Realism in France. Western European art
France's literature in the 1830s. Reflected those new features of the social and cultural development of the country, which have developed in it after the July revolution. The leading direction in the French literature becomes critical realism. In 1830-1840. All significant works of O. Balzac, F. Standal, P. Merima appear. At this stage, realist writers unites the general understanding of the art that reduced to objective display processes occurring in society. With all individual differences, they are characterized by a critical attitude towards the bourgeois society. In the early stages of the creative development of artists, they clearly appear close connection with aesthetics of romanticism, (Often called "residual romanticism" ("Parm Resident" Standal, "Shagreen Leather" Balzak, "Carmen" Merim).
A significant role in the formation of aesthetics of critical realism was played by theoretical work. Standal (1783-1842). In the era of the restoration, fierce disputes between romantics and classicists unfolded. He took an active part in them, printed two brochures under the same name - "Rasin and Shakespeare" (1823, 1825), where he outlined his views on literature, which, in his opinion, is an expression of the interests of the currently existing society at the moment, and aesthetic norms Must change together with the historical development of society. For standing, epigal classicism, officially supported by the government and the French Academy of Sciences, is an art that lost all the relationship with the life of the nation. Task of true artist In order to "give peoples such literary works, which in the current state of customs and beliefs can deliver them the greatest pleasure." Such an art standal, not knowing the term "realism", called "romanticism." He believed that to imitate masters of the preceding centuries - it means to lie to contemporaries. Concluding with romantics in his rejection of classicism and reading Shakespeare, standal at the same time, under the term "romanticism" understood something other than them. For him, classicism and romanticism are two creative principles that exist throughout the history of art. "In essence, all the great writers were in their time with romantics. And the classics are those who, through the century after their death imitate them, instead of revealing the eyes and imitate nature." The initial principle I. higher appointment of new art "True, bitter truth." The artist must become a researcher of life And the literature is "a mirror with whom you go on a big road. It reflects the skyline azure, then dirty puddles and bumps." In fact, "Romanticism", Standal called the formative direction of French critical realism.
In the artistic work of Standal for the first time in the literature of the XIX century. proclaimed new approach to man. The novels "Red and Black", "Lucien Leveva", "Parm Abode" are full of deep psychological analysis with an internal monologue and reflections on moral issues. In the psychological skill of the stand, a new problem arises - the problem of subconscious. His work is and first attempt of a nationalization of a national nature ("Italian chronicles", "Parm abode").
The generally accepted vertex of critical realism in France has become Support Balzaca (1799-1850). Early Stage His creativity (1820-1828) passes under the proximity of the romantic school "Fury", and at the same time in some of his works the experience of the "Gothic novel" was peculiar. The first significant work of the writer is the novel "Shuana" (1829), in which the romantic exclusivity of the characters and the dramatic development of action are combined with the limit objectivity of the image, was subsequently included by the author in the "scene of military life".
Second period Balzac's creativity (1829-1850) is marked by the formation and development of the realistic method of the writer. At this time, he creates such significant works as "Gobsek", "Shagreen Leather", "Eugene Grande", "Father Gorio", "Lost Illusions" and many others. The dominant genre in his work was a social and psychological romance of a relatively small volume. Significant changes undergoes at this time the poetics of these novels, where a socio-psychological novel is connected to an organic whole, a novel-biography, energile sketches and much more. The most important element in the artist's system has become a consistent application. the principle of realistic typing.
Third period It begins in the middle of the 1830s, when Balzac has a plan of the cycle of the future "human comedy". In a memorable for the history of the cycle of 1842, the author preposted the first meeting of the works, which began to go under the general name "Human Comedy", the preface, which became the manifesto of the realistic method of the writer. In it, Balzac reveals his titanic task: "My work has its own geography, as well as its genealogy, its families, its own terrain, situation, acting persons and facts; he also has his own gerbird, his nobility and bourgeoisie, his artisans and peasants , politicians and dandy, their army - in a word, the whole world. "
In this monumental cycle, which has acquired its completed structure - as a kind of parallel and at the same time the opposition "Divine Comedy" Dante from the point of view of a modern (realistic) understanding of reality has entered the best of those already written and all new works. In an effort to connect to the "human comedy" to achieve modern science with mystical views of E. Swedenborg, to explore all the levels of the life of the people from life to philosophy and religion, Balzac demonstrates the impressive scale of artistic thinking.
One of the genericants of French and European realism, he thought "Human Comedy" as unified work On the basis of the principles of realistic typing developed by him, putting the majestic task of creating a socio-psychological and artistic analogue to the modern France. Sharing the "human comedy" for three unequal parts, the writer created a kind of pyramid, the basis of which is the direct description of the Company - "Etudes about the nravakh". Above this level there are a few "Philosophical Etudes", And the top of the pyramid is "analytical etudes. Calling their novels, the story and novels included in the cycle, "etudes", a realist writer considered his activity precisely by research. "Etudes about the nravakh" accounted for six groups of "scenes" - scenes of privacy, provincial, Paris, political, military and rural. Balzac considered himself the "secretary of the French society" depicting "modern history". Not only the most difficult-scale theme itself, but the methods of its incarnation made a huge contribution to the formation of a new artistic system, thanks to which Balzak is considered the "Father of Realism".
The image of the Gobsek's Roshovshchka - the "Life Relone" in the same name (1842) becomes nominative to designate the buyer, personifying the power dominant in society and superior harplanon from the comedy of Moliar "Surrome" ("Scenes of Privacy").
The first work in which Balzac sequentially embodied the features of critical realism as a holistic aesthetic system, became the novel "Eugene Grande" (1833). In the characters derived in it, the principle of formation of a person under the influence of circumstances was implemented. The author acts as an outstanding psychologist enriching psychological analysis by the techniques and principles of realistic art.
For the "scenes of Paris Life", the novel "Father Gorio" (1834), which became key in the cycle "Etudides about the nravakh": It was in him about thirty characters of previous and subsequent works were to "go" together, which was the reason for creating a completely new The structures of the novel: multicenter and polyphonic. Without allocating a single main character, the writer made the novel centrally, as it were, as it were, in opposition to the image of the Paris's Paris's Cathedral in the Roman Hugo, the modern Parisian house-boarding Madame Boke - a model of modern Balzak France.
One of the downlink centers is formed around the image of the Father Gorio, whose history of life resembles the fate of the Shakespeare King Lira. The other, ascending, the line is associated with the image of Ezhen Rastyanka, a native, but impoverished provincial nobility family who came to Paris to make a career. Rostyanka, which is a valid character and in other works of "human comedy", the writer laid the topic of the fate of a young man in society for French and European literature, and in the future the character's name has become a nominative for an attractiveness who has achieved success. Based on principle "Openness" The cycle, "flowing" characters from the novel in the novel, the author depicts the flow of life, movement in the development, which creates a complete illusion of the reliability of what is happening and forms the integrity of the picture of French life. Balzac found a composite means of the combination of heroes not only in the final, but throughout the novel and subsequent works, keeping it polycentricity.
In the novels of "Human Comedy" showed different arms of the colossal in the power of the talent Balzak, including the unprecedented wealth of the dictionary. The insightful analytical idea, the desire to systematize observations over the surrounding life, to express its patterns historically and socially through the typisation of characters was embodied in the immortal cycle - the whole world, built on the basis of a serious scientific and aesthetic study of society, integrity and synthesizing the work of thought, which explains the multi-sided and at the same time One panorama. The creativity of Balzak is the highest point of the versatile possibilities of realism as an artistic method.
Many extent determines the nature of the development of the literary process in France, the defeat of the revolution of 1848, on which the creative intelligentsia pinned many hopes. Atmosphere of timeless Tragic hopelessness led to the spread of theory "Pure Art". In French literature there is a poetic group called "Parnass" (1866). Representatives of this group (G. Gautier, L. De Lill, T. de Bamville and others) opposed the social trendenziness of romanticism and realism, preferring a nonsense of "scientific" observation, apolitical "pure art". Pesssimism, departure, the descriptions, passion for a thorough decoration of a sculptural, impassive image that turns into an end in the outer beautifulness and fraudulent verse is characteristic of the work of Parnassian poets. The contradiction of the epoch in its own way was reflected in the tragic pathos of the poems of the largest poet of 1850-1860. Charles Bodler (1821 - 1867) - Collections "Evil Flowers" (1857) and "Debris" (1866).
As the most important artistic direction Method and style naturalism (Fr. naturalisme. from lat. natura. - Nature) has developed in the last third of the XIX century. In the literature of Europe and the USA. The philosophical basis of naturalism has become positivism. The literary prerequisites of naturalism was the work of Gustava Flaubert, his theory of "objective", "impersonal" art, as well as the activities of "sincere" realists (Kurba, L.E. Duranti, Charflerry).
Naturalists set themselves a noble task: from fantastic pleasures of romantics, which in the middle of the XIX century. more and more from reality in the Dream area, turn the art of the face to truth, to a real fact. Creativity O. Balzac becomes a sample for naturalists. Representatives of this direction are addressed mainly to the life of the society, they are inherent in genuine democratism. They expand the area of \u200b\u200bthose depicted in the literature, there are no forbidden topics for them: if the ugly is depicted reliably, it acquires for naturalists the importance of genuine aesthetic value.
Naturalism is characteristic of a positivistic understanding of reliability. The writer should be an objective observer and the experimenter. He can only write about what he studied. From here the image is only a "pieces of reality" reproduced with photographic accuracy Instead of a typical image (as unity of individual and general); Refusal to the image of the heroic person as "atypical" in the naturalistic sense; Replacing the plot ("fiction") description and analysis; aesthetically neutral position of the author in relation to the depicted (for him there is no beautiful or ugly); Analysis of society based on strict determinism, denying freedom of will; the show of the world in statics, like a heap of details; The writer does not seek to predict the future.
Naturalism has experienced other methods, closely climbed impressionism and realism.
From the 1870s. at the head of naturalists gets up Emil Zol (1840-1902), which in its theoretical works developed the basic principles of naturalism, and its artworks combine the features of naturalism and critical realism. And this synthesis produces a strong impression on readers, thanks to which naturalism, at first rejected by them, receives further recognition: the name of the Zol has become almost synonymous with the term "naturalism". His aesthetic theory and artistic experience attracted young contemporary writers who were the nucleus of the naturalistic school (A. Sear, L. Ennik, O. Moble, Sh. Guismans, P. Alexis and others). The most important stage of their joint creative activity was the collection of stories "Medansky Evenings" (1880).
Creativity E. Zola is the most important stage in the history of French and world literature of the XIX century. His heritage is very extensive: not counting the early works, it is a twenty cycle "Roigon-Makcara", the natural and social history of one family in the era of the second empire, the trilogy "Three cities", the unfinished cycle of novels "Four Gospels", a few plays, a huge number of articles devoted to literature and art.
Theory of I. Tan, Ch. Darwin, K. Bernara, Sh. Luterno, provided a huge impact on the formation of views and the formation of the creative method of Sali. That is why Naturalism of Zola is not only aesthetics and artistic creativity: it is a worldview, scientific and philosophical research of peace and man. Creating the theory of the experimental novel, He motivated the likelihood of the art method to the scientific method: "The novelist is and an observer, and an experimenter. As an observer, he depicts facts as he watched them, sets the starting point, finds a solid soil on which his characters will act and deploy events. Then It becomes an experimenter and produces an experiment - i.e. acting in motion acting persons under a particular work, showing that the sequence of events in it will be exactly what the logic of studied phenomena requires ... The ultimate goal is the knowledge of a person, scientific knowledge Its as a separate individual and as a member of society. "
Under the influence of new ideas, the writer creates its first naturalistic novels "Teresa Raken" (1867) and Madelende Ferra (1868). Family history served to the Writer the basis for a complex and deep analysis of human psychology considered from scientific and aesthetic positions. Zola wanted to prove that the psychology of a person is not a separate "life of the soul", but the sum of diverse interacting factors: hereditary properties, the environment, physiological reactions, instincts and passions. In order to designate the complex of interactions, Zola instead of the usual term "character" offers the term "temperament". Focusing on the theory of I. Tan, he describes in detail the "race", "Wednesday" and "moment" gives a brilliant sample of "physiological psychology". In Zola, there is a slim, thoughtful aesthetic system that almost does not change until the end of his life. Based on it - determinism, those. The conditionality of the inner world of man inherited deposits, medium and circumstances.
In 1868, Zola thinks the cycle of novels, the purpose of which is learned by the example of one family questions of heredity and medium, study the entire second empire from the state coup until modernity, to embody the modern society of scoundrels and heroes in the types ("Makcara",
1871 -1893). The scale of sol is realized only in the context of the entire cycle, although each of the twenty novels is complete and quite independent. But he reaches the Saint Writing Triumph, published by the Roman "Western" entered this cycle (1877). The first novel of the "Career Rugon" cycle (1877) revealed the direction of all the narration, both its social and physiological aspect. This is a novel about the establishment of the regime of the second empire, which Zola calls the "extraordinary era of madness and shame", and the roots of the Rugon family and Maccarov. Napoleon III coup persuade is represented in the novel indirectly, and the events in the robbery and far from the policy of the provincial Plassan are shown as a cruel fight between the ambitious and mercenary interests of the local owners of life and ordinary people. This struggle is no different from what is happening throughout France, and Plazan is a social model of the country.
Roman "Career Rugs" - powerful source of the entire cycle: the history of the emergence of the Rugs and Maccar family with a combination of hereditary qualities, which will then give an impressive variety of options in descendants. The Rodonarchist of the clan - Adelaide Fuk, the daughter of the Plassansky Gardener, with his youth distinguished by soreness, strange manners and actions, will give its descendants weakness and instability of the nervous system. If some descendants do it to degradation of the person, its moral death, then others turn into a tendency to exaltation, elevated feelings and the desire to ideal. The marriage of Adelaide with a barerum ruigon, which has the vital practicality, the stability of the psyche and the desire to achieve a solid position, gives the subsequent generations a healthy start. After his death in the life of the Adelaide, the first and only love for drunk and trampped Konraban McKar appears in the life. From him, descendants inherit drunkenness, love for change, egoism, unwillingness to do something serious. The descendants of Pierre Rugon, the only legitimate son of Adelaide, - the successful Deltsi, and McKara - alcoholics, criminals, madmen, as well as creative people ... But those and others unites one thing: they are children of the era and they are inherent in the desire to rise at any cost.
The whole cycle and each group of novels are permeated by the system of leitmotifs, symbolic scenes and parts, in particular, the first group of novels - "mining", "Paris", "His Excellency Eugene Rugon" - combined the idea of \u200b\u200bprey, which winners share, and the second - " Western "," Nana "," Skip "," Zherlephal "," creativity "," Money "and some others - characterize the period when the second empire seems the most stable, lush and triumphant, but behind this visibility hiding blatant flavors, poverty, The death of the best feelings, the collapse of hopes. Roman "Western" is a kind of core of this group, and her leitmotif is an approaching catastrophe.
Zola was passionately loved Paris and it can be called the main character "Road-Makarov", connecting the cycle together: the action of thirteen novels occurs in the capital of France, where the various appearance of the Great City appears before readers.
Several Romanov Zola reflect another side of his worldview - pantheism, That "Breath of Universum", where everything is interconnected in a wide stream of life ("Earth", "misdemeanor Abbot Mur"). Like many of their contemporaries, the writer does not consider a person as the ultimate goal of the universe: it is the same part of nature as any living or inanimate subject. In this, there is some fatal predestination and a sober glance on the purpose of human life is to fulfill its purpose, thereby contributing to the general development process.
The last, twentieth novel of the cycle - "Dr. Pascal" (1893) is a summary of the final results, first of all clarifying the problem of heredity in relation to the family of rugon-maccar. In the old scientist Pascal, the curse of the genus is not palo: only obsession and emotionality relate to him with other rugs. He, as a doctor, identifies the theory of heredity and explains its laws in detail on the example of his family, thereby giving the reader to cover all three generations of ruigrants and mackers, understand the peripetia of each individual fate and create a pedigree tree of the clan.
Zola did a lot for the development of the modern theater. Articles and essays, the staging of his novels that made on the stage of the Advanced "Free Theater" and on many scenes of the world, formed in the framework of the movement of European playwrights for the "new drama" a special direction (Ibsen, B. Show, Gauputman, and others. ).
Without the creativeness of the Salism on the basis of the aesthetics developed by them, the entire palette of styles (from romanticism to symbolism), it is impossible to demonstrate the movement of French prose from the XIX to XX and XXI centuries. Nor the formation of the poetics of the modern social novel.
The largest writer of French literature for the second half of the XIX century. was Gustave Flaubert (1821 -1880), despite the deep skepticism and the tragic pessimism of his worldview. Approve the principles of impersonal and impassive art, his aesthetic program was close to the theory of "art for art" and partly the theory of Zola-Naturalist. Nevertheless, the powerful talent of the artist allowed him, despite the classic example of "objective manner" of the narration, create a novel masterpiece "Mrs. Bovari" (1856), "Salambo" (1862), "Education of Selfings" (1869).
French art of the 18th century. Realistic direction in painting.
Against the sophisticated art of rokail, the art of salons and budov, "subordinate fantasy and whims of the persons of rich, bored, celebrating, the taste of which is also spoiled, like their owns," spoke in the 60-70s, representatives of bourgeois criticism led by Denis Didro. The piercing art of the aristocracy for its convention and the lack of naturalness, they demanded the creation of art, a truthfully reflective life, free from manners, not fearing ordinary. In contrast to the art of Rocail, the main task of which to deliver the pleasure of the spoiled feast of people, Didro and his supporters demanded the creation of an effective art that places their task not only to reproduce reality, but also the upbringing of a new person. In their opinion, in addition to truthfulness, art should have a deep content that has public importance should have a beneficial effect on society, to help a person in resolving major vital problems.
These views with the greatest completeness were developed by Didro in his "salons" - from 1759 reviews of art exhibitions in Louvre.
Jean Batist Simeon Charden. The bright contrast of the dominant aristocratic line of development of art is the work of the largest masters of the realism of the 18th century Jean Batista Simeon Sharden (1699-1779). The son of the Parisian craftsman-carpentry, he passed a learning from academic painters, but very soon broke with their work method - according to the samples of other masters and imagination. By this method, he opposed work from nature and its close study is the principle to which he remained faithful throughout his life. In 1728, Charden drew attention to the two still lifes, put on the Open-air Dauphin Square, where young artists could show their paintings. The success of his share allowed him to submit his work to the Academy. Here, his still-life received unanimous confession, and Charden was elected academician.
Natubort was a favorite genre of Sharden. This genre entered the fashion in the 18th century under the influence of the Dutch, whom he had echoed with the straightened literature to simplicity and naturalness. But in his still lifes, the French masters usually repelled not from the realistic foundations of Dutch art, but from his decorative elements. To this decorative still life, Chadin contrasted his simple, unassuming, deprived of any external effects of the picture. He wrote clay jugs, bottles, glasses, simple kitchenware, surrounded by fruits and vegetables, sometimes fish or bitu ditch. But in these ordinary items, he opened the striking wealth of colorful shades, which allowed him with an extraordinary force to express the material qualities of things. These advantages of painting Sharden immediately appreciated the Didro, who considered him the "first colorist" of the salon and, maybe one of the first colorists in painting. " "... how the air is moving around these items," Didro exclaims, "this is who understands the harmony of paints and reflexes." And indeed, Charden is one of the largest colorists in Western art.
Great painting occupies the most important place in the work of Sharden. It is devoted to the image of simple scenes of life of the French third class - small bourgeoisie and labor. From this environment, Charred himself came out and the connection with her did not break until the end of his days. For the first time in the art of the 18th century, the life of the third class is in the center of attention of the artist, who conveys it with a deep feeling. The plots of the genre paintings of Sharden are ordinary and simple, they are deprived of drama or narration. In most cases, this is an image of a peaceful homemade life: a mother with children reading a prayer in front of a modest meal ("Prayer before lunch", 1744, Hermitage); Bundochka, laundry, and a bubble bubble-like bubbles ("Booka", Ok. 1737, Hermitage), a boy, a diligent folding card house ("Card House", Louvre), are typical plots of paintings by the wizard. All in them naturally and simply and at the same time the great poetry is performed. The genre works of Sharden are completely devoid of literary and didactic trends, as well as sentimentality and the anecoticity inherent in similar works of most of its contemporaries. But just like Sharden in his still lifes opened the beauty of simple kitchen utensils, he managed to detect a whole world of human feelings under a modest appearance of everyday home scenes, which acquire genuine moral significance in his paintings. Sincerity and deep truthfulness are combined in these works of Sharden with artistry inherent in it, taste and exquisite pictorial-colorful skill. As well as still lifes, they are written softly and generalized, and their devoid of brightness color is built on the thinnest nuances of the computiated tones.
In the French art of the 18th century Charden was also one of the creators of a realistic portrait. The most beautiful portraits of the artist belong to his self portrait and a portrait of his wife, made by Pastel (Louvre, 1770s.).
The realistic art of Sharden immediately received support for advanced artistic criticism. Sharden Didro appreciated especially highly, in his "salons" repeatedly praised his paintings for the vital truthfulness and high picturesque advantages. However, not in all respects the art of Sharden satisfied new criticism. Now, when the arts demanded that it becomes, in the expression of Didro, the "school of morals, a dumb speaker, tolding us in virtues and sublime actions," those artists began to use a special success in whose work didactic features.
Jean Batist Dream. The head of the sentimentally moralizing flow in French art in the second half of the 18th century began Jean Batist Dream (1725-1805). The work of Guest, devoted to the main image of the life of small bourgeoisie, was marked by strong idealizing trends and are imbued with sentimental sensitivity. They are close in nature to the sentimental drama arising during this period - the literary genre in which Didro wrote.
Dream first among French artists became a preacher bourgeois morality than a largely explained the success of such works, as "Father of the family, explaining the Bible to his children," appeared in the Salon of 1755 (Paris, Private Assembly), or the "Rustic Bride" (Salon 1761, currently located in Louvre). In these paintings, the contemporaries of Guest were attracted and sensitive plots and sentimental praise of family virtues.
Highly appreciated the work of Guest and Didro. "Here is truly my artist is a dream," wrote Didro, analyzing the picture of the Guest "Paliartik" (Hermitage) in his "salon" of 1763. Didro admires this picture, as it is "moral painting", which is on a par with dramatic poetry, "we can touch, to teach, correct and encourage to virtue."
However, according to its artistic advantages, the work of Guest is inferior to Sharden's works. The compositions of his paintings are often artificial and theatrical, the type is uniformly idealized and deprived of genuine expressiveness, gestures of figures are appeared and repeated with similar situations, poses are spectacular and deliberate. Often conditioned and color of the paintings of Guest. But its numerous drawings have great advantages. This composite sketch or etudes of figures are usually made by an Italian pencil or sanguine, free by manner, alone and directly transmitting the model.
Along with the scenes of the small-bourgeois life, the dreams wrote portraits (portrait of a young man, 1750s., Hermitage), as well as idealized images of pretty girls, in which the sentimentality of the expression is often becoming unpleasant. However, it is precisely these so-called "heads" of Guest at one time enjoyed much popularity.
However, the art of Guest had only temporary success. The closer the moment of joining the bourgeoisie in the period of class battles was taken, the less time they could satisfy the sentimental paintings of Wick with their limited family life issues, especially since Guest's sentimentalism would usually imbued with erutics.
On the eve of the revolution of 1789, classicism comes to the change of Didactic domestic art.
Jean support Fragonar. In French art, the second half of the 18th century continues to live and the traditions of Rococo style, in which, however, now penetrate the realistic quest. The largest representative of this direction was Jean Onor Fragonar (1732-1806), a brilliant painter master and a thin colorist. Expensively fame used by Fragonar gallant scenes and images of parks.
While being a pensioner in Rome, Fragonar, together with the landscape of Gubert Robert, was fond of drawing by Roman villas. Together with the same Robert, Fragonar lives in the Saint Nona Ville d granted by him, Este in Tiber, surrounded by a picturesque fleet, located in the amazing in its beauty of the terrain. Here, Fragonar and Robert write a number of etudes and participate in the undressed Nona edition dedicated to Naples and Sicily, performing drawings for engraving.
In the image of love scenes, the fragonar develops even bolder than Bush, sensual and erotic elements. These notes sound especially strongly in such works as the "stolen shirt" (Louvre), "Swing" (London, Wallace Assembly), "Kiss Snoop" (Hermitage) and others. Rich fantasy, ease of writing, bold smear, brilliant craftsmanship is characteristic of Fragonard's creativity. Fragonar and work depicting scenes everyday, sometimes and folk life, such as "children of farmer" (Hermitage) and others. They are imbued with a warm feeling and differ in the vitality of images, great skill in the transmission of light, the fineness of the flavor and the free broad manner of the letter. They feel the study of the works of Dutch painters of the 17th century. The influence of the latter affects the brilliantly transmitted characteristic of things, interest in the image of animals. Like all the artists of his time, Fragonar was distinguished by a great versatility, wrote portraits, religious paintings, decorative panels, illustrated books, made miniatures.
Realism, symbolism. The presentation will introduce the work of French artists of Kourbe, Domier, Mill.
Realism in french painting
Classicism style that reigned in the art of the Epoch of Enlightenment, already at the end of the 18th century, was sund up with a new style that was a consequence of shocks caused by the bourgeois revolution in France and disappointment in its results. This style was romanticism. I dedicated several records of romanticism. Today we will talk about realismwhich began to form in the bowels of romantic art. French literary critic Jules Francois Shanflery, for the first time using the term "realism", contrasted him with symbolism and romanticism. But, the realistic artistic direction did not become an absolute antagonist of romanticism, but rather it was a continuation.
French realism, striving for the truthful display of reality, was naturally connected with the revolutionary movement and was called "Critical Realism". Appealing to modernity in all its manifestations, reproduction of typical characters in typical circumstances with a support for the life reliability of the image - the main requirement of realism.
"The art of painting can not be anything else, as the image of items visible and tangible by the artist, ... The realist artist should transmit morals, ideas, appearance of their era."
Gustave Kourbe
It was unlikely that I could tell about the work and the fate of Gustava Kourba, which is often called the founder realism in french painting, better than made creators film "Freedom of Courba" From the series "My Pushkinsky"
In his presentation "Realism in french painting" I also tried to imagine the work of wonderful French artists Francois Mill and Onor houses. For those who are interested in this topic, I want to recommend to look at the site Gallerix.ru.
As always, small list of books in which you can read about the French realism and French artists-realistic:
- Encyclopedia for children. T.5. Art. Part two. - M.: Avanta +, 2000.
- Beckett B. History of painting. - M.: LLC "Publishing Astrel": AST Publishing House, 2003.
- Dmitrieva N.A. Brief history of arts. III release: countries of Western Europe of the XIX century; Russia XIX century. - M.: Art, 1992
- Emokhonova L.G. World art culture: studies. Manual for studies environments Ped. studies. establishments. - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 1998.
- Lvova E.P., Sarabenov D.V., Borisova E.A., Fomin N.N., Berezin V.V., Kabkova E.P., Nekrasova L.M. World Art. XIX century. Fine art, music, theater. - SPb.: Peter, 2007.
- SAMIN DK One hundred great artists. - M.: Veva, 2004.
- Freman J. History of Art. - M.: "Astrel Publisher", 2003.
Realistic direction in the art and literature of the 19th century.
In the 19th century, society begins to develop rapidly. New technologies appear, medicine is developing chemical industry, energy engineering energy, and transport. The population begins to gradually move out of the old villages in the city, seeking comfort and modern life.
All these changes could not disable the cultural sphere. After all, changes in society - both economic and social - began to create new styles and artistic directions. So, a change in romanticism, a major stylistic direction comes - realism. Unlike its predecessor, this style assumed a reflection of life in the form in which it is, without any embracing and distortion. This desire was not new in art - it is also found in antiquity, and in the medieval folklore, and in the Epoch of Enlightenment.
A more vivid expression is found from the late 17th century. The increased awareness of people who are tired of living with non-existent ideals, raises an objective reflection - realism that translated from French means "real". Some trends of realism are manifested in painting Michelangelo Caravadge and Rembrant. But the maximum holistic structure of views on life is becoming only in the 19th century. During this period, he reaches his maturity and expands its borders to the entire European territory, and, of course, Russia.
The hero of the realistic direction becomes a person that embodies the mind, seeking to endure the sentence with negative manifestations of the surrounding life. In literary works, public contradictions are investigated, the life of disadvantaged people is increasingly depicted. The founder of the European Realistic Roman is considered to be Daniel Defo. The basis of its works is a good start of a person. But it can change circumstances, it is exposed to external factors.
In France, Frederick Standal became the founder of the new direction. He literally floated against the current. Indeed, in the first half of the 19th century, romanticism ruled in art. The main character was the "extraordinary hero." And suddenly, a completely different image appears at the stand. His heroes really live life not just in Paris, but in the province. The author proved to the reader that a description of everyday life, true human experiences, without exaggeration and embellishment, can be brought to the level of art. Even more went to the city of Flaubert. He reveals the psychological character of the hero. This required an absolutely accurate description of the smallest details, displaying the outside of life for a more detailed transmission of its entity. His follower in this direction became Guy de Maupassan.
At the origins of the development of realism in the art of the 19th century in Russia, the authors were stood as Ivan Krylov, Alexander Griboedov, Alexander Pushkin. The first most bright elements of realism appeared already in 1809 in the debut compilation of Basen I.A. Krylova. The main thing is the basis of all its bachen - a specific fact. It is formed in nature, one or another behavioral situation is born, which is exacerbated by using established ideas about the nature of the character animals. Thanks to the chosen genre, the wings showed bright contradictions in modern life - clashes of strong and weak, rich and poor, ridicuing officials and nobles.
Griboedov has a realism manifests itself in the use of typical characters that have found themselves in typical circumstances - the main principle of this direction. Thanks to this reception, his comedy "grief from the mind" is relevant and in today's days. The characters that he used in his works can always be found.
Realist Pushkin presents a slightly different artistic concept. His heroes are looking for patterns in life, relying on educational theories, universal values. History and religion occupies an important role in his works. This brings his works with the people and his character. An even more acute and deep nation was manifested in the work of Lermontov and Gogol, and later in the works of representatives of the "Natural School".
If we talk about painting, then the main motto of realist artists of the 19th century was an objective image of reality. So, French artists, in the mid-1930s of the 19th century, led by theodore Rousseau began to draw rural landscapes. It turned out that the most ordinary nature, without embellishment, can become a unique material for creation. Whether it's a gloomy day, a dark sky in front of a thunderstorm, tired Pahohamber - all this is a kind of real life.
Gustave Kourbe - a French painter of the second half of the 19th century - anger in bourgeois circles caused his paintings. After all, he portrayed the truthful life, what saw around himself. It could be genre scenes, portraits and still lifes. Its most famous works include "Funeral in Ornan", "Fire", "Deer in Water" and the scandalous canvases "The Origin of the World" and "Sleeping".
In Russia, the investigation of realism in the art of the 19th century became P.A. Fedotov ("Major Watching"). Running in their works to satire, he refuses vicious morals and sympathizes the poor. In his heritage, many caricatures and portraits.
In the second half of the 19th century, the topic of "National Life" picks up I.E. Repin. In his famous paintings "Refusal of confession" and "Burlacks on the Volga" is indulge the cruel exploitation of the people and the protest in the folk masses.
Realistic directions continued their existence in the 20th century in the work of writers and artists. But, under the influence of the new time, other, more modern features began to acquire.
French realism.
Realism 30-40s
Realism is a truthful, objective reflection of reality. Realism arose in France and England in the conditions of the celebration of bourgeois orders. Social antagonism and disadvantages of the capitalist system identified a sharply critical attitude towards the writer-and-realist writers. Οʜᴎ pounded the complicity, scinting social inequality, egoism, hypocrisy. In its ideological focus, it becomes critical realism. Together with the ideas of humanism and social justice. In France, in the 30s-40s, they create their best realistic works of the support of De Balzac, who wrote a 95-languid''shelovoe comedy '; Victor Hugo - ''Sobor Parisian Our Lady''''''Devyanosto for the third year''''''''Vernye''''' et al.
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Gustave Flaubert - ''GGOBOR''''''''''Vosti''''''''mamibo''''mito Merimo - Master Novel' Master Falcone''''Kolomba''''Karmen'''Kolomba''''Karman''''Kolomba''''Karmen'', author of Pieces, historical chronicles''hronic times of Charles10'''s and others.
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In the 30s - 40s in England. Charles Dickens is an outstanding satirist and humorist, the works''Dombi and the Son''''ti-heavy times''''''''m'''''''''''''bolly waiting'' ', which are vertex of realism. William Makepis Tekkerei in the novel''yrmarka vanity''' ', in the historic work of the''istoria Henry Esmond'', the collection of satirical essays''Kniga snobs'', figuratively showed the vices inherent in the bourgeois society. In the last third of the 19th century World sound acquires the literature of the Scandinavian countries. It is before the work of the work, Norwegian writer: Heinrich Ibsen - Drama''Kolkaya Doma''''''no''''''''Ku''''''''''no'''''''Kodij''''''no''''''''''''''vrag of the people''' 'called for the emancipation of the human personality from the hypocritical bourgeois morality. Bjunson Drama'Bankrotestvo''''m, 'Some of our forces', and poems. Knut Gamsun - Psychological Novels''Golod'''''misteri''''''Pan''''viktori'''''pan'''viktoria''''''''viktoria''''', in which the republic's rebellion is depicted against the philistical environment.
Revolution 1789ᴦ., Time of acute political struggle. In France, five political regimes change: 1.) 1795 - 1799 Directory period, 2.) 1799 - 1804 Consulate of Napoleon. 3) 1804 - 1814 - the period of the Napoleonic Empire and War. 4) 1815 - 1830 - Restoration period.5) 1830 - 1848 Period of July Monarchy, 6) Revolution 1848, Burgeua Strengthening. Realism in France took shape theoretically and the word. Literature is divided into two stages: Balzakovsky and Flauberovsky. I) 30. - The exercise is implied to reproduction of various nature phenomena. 40th, realism - installation of the image of modern life, based not only on the imagination, but also on direct observation. Features: 1) Analysis of life, 2) The principle of typing3 is approved) the principle of cyclization4) orientation on science5) manifestation of psychologism. Leading genre - novel. Ii) 50E.fracture in the concept of realism, which was associated with the picturesque creativity of Kourbe, he and Charflery formulated a new program. Prose, sincerity, objectivity in the observed.
Berance Pierre-Jean - French poet songwriter. The first significant works of B. in this way are his pamphlets on Napoleon I: 'Kalol Yveto''''''Politic treatise'''''''polytic treatise. But Satira B. flourished on the restoration era. Returning to the power of the Bourbon, and with them emigrants-aristocrats, during the years of the revolution did not have learned anything and not forgotten, causes a long series of songs, pamphlets, in which the whole social and political system of the era finds a brilliant satirical reflection. The continuation of them are songs-pamphlets against Louis Philippa As a representative of the financial bourgeoisie on the throne. In these songs, B. B. himself called arrows with a throne, church, bureaucracy, bourgeoisie, the poet appears by a political Tribune, through poetic creativity by defending the interests of the labor boss, who played in Epoch B. A revolutionary role, subsequently finally passed to the proletariat. While in opposition to Napoleon during his reign, B. approves the cult of his memory during Bourbon and Louis Philippe. In the songs of this cycle, Napoleon is idealized as a representative of the power of a revolutionary associated with folk masses. The main motives of this cycle: Faith due to ideas, freedom as a kind of abstract good, and not as a real result of the class struggle, it is extremely important to be associated with violence (''IDEY''''''Moth "). In one of the songs of this cycle B. calls his teacher over: Owen, La Phonten, Fourier. We are thus the follower of the Utopic Domard Socialism. The first collection of poems deprives His mercy of the authorities to the university, where he served then. The second collection is brought to B. The prosecution ending with a three-month imprisonment for insulting morality, church and royal power. The fourth compilation was resulting for the author a secondary imprisonment, at the moment for 9 months. With all the fact that B. participation in political life in his own sense of the word (if not to concern the revolutionary action of the songs) poured into fairly moderate forms, for example.
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in the form of support for the liberals in the revolution 1830. In recent years, B. departed from public life, posing under Paris, switched in his work from the motives of political to social, working out them in the spirit of people's mind ('''Mering Jeanne'''''brodyag''''zhak'''jd, Dr.) .
Balzac, Onor.(Balzac, Honoré DE) (1799-1850), French writer, recreated a holistic picture of the social life of his time. Attempting to be a state at the publishing and typographic business (1826-1828) involved Balzak into large debts. Re-writing to the writer, he published in 1829 Roman Last Shuang. It was the first book that came out under his own name, along with a humorous manual for husbands Physiology of marriage 1829) She attracted the attention of the public to a new author. Then the main work began his life: in 1830 the first appear Scenes of private life undoubted masterpiece House cat playing , in 1831 the first Philosophical stories and stories . For a few more years, Balzac worked as a freelance journalist͵ However, the main forces from 1830 to 1848 were given to the extensive cycle of novels and the leader known to the world as Human comedy.In 1834, Balzac had a plan to tie with common heroes written from 1829 and future works and combine them in Epopeus, later called the "human comedy". The embodiment of the entire interdependency in the world, Balzac conceived the entire computing artistic study of the French society and a person. The defilitian frame of this artistic building is the materialism of the 18th century, the modern Balzak natural-scientific theories, peculiarly integrated elements of mystical teachings. In the "human comedy" three sections. I. Etudes of morals: 1) Scenes of Privacy; 2) scenes of provincial life; 3) scenes of Parisian life; 4) scenes of political life; 5) scenes of military life; 6) Scenes of rural life. II. Philosophical etudes. III. Analytical etudes. It's like three circles of spirals, ascending from facts to reasons and basics (see Preface to the "Human Comedy", Coll.
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op., vol. 1, M., i960). 90 works entered the "human comedy". Balzac B.lit the first great writer, who paid close attention to the material background and''oblika'''''''''''''s characters; No one has depicted the complication and ruthless careerism as the main life incentives. Gobsek 1830), in Unknown masterpiece (1831), Eugene Grande, Letters to a stranger About love for Polish figure.
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In 1830-1840, especially in the works of Balzak, characteristic features of realism are manifested. Realists see their main task in the artistic reproduction of reality, in the knowledge of the laws defining its dialectics and diversity form.
"The historian himself had to be French society, I could only be his secretary," said Balzac in the preface to the "Human Comedy", proclaimed the principle of objectivity in the approach to the image of reality to the most important principle of realistic art. Along with this, the Great Novelist notes: "The task of art is not to copy nature, but to express it!" Indeed, like art, giving a multi-speech picture of reality; Realism is far offended by embodiment and beetopography, its task includes an analytical study of objective laws of life - historical, social, ethical, psychological, as well as a critical assessment of modern person and society, on the one hand, and identifying a positive start in live reality - on the other .
One of the key postulates of realism is the approval of the principles of realistic typing and their theoretical understanding - is also associated primarily with French literature, with the work of Balzak. An innovative for the first half of the XIX century and significant for the fate of realism also became the principle of cyclization brought by Balzac. "Human Comedy" is the first experience of creating a series of novels and the leads related to the complex chain of the causes and consequences and the fate of the characters who are at the new stage of their fate and moral and psychological evolution. The cyclization responded to the desire of realism to the inclusive, analytical and systemic artistic study of reality.
Already in aesthetics, Balzac is found to the science orientation, primarily on biology. This trend further develops in the work of Flaubert, aspiring to apply the principles of scientific research in the modern novel. Thus, the installation on "scientific" is characteristic of the positivistic aesthetics manifests itself in the artistic practice of realists long before it becomes leading in naturalism. But Balzaca, and Flaubert, the desire for "science" freely, but from naturalists inherent in naturalists a tendency to absolutize natural laws and their role in society.
The strong and bright side of the realism in France is psychological, in which the romantic tradition appears in-depth and more multifaceted. The spectrum of causing motivation of psychology, character, a person's deeds, of which, in the end, his fate, in the literature of realism, is significantly expanding, accents are made at the same extent on historical and social determinism, and the personality-individual start. This achieves the greatest accuracy of psychological analysis.
The leading genre of realism in France, as in other countries, is becoming a novel in its varieties: the moral-witting, social and psychological, psychological, philosophical, fantastic, adventure, historical.
New topics are reflected in the work of realists: the development of modern society, the emergence of new types and relationships, new morality and new aesthetic views. These topics are embodied in the works of Standal, Balzak and Merim. The national peculiarity of French realism affected the desire of these writers to understand the essence of a rich public experience accumulated by the French society in the stormy period, which began the revolution of 1789 and continued during the life of writers.
Armed not only by their talent, but also in deep knowledge of reality, Realists have created a giant panorama of French life, showing it in motion. The works of Standal, Balzak, Merim and Beranta testified that during the historical process, the French nobility was nearing full decline. Realists have seen the regularity of the emergence of new owners of life - representatives of the bourgeoisie, which they are swamped in images of vocal or Gobsek.
The features of the emerging realism immediately manifest themselves in the work of various writers. With all that the problems of the works of Balzak and Standal are in many ways, the individual features of their creative method differ significantly: Standal - primarily the master of psychological novel, striving to deeply explore the inner world of individuals. Balzac creates a huge web of French reality, a whole world inhabited by many figures.
And standal and Balzak is inherent in historicism. Through their works, the idea is that society is in a state of constant change, and they are looking for the causes of this evolution. Historism is inherent in Merim. For him, the life of society is a constant change in the ratio of public forces affecting human character. In a number of its works, Merim shows its contemporaries, worried and corrupted by bourgeois society ("double mistake", "Etruscan Vase", etc.).
All of the above features of French realism appeared already in 1830 - 40s, primarily in the work of Balzak and Standal. However, the fundamental novelty of realism as an artistic method remains still weakly conscious of the writers themselves and critics of that time. The theoretical performances of the standal (including "Rasin and Shakespeare", "Walter Scott and Princess Klevskaya") go entirely in line with the struggle for romanticism. Balzac Although it feels the principled novelty of the method of "human comedy", but does not give him any specific definition. In his critical work, he separates himself from Standal and Merim, recognizing at the same time closely connecting it with these writers. In the "Etude about Bayle" (1840), Balzac is trying to classify the phenomena of modern literature to him, but at the same time refers to various flows of itself (to "eclectic") and standal (to the "ideas literature"). For the "School of Ideas", Balzac considered a characteristic analytical beginning, directed to the disclosure of complex conflicts of the inner world. Under the "eclectic school" he meant art, seeking a wide epic coverage of reality and social generalizations concluded in a variety of types created by artists based on observation of life. Even such an authoritative critic of the XIX century, like Saint-Boe, in the article "Ten years later in the literature" (1840) costs without the term "pealym", and in the "Human Comedy" sees only the manifestation of excessive and reprehensible truthfulness, comparing its author with " A physician who immodestly disclosed the shameful diseases of his patients. " As a shallow critic is also interpreted and works of standal. And only with the advent of Mrs. Bovari (1857) Flaubert Saint-Boev says: "... I seem to catch signs of new literature, the features that are apparently distinguished for representatives of new generations" ("Mrs. Bovarie" Gustava Flaubert "(1857)).
All this indicates that the formation of the theoretical concept of a new artistic method at the first stage of his evolution is significantly lagging behind the practice. In general, the first stage of French realism is the creation of a new method, the theoretical substantiation of which will begin slightly later.
The growing critical trend in the French literature was on the uplink, intensifying as the anti-people essence of the bourgeois monarchy Louis Philippe revealed. As evidence of this in the second half of the 1930s, "lost illusions" of Balzak, devoted to the topic of disappointment in bourgeois reality appeared.
In France, realistic aesthetics received more pronounced than in other countries, theoretical design, and the very word "realism" was first used as a term expressing a complex of artistic principles, which supported something like a school.
As noted earlier, the term "realism" begins to meet on the pages of French magazines already in the 1820s, but only in the 1840s this word is exempt from a negative evaluation meaning. Deep changes in relation to M to the concept of "realism" will occur a little later, in the mid-50s and will be associated with the activities of J. Shanflery and L. E. Duranti and their like-minded people.
It should be noted that the path of the early French realists was far from smooth. The bourgeois society traveled and pursued those who wrote about him the truth. Bearding biographies, Standal, Balzac is rich in facts, which indicate how deftly used bourgeois ruling circles a wide variety of means, in order to divide with the writers unwanted. Berance for his works was given to court. Standal was almost unknown during his lifetime, Balzac, who was widely known abroad, died, without receiving proper recognition in France. Service career Merime was successful enough, but he was assessed as a writer only after death.
The 1830-40s were an important period in the history of France and its literature. To the outcome of this period, that is, to the eve of the revolution of 1848, it has already become clear that the most significant, the most new ones in the rich literary experience of 30-40s is associated with the realistic direction., Which representatives were able to create the most vivid and true paintings of French life Between two revolutions, lay strong foundations for the further development of national French literature.
The French Art School at the turn of the 17th and 18th century can be called a leading European school, it was in France that such art styles like Rococo, romanticism, classicism, realism, impressionism and postpressionism were originated at that time.
Rococo (Franz. Rococo, from Rocaille is a decorative motif in the shape of a sink) - style in the European art of the 1st half of the 18th century. For Rococo, hedonism is characterized, care to the world of idyllic theater game, addiction to pastoral and sensual erotic plots. The character of the decor Rococo acquired emphasized elegant, sophisticated-complicated forms.In the style of Rococo, Francois Bush, Antoine Watto, Jean Onor Fragonar.
Classicism - Style in European art 17 - early 19th century, a characteristic feature of which was to appeal to the forms of ancient art, as an ideal aesthetic and ethical standard.Jean Baptiste Greem, Nikola Poussin, Jean Batist Shaden, Jean Dominic, Jacques-Louis, Jean David, worked in the classicism style.
Romanticism - The style of European art in the 18-19th centuries, whose characteristic features of the self-satisfaction of the spiritual and creative life of the personality, the image of strong and often rebellious passions and characters.Francisco de Goya, Eugene Delacroa, Theodore Zheriko, William Blake worked in the romanticism style.
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Eduar Man. Breakfast in the workshop. 1868 |
The birth of realism in painting is most often associated with the work of the French artist Gustava Kourba, who opened his personal exhibition "Pavilion Realism" in Paris, although still in realistic manner worked artists Barbizonskaya School Theodore Rousseau, Jean-Francois Mill, Jules Breton . In the 1870s. Realism was divided into two main directions - naturalism and impressionism.
Realistic painting has become a big distribution worldwide. In the style of the realism of the witness in Russia, the 19th century worked mobile.
Impressionism (from FR. Impression is the impression) - style in the art of the last third of the 19th - early 20th centuries, a characteristic feature of which was the desire to most naturally capture the real world in its mobility and variability, transfer their mumbling impressions. Impressionism did not raise the philosophical problems, and focused on the yield effects of moments, mood and lighting. Life itself becomes plots of impressionists, like a queue of small holidays, parties, pleasant picnics in nature in a friendly environment. Impressionists some of the first began to draw at the plenier, without modifying their work in the studio.The style of Impressionism worked Edgar Degas, Edward Mana, Claude Monet, Camille Pissarro, Auguste Renoir, Georges Syra, Alfred Sisley and others.
Postpressionism - Art style arising at the end of the 19th century. Postplayers sought freely and generalized to transfer the materiality of the world, resorting to decorative stylization.Postpressionism gave rise to such directions of art as expressionism, symbolism and modern.
Vincent Van Gogh, Paul Gajan, Paul Cezanne, worked in the postpressionism style.
Consider more Impressionism and postminglyism on the example of creativity of individual masters of France of the 19th century.
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Edgar Degas. Self-portrait. 1854-1855 |
Starting with strict on the composition of historical paintings and portraits, the Degi in the 1870s came close to representatives of impressionism and turned to the image of modern urban life - streets, cafes, theatrical ideas.
In the pictures of the degi dynamic, often asymmetric composition, accurate flexible pattern, unexpected angles, the activity of the interaction of the figure and space are carefully thought out and recovered.
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E. Degi. Bathroom. 1885 |
Pastel's favorite technique allowed Edgar Degi to most fully show her talent of the draftsman. Saturated tones and "flickering" pastel strokes helped the artist to create the special colorful atmosphere, that overflowing airiness, which is so distinguishes all his work.
In the mature years, Degas often refers to the theme of the ballet. Fragile and weightless figures of ballerinas appear in front of the viewer in the twilight of dance classes, then in the light of sofes on stage, then in short moments of rest. The apparent random of the composition and the impartial position of the author create the impression of a spied alien life, the artist shows us the world of grace and beauty, without falling into excessive sentimentality.
Edgar Degi can be called a subtle colorist, its pastels are amazingly harmonious, then gentle and bright, then built on sharp color contrasts. The daga manner was distinguished by amazing freedom, he imposed pastel bold, broken strokes, sometimes leaving a tone of paper that appears through pastels or adding smears with butter or watercolor. Color in degi paintings arises from a transfusion radiance, from the flowing flow of rainbow lines that born shape.
The late works of degas are distinguished by the intensity and wealth of color, which are complemented by the effects of artificial lighting, enlarged, almost plane forms, the constraint of the space that gives it a stress-dramatic character. In that
the period of Degas wrote one of his best works - "Blue Dancers". The artist works here in large color stains, giving the paramount importance to the decorative organization of the surface of the picture. According to the beauty of color harmony and a composite solution, the painting "Blue dancers" can be considered the best incarnation of the theme of the ballet at Degas, who achieved the ultimate wealth of texture and color combinations in this picture.
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P. O. Renoir. Self-portrait. 1875 |
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P.O.renuar. Paddling pool. 1869 |
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P. O. Renoir. Portrait of an actress Zhanna Samari. 1877 |
It should be noted that the use of green, yellow, ocher, pink and red tones for skin image shocked the public of that time unprepared to the perception of the fact that the shadows should be colored, filled with light.
In the 1880s, the so-called "Engrovsky period" begins in the works of Renuara. The most famous work of this period is "big swimsters." For the construction of the Renoir composition, for the first time began to use sketches and sketches, the drawing lines became black and defined, the paints lost their previous brightness and saturation, painting as a whole began to look restrained and colder.
In the early 1890s, new changes occur in Renoarovsk art. In the picturesque manner, the color is appeared, which is why this period is sometimes called "pearl", then this period is inferior to the "red" place, named so because of the preference of the shades of reddish and pink colors.
Eugene Henri Paul Gaugugen (years of life 1848-1903) - French painter, sculptor and schedule. Along with Cezanne and Van Gogh, he was the largest representative of postpressionism. Painting began to engage in adulthood, the early period of creativity is associated with impressionism. The best works of Gogen are written on the Islands of Tahiti and Khiva-Oa in Oceania, where Gaen left the "vicious civilization". The characteristic features of the style of Hogen include the creation of static and contrasting compositions on the color of compositions, deeply emotional and simultaneously decorative.In the picture "Yellow Christ", Gogen portrayed a crucifix against the background of a typical french rural landscape, suffering Jesus is surrounded by three Breton peasants. The peace is spilled in the air, calm submissive poses of women, saturated with sunny yellow yellow-colored landscape with trees in the Red Autumn foliage, the peasant busy in their own business, cannot fail to enter the conflict with what happens on the cross. The environment contrasts sharply with Jesus, on the person of which the stage of suffering is displayed, which borders with apathy, indifference to his surrounding. The contradiction of the infinite flour taken by Christ and the "imperceptibility" of this victim by people is the main theme of this product of Gogen.
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P. Gogen. Are you jealous? 1892 |
on the shore, two sisters - they just fought, and now their bodies spread out on the sand in casual voluptuous poses - talk about love, one memoil causes discord: "How? Are you jealous!".
In the painting of juicy full-blooded beauty of the tropical nature, natural, unspoiled people in the civilization, Gogen portrayed the utopian dream of the earthly paradise, about human life in harmony with nature. Polynesian geogen canvases resemble a panel on the decorativeness of the color, flatness and monumentality of the composition, the generalization of the stylized pattern.
P. Gogen. Where did we come from? Who are we? Where are we going? 1897-1898
Picture "Where did we come from? Who are we? Where are we going?" Gaen considered his reflection sublime culmination. According to the artist's plan, you need to read the picture on the right: the three main groups of figures illustrate the questions set in the title. A group of women with a child in the right side of the picture represent the beginning of life; The average group symbolizes the daily existence of maturity; In the extreme left group, Gaen depicted human old age, approaching death; Blue idol on the far plan symbolizes the otherworldly world. This picture is a vertex in the innovative post permixionist style of Hojn; Its in its style combined clear use of paints, decorative color and composite solutions, flatness and monumentality of an image with emotional expressiveness.
The creativity of Gogen anticipated the many features of the modern style of the style of Modura and had an impact on the formation of masters of the Nabi Group and other painters of the beginning of the 20th century.
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Van Gogh. Self-portrait. 1889 |
In 1888, Van Gogh moved to Arles, where it was finally determined by the originality of his creative manner. Flame art temperament, painful glowing to harmony, beauty and happiness and, at the same time, the fear of hostile to people, they find the embodiment of the south landscapes shining by sun paints ("Yellow House", "Harvest. Valley of La Cro"), then in ominous reminiscent of nightmare images ("Night Terrace Cafe); Color and smear dynamics
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Van Gogh. Night terrace cafe. 1888 |
In recent years, Van Gogh in recent years was accompanied by the attacks of mental illness, which led him to the hospital for mentally ill in Arles, then in Saint-Remy (1889-1890) and in Over-sur-UAZ (1890), where he committed suicide. The work of the last two years of life of the artist was marked by ecstatic obsession, extremely aggravated expression of color combinations, sharp changes in the mood - from soften despair and gloomy visionary ("Road with cypress trees and stars") before the reverent feeling of enlightenment and peace ("Landscape in Overavel after the rain") .
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Van Gogh. Iris. 1889 |
Van Gogh. Wheat field with corona. 1890
"Wheat field with crowns" - Painting Van Gogh, written by an artist in July 1890 and being one of his most famous works. The picture was completed alleged on July 10, 1890, 19 days before his death in Over-Sur-UAZ. There is a version that Van Gogh has committed suicide in the process of writing this picture (coming to a plenier with drawing materials, fired from a pistol acquired to scare away bird flocks in the heart of the heart, then independently reached the hospital, where he died of loss blood).
Description of the presentation on individual slides:
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The art of realism in France in the middle of the XIX century. The value of French revolutions 1830 and 1848 O. Domier, F. Mill, Kurba, K. Koro. The problem of captivity and barbizon school. The lesson has prepared a teacher from MBU to Dshi a. Takhtamukai Jaste Said Yurevna
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Pierre Etienne Theodore Rousseau (1812 - 1867) Son of the Parisian tailor, first seen wildlife, wanted to become an artist. He came to his first plenier at 17 in the Fontainebell forest near the village of Barbizon, and could not stop. In nature, it was struck by everything: an infinite sky with sunsets, storms, clouds, thunderstorms, winds, or without all this; greatness of the mountains - with stones, forests, glaciers; Wide horizon of plains with gentle pastures and flaps of fields; All the seasons (winter as it is, he wrote the first of the French); Trees, the life of each of which is more and solemn human; Sea, streams, even puddles and swamps. The efforts of Rousseau Landscape moved from the conventional image to the stationery, and from the auxiliary genre - in the primitive (which there was only historical painting before).
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Sunset To write the anthology of the landscape of France, the "artist of his country" broke and walked around her all - he was a tireless pedestrian and Spartan in the everyday life and the menu. And perfectionist. The Paris Salon took the landscape of the 19-year-old Rousseau to the exhibition, and already at 23 he refused his "bold composition and piercing color." A dozen years without exhibitions Rousseau softened the tone of his landscapes, the storms gave way to simplicity, silence and philosophical reflection. So his paintings became a vault of penetrating lyrics. He came to his beloved barbizon every year, and at 36 years she moved to the wisely, disappointed in love, and in the crushing on-line of the revolution. In the 30-60s. 19th century For Rousseau and his drawing of nature, other artists were joined in Barbizon directly: Mill, Caba, Konaching and Dupra, who began to call the barbizonians - and the world began to learn about the "Barbizon School".
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One of the early well-known works of the artist is a small picture stored in the Leningrad Hermitage - "Market in Normandy". Here is the street of a small town, lively market trading. The drowning rocky land of the market square in a tiny town, folded half of the tight old stone and half of the cracking of the darkened tree and the diverse roofing dunca, and, it seems, the artist is sleeping at no less than the local residents. The shadow and light are equally concerned with buildings and people, and in every flap, soft color transitions denote what Rousseau likes to "light up" look and brush: the texture of real things and the living atmosphere movement. The artist is interested in all the details of the city life - in the open window on the second floor of the house, he notices a woman, he peers into the darkness in the depths of the opened door, in the crowd of buyers and merchants shown in the background. In the future, Rousseau departs from this type of "populated" landscape, it is attracted not to views of houses and streets, but only nature, the presence of a person in which episodic and slightly. Market in Normandy. 1845-1848. State Hermitage Theodore Rousseau. Hut in the forest Fontainebleau. 1855.
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At the World Exhibition of 1855, the 43-year-old Rousseau awarded the Gold Medal for the picture "Exit from Fontainebleau Forest. The setting sun ", which meant recognition and creative victory. Later he wrote a steam room to her "Forest Fontainebleau. Morning". And finally, the salon, and behind him and the World Exhibition of 1867 invited him to the jury. What did you draw? Local corners of wildlife, rural cats, oaks, chestnuts, rocks, streams, groups of trees with small figures of people or animals for scale, trembling and flickering air at different times of the day. What was useful to impressionists? Plenuer, batch barcode, the ability to see air, the overall tone of the picture due to the monochrome layer with shots under the colored upper layers. Fontinblelo forest output. Theater Sun Theodore Rousseau. Forenblo Forest. Morning. 1851
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Barbizonskaya school in opposition to the idealization and conventions of the "historical landscape" of academicists and the romantic cult of the imagination Barbizonskaya school argued the aesthetic value of the real nature of France - forests and fields, rivers and mountain valleys, towns and villages in their everyday aspects. Barbizonians relied on the heritage of Dutch painting 17 century. and English landscape players began 19 in. - J. Consthebla and R. Bonington, but, above all, developed realistic trends in French landscape painting 18 and 1st quarter of 19 centuries. (especially J. Michel and Advanced Masters of the Romantic School - T. Zheric, E. Delacroix). Working from nature above the etude, and sometimes above the picture, the intimate communication of the artist with nature was combined with the barbizons with a burden against the epic latitude of the image (sometimes not alien to peculiar romanticization and heroicity), and the chamber paintings alternated with large landscape closets.
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Barbizonskaya School Barbizonskaya School has developed a technique of tonal painting, restrained and often almost monochrome, rich in thin valera, light and color nuances; Calm brown, brown, green tones are enlivened by separate ringing accents. The composition of the landscapes of the barbizon school is natural, but carefully built and balanced. The barbizons were the founders of the captive painting in France, gave landscape an intimate-trust. With the names of Barbizontsev, the creation of the "mood landscape" was connected, the precessors of which was Camille Coro, the singer of predestrous MGLL, sunsets, twilight. Charles Konach. The shores of the UAZ River. The end of the 50s. XIX century State Hermitage
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Camille Coro (1796-1875) Camille Coro studied at the academic painters A. Mishallon and V. Burten, was in Italy in 1825-28, 1834 and 1843. Coro is one of the creators of the French realistic landscape of 19 V. Passionate fan of nature, he unconsciously laid the way to impressionists. It was Coro who spoke about the "pictorial impression." In an effort to transfer the first, fresh impression, he rejected the romantic interpretation of the landscape with its own idealized forms and a color decision, when in his desire to the sublime, the Divine Romantic artist depicted in the picture of the landscape, reflecting his soul's condition. At the same time, the exact transfer of the real landscape did not have the value. Protesting, perhaps unconsciously, against such an approach to painting, Coro raised the banner of plenuarism.
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Camille Coro The difference between the scenery of romantics and the Coro is the difference between the fact and fiction. In general, the artists never wrote landscapes with oil in nature. Romantics, like old masters, sometimes made preliminary sketches on the spot, with great mastery sketching (pencil, coal, santile, etc.) forms of trees, stones, shores, and then wrote their landscapes in the workshop, using sketches only as auxiliary material. Theodore Zheriko. "Flood" of 1814. Camille Coro. "Cathedral in Nante", 1860 It is interesting to note that work on the scenery in the workshop, away from nature, was generally accepted and even the Coro did not dare to bring the work to the last smear in the open air and finished paintings in the workshop. Working from nature brings him closer to the barbizon school.
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Camille Coro. Landscapes of the 1820-40s. The vital and poetic etudes and pictures of the Coro of the 1820-40 -sc., Imprinted the French and Italian nature and monuments of antiquity ("View of Colosseum", 1826), with their light color, saturation of individual color spots, dense, material colorful layer; Coro recreates air transparency, sunlight brightness; In the strict construction and clarity of the composition, clarity and sculpture of forms, the classic tradition is noticeable, especially strong in the historical landscapes of the Coro ("Homer and the Shepherds", 1845). "View of Colosseum", 1826 "Homer and Shepherds", 1845
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Camille Coro. Landscapes of the 1850-70s. In the 1850s. In the art of Coro, poetic contemplation, spirituality, elegious-dreamy notes, especially in the landscapes written in memory, are "Memomy of Mortephtente", (1864), as its name is evidenced by a romantic landscape, livenily by feminine and children's figures inspired by pleasant memories. About one of the beautiful days spent in such a picturesque place. This is almost a monochrome landscape with a quiet stroke of water, melting in the fog outlines of an unclear shore and a captivated stray light-air medium that immerses the entire landscape into a light golden haze. His painting becomes more refined, trembling, easy, the palette acquires the wealth of Valerov. Memom of Morthfente, 1864. Louvre.
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In the works of this time ("Lust of the Wind", 1865-70), the Coro seeks to fix the instantaneous, volatile states of nature, the light-air environment, to preserve the freshness of the first impression; T. about., Coro anticipates the impressionistic landscape. In the picture of the "Gusting of the Wind" with her gloomy sky, carrying dark clouds, shot down in one direction branches of trees and an ominous orange-yellow sunset all permeated with a feeling of anxiety. The female figure, breaking through the wind towards the wind, personifies the topic of opposition to the natural elements, ascending the traditions of romanticism. The finest transitions of the shades of brownish, dark gray and dark green colors, their smooth overflows form a single emotional color chord, transmitting a thunderstorm storm. The variability of lighting enhances the mood of anxiety in the embodied by the artist landscape motive. "Gusting wind", 1865-70
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Democratic realism between 1850 and 1860. In France, a triumphing procession of romanticism was stopped and a new direction led by Gustave Kursbe, who committed a genuine coup in painting, was a democratic realism. His supporters set forth the goal to display reality as it is, with all its "beauty" and "ugliness." For the first time, the focus of the artists were representatives of the poorest segments of the population: workers and peasants, bags, artisans, urban and rural poor. Even the color was used in a new way. Free and courageous strokes used by Kourbe and his followers, anticipated the technique of impressionists, which they used when working at the plenuer. Creativity of artists of realists caused a real stir in academic circles. The disappearance with their canvases of Greek gods and biblical characters was considered hardly by the sacred. Masters of realistic painting of the democratic direction - Domier, Mill and Kourba, who are in many ways and remained incomprehensible, accused of superficiality, in the absence of ideals.
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Gustave Kourbe (1819-1877) Jean Dezir Gustave Kourbe was born in Ornan. Son of a rich farmer. From 1837 attended the drawing school Sh. A. Flusulon in Besanson. I did not receive systematic art education. Living from 1839 in Paris, wrote from nature in private studio. Tested the influence of the Spanish and Dutch painting of the 17th century. Holland arrived at Netherlands (1847) and Belgium (1851). The revolutionary events of 1848, whose witness was Kursbe, largely predetermined the democratic orientation of his work.
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Wounded man with leather belt. 1849 Self-portrait "Man with a tube" (1873-1874) Gustave Kourba Passing the short stage of proximity to romantomism (Series of self-portrait); Self-portrait with a black dog 1842 "Self-portrait (man with a tube)". 1848-1849 "Despair. Self portrait. 1848-1849
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("Love in the village" or "Happy Lovers", 1844), Courbet polemically contrasts him (like academic classicism) the art of a new type, "positive" (the expression of Kurba), recreation of life in its course, approving the material significance of the world and denying artistic The value of the fact that it is imposed on a significantly objective thing. Happy lovers
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Gustave Kourba in his best works "Stone Crushers" (1849), in a letter to Kee, describes a canvas and tells about the circumstances that gave rise to its idea: "I was driving on our wagon in Saint-Denis Castle, near Sean - Vare, not far from Meziera And he stopped looking at two people - they were the complete personification of poverty. I immediately thought that in front of me the plot of a new picture, invited both to my workshop as the next morning and since then I have been working on the picture ... On one "side of the web is a seventieth old old man; He bent over the work, his hammer is raised up, the skin tanned, the head shaded with a straw hat, pants from a coarse tissue all in the payments, from once blue torn socks and burst the heels sticking out the heels below. On the other side - a young guy with a pumped head and a dark face. Through the naked sides and shoulders are visible through the wounded shirt, the leather suspenders support what was once the pants, the holes are gaping down on the dirty leather shoes. The old man stands on his knees; The guy drags the basket with rubble. Alas! Here, many begin to begin and cums. "
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"Funeral in Ornan" (1849) Kurba shows reality in all its serm and misery. The compositions of this period are distinguished by spatial limitations, static equilibrium forms, a compact grouping or stretched in the form of a frieze (as in the "funeral in ornan") the location of the figures, a soft, muffled color.
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The performance of the Kourbe in the younger years is amazing. He captured a grand idea. On a huge canvas (3.14 x 6.65 m), as a sign of respect for his grandfather's memory, the Republican of the Epoch of the Great French Revolution, which had a strong influence on the formation of the political views of the Kourba, he writes "the historical picture of one burial in Ornan" (1849 - 1850) - So he himself calls "Funeral in Ornan." On the canvas of the naval, there were about fifty figures in full size. Two church hardwood Four people in wide-wide hats just brought the coffin Mother Kourbe and three of his sisters
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Gustave Kourba The principle of public importance of art, nominated in modern curb art criticism, finds an embodiment in his works "Meeting" ("Hello, Mr. Kurba!"; 1854), where the moment of meeting the proud artist with the Metzenate A. Bryry.
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"Atelier" (1855) is an allegorical composition in which Kourba presented himself surrounded by his characters and his friends.
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Gustave Kourbe in 1856, Kurba wrote a picture of the "Girls on the Way of the Seine", thereby making an important step towards rapprochement with the pleasing. Kursbe performed it in a mixed manner: he wrote a landscape directly in nature, and the figures then attributed to the workshop. Choosing the main means of the picturesque language is not local color, and the tone, its gradation, the Kourbe gradually leaves from the restrained, sometimes severe palette of 1840 - the beginning of the 1850s., Lucky and enriching it under the influence of work at the pleaire, seeking the possibility of paints and at the same time detecting smear.
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During the short rule of the Paris Commune 1871, Kursbe was chosen by the Minister of Fine Arts. He did a lot to save museums from looting, but on his conscience - one rather strange act. At the Vandom Square in Paris stood a column - a copy of the famous column of Trachana, is to commemorate the military victories of France. In Communards, this column is firmly associated with a bloody imperial regime. Therefore, one of the first solutions of the commune was to demolish the column. Kursbe was entirely "for": - We will make a good deed. Perhaps, then the girlfriends of recruits will not water the tears so much handkerchiefs. But when the column was piled, the Kourbe squeezed: - Falling, she will give me away, and see. And he was right. After the fall of the commune, he was recalled by a column, began to call the "bandit", and in the end the court accused him of the destruction of monuments. Gustave Kurbie Kourbe had to serve for several months in prison. The property of the artist was sold out, but after the exit from prison, he was obliged to pay 10,000 francs every year. He was forced to hide in Switzerland to death from the payment of a gigantic penalty. After 7 years, Kursbe died in poverty.
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Onor Victorien Domier (1808-1879) The largest painter, sculptor and lithograph 19 century. He was Ondore Victorien House. Born in Marseille. Son Masters-Glasswoman. From 1814 lived in Paris, where in the 1820s. He took the lessons of painting and drawing, mastered the craft of a lithograph, served small lithographs. The creativity of the houses has developed on the basis of observing the street life of Paris and attentive study of classical art.
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Room houses houses, apparently, participated in the revolution of 1830, and with the establishment of the July monarchy became a political cartoonist and won public recognition of a merciless olodrotesky satire on Louis Philippe and the ruling bourgeois tip. Possessing political insight and the temperament of the fighter, the house consciously and purposefully connected his art with a democratic movement. Room caricatures were distributed in the form of individual sheets or published in illustrated editions where the houses collaborated. Caricature on the king Louis Philip
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Domestic sculptures are boldly and precisely winged sculptural sketches-busts of bourgeois politicians (painted clay, about 1830-32, 36 busts in the private assembly were preserved) served as the basis for a series of lithographic portraits-cartoons ("Celebrities Golden Mid", 1832-33).
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Cartoon on the king in 1832 Domier for caricature on the king (Litography "Gargantua", 1831) was enclosed for six months in prison, where communication with the arrested Republicans strengthened his revolutionary beliefs.
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High degree of artistic generalization, powerful sculpture of forms, emotional expressive contour and lighting houses achieved in lithographs 1834; They are inferior to the infurities and self-peculiarity of the power of the property, their hypocrisy and cruelty (collective portrait of the Chamber of Deputies - "Legislative Purgery"; "We all honest people, we will go", "This can be released to freedom"). "Legislative Watch" "We are all honest people, we will go around" "This can be released to freedom"
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The prohibition of the political caricature and the closure of the "caricature" (1835) forced the house to restrict himself to household satire. In the series of lithographs "Paris Types" (1839-40),
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"Supruses" (1839-1842), "Best Days of Life" (1843-1846), "Justice People" (1845-48), "Good Bourgeois" (1846-49) Housekeeper Izko and Keliyl False and Meshism Meshism , the spiritual and physical bump of bourgeois, revealed the nature of the bourgeois social environment forming the personality of the average man. From the series "Marital Mellas" (1839-1842) from the series "The Best Days of Life" (1843-1846) from the "Justice People" series (1845-48) from the "Good Bourgeois" series (1846-49)
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The typical image concentrating the vices of the bourgeoisie as a class, the houses created in 100 sheets of the series "Karicaturan" (1836-38), which tells about the adventures of the adventurist Robert Makcher.
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In the series "Ancient Story" (1841-43), "Tragico-Classical Physiomy" (1841) Doming Evil paroded bourgeois academic art with his hypocritical cult of classical heroes. Mature lithographs houses are inherent in dynamics and juicy barley velvetiness, freedom to transmit psychological shades, movement, light and air. The house has created and drawings for engraving on a tree (mainly book illustrations). Beautiful Narcissus Alexander and Diogen Abduction of Helena from the series "Tragico-Classical Physiomy" (1841)
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The new short approach of the French political caricature is associated with the revolution 1848-49. Welcoming the revolution, the houses exposed her enemies; The personification of Bonapartism was the image-type of the political passing of Ratapuahl, created first in the grotesque dynamic statuette (1850), and then used in a number of lithographs. Domé O. "Ratapul". Ratapula and the Republic.
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Painting Domier in 1848 Domier fulfilled the picturesque sketch of the Republic of 1848 for the competition. From this time, the house has more and more painting oil and watercolor. In an innovative on topics and artistic language of painting, houses found the incarnation of Paphos of the revolutionary struggle ("rebellion", 1848; "Family on barricades") and the uncontrolled movement of human crowds ("emigrants", 1848-49), respect and sympathy of the artist workers ("Bachero ", 1859-60;" Class 3 wagon ", 1862-63) and an evil mockery over the unprincipledness of the bourgeois justice (" Defender "). "Republic of 1848" "Rebellion", 1848 "Family on the barricades" "Emigrants", 1848-49 "Property", 1859-60 "Wagon of the 3rd class", 1862-63 "Defender" 1865
XIX Century - Century of Humanism
The XIX century made a truly invaluable contribution to the treasury of the entire world culture. It was the age of the greatest humanistic and aesthetic conquests in Europe, America and especially in Russia. Such a bright and wide flowerwood of literature and art at this time is largely determined by those deep and often stormy social and political shifts that the XIX century was so rich.
Romanticism and French revolution of the late XVIII century
The literary XIX century does not coincide with the calendar XIX century, since historical and literary and historical processes are not determined by no dates as such, but by those or other events that had a significant impact on the progressive course of the development of society. Such events that identify the chronological framework of historical development and, respectively, the literary process somewhat conditional in this case of the XIX century were the Great French Revolution of 1789-1794. And the Paris Commune of 1871 in France compared with the preceding bourgeois revolutions (in the XVI in Holland. And in England, the XVII century) This revolution caused the most deep social and political transformations. Along with the revolution in France, the end of the XVIII-XIX centuries in England and War for Independence in the United States had a great influence on the ideological life of Europe. Since the revolution, socio-political events in France have a significant impact on the fate of European states.
As for the literature, no significant phenomenon of European romanticism and late enlightenment in Germany can not be correctly understood without taking into account the impact of the revolution of the end of the XVIII century. in France. But not only the work of writers - contemporaries of the revolution was organically connected with her. The literary flows of the XIX century, which took place mainly under the sign of late romanticism and critical realism, continued to understand the events of the French revolution. "The entire XIX century," wrote V. I. Lenin, "the century, which gave civilization and culture to all mankind, passed under the sign of the French revolution. In all ends of the world, he did only that he spent, carried out in parts, finished what was created by the Great French Revolutionaries of the Bourgeoisie "*.
Equally important than the revolution itself with its advanced socio-political slogans had its coming consequences. After overthrow on July 27 (9 thermidors on a revolutionary calendar) of 1794, the Yakobin dictatorship (thermidorian coup) The progressive development of the revolution was over, and a large counter-revolutionary (thermidorian) bourgeoisie came to power, which cleared the path of Militarist-bourgeois dictatorship Napoleon. Thermidorians, ignoring the aspirations of the folk bottoms - the main driving force of the revolution, consolidated only those revolutionary transformations that corresponded to the class interests of the bourgeoisie. New bourgeois relations, who purchased clear contours after the Termidorian coup, did not make any people who prepared the revolution of enlighteners, which had only utopian illusion.
The French Revolution and her education has had direct political opponents who spoke on behalf of those classes that the revolution pushed out from the arena of historical development. But in the consequences of this revolution, her supporters who believed promises of enlighteners were disappointed. The characteristic and defining feature of the spiritual ideological atmosphere, which established after the revolution was the anti-line, anti-burglais reaction, which had, however, various socio-political aspiration. The literary movements of the European countries of that time - romanticism, first of all, reflected exactly these moods of the era. The result of the understanding of the results of the French revolution in the literature was the approval in the work of many major writers of the time themes of lost illusions. This topic resulting in the late XVIII century. In the work of a number of romanticist writers, it was later picked up and developed by many critical realists who considered it in the light of the subsequent events of the socio-political struggle of the XIX century.
One of the manifestations of dissatisfaction with the results of the French revolution 1789-1794, the search for an extrabuzuisny social and ethical ideal was originated at the beginning of the XIX century. Theories of utopian socialism. Utopic socialism of the beginning of the XIX century was the most important ideological factor, under the influence of which there was a literary process of that time. Romanticism, which is a kind of anti-bubburisal utopia, directly or indirectly expressed certain aspects of the teachings of utopian socialism. Creativity Hugo and J. Sand in France, Godwin and Shelly in England, Heine in Germany, Herzen and Chernyshevsky in Russia - these are the most important moments of the XIX literary process, which are closely connected with the ideas of utopian socialism.
Periodization of the historical and literary process of the XIX century
At the origins of the new stage of the historical and literary process in Europe, which opens by the revolutionary events of the end of the XVIII century. In France, there was a literature of the period of the French revolution 1789-1794. French literature of these years is organically related to the national tradition of the preceding classic and educational literature. However, French literature 1789-1794. He contained the prerequisites that opened ways to the subsequent development of romanticism and critical realism in France.
The leading direction and the artistic method in the literary movements of the first third of the XIX century in Europe was romanticism. However, since the beginning of the 1930s, critical realism began to prevail in the literary process. Thus, the main historical literary and theoretical problems of the foreign literature of the XIX century. Are romanticism and critical realism.
European literature of the first three decades of the XIX century, having received a powerful stimulus for its development in the events of the French revolution 1789-1794, was further closely related to the subsequent class and political struggle, with Napoleonic and Anti-Napolone Wars.
Napoleon's personality - an outstanding commander and statesman - and especially those progressive social shifts in Europe, which were caused by his campaigns, got a big resonance in the literature (Pushkin, Lermontov, Byron, Heine, Beranta, Hugo, Mandzoni, etc.). The topic of liberation movement against Napoleonic occupation was very significant in European literature. In particular, this refers to the literature of German. A tangible imprint on the entire social life of England began to put the stormy speeches of the destroyers of cars - Luddites, which, in particular, responded by Bairon.
The exacerbations of political and class contradictions were noted in European history from 1815 to 1830, who received the name of the restoration period in France, which opened after the Battle of Waterloo (1815) the final overthrow of Napoleon and ended with the July 1930 revolution of 1830. The wreck Climate on the European continent and contributed to the restoration of pre-revolutionary orders. However, Europe, far advanced along the path of bourgeois development, was no longer possible to return to the political and social level, which existed the debt 789 by the end of the 10s of the XIX century. The continent becomes the arena of turbulent political conflicts and national liberation movements in France, in Spain, Greece, Italy. All these events influenced the nature of the literary process as a whole, they were reflected in the works of Bairon, Shelly, Standal, Shamisso.
1830, marked in France with overthrow from the throne of Charles X and thus the fall in the regime of restored Burbones, led to power a large financial bourgeoisie, put on the throne of his golden king Louis Philippe. In England in 1832, the most important political action for the country is a parliamentary reform, which is close to the July Revolution in France in its social significance. The July Revolution, the parliamentary reform, which fastened the final victory of the bourgeoisie, and their coming consequences were the frontal milestone in the historical development of Western Europe. But with the strengthening of the bourgeoisie, the working class becomes an independent political force.
These social changes were accompanied by substantial shifts in the literary process. In France, at the beginning of the century, Vinyi, Lamartin, Hugo, Zhenand create bright pages of romantic literature. In the 20s of the 20s, works of Merim, Standal, Balzak, in which the principles of realistic reflection of life are formed. Critical realism in the work of Dickens, Techkeea and a number of other authors begins to determine the face of the literary process in England from the beginning of the 1930s. In Germany, the foundations of critical realism lays heine in his work. In connection with the conditions of national specificity, critical realism in the literary process of Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Italy, Spain is formed later, but in the 1930s it is planned for its origins in Polish and Hungarian literature. Realism in the US literature conquers dominant positions only by the end of the XIX century, although the beginning of its formation refers to the middle of the century.
Further exacerbation of the contradictions of bourgeois-capitalist development led to a new revolutionary explosion, which began in France and engulfed almost all of Europe. After the defeat of European revolutions of the middle of the XIX century. The course of historical events in the countries of Central Europe led to consolidation and strengthening the strength of the proletariat, to its independent struggle against the bourgeoisie. In 1871, this struggle led to the proclamation in France of the Paris commune - the first government of the working class, whose policies were based on the principles of the proletariat dictatorship. The Paris Community ended in the main cycle of bourgeois-democratic revolutions and opened a new period in the history of Europe - the period of imperialist wars and proletarian revolutions.
Revolutions 1848-1849 They are the main border, which divides the XIX century for two main parts, as well as an important milestone in the development of national literatures of European countries. But for the literary process, due to its specificity, the events of the July revolution of 1830 in France and its consequences should be considered, as well as the socio-political situation in England after Bill on the reform of 1832, along with immediate responses to these events in creativity A number of revolutionary poets defeat the revolution had a significant impact on the further development of critical realism (Dickens, Tekkkerei, Flaubert, Heine), and a number of other phenomena, in particular on the formation of naturalism in the literature of European countries.
Despite the fact that in the first third of the XIX century, in many countries of Europe, romanticism is the main literary direction, and after 1830 - critical realism would be a mistake to believe that until 1830 in European literature existed only a romantic direction. In some national literature at the beginning of the XIX century. Due to a number of conditions, the traditions of the literature of Education (Germany, Poland) were still alive. In other cases, it is necessary to talk about some of the early phenomena of the literature of critical realism adjacent to the characteristic and typical trends of romanticism (early romance and bearing in France). A picture of the struggle of literary directions in France 20s was complex and motley in terms of creative methods. Later, after the July Revolution, the literary process in this country develops mainly as a synchronous development of critical realism in its greatest achievements in the work of Merim, Standal, Balzac, Flaubert and in no less significant conquests of romantic literature in the works of J. Sand and Hugo. The contemporary of Lukeists, Bairon and Shelly was the poet of Krabb - a stern beet of the English village, whose work was worth certain features of educational realism. The origins of the novel of critical realism (M. Edzhuort and J. Austin) are determined at the same time.
The outcome of romanticism in the 1930s in Germany was accompanied simultaneously in varying degrees of pronounced realistic trends in the works of the Buchner. The revolutionary-democratic literature of the 40s in Germany, marked with completely definite realistic features, carried in herself at the same time in the lyrics of fans, Gerven and Freiligrata, a pronounced revolutionary and romantic beginning. At the same time, the creative method of some major writers is developing towards romanticism to realism (Heine, Byron, Shelly). Consequently, with the premiast development of romanticism in the first third of century and critical realism after 1830, it should be borne in mind the process of more or less permanent contacts of various artistic methods and directions, their mutual enrichment, and first of all it should be about romanticism and critical realism. .
Thus, the periodization of the XIX historical and literary process. In European countries, it seems next: the first stage from 1789 to 1830, the second stage - from 1830 to 1871; The second stage, in turn, is divided into two periods: 1830-1848. and 1848-1871. This general scheme for the development of the XIX literary process. In European countries, it is not universal. It exists with various, sometimes significant chronological devices defining the national specifics of social and political development of a country, but at the same time reflects the actual course of the literary process, indicates the general patterns.
Philosophical and aesthetic foundations of romanticism
The initial philosophical base of romanticism is an idealistic worldview that developed mainly towards subjective idealism to objective. The idealistic rush to infinite as one of the characteristics of the ideological and aesthetic positions of romantics is a reaction to skepticism, rationalism, cold enlightenment. Romantics argued faith in the domination of the spiritual principle in life, submission of matter spirit.
In the concept of world literature, developed by Iensky romantics, in particular A. Schlegem, romantics expressed the desire for universality of phenomena, to the universalism. This romantic universalism affected the social utility of romantics, in their utopian dreams about the celebration of the ideals of harmony in all human society.
"In the tesome and essential value, romanticism is nothing but the inner world of the soul of man, the innermost life of his heart," Belinsky wrote. And here he caught one of the indigenous decisive signs of romanticism, which distinguishes it from the worldview and artistic method of enlighteners. In fact, the hero in the artworks of romantics receives a fundamentally different interpretation than enlighteners and classicists. From the object of the application of external forces, it becomes a subject forming the surrounding circumstances. The problem of personality becomes for the romantics of the central, all other aspects of their ideological and aesthetic positions are grouped around it. In the initial positions of romantic aesthetics, the knowledge of the world is primarily a self-knowledge. Later in the aesthetics of romantics, its very significant thesis is approved about the so-called local flavor, that is, about the description of the external situation (Hugo, Nodje, partly Byron). But these personality romantics are given the main place. Nature, love - the development of these problems was for romantics by knowledge and disclosure of the essence of the phenomenon of the human person. It was endowed with unlimited creative potencies, and the course of development of objective being in the representation of romantics was determined by the spiritual activity of a separate personality. Such a subjectivist anthropocentrism of romantics entailed a major change in emphasis in the civilian social ideal, which is characteristic of the worldview of classicists and educators.
In solving the problem of "personality and society" of romantics transferred the focus on the first component of this correlation, believing that the disclosure and approval of the human personality, its all-time improvement would ultimately lead to a statement of high public and civil ideals.
Absoluting the creative potency of personality, romance, referring to real reality, they themselves were aware of the illusion of such ideas. As a result of the awareness of this contradiction, the famous theory of romantic irony arose in aesthetics of Ien romantics.
Individualism as a radical position of philosophical and ethical concepts of romanticism received a different expression. For those romantics who, denying them. Reality, sought to care from her in the world of illusions, the world of art and fantasy, into the world of their own reflexes, the individualist's hero at best remained an eccentric, a dreamer, tragically lonely in the surrounding world (Heroes of Herofman). In other cases, the individualism of the romantic hero acquires egoistic coloring (Byron, B. Kon-Stan, F. Schlegel, L. Tik). But many of these heroes of romantics, the individualism of which wears active rebellious aspiration (heroes of Bairon, partly vinti). In a number of products of romantics, the intrinsicness of the human person is expressed not so much in its individualism, but that its subjective aspirations are sent to the public business in the name of the benefit of people. Such are Cain Byrona, Laon and Citen Shelly, Konrad Wallenrod Mitskevich.
The absolutization of the spiritual world of a separate personality in romantics was conjugged with well-known negative moments. However, in a much greater degree, this is the exaltation of a separate personality, the fundamental installation of leading the way of knowing everything through its inner "I" led romantics to their most significant ideological and aesthetic conquests. In this area, romantics made that significant step forward in the artistic knowledge of reality, which put forward romanticism to replace the art of enlightenment. Vordsworth and V. Muller, Heine and Byrona, Vinya and Lamartin, Psychological Tale of Shatubrian and De Stelle revealed to contemporaries of wealth of the spiritual world of a separate person. Appeal to the chosen person, towering over the "crowd", does not exhaust the interpretation of an individualistic start from romantics. In this area, their deep democracy (Wordsworth, Heine, V. Muller, Eichendorf, Schubert) also affected in this area. In Schubert's song cycles, which raised a household Austrian song to the level of high vocal art ("Beautiful Mellenchikha" and "Winter Way" for V. Muller), reflected a modest life of a modest personality. In traditional German romantics, the theme of the tragic loneliness of the midnight homeless tragic ("Sharganger", "Skitalets") sounds the theme of the tragic loneliness, "Skitalets"), reflects the rolling gusts of the soul of romance ("Where?").
The creativity of Romantics takes its origins the image of the "extra person", which has passed through all the literature of the XIX century.
The fundamental innovation of romantics in the artistic knowledge of reality was also in the fact that, resolutely traceing with the fundamental thesis of educational aesthetics - the art is imitation of nature, - they put forward the most important provision on the conversion role of art. For the first time it was formulated by A. Schlegem in 1798 in the review of the poem Google and Dorothea.
Both of these provisions of educational and romantic aesthetics act in certain dialectical ratios. Pursuing the goal of imitation of nature in art, enlighteners with their characteristic rationalistic schematics delineated and at the same time limited the circle of art realistic (within the limits of educational aesthetics) by making reality. By putting the task of the transformation of reality, romance significantly expanded the possibilities and tasks of art, in particular and the possibility of its impact on reality. But at the same time, they discovered quite widely and for excessive introduction to the artistic works of elements of fantastic and subjective.
Romantics expanded the arsenal of art art. They own a merit of fruitful development of many new genres, mainly subjectively philosophical orientation: a psychological story (there is especially much done by early French romantics), lyrical poem (leukeists, Byron, Shelly, Vinyi), lyrical poem. A bright flowering of lyrical genres is associated with romanticism, contrastingly opposing the rationalistic non-elective XVIII century. Many romantic poets, resolutely rushing with the traditions of classic poems, carried out a fundamental vehicle reform, which has expanded and democratizing verses, who has approximated its ability to display the inner world of the spiritual life of a separate personality, sometimes on the sphere of its real everyday interests. The approval of new romantic standards in the lyrics, in its most metric structure in England connected with the works of Lakeists and Bairon, partly Shelly and Kits. In the French literature, Vigni and Lamartin, Hugo, were Vigni and Lamartin, Hugo; In German poetry - Brentano, and after Him Heine, Muller.
The nearest and relatively long-term consequences of the French Revolution, in the context of which romanticism was formed and developed, raised dynamism, sharp conflicts into the course of European history. Thus, in the work of romantics, the historical perception of the social process was in their worldview. In their historic, the desire for a new one has affected the romantic world. But at the same time, the French revolution prompted the literature of the first decades of the last century to comprehend the causes, patterns that led to such a turbulent socio-political explosion. This explains such an active invasion of the work of romantics of historical genres. It was in such an ideological atmosphere that the historical novel of V. Scott arose and developed, J. Sand, who had a huge impact on all European literature.
With a statement in the consciousness of romantics, the concept of historicism, with the perception of them in the world in motion, and one of the main ideas of their philosophical worldview are connected in development - the idea of \u200b\u200binfinite.
The historicism of romantics and the noted elements of dialectics in their consciousness in their combination focused on individual nations, on the peculiarities of national history, national defendance, life, clothes, and above all at the national past of their homeland. In this past, their as writers were interested in the treasures of folk art. In their works, legends, legends, fairy tales, songs of deep national antiquity, relying on which they poured a fresh stream not only in the actual literature, but in some cases, especially in Germany, they gave a new life with the literary language of their people. In England, a major role was played by the predomantic movement ("Pooms Osiana" MacPherson, "Monuments of the ancient English poetry" PERSI). It had an impact on Gerder, theorist of the Stürmer Movement, the largest representative of the late German enlightenment, who committed many of his own quest, the activities of German romantics. The passionate propaganda of folk songs Gerr is a personal example of a collector gave impetus to the future flowering of domestic German folkloristics in the era of romanticism - the activities of the Grimm brothers ,. Gatherers of German folk fairy tales, and Heidelberg Romantics A. Von Arima, K. Brentano, compilers of the collection of German folk songs "Magic Horn of the boy" (1806-1808), who played a big role for the further development of German romantic poetry and song-romance lyrics in the richest musical Culture of German romanticism.
With the evolution of romanticism, a further invasion of reality in the circle of artistic vision of romantics was connected. The romantic hero does not limit himself only to the immersion in the world of their own sincere emotions. Through their prism, he only widerly perceives the world around. Social reality with her sharp dissonances has already been clearly broken into the subjective world of the Hero of the Vackenroder Berglingler, determining the deep hopeless drama of his fate. And in this regard, composer Berglinger is a character, which in a number of many heroes of early European romanticism is largely endowed with typed features. Moreover, the central and favorite hero of the late romance of Hoffmann - a musician and composer Johannes Creisler, Alter Ego Author, forced to sell his talent to ensure its existence. And the situation in which the Craisler lives and torments, like his literary predecessor Berglinger, is the real feudal-fragmented Germany of the beginning of the last century.
The huge role of romanticism in the development of the artistic consciousness of mankind is not limited to only its concrete historical framework, although it has escorted the most significant and updated the principles and means of artistic understanding of reality. Romanticism as an artistic heritage is alive and relevant for our modern day. In the subsequent development of the romantic tradition, one characteristic pattern is very noticeable, one characteristic of its revival is, as a rule, with breaking public relations and with the situation of the foresight of revolutionary shocks. Stabilization periods, periods of relative social peace did not contribute to the emergence of romantic movements. The disadvantage of romantic traditions up to this day is due primarily to the nature of nonconformism, laid in the philosophical basis of romantic world growth, approving the idea of \u200b\u200bprogress in a romantic desire to ideal, denial of the static state of being, a fundamental statement of new searches.
The main laws of the literary process after 1830
By the beginning of the 1930s, the ratio of forces in the literary development of European countries changed significantly. By the end of the XVIII century. France loses the role of the former legislation of aesthetic norms and tastes in art and literature. In first place, Germany is put forward, with which in different moments successfully competes England. One way or another, all European literature of the pore is full of responses to the aesthetic theories and the literary activities of early German romantics. To the outcome of the 20s, when romanticism becomes an inverted page of German literature, when his literary glory is temporarily buried from the death of Hoffman, when his literary glory turns out to be heine, and there is a forced to leave his homeland, German literature for a long time and firmly moving into the background And inside the process of acute and active anti-agitatic reaction begins inside it. In France, at this time, on the contrary, a romantic movement, although quite significant in its origins, but the scattered and not registered organizationally, it is in the 20s who consolidates forces, becomes a "school", develops its aesthetic program, puts forward new names of the largest poets and writers - Lamartin, Vinyi, Hugo. At the same time, in close connection with a powerful romantic movement and in parallel to him, in the fight against the general literary enemy, the epigonian classicism addles and the new literary direction is growing - the direction of critical realism, represented by early works of Standal, Balzak, Merim. This new young literary France, which is about to enter the J. Sand, and then Flaubert, quickly dismisses its national literature.
True, with all the most reborn since the 30s of his literature, France now does not dictate, as before, literary norms and mods of Europe. And at the same time, according to the manifold of creative individuals, literary and aesthetic schools, and sometimes in the depths of artistic insignifications and theoretical positions of the French literature of that time owns the role of the leader in the Central European Region. And, perhaps, the main factors determined by such a powerful flowerwood of France's literature since the early 1930s were a deep organic connection of its born realistic aesthetics with artistic practice of romanticism, as well as the fact that a significant and bright late stage of French romanticism (J. Sand and Mature Hugo predominantly) falls on the heyday of critical realism. This last circumstance could not not lead to mutual fruitful both direct and indirect contacts of writers of both directions.
In other European countries, due to the national originality of each individual literature, the process of changing romanticism with critical realism passed in various chronological framework, and nevertheless the head of the early 1930s, it was largely or less determined by almost every national literature.
The literature of England of that pore among the other largest national literatures of Europe in their general development goes from romanticism to critical realism. After the lake school, Bayron and Shelly, the public life of England by the beginning of the 1930s highlights Dickens and almost simultaneously with him Techkeea, writers, on the scale of their creativity, according to the degree of talent standing next to their largest contemporaries in European literature on the side of La Mansha .
The work of romantics is sometimes very sharp and from the point of view of the specifically historical value of romanticism in unfair criticism. At the same time, again in the specific historical context of the process of general progressive development of art, this denial of romanticism was inevitably and fruitful. That is why it could turn out that, for example, such an outstanding artist, a man deeply erudite and educated, as a tecker, "did not understand" either Walter Scott, nor the poets of the Lake School, nor Bairon. Another paradoxic in this sense was the situation in Germany, where among the most significant unsuscifiers of romanticism were given such largest authorities as Hegel, Bochner, as well as Heine, the early creativity of which fits one of the brightest pages in the history of romanticism. This "romantic-listing", as aptly called him T. Gauthier, in his brilliant literary-critical pamphlet "Romantic School" (1833-1836), too, "I did not understand the importance of the creativity of your predecessors of Iensev. In France, this aesthetic confrontation received a somewhat muted expression, and it became much later than in England and Germany, "romanticism retained its aesthetic significance here at least two decades closest in 1830.
In general, this noticeable and substantial fracture in the spiritual life of Europe, reflected not only in literature and art, was associated with the development of a new stage of bourgeois-capitalist defendant. The needs of the rapidly developing industry required accurate knowledge of the material world and, accordingly, the development of natural sciences. Stressful philosophical-aesthetic search for romantics, their theoretical abstractions could not contribute to the fulfillment of these tasks. The spirit of the new ideological atmosphere is now determined by the philosophy of positivism, the philosophy of "positive knowledge", as they said then. The concept of positivism did not exhaust the philosophical base of critical realism. Moreover, the range of their impact on the aesthetic system of representatives of this literary direction was poured, for both in the philosophical plan, and in terms of the general world-carriage, most critical realists sometimes remain in spite of their own theoretical declarations under the fruitful effects of romantic concepts. So, for example, in the chain of Dickens - Tekkerei - Standal - Balzac - Flaubert We are easily catching the different degree of impact of positivism on these writers. At the same time, it should be emphasized that positivism was the overall source of the philosophical base of both critical realism and the aesthetic relay of naturalism. Moreover, naturalists, in essence, has already completely lost contact with romanticism, completely rely on the philosophical system of positivism. This junction between the positivism of critical realists and the positivism of naturalists is particularly clearly determined when comparing the aesthetic system of Flaubert, on the one hand, Charflery and Duranti (closer to naturalism, than to realism) - on the other, and even later, Maupassant and Zola, although it is quite obvious With both the latter in their work and overcome, and refuted many regulatory and dogmatic aspects of naturalism aesthetics.
Ultimately, all these notable shifts in the literary process are a change of romantic realism or at least the nomination of critical realism on the role of the direction representing the main line of literature - was determined by the entry of bourgeois capitalist Europe to the new phase of their development.
The most important new point, "characterizing the class forces, which is now, was the exit of the working class on an independent stage of socio-political struggle, the liberation of the proletariat from the organizational and ideological guardianship of the left wing of the bourgeoisie.
The July Revolution, who has overthrown from the throne of Charles X - the last king of the older branch of Bourbon, put an end to the regime. Restoration, broke the domination of the Holy Union in Europe and had a significant impact on the political climate of Europe (a revolution in Belgium, an uprising in Poland).
The formation of critical realism in England chronologically accurately coincides with the sharp fracture in the socio-political life of the country, which was determined by the parliamentary reform of 1832 and the beginning of the chartist movement. At the beginning of the 1930s, Tekrech enters literature, in 1833 it begins work on the "essays of the boration", its first work, Dickens is the largest representatives of critical realism in England.
Similar processes, but having their national characteristics, occurred at the time in France. It was in the 20s that Balzac, Merim, and a little earlier and steadal entered into literature. At the turn of the 20s and 30s, Balzac and Standal create their first significant works - the novels "Shuana" and "Red and Black" and in the coming years become leading representatives of European critical realism.
At the same time, French romanticism undergoes significant changes in their fruitful progressive development. In the early lyrics of the Hugo, in his first experiments, the formation of the romantic perception of reality in confrontation with classic traditions was noted. It was at that time that the Hugo is firmly approved in the principles of romanticism, choosing a romantic drama with acute social sound for a whole decade, creating one of the masterpieces of all romantic prose at the same time - the novel "Cathedral of the Parisian Our Lady." In a new way, the ways of creative development of Lamartin and Vinya - wonderful poets, which already in the 20s made, perhaps, the greatest contribution to the romantic lyrics were made (as for Vinya, the development of a romantic theory). Finally, since the beginning of the 1930s, the romantic tradition of chamber psychological prose, brilliantly developed by early French romantics, is transformed and enriched with the socio-romantic novel of J. Sand. New motives, new ideological and aesthetic trends begins to sound in the work of Beranta, isoshrical and at the same time imbued with the life-affirming democratism of the song of which brought him world famous in the years of restoration.
The nature of the regime of the July monarchy, its socio-political contradictions become the main object of artistic understanding of reality in the French literature of the 30-40s. In realists, this understanding acquires a deeply analytical character, as evidenced by the Roman of Standal "Lucien Leven" and many masterpieces of the "human comedy" Balzak. French critical realism (primarily in the work of Balzac) in the process of artistic and aesthetic analysis of the social essence of the regime of the July monarchy, based on the achievements of romantics, comes to a new understanding of historicism and new principles of typing. It was theoretically substantiated by Balzac. Through the prism of romantic historicism, reality was reality or aesthetic utopia (like in early German romantics), or in conscientiously performed by the reconstruction of the places and time, realities of life, furnishings, clothes, customs (as in drama, poetry and early prose Hugo, early vinti poetry, partly In his novel "Saint-Mar"). The new qualities of the historicism are scheduled already in the historic novel by V. Scott, where the flavor of the place and time is the external detail with all its huge meaning for the creative manner of the writer - does not play a smoil role. The novelist sees its main task in the artistic mapping and understanding of sharp turning points of national history. And perhaps, no other literature of Europe is the first half of the last century, as French, was not so closely related to the name V. Scott. The 20th - the beginning of the 30s in the literary life of France is full of extensions of his creativity. It was a time when, along with a new stage of romanticism, the first victorious steps did critical realism. "Our Father, Walter Scott," called the Great Romanist Balzac. And indeed, it is not difficult to see that the author of "Shuanov" took lessons from the "Scottish Correder". But it was not apprenticeship of epigens or even a follower. The new admirer of the Scottish novelist, with a deep speech, belonging to his teacher, took a lot of his experience, but, arguing a new direction in the literature, he interpreted the principles of historicism. In his grand creation, the "human comedy" Balzac puts the task to show the history of the morals of modern France, i.e. the concept of historicism is updated. In order to understand the essence of the bourgeois gelading of the modern Banker monarchy in France, Balzac is quite naturally connecting its occurrence with the origins of the bourgeoisie power, which she received as a result of the revolution of the end of the XVIII century. In its numerous poses and novels that make up a single whole, Balzac consistently traces dirty, criminal, and sometimes the bloody bourgeois enrichment stories that rule the modern France.
Actually historical in his novels and standal. The greatest modern modernity in "Red and Black", "Lucien Levier" in a different manner than that of Balzak, but maybe even more organically linked to the preceding stages of the development of post-revolutionary France.
This principle of historicism is maintained in the new sound and in Flaubert, the figures large-scale in the European literary process. In the work of Flaubert there was a deep drama of social and aesthetic consciousness, generated by the negative consequences of the defeat of the revolution 1848-1849.
The third large European country is Germany - and by the 30s continuing to remain fragmented, significantly lagged in their economic development not only from England, but also from France. Nevertheless, it is characterized by marked regular patterns. And in Germany, the beginning of the 1930s occurs noticeable for the country public shifts. The most significant manifestation of the opposition movement of the 30s in Germany was the activities of the secret "human rights society", one of whose leaders was George Boochner, and the rebellion of the Hessen peasants associated with the activities of this society.
In the 40s, the role of Germany in the class struggle of the progressive forces of Europe is noticeably increasing. Evidence of this was the powerful uprising of the Silesian weaves of 1844 to Germany, which only now, in the conditions of aggravated class contradictions, approached its bourgeois revolution, the center of the revolutionary movement moves.
The new successes of German literature, partly related to the further development of realistic trends, were a response to the events of the 40s (the so-called premount literature) and the March revolution of 1848 and received an expression in the work of fans, Herveg and Freiligrata. A noticeable phenomenon in the direction of the development of German realism was the drama of the outstanding playwright F. Goebbel "Maria Magdaline" (1844), but its further creativity, if it can be correlated with realism, then only with its peripheral abstract allegoric modifications. And although in German literature before the twist of the creativity of the mann brothers and there were certain phenomena of realism, but neither the work of V. Raaba, A. Stifter or a high-detached novelist T. Storm (a peculiar species of lyrical and psychological realism, very close to romanticism) do not give reason to talk about The direction of critical realism, any close-up on its scale and the artistic and aesthetic quality of the realism of England and France of the same decades.
Marx and Engels play a prominent role in the development of progressive literature of the 40s. Brilliant literary-critical articles of Engels, who tried their forces in the literature, his deep analytical judgments about the modern world literary process, the joint work of Marx and Engels, in which certain literature problems are considered, finally personal contacts of the founders of scientific communism with writers, for example, Heine, in his aggregate represent an important page "in the German and all world literature.
Sometimes the national features of the literary process of Germany are significant, they still do not contradict the fact that with the beginning of the 30s in the literature, as in public life, comes a tangible fracture. This fracture, the main admission of which was the beginning of the formation and development of critical realism, dominating in the literature of England, France, and a few later in the literature of Russia, determines the face of the literary process.
Completely different patterns of socio-political life are characteristic of the United States, where along with industrialized northern states, which have relatively liberal social entities, there are slave-owned southern states.
If in European literature, English and French, first of all, the realistic direction begins to be clearly defined since the beginning of the 30s, in other cases, the romanticism is substantially pushing as a literary direction, then in the literature of the United States at this time, romanticism reaches its heyday, determining the general line of development of the literary process. In 1824, an outstanding romantic, the poet and the Novofilist E. By, whose fame came out far beyond the US and the influence of his work became tangible in European novels. The middle of the century, the 60s, received the name of the American Renaissance period, which is associated with the largest conquests of romantic literature (N. Gotorn, Melville, D. Toro, W. Wheatman, G. U. Longfello). The ideas of subjective-romantic philosophy lay the movement of transcendentalists (30-40s).
At the same time, in the 50s, social intonations are noticeably intensified in the US literature. They, for example, are especially tangible in the philosophical-lyrical prose Romance Toro, in his journalism. In the 40s, the origins of critical realism are also formed in the work of a number of writers, which becomes the leading abolitionist (from English. Abolition - abolition, cancellation) of literature during the Civil War (1861 -1865). In line with this literature, he publishes his widespread novel "Huts' Uncle Tom" (1852) Bilecher-Stow. With the ideas of Abolitionism, the work of another classic of US literature W. Whitman, in the collection of which "leaves of grass" can be traced the development of romanticism towards more objective reflection of reality with its social contradictions. Wheatman's work is an organic combination of a romantic vision of reality with the principles of critical realism. However, only by the end of the century in the work of M. Twin, W. D. Houels, James, he will determine the face of the literary process of the United States.
European revolutions 1848-1849, which covered almost all countries of the continent became the most important milestone of the socio-political process of the XIX century. The events of the end of the 40s marked the final placement of the class interests of the bourgeoisie and proletariat. In addition to the immediate responses on the Revolution of the middle of the century in the work of a number of revolutionary poets, the general ideological atmosphere after the defeat of the revolution was reflected in the further development of critical realism (Dickens, Tekkerei, Flaubert, Heine), and on a number of other phenomena, in particular on the formation of naturalism in European literature .
Especially clearly, the features of naturalistic aesthetics were manifested in the works of French writers Edmon and Jules Gekrov. It is noteworthy as Charflery, and Duranti, who considered themselves realists and genuine successors of Balzak, essentially, in their aesthetics and in creative practice were also naturalists. The aesthetic principles of naturalism confessed at the early stage of its activities and the talented English writer George Eliot. Great psychological skill, acute observation give her the opportunity to create vivid expressive characters, other of which carry the features of social typing, thereby expressing, contrary to the original theoretical platform of the writer, its attitude to the actual reality. However, it is easy to see that in the novels D. Eliot there is not a latitude of historical scope, nor the depths of social generalizations inherent in the creativity of Dickens and Tekkesey. Approximately the same in general terms can be said about another English realist of this period - E. Trollop.
The literary process of the second half of the century with all complicating circumstances of the post-revolutionary period is enriched with new achievements. The positions of critical realism in Slavic countries are fixed. They begin their creative activities such great realists as Tolstoy and Dostoevsky. Critical realism is formed in Belgium's literature, Holland, Hungary, Romania.
The national liberation struggle against Turkish enslave the new forces in the literature experienced in the middle of the century "Epoch Renaissance", the civil revolutionary liberation pathos of which was so brightly sounded in the journalism and poetry of Hristo Botev.
The national liberation movement against the background of a new phase of social contradictions played a decisive role in the bright period, which after 1848 entered the literature of the northern peoples. This sharp fracture in the young Finnish literature, and in the literature of the Scandinavian countries was associated with unresolved conflicts of 1848 - the exacerbation of the relationship between the Danish-German population of Schleswig-Holstery and Prussia, between the Swedish government and the Norwegian public, the influence of the revolutionary situation in Russia for public Life in Finland, where the national self-awareness has fastened. Under the influence of these factors, there are increasingly moving on the back plan. Romantic principles and realistic art begins to play the leading role.
Critical realism. Essence of the method
The focus of the literature of critical realism is the analysis by means of artistic world-carriage class structure, social essence, socio-political contradictions of the modern social system - capitalist relations. Therefore, the main in the specifics of this literary direction and the creative method is the artistic understanding of reality as a social factor, and, consequently, the disclosure of the social determination of the events and characters depicted. When we are talking about the realism of the ancient literature, the realism of the revival, the concept of realism here can be interpreted only in the widest value of this term .. In relation to the literature of the XIX century. It is necessary to consider a realistic product that displays the essence of this socio-historical phenomenon, when the characters of the work carry in themselves the typical, collective features of a particular social layer or class, and the conditions in which they act are not a random fruit of the writer's fancy, and Reflection of the patterns of socio-economic and political life of the era.
For the first time, the characteristic of critical realism was formulated by Engels in April 1888 in a letter to the English writer Margaret Garcness in connection with her novel "City Girl". Expressing a number of friendly wishes regarding this work, Engels calls for its correspondent to the truthful, realistic image of life. Engels judgments contain the fundamental provisions of the theory of realism and today retain their scientific relevance.
"In my opinion," says Engels in writing a writer, "realism suggests, in addition to the veracity of the details, the truthfulness in reproducing typical characters in typical circumstances" *. I mean by typical characters first of all those in which the main social types of the era are expressed, from countless characters in the "human comedy", Engels chooses the characters of representatives of the rising bourgeoisie, and increasing their "pressure to the noble aristocracy, and the characters of aristocrats. As the most important feature of the worldview Balzac Engels notes that he idealized his heart of aristocrats, opposing them to the bourgeois "vulgar bandage". But the power of the realism of Balzak, the truthfulness of his socio-historical analysis Engels see that Satira Balzak becomes especially sharp, irony - especially bitter when the writer It describes that it is these expensive aristocrats and aristocrats. The fact that Balzac has shown them as representatives of a class leaving from historical arena, irrevocably losing their former power, their typical was concluded.
[* Marx K., Engels F. Selected letters. M., 1948. P. 405.]
And the greatest merit of the realist Balzak Engels believes that the authentic people of the future writer did not see the winning bourgeoisie, but in the Republicans Saint-Merry - where they were really there at that time. Thus, revealing the main direction of social conflicts between the nobility, the bourgeoisie and the People's Revolutionary Democracy, the author of the "human comedy" presented in the dynamics of the historical development of the modern bourgeois-aristocratic France. The nearest historical act of this process was the revolution of 1848, in which the working class of France spoke by the successor of the heroes of Saint-Merry, with Balzac.
Typification in art was not the discovery of critical realism. The art of any era on the basis of the aesthetic norms of its time in the respective artistic forms was given was to reflect the characteristic or, as otherwise began to say, typical features of modernity, inherent in artistic works characteristics, in those conditions in which these characters acted.
Typification of critical realists is a higher degree of this principle of artistic knowledge and reflection of reality, rather than their predecessors. It is expressed in combination and organic relationships of typical characters and typical circumstances. In the richest arsenal of funds of realistic typing, at all, psychologism is at all. But the spiritual world of the heroes of critical realists is socially determined. Such a principle of building characters and identified a deeper degree of historicism in critical realists compared to romantics. However, the characters in critical realists were less like sociological schemes. Not so much external detail in the character description is a portrait, a suit, how much his psychological appearance (there was a standal unsurpassed master here) recreates the image deeply individualized.
This is how Balzac was built by his doctrine of artistic typing, arguing that along with the main features, inherent in many people, representing one or another class, one or another social layer, the artist embodies the unique individual features of a separate specific person as in its appearance, in an individualized Speech portrait, features of clothing, gait, in manners, gestures, and in the appearance of the inner, spiritual.
Realists of the XIX century. When creating artistic images showed a hero in development, depicted the evolution of character, which was determined by the complex interaction of the individual and society. By this, they differed sharply from enlighteners and romantics. Perhaps the first and very striking example was the novel of Standal "Red and Black", where the deep dynamics of the character of Julien Southell is the main character of this work - reveals at the stages of his biography.
The art of critical realism puts its task objective artistic reproduction of reality. Writer-Realist founded his artistic discoveries on a deep scientific study of the facts and phenomena of life. Therefore, the works of critical realists are the richest source of information about the era described. For example, Roman Standal "Lucien Leven" gives an idea of \u200b\u200bthe public utensils of the first years of the July monarchy in France in many respects more accurate and brighter than special scientific work on this period.
This side of critical realism was also noted by the founders of Marxism. For Engels "Human Comedy" Balzak had a value not only as a highly artistic work, to at least he appreciated her as a huge work of a cognitive nature.
Marx in its characteristic of the English realistic novel XIX century is also talking about the same informative meaning of literature of critical realism.
Aesthetic origins of critical realism
Each literary direction and the creative method are caused by the prerequisites not only socio-political under all of their important meaning, but also aesthetic. They add up both in certain phenomena of the literature of the past and in the whole literary directions. In essence, in the entire world literary process, the process of progressive development and formation of realism is consistently traced. In this process, a special place belongs to Titans for the revival of Rabl, Cervantes, Shakespeare, and others. Their experience was undoubtedly affected by the work of each other realistic artist, regardless of whether he was directly related to this experience or not. K. Writers of critical realism The experience of Renaissance artists came in part and through the interpretation of his romantics, among which German, especially early, were active adepts and propagandists of the Renaissance. A no less significant component of the aesthetic origins of critical realism was the realistic literature of the Epoch of Enlightenment, in particular, it should be emphasized here to emphasize the meaning of the English novel XVIII century. Critical realists perceived anti-refortional, and wider - the socio-critical trend of educational realism, its subtle psychological skills (Laurence Stern).
From enlighteners, critical realists perceived faith in the cognitive power of the human mind. With realists, the enlightenment of critical realists brings together the approval of the educational, civil mission of art. For Dickens, for example, it was characterized by an obvious exaggeration of this role of artistic creativity, whose forces (and only them) he believed possible to eradicate social evil. This belief and led him on the outcome of the creative path to heavy disappointments.
By no means denying this mission of art, French critical realists assigned a significantly more real and important role. As with educational realists, the typological artistic principle of critical realists has become an image of reality in the forms of reality itself. The organic impact of the artistic and aesthetic experience of the enlighteners for further fate of realistic literature is very clearly traced in connection with the novels Goethe about Wilhelm Meister ("Years of the Teaching of Wilhelm Meister" and "Years of Wilhelm Meister Wester"), which are one of the first experiments of the Roman Education. All the subsequent development of the novel in German literature up to this day in one way or another transforms this model of Roman Goethe.
There are even more frontal and deep connections of critical realism with romanticism (not only chronologically, but also in terms of the essence of the creative method), which prepared the formation of critical realism. These organic contacts are characteristic as for the creative evolution of individual writers (Heine, Byron, Shelly, Balzac, Flaubert, partly Hugo, Zhend) and in a generalization plan.
Socio-political issues, which becomes dominant in the work of critical realists, in its ideological and aesthetic genesis and development from educational realism (if you take the closest to the realism of the XIX century. The aesthetic category) was not interrupted in romanticism, although, as a rule, played It has a peripheral role.
Based on the fruitful experience of romantics in the disclosure of the inner world of characters, the psychology of acting persons, writers - critical realists ilk the possibilities of typical of characters. Unlike sentimentalists and romantics, psychologism as one of the means of typing in critical realists does not have self-sufficient importance and is associated with the disclosure of the generalizing social content of one or another nature. Psychologist of romantics was perceived and revived in the work of critical realists. Especially clear this connection is traced in the literary process of France.
Recall that one of the most important abstracts of romantic aesthetics, especially clearly formulated by the Hugo in his preface to the Kromwell drama, was the requirement of a local and historical color, that is, a thorough description of the situation of the epoch, in which the artistic work occurs, specifically historical , and often and household realities of the era. The skill of such descriptions is distinguished by the novels of V. Scott, the novel "Cathedral of the Paris Mother of God" Hugo. In the development of this part of its artistic system, romance prepared and fertilized the creative practice of critical realists. Enough in this regard, to recall the majority of novels and the mistakes of Balzak, marked with brilliant skill descriptions.
The romantic theory of contrasts, proclaimed and consistently embodied Hugo, B, was a significant degree of reflection of dialectical contradictions of reality in the work of critical realists.
One of the leading the creation of critical realists is the topic of lost illusions. It is characteristic of all European literature XIX century, and the emergence of it was associated with the ideological consequences of the French revolution of the late XVIII century.
The creative evolution of some romantics, as if reproducing the overall evolution of romanticism, was marked with a large appeal to the image of a particular real reality, the weakening of the subjective principle, the departure from the regulatory abstractions and the allegories. Such is, for example, the evolution of Bairon, Shelly, Heine. In varying degrees of expression, we have a case with aging realistic trends in the depths of romanticism.
On the other hand, the essential and fruitful impact of romanticism also experienced many significant representatives of critical realism. Deeply connected with the artistic consciousness of romanticism was Dickens, all the work of which was painted by a romantic-utopian dream of the indispensable celebration of good, about universal love and fraternity. Standal, also learned the lessons of romantics, in his creative manner was especially close to them. This affected not only in his deep and master psychology, but also in the most ideological and aesthetic structure of his novels, in the center of which is always worth the protagonist, opposed reality and towering over it.
Its character of the perception of a romantic tradition is peculiar and some, especially early, the works of Merim, Balzak.
In critical realism, as in the literary direction, not only a critical start (as it may be, and it could be introduced in connection with this term himself). For most realists, a high positive ideal, a positive start was equally important than the socio-critical orientation. The harsh accusers of the modern social system, they opposed her to her the dream of a fair social device, although the dream was utopian; The high moral and ethical ideal was opposed to the social evil. And perhaps, one of the most convincing evidence is an extensive gallery of bright positive heroes in the works of critical realists. It should be emphasized that most of these positive heroes belonged to the social nose of society. It was in representatives of the masses of the masses, critical realists were looking for and saw the true embodiment of their moral and ethical ideals.
In this regard, it is necessary to specifically say about the meaning of the term "critical realism" itself. It is very imperfect, because it is obviously interpreting the phenomena of the literary process defined by them as aimed only on the disclosure of negative phenomena of reality. This initial thesis is deeply erroneous not only because it enters into a complete contradiction with the facts of the literary process itself, but also because every genuine art cannot exist and develop beyond positive ideals.
The tradition of the XIX century has a primary value. For the literature of our century. Although the paths undergoing modern literature are different, the leading line of its development is associated with the perception and rethinking of the principles of realism in the art of the XIX century.