical “I”. The connection between the two principles can act as the unity of the theme, as the narrator's self-reflection, as the psychological and everyday motivation of the story, as the author's direct participation in the unfolding plot, as the author's exposure of his own techniques, which becomes an element of the artistic concept. Compositionally, this connection is often formed in the form of lyrical digressions.

A poem in prose is a lyrical work in prose form, which has such signs of a lyric poem as a small volume, heightened emotionality, usually a plotless composition, a general attitude towards the expression of a subjective impression or experience.

Lyrical hero- the image of the poet in the lyrics, one of the ways to reveal the author's consciousness. A lyrical hero is an artistic "double" of the author-poet, growing out of the text of lyric compositions (cycle, book of poems, lyric poem, the whole set of lyrics) as a clearly outlined figure or vital role as a person endowed with a certainty of individual fate, psychological clarity inner peace, and sometimes with features of a plastic appearance.

Forms of lyric utterance:
monologue in the first person (AS Pushkin - “I loved you ...”);
role-playing lyrics - a monologue on behalf of a character entered into the text (AA Blok - “I am Hamlet, / Blood grows cold ...”);
expression of feelings and thoughts of the author through the subject image (AA Fet - “The lake has fallen asleep ...”);
expression of the author's feelings and thoughts through reflections in which objective images play a subordinate role or are fundamentally conventional (AS Pushkin - “Echo”);
expression of the author's feelings and thoughts through the dialogue of conventional characters (F. Villon - "The Dispute Between Villon and His Soul");
an appeal to some undefined person (FI Tyutchev - “Silentium”);
plot (M.Yu. Lermontov - “Three Palms”).

Tragedy - “Tragedy of Fate”, “High Tragedy”;
Comedy - Comedy of characters, Comedy of everyday life (morals), Situation comedy, Comedy of masks (commedia del'arte), Comedy of intrigue, Comedy-buffoonery, Lyrical comedy, Satirical comedy, Social comedy, “High comedy”;
Drama (type) - "Bourgeois drama", Psychological drama, Lyric drama, Narrative (epic) drama;
Tragicomedy;
Mystery;
Melodrama;
Vaudeville;
Farce.

Tragedy is a kind of drama based on the insoluble collision of heroic characters with the world, its tragic outcome. The tragedy is marked by severe seriousness, depicts reality in the most acute way, as a clot of internal contradictions, reveals the deepest conflicts of reality in an extremely tense and rich form that takes on the meaning of an artistic symbol.

Comedy is a type of drama in which characters, situations and action are presented in funny forms or imbued with comic. Comedy is aimed primarily at ridicule of the ugly (contrary to the social ideal or norm): the heroes of the comedy are internally inconsistent, inconsistent, do not correspond to their position, purpose and thus are presented as a sacrifice to laughter, which debunks them, thereby fulfilling their “ideal” mission.

Drama (type) is one of the main types of drama as a literary genus, along with tragedy and comedy. Like a comedy, reproduces mainly privacy people, but its main goal is not to ridicule morals, but to portray the personality in its dramatic relationship with society. Like tragedy, drama tends to recreate acute contradictions; at the same time, her conflicts are not so tense and inescapable and, in principle, allow for the possibility of a successful resolution, and her characters are not so exceptional.

Tragicomedy is a kind of drama that has features of both tragedy and comedy. The tragicomic worldview underlying tragicomedy is associated with a sense of the relativity of the existing criteria of life and the rejection of the moral absolute of comedy and tragedy. Tragicomedy does not recognize the absolute in general, the subjective here can be seen as objective and vice versa; a sense of relativity can lead to complete relativism; overestimation of moral foundations can be reduced to uncertainty in their omnipotence or to the final rejection of solid morality; an unclear understanding of reality can arouse burning interest in it or complete indifference, it can be reflected in less certainty in the display of the laws of being, or indifference to them and even their negation - up to the recognition of the illogicality of the world.

Mystery - a genre of Western European theater of the era late middle ages, the content of which was biblical stories; religious scenes alternated in them with interludes, mysticism was combined with realism, piety with blasphemy.

Melodrama is a kind of drama, a play with acute intrigue, exaggerated emotionality, a sharp opposition of good and evil, a moral and instructive tendency.

Vaudeville is one of the types of drama, a light play with an entertaining intrigue, with verses and dances.

Farce is a type of folk theater and literature of Western European countries of the 14-16 centuries, primarily France, which was distinguished by a comic, often satirical orientation, realistic concreteness, free-thinking and was full of buffoonery.

Dramatic works (other gr. Action), like epic ones, recreate the series of events, the actions of people and their relationships. Like the author of an epic work, the playwright is subject to the "law of developing action." But there is no detailed narrative-descriptive image in the drama.

Actually the author's speech is auxiliary and episodic here. These are the lists of characters, sometimes accompanied by brief descriptions, the designation of the time and place of action; descriptions of the stage setting at the beginning of acts and episodes, as well as comments on individual remarks of the characters and indications of their movements, gestures, facial expressions, intonation (remarks).

All this constitutes a side text of a dramatic work, while its main text is a chain of statements of characters, their remarks and monologues.

Hence, some limitation artistic opportunities drama. The writer-playwright uses only a part of the subject-pictorial means that are available to the creator of a novel or an epic, a short story or a story. And the characters of the characters are revealed in the drama with less freedom and completeness than in the epic. “I perceive drama,” noted T. Mann, “as the art of silhouette, and I only feel the narrated person as a volumetric, integral, real and plastic image.”

At the same time, playwrights, unlike authors epics, are forced to limit themselves to the volume of verbal text that meets the needs of theatrical art. The time of the action depicted in the drama must fit into the strict framework of the stage time.

And the performance in the forms usual for the New European theater lasts, as you know, no more than three to four hours. And that requires an appropriately sized dramatic text.

The time of the events reproduced by the playwright during the stage episode is not compressed or stretched; the characters of the drama exchange remarks without any noticeable time intervals, and their statements, as noted by K.S. Stanislavsky, make up a solid, continuous line.

If with the help of narration the action is captured as something past, then the chain of dialogues and monologues in the drama creates the illusion of the present. Life here speaks as if from its own face: between what is depicted and the reader there is no intermediary-narrator.

The action is recreated in the drama with the utmost spontaneity. It flows as if before the eyes of the reader. “All narrative forms, - wrote F. Schiller, - transfer the present into the past; everything that is dramatic makes the past present. "

The drama is focused on the requirements of the stage. And theater is a public, mass art. The performance directly affects many people, as if merging together in response to what is happening in front of them.

The purpose of the drama, according to Pushkin, is to act on the multitude, to engage their curiosity "and for this to capture the" truth of passions ":" The drama was born on the square and constituted a popular amusement. The people, like children, require entertainment, action. The drama presents him with extraordinary, strange occurrences. The people demand strong feelings. Laughter, pity and horror are the three strings of our imagination, shaken by the art of drama. "

Especially close ties are connected with the dramatic kind of literature with the sphere of laughter, for the theater was consolidated and developed in an inextricable connection with mass celebrations, in an atmosphere of play and fun. " Comic genre is universal for antiquity, ”noted O. M. Freidenberg.

The same can be said about the theater and drama of other countries and eras. T. Mann was right when he called the "comedian instinct" "the fundamental principle of all dramatic skill."

It is not surprising that the drama gravitates towards the outwardly effective presentation of the portrayed. Its imagery turns out to be hyperbolic, catchy, theatrically bright. “Theater requires exaggerated broad lines both in voice, recitation, and in gestures,” wrote N. Boileau. And this property performing arts invariably leaves its mark on the behavior of the heroes of dramatic works.

“As in the theater he played,” Bubnov (“At the Bottom” by Gorky) comments on the frenzied tirade of the desperate Tick, who, by an unexpected intrusion into the general conversation, gave him a theatrical effect.

Significant (as a characteristic of the dramatic kind of literature) Tolstoy's reproaches to W. Shakespeare for the abundance of hyperbole, which allegedly "disrupts the possibility of artistic impression." "From the very first words, - he wrote about the tragedy" King Lear "- one can see exaggeration: exaggeration of events, exaggeration of feelings and exaggeration of expressions."

In assessing Shakespeare's work, L. Tolstoy was wrong, but the idea of ​​the great English playwright's adherence to theatrical hyperbole is completely correct. What has been said about "King Lear" with no less reason can be attributed to ancient comedies and tragedies, dramatic works classicism, to the plays of F. Schiller and W. Hugo, etc.

In the 19th and 20th centuries, when the desire for everyday authenticity prevailed in literature, the conventions inherent in drama became less obvious, they were often reduced to a minimum. At the origins of this phenomenon is the so-called "bourgeois drama" of the 18th century, the creators and theorists of which were D. Diderot and G.E. Lessing.

Works of the greatest Russian playwrights of the XIX century. and the beginning of the XX century - A.N. Ostrovsky, A.P. Chekhov and M. Gorky - are distinguished by the reliability of the recreated life forms. But even when the Playwrights were set on plausibility, the plot, psychological and speech hyperboles remained.

Theatrical conventions made themselves felt even in Chekhov's drama, which showed the maximum limit of "lifelike". Let's take a look at the final scene of Three Sisters. One young woman, ten to fifteen minutes ago, broke up with a loved one, probably forever. Another five minutes ago learned about the death of her fiancé. And so they, together with the elder, third sister, summarize the moral and philosophical results of the past, reflecting to the sounds of a military march about the fate of their generation, about the future of mankind.

It is hardly possible to imagine this happening in reality. But we do not notice the implausibility of the ending of The Three Sisters, as we are accustomed to the fact that drama significantly alters the forms of people's life.

The foregoing convinces of the validity of the judgment of A. S. Pushkin (from his already cited article) that “the very essence of dramatic art excludes plausibility”; “Reading a poem, a novel, we can often forget and believe that the described incident is not fiction, but the truth.

In an ode, in an elegy, we can think that the poet was portraying his real feelings in real circumstances. But where is the credibility in a building divided into two parts, one of which is filled with spectators who have agreed. "

The most important role in dramatic works belongs to the conventions of speech self-disclosure of heroes, whose dialogues and monologues, often saturated with aphorisms and maxims, turn out to be much more extensive and effective than those remarks that could be uttered in a similar life situation.

Replicas "to the side" are conditional, which, as it were, do not exist for other characters on the stage, but are clearly audible to the audience, as well as monologues uttered by the heroes alone, alone with themselves, which are a purely stage method of bringing out internal speech (there are many such monologues as v ancient tragedies, and in the drama of modern times).

The playwright, setting up a kind of experiment, shows how a person would express himself if in the spoken words he expressed his moods with maximum completeness and brightness. And speech in a dramatic work often acquires a resemblance to artistic-lyrical or oratorical speech: the heroes here tend to express themselves as improvisers-poets or masters of public speaking.

Therefore, Hegel was partly right, considering the drama as a synthesis of the epic principle (eventfulness) and the lyrical (speech expression).

Drama has, as it were, two lives in art: theatrical and literary itself. Forming the dramatic basis of the performances, being in their composition, the dramatic work is also perceived by the reading audience.

But this was not always the case. The emancipation of drama from the stage was carried out gradually - over a number of centuries and ended relatively recently: in the 18th-19th centuries. World-significant examples of drama (from antiquity to the 17th century) at the time of their creation were practically not understood as literary works: they existed only as part of the performing arts.

Neither W. Shakespeare nor J. B. Moliere were perceived by their contemporaries as writers. The “discovery” in the second half played a decisive role in strengthening the concept of drama as a work intended not only for stage production, but also for reading. XVIII century Shakespeare as a great dramatic poet.

In the XIX century. (especially in its first half) the literary merits of the drama were often put above the stage ones. So, Goethe believed that "Shakespeare's works are not for bodily eyes," and Griboyedov called his desire to hear the poems "Woe from Wit" from the stage "childish".

The so-called Lesedrama (drama for reading), created with a focus primarily on perception in reading, has become widespread. Such are Goethe's Faust, Byron's dramatic works, Pushkin's little tragedies, Turgenev's dramas, about which the author remarked: "My plays, unsatisfactory on stage, may be of some interest in reading."

There are no fundamental differences between Lesedrama and a play that is directed by the author to stage production. Dramas produced for reading are often potentially stage-based. And the theater (including the modern one) stubbornly seeks and sometimes finds keys to them, evidence of which is the successful staging of Turgenev's "A Month in the Country" (first of all, this is the famous pre-revolutionary performance Art theater) and numerous (although far from always successful) stage readings of Pushkin's little tragedies in the 20th century.

The old truth remains in force: the most important, the main purpose of the drama is the stage. “Only with a stage performance, - noted A. N. Ostrovsky, - the author’s dramatic fiction receives a completely finished form and produces exactly that moral action, the achievement of which the author has set himself the goal”.

The creation of a performance based on a dramatic work is associated with its creative completion: the actors create intonational-plastic drawings of the roles played, the artist decorates the stage space, the director develops mise-en-scenes. In this regard, the concept of the play changes somewhat (some of its aspects are given more attention, others - less attention), is often concretized and enriched: stage production brings new semantic shades to the drama.

At the same time, the principle of fidelity in reading literature is of paramount importance for the theater. The director and actors are called upon to convey the staged work to the audience as fully as possible. Fidelity to the stage reading takes place where the director and actors deeply comprehend a dramatic work in its main substantive, genre, and stylistic features.

Stage performances (as well as film adaptations) are legitimate only in cases where there is agreement (albeit relative) between the director and the actors with the range of ideas of the writer-playwright, when the stage actors are carefully attentive to the meaning of the staged work, to the peculiarities of its genre, features of its style and to the text itself.

In the classical aesthetics of the 18th-19th centuries, in particular by Hegel and Belinsky, drama (primarily the genre of tragedy) was viewed as the highest form of literary creation: as the “crown of poetry”.

Whole line artistic eras and in fact proved himself primarily in the art of drama. Aeschylus and Sophocles during the heyday of ancient culture, Moliere, Racine and Cornelle during the period of classicism had no equal among the authors of epic works.

Goethe's work is significant in this respect. All were available to the great German writer literary birth, he crowned his life in art with the creation of a dramatic work - the immortal "Faust".

In past centuries (up to the 18th century), drama not only successfully competed with the epic, but often became the leading form of artistic reproduction of life in space and time.

There are several reasons for this. First, it played a huge role theatrical art accessible (as opposed to handwritten and printed books) to the broadest strata of society. Secondly, the properties of dramatic works (depiction of characters with pronounced features, reproduction of human passions, gravitation towards pathos and grotesque) in the "pre-realistic" epochs fully corresponded to general literary and general artistic tendencies.

And although in the XIX-XX centuries. the socio-psychological novel, a genre of an epic kind of literature, has moved to the forefront of literature; dramatic works still hold a place of honor.

V.E. Khalizev Theory of Literature. 1999 year

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This term has other meanings, see Drama. Not to be confused with Drama (a kind of literature). Drama is a literary (dramatic), stage and cinematic genre. Got special distribution in literature XVIII XXI centuries, ... ... Wikipedia

In art: Drama is a genus of literature (along with epics and lyrics); Drama is a kind of stage cinematic action; a genre that includes various subgenres, modifications (such as philistine drama, drama of the absurd, etc.); Place name (s): ... ... Wikipedia

D. as a poetic genus Origin D. Eastern D. Antique D. Medieval D. D. Renaissance From Renaissance to Classicism Elizabethan D. Spanish D. Classical D. Bourgeois D. Ro ... Literary encyclopedia

Epic, lyrics, drama. It is determined according to various criteria: from the point of view of the ways of imitation of reality (Aristotle), types of content (F. Schiller, F. Schelling), categories of epistemologies (objective subjective in G.V.F. Hegel), formal ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

Drama (Greek dráma, literally - action), 1) one of three types of literature (along with epic and lyric poetry; see Gender literary). D. belongs to both theater and literature: being the fundamental principle of the performance, she is at the same time perceived in ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Modern encyclopedia

Literary genus- GENERAL LITERARY, one of three groups of works of fiction, epic, lyric, drama. The tradition of generic division of literature was laid down by Aristotle. Despite the fragility of the boundaries between genera and the abundance of intermediate forms (lyroepic ... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

Epic, lyrics, drama. It is determined according to various criteria: from the point of view of the ways of imitation of reality (Aristotle), types of content (F. Schiller, F. Schelling), categories of epistemology (objective subjective in G. Hegel), formal signs ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

ROD, a (y), prev. o (in) genus and in (na) genus, pl. s, s, husband. 1. Main public organization primitive communal system, united by blood relationship. The elder of the clan. 2. A number of generations descending from one ancestor, as well as a generation in general ... Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

Books

• Pushkin, Tynyanov Yuri Nikolaevich. Yuri Nikolaevich Tynyanov (1894-1943) - an outstanding prose writer and literary critic - outwardly looked like Pushkin, as he was told about from his student years. Who knows, maybe it was this superiority that helped ...