He wrote about everyday life and work. Casual life of medieval Russia (based on moral literature)

Relevance The chosen topic of research is due to the growing interest in the public interest in the study of the history of their people. Ordinary people are usually more interested in specific manifestations of human life, it is they who do a story not dry disturbed discipline, but visible, understandable and close. Today we need to know their roots, to imagine how the weekdays of our ancestors proceeded, carefully maintain this knowledge for descendants. Such continuity contributes to the formation of national self-consciousness, brings up the patriotism of the younger generation.

Consider the degree of problem learning Daily life and morals of medieval Russia in science. All literature dedicated to everyday life can be divided into several groups: pre-revolutionary, Soviet and modern.

Pre-revolutionary domestic historiography, primarily presented by works by N.M. Karamzin, St. Solovyov and V.O. Klyuchevsky, although it is not exhausted by three of these loud names. However, these honorable historians, mainly, showed a historical process, whereas, according to L.V. Belovinsky, "The historical process is a thing, in a sense, abstract, and the life of the people is concrete. This life proceeds in her everyday life, in small things, concerns, interests, habits, tastes of a particular person who has a particle of society. It is highly diverse And complicated. And the historian, seeking to see the general, patterns, perspective, is in large scale. " Consequently, this approach cannot be included in the course of the history of everyday life.

In the middle of the XIX century came out and almost immediately became a bibliographic rarity book of a famous scientist A.V. Tereshchenko "life of the Russian people" is the first attempt in Russia for the scientific development of ethnographic material. At one time, experts and inhabitants were reading. In the monograph, the richest material describing the dwellings, the rules of housekeeping, outfits, music, games (fun, dance), pagan and Christian rites of our ancestors (wedding, funeral, commemoration, etc., common rites, such as Spring-Red Meeting, Celebration of red slide, Ivan Kupala, etc., shints, carnival).

The book was met with great interest, but when large shortcomings of it were discovered, who made the material to Tereshchenko doubtful, began to treat it to be more stricter than it deserves.

Significant contribution to the study of life and morals of medieval Russia Vidos I.E. Slain. It is his books that can be considered the first attempt to appeal to a person in history, his inner world. He was the first to oppose historians "loud, rattling wars, lesions, etc.", against the information of the story only to "external facts". Already in the middle of the last century, he complained that "forgot about a person," and called on the focus on the daily life of the people, from which, according to his concept, grew religious establishments, and political institutions of any society. The life of the people should have taking the place of "government officials" and "government documents", which, according to the characteristic of slain, is "the material is purely paper, dead."

He himself in his works, the main one of which is undoubtedly the "home life of the Russian kings", created a living picture of the Russian everyday mistake of the XVI-XVII centuries. Being by convictions by Western, he created an accurate and truthful, without idealization and discredit, the image of Dopererovskaya Rus.

Contemporary I.E. His Petersburg colleague Nikolai Ivanovich Kostomarov was slain. The book of the last "sketch of the life of the life and morals of the Great Russian people in the XVI-XVII centuries" was addressed not only and not so much to the audience as a wide circle of readers. The historian himself explained in the introduction that the essay form was elected to them in order to convey historical knowledge to people, "immersed in their classes", which have no time nor the strength to develop "scientists" articles and "raw materials", similar to acts of archeographic Commission. In general, the work of Kostomarova is read much easier than labor is designed. Details in it is inferior to the place of fluency output and the breadth of material coverage. It does not have a heavy scrupulousness of slain text. Kostomarov pays more attention to the household population of the simple people.

Thus, a review of classical historical literature on the subject of study leads us to the conclusion that the object of observation of scientists is becoming either large historical processes of the past, or the ethnographic details of modern authors of the people's life.

Soviet historiography on the topic of research is presented, for example, by the works of B.A. Romanova, D.S. Likhacheva et al.

Book BA Romanova "People and morals of ancient Russia: Historical and domestic essays of the XI-XIII centuries." It was written in the late 1930s, when her author, St. Petersburg historian, archivist and musevian, accused of participating in the "counter-revolutionary plot", was released after several years of imprisonment. Romanov had the talent of the historian: the ability to see the ability to see how he was expressed, "patterns of life." And yet the ancient Russia was not the goal for him, and the means "to collect and put their own thoughts about the country and the people." At first, he really tried to recreate the daily life of the Domongol Rus, without leaving the circle of canonical sources and traditional methods of working with them. However, "soon the historian realized that it was impossible: such a" historical canvas "would consist of solid holes."

In the book D.S. Likhacheva "Man in the literature of Ancient Russia" is investigated by the features of the image of a human nature in the works of ancient Russian literature, while the Russian chronicles are becoming the main material of the research. At the same time, the monumental style in the literature in the literature in the person of a person leaves the framework of the study of the researcher's details of the life of ordinary Rus.

It can be concluded that in the books of Soviet historians, a targeted study of medieval everyday life is absent.

Modern studies are represented by works by V.B. Strangin, L.V. Belovinsky, N.S. Borisov, etc.

In the book N.S. Borisova "The casual life of medieval Russia on the eve of the end of the world" for the main point of reference is taken from 1492. - The year, when the end of the world was expected (for this period of the beginning of the terrible court, many ancient prophecies indicated). Based on the chronicle sources, the works of the ancient Russian literature, certificates of foreign travelers, the author considered the key moments of the reign of Ivan III, some features of the monastic life, as well as everyday life and morals of the Russian Middle Ages (wedding rite, features of the behavior of a married woman, marital relationship, divorce). However, the period under study is limited only by the XV century.

Separately, it is worth allocating the work of the emigrant historian, the student V.O. Klyuchevsky, Eurasian G.V. Vernadsky. The head of his book "Kievan Rus" is fully devoted to the description of the life of our ancestors. Relying on archaeological and ethnographic, as well as folklore and chronicle sources, the author describes the dwellings and furniture, clothing, the food of different layers of the population, the main rites associated with the cycle of life of the Russian man. Reaffirming the thesis that "there is a lot of similarities between the Kiev Rus and the Tsarist Russia of the Late Period", the author of the monograph often draws conclusions about the existence of medieval rusch on the basis of analogies with the vitality and life of Russians at the end of the nineteenth century.

Thus, modern historians pay attention to the history of the everyday life of Russia, however, in the main object of the study, the Tsarist Russia, or the period under study is not fully covered, partially. In addition, it is obvious that none of the scientists attract the moral sources as a research material.

In general, it can be concluded that at present a scientific study has not been made, in which the study of the history of the everyday life of medieval Russia would be carried out on the basis of the analysis of texts of moral sources.

Purpose of the study: On the material of medieval moral sources to analyze the daily life of a medieval person.

Objectives of research:

Trace the origin and development of such a direction as the "History of everyday life", highlight the main approaches.

Analyze historical literature on the topic of research and texts of moral sources and allocate the main spheres of everyday life: the wedding, funeral, food, holidays and entertainment and the role and place of a woman in a medieval society.

Methods of work. The course work was based on the principle of historicism, reliability, objectivity. Among scientific and specific historical methods are applied: analysis, synthesis, typology, classification, systematization, as well as problem-chronological, historical and genetic, comparative historical methods.

The historical and anthropological approach in learning the topic involves, firstly, fixing attention on micro-objects in order to give them a detailed description; Secondly, the shift of the accent from the total on special, individual. Thirdly, the key concept for historical anthropology is "culture" (and not the "society" or "state"), accordingly, an attempt will be made to comprehend its meaning, decipher a certain cultural code underlying words and actions of people. It is from here - an increased interest in the language and the concepts of the era studying, to the symbolism of everyday life: rituals, dressed, eat, communicate with each other, etc. The main tool for studying the chosen culture is the interpretation, that is, "such a multi-layered description, when everything, even the smallest details, hoped from sources, develop, like slices of smalt, forming a holistic picture."

Characteristics of sources. Our study is based on a complex of historical sources.

The moral literature is a kind of spiritual writing, which has a practical, religious and moral appointment, associated with the formation of useful rules, instruction in everyday affairs, a teaching in life wisdom, chinning in sins and vices, etc. In accordance with this, moral literature is as close as possible to real life situations. This is an expression in such genres of moral literature as "words", "teaching", "messages", "instruction", "saying", etc.

Over time, the nature of the moral literature has changed: it has evolved from simple moral spokes to moral treatises. By the XV-XVI centuries. In words and messages, the copyright position is increasingly visible, which is based on a certain philosophical foundation.

Morals are distinguished by a kind of property associated with the features of the ancient Russian consciousness: Maxims, maxims, proverbs, teachings are built on the basis of a sharp opposition of opposing moral concepts: good - evil, love - hatred, truth - lies, happiness - misfortune, wealth - poverty, etc. . The teacher literature of ancient Russia was a kind of form of moral experience.

As a literary genre, moral literature, on the one hand, comes from the Old Testament Wisdom, Proverd Solomon, Wisdom of Jesus Son Syrahov, Gospel; On the other hand, from Greek philosophy in the form of brief performances with a pronounced ethical orientation.

According to the degree of use and prevalence in the Middle Ages and earlier, the New Time, the moral literature ranked second, going at once for the liturgical service. In addition to having an independent importance of copyrights with moral and edification, significant distribution and impact on the formation of a national character and the originality of spiritual culture had didactic collections of the XI-XVII centuries, created by collective or unknown authors.

Their common features (in addition to anonymity) are theocentrism, the handwritten nature of the existence and distribution, traditionality, etiquette, the abstract-generalized nature of morals. Even those of the collections that were transferred, were certainly complemented by the original Russian material, reflecting the worldview of the compiler and customers.

In our opinion, it is the moral patterns that, on the one hand, they define moral samples, they show the ideal representations of the people about how to behave how to live, how to act in one or another situation, on the other hand, reflect the real existing traditions and customs, signs of everyday life of different layers of medieval society. It is these traits that make moral sources an indispensable material for studying the history of everyday life.

As a moral source sources, the following were selected for analysis:

Exchange 1076;

"The Word about Kyril" Cyril, Philosopher Slovenian;

"Tale about Akir Programmer";

"Wise Menandra wisdom";

"Merily righteous";

"Word about evil wives";

"Domostroy";

"Violet".

"Celebrate of 1076" is one of the oldest dated manuscripts of religious-ideological content, a monument to the so-called moral philosophy. The existing opinion is that the flavor is compiled by the order of the Kiev Prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich, it seems to most scientists unjust. The scribe John, rewriting for Prince Iaslav Bulgarian compilation, may have made the manuscript under consideration for himself, although it used for her materials from the princely library. The composition of the flavor includes brief interpretations of St. Scriptures, articles about prayer, about post, about reading books, "teaching children" xenophon and aeodora.

"The Word about Khmele" Kirill, the philosopher of Slovenian directed against drunkenness. One of the earliest lists of the work refers to the 70th. XV century And made the monk of the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery Efrosina. The text "Words" is interesting not only by its content, but also by its shape: it is written by a rhythm prose, turning places in the rhymed speech.

"The story of Akir Programmer" is an ancient Russian translation story. The primorical story was formed in Assiro-Babylonia in the VII-V centuries. BC. The Russian translation dates back to Syrian, or to the Armenian prototype and may have been implemented in the XI-XII centuries. The story tells the story of Akira - the wise adviser to the Assyrian king of Synagripp, slandered by his nephew rescued from the execution of a friend and thanks to his wisdom who saved the country from the humiliating Dani to the Egyptian Pharaoh.

"Wisdom of the Wise Menandra" - collections of short spinners (monostrophs) chosen from the writings of the famous ancient Greek Menandra playwright (OK.343 - OK.291). The time of their Slavic translation and the appearance in Russia cannot be accurately defined, but the nature of the relationships of texts in senior lists allows you to read the date of translation XIV or even the XIII century. Topics of the sayings are diverse: this is a glorification of kindness, the abstinence, mind, hard work, generosity, condemnation of people of cunning, envious, false, stingy, themes of family life and the glorification of "good wives", etc.

"Bee" is a transfer collection of spokes and brief historical jokes (i.e. short stories about the actions of famous people), known in the ancient Russian book. It is found in three varieties. The most common contains 71 chapters, it has been translated no later than the XII-XIII centuries. From the titles of chapters ("about wisdom", "about the teachings and conversation", "about wealth and gods", etc.) it can be seen that the sayings were chosen on topics and mainly concerned the issues of morality, the norms of behavior, Christian piety.

"Merylo Righteous", legal collection of ancient Russia, created in the XII-XIII centuries, as a guide for judges. Preserved in the manuscripts of the XIV-XVI centuries. Contemplates from two parts. The first part contains original and translational "words" and teaching about righteous and unrighteous courts and judges; In the second - church and secular laws of Byzantium, borrowed from Kormac, as well as the most ancient monuments of Slavic and Russian law: "Russian True", "Law of the Judgment People", "rule legally about church people."

"The Word of Evil Wives is a complex of interrelated works on one topic common in the ancient Russian handwritten collections. The texts of the "Words" are movable, which allowed scissors to share them, and to unite, replenish the statements of the sayings from Solomon's parable, excerpts from the bee, from the "Word" of Daniel Sharpener. Found in the ancient Russian bookstability already from the XI century; They are part of the evidencer 1073, Zlatostruia, Prolog, Izmaragda, numerous collections. Among the texts with which the ancient Russian scribes replenished their writings "On Evil Wives", draw attention to the peculiar "worldly parables" - small storylocks (about the husband, weeping ο an evil wife; ο selling children from an evil wife; ο old woman looking into the mirror ; ο married in a rich widow; ο the husband who pretended to the patient; ο inserted the first wife and asking for myself another; ο the husband, whose name was the monkeys and others on the sight). The word "about evil wives" is published on the list of "Golden Matitsa", dating in watermarks in the second half of the 70s - the beginning of the 80s. XV century

"Domostroy", that is, "homemade dispensation", - a literary and publicistic monument of the XVI century. This is broken by the heads of the Code of the Code of Religious and Public Behavior of Human, the rules of education and the life of the wealthy citizen, the set of rules that every citizen should have been guided by. The narrative element in it is subordinate to the outfit purposes, each position is argued here by references to the texts of the Holy Scriptures. But it differs from other medieval monuments to the fact that the proof of the truth of this or that position is given to the saying of folk wisdom. Composed by a well-known figure from the nearest environment of Ivan Grozny, Protopope Sylvester, "Domostroy" is not only an composition of moral and family-household type, but also a peculiar consolidation of socio-economic norms of civil society.

"Violet" rises through the Polish through the Latin work of Peter Conduction and dates back XVI century. The book has practical advice on the choice of space for the house, describes the subtleties of preparation of building materials, cultivation of field, garden, vegetable crops, on the cultivation of arable land, garden, garden, vineyard, contains some medical advice, etc.

The work consists of administration, two chapters, conclusion, a list of sources and literature.

Chapter 1. Narching and development of the direction of everyday life in Western and Patriotic Historical Science

The history of everyday life today is a very popular direction of historical and in general humanitarian knowledge. As a separate branch of historical knowledge was designated relatively recently. Although the main stories of everyday history, such as life, clothing, work, rest, customs, were studied in some aspects for a long time, at present there are no interest in historical science. There is an unprecedented interest in everyday life problems. Everyday life is the subject of a whole complex of scientific disciplines: sociology, psychology, psychiatry, linguistics, theory of art, theory of literature and, finally, philosophy. This topic is often dominated in philosophical treatises and scientific research, the authors of which turn to certain aspects of life, history, culture and politics.

History of everyday life - The industry of historical knowledge, the subject of studying which is the sphere of human ordness in its historical and cultural, political and eventful, ethnic and confessional contexts. In the center of attention of the history of everyday life, according to the modern researcher N.L. Pushkareva, a reality that is interpreted by people and has a subjective importance for them as a solid life world, a comprehensive study of this reality (living world) of people of different social layers, their behavior and emotional reactions to events.

The history of everyday life was originated in the middle of the XIX century, and as an independent branch of the study of the past in the humanities originated at the end of the 60s. XX century In these years, an interest in research related to the study of a person, and in connection with this, German scientists are first begins to engage in the history of everyday life. The slogan sounded: "From the study of state policy and analysis of global social structures and processes, we turn to small life worlds, to the everyday life of ordinary people." There was a direction "History of everyday life" or "Back History".

It can also be noted that a splash of interest in the study of everyday life coincided with the so-called "anthropological coup" in philosophy. M. Weber, E. Gusserl, S. Kierkegore, F. Nietzsche, M. Heidegger, A. Shopenhauer and others proved that it is impossible to describe many phenomena of the human world and nature, remaining in the positions of classical rationalism. For the first time, the philosophers drew attention to the internal relationships between the diverse spheres of human life, which ensure the development of society, its integrity and uniqueness at each time stage. It is increasingly important to acquire studies of the diversity of consciousness, the internal experience of experiences, various forms of everyday life.

We are interested in what they understood and understood under everyday life and how to interpret her scientists?

For this it makes sense to call the largest German historians everyday life. The historian-sociologist Norbert Elias with his works "on the concept of everyday life", "On the Civilization Process", "Court Society" is considered a classic in this area. N. Elias says that a person in the process of life absorbs public norms of behavior, thinking and as a result they become a mental appearance of his personality, as well as that as a form of human behavior varies in the course of social development.

Also Elias tried to define the "history of everyday life." He noted that there is no accurate, clear definition of everyday life, but he tried to give a certain concept through contrasting non-everyday life. For this, he made lists of some ways to apply this concept that are found in the scientific literature. The result of his work was the conclusion that at the beginning of the 80s. The history of everyday life is so far "neither fish, nor meat." .

Another scientist who worked in this direction was Edmund Husserl, a philosopher who formed a new attitude towards "ordinary". It became the founder of phenomenological and hermeneutic approaches in studying everyday life and first drew attention to the importance of the "sphere of human ordness", the everyday life called the "vital world". It was his approach that was an impulse for scientists of other areas of humanitarian science to study the problem of determining everyday life.

Among the followers of Husserl, you can pay attention to Alfred Shyza, who proposed to focus on the analysis of the "world of human immediacy", i.e. On those feelings, fantasies, desires, doubts and reactions to direct private events.

From the point of view of social feminology, the shyuz determines, everyday life as "the sphere of human experience, characterized by a special form of perception and understanding of the world arising from labor activity, which has a number of characteristics, among whom confidence in the objectivity and self-evidence of peace and social interactions, which, in fact, And there is a natural installation. "

Thus, the followers of social feminology come to the conclusion that everyday life is the one, the sphere of human experience, orientations and actions, thanks to which a person plans plans, affairs and interests.

The next step towards the allocation of everyday life in the science industry was the appearance of modernist sociological concepts in the 60s of the XX century. For example, the theories of P. Berger and T. Lukman. The peculiarity of their views was that they called on to study "meetings of people face to face", believing that such meetings "(social interactions) are" the main content of everyday life. "

In the future, other theories, the authors who tried to give an analysis of everyday life as part of sociology. Thus, it led to its transformation into an independent direction in the sciences of society. This change, of course, was reflected in the historical sciences.

A huge contribution to the study of everyday representatives of the school "Annov" - Mark Block, Lucien Fevr and Fernan Strajel. "Annals" in the 30s. XX century They turned to the study of the man-worker, the subject of their study becomes the "history of the masses" in opposition to the "stories of stars", the story visible is not "top", and "bottom". According to N.L. Pushkareva, they offered to see the reconstruction of the "everyday" element of the recreation of history and its integrity. They studied the features of the consciousness of not outstanding historical personalities, but a massive "silent majority" and its influence on the development of history and society. Representatives of this area investigated the mentality of ordinary people, their experiences, and the material side of everyday life. AND I. Gurevich noted that this task was successfully performed by their supporters and successors who were grouping around the annals created in the 1950s magazine. The story of everyday life acted in their works part macrocontext. Life of the past.

The representative of this direction, Mark Blok appeals to the history of culture, social psychology and studies it, proceeding not from the analysis of the thought of individual individuals, but in directly mass manifestations. The focus of the historian has a person. The block is in a hurry to clarify: "Not a person, but people are people organized in classes, public groups. In the field of view of the block - typical, mostly massive phenomena in which repeatability can be detected."

One of the main ideas of the block was that the historian's study begins not from collecting material, but from setting the problem and questions to the source. He believed that "the historian by analyzing the terminology and vocabulary of the preserved written sources is able to force these monuments much more."

Studying the problem of everyday life was engaged in French historian Fernan Stradel. He wrote that it was possible to know everyday life through the material life - "these are people and things, things and people." The only way to experience the daily existence of a person is to study things - food, dwellings, clothes, luxury items, tools, cash, plans for villages and cities - Word everything that serves a person.

The French historians of the second generation of the Annals School "Annals" continued "Line Stolel" the "Annov" line was studied between the lifestyle of people and their mentality, household social psychology. The use of a Broadland approach in historiography of a number of Central Europe countries (Poland, Hungary, Austria) began in the middle - the second half of the 70s, comprehended as an integrative method of knowledge of a person in history and the "spirit of time". According to N.L. Pushkareva, it received the greatest recognition from medievists and experts on the history of early new time and is less practiced by specialists studying the recent past or modernity.

Another approach in understanding the history of everyday life arose and to this day prevails in German and Italian historiography.

In the face of the German history of everyday life, an attempt was made to determine the history of everyday life as a kind of new research program. This is evidenced by the book "History of everyday life in Germany in Germany. Reconstruction of historical experience and lifestyle".

According to S.V. Obolensk, German researchers called on the study of "microfores" of ordinary, ordinary, inconspicuous people. They believed that an important detailed description of all beggars and disadvantaged, as well as their mental experiences. For example, one of the most common topics of research is the life of workers and labor movement, as well as working families.

An extensive part of the history of everyday life is a study of the daily daily women. In Germany, there are many works devoted to the female issue, women's work, the role of women in public life in different historical era. The Center for Research on the Women's Question has been created here. Special attention is paid to the life of women in the post-war period.

In addition to the German "historians of everyday life," a number of researchers in Italy proved to interpret it as synonym for "microforith". In the 1970s, a small group of such scientists (K. Ginzburg, D. Levi, etc.) ran around around the magazine created by them, starting the publication of the scientific series "Micristory". These scientists made decent science attention not only common, but also the only, random and private in history, whether it is an individual, an event or an incident. A random study - proved supporters of a microforic approach - should be a starting point for working on recreating multiple and flexible social identities that arise and are destroyed in the process of functioning of a network of relationships (competition, solidarity, association, etc.). Thus, they sought to understand the relationship between individual rationality and collective identity.

The German-Italian School of Micristoists in the 1980-90s expanded. It was replenished American researchers of the past, which a little later joined the studies of the history of mentality and solving the symbols and meanings of everyday life.

Common for two approaches in studying the history of everyday life - and scheduled by F. Woodle, and microforics - there was a new understanding of the past as the "history of the bottom" or "from within", which gave a "little man", the victim of modernization processes: both unusual and the most ordinary . Two approaches in studies of everyday life also combines links with other sciences (sociology, psychology and ethnology). They equally contributed to the recognition that the person of the past is not looked like a man of today, they equally, they recognize that the study of this "dissimilarity" is the way to comprehend the mechanism of sociopsychological changes. In world science, both understanding of the history of everyday life continue to coexist - and as a reconstructing mental macrocontext of the event history, and as the implementation of microforic analysis techniques.

A significant contribution to the development of the history of everyday life N.L. Pushkareva. The main result of the research work Pushkareva is the recognition of the direction of gender studies and the history of women (historical feminology) in the domestic humanitarian knowledge.

Most written Pushkareva N.L. Books and articles are devoted to the history of women in Russia and Europe. Association of American Slavists Book Pushkareva N.L. Recommended as a textbook at US universities. Works N.L. Pushkareva has a high citation index among historians, sociologists, psychologists, cultural scientists.

The works of this researcher identified and comprehensively analyzed the wide range of problems of the "History of Women" as in Doparyrovskaya Russia (XVII - 14th century) and in Russia of the XVIII - early XIX century.

N.L. Pushkarev pays direct attention to the study of the privacy issues and everyday life of representatives of various estates of the Russian Society of the XVIII - early XIX century, including the noble. It is installed along with the universal features of the "female ethos" specific differences, for example, in the upbringing and lifestyle of the provincial and metropolitan nobility. Giving a special meaning when studying the emotional world of Russian women, the relation "General" and "individual", N.L. Pushkareva emphasizes the importance of the transition "to a study of privacy as the history of specific individuals, sometimes not very famous and not exceptional. This approach makes it possible to" get acquainted "with them through literature, office work documents, correspondence.

The last decade has demonstrated the growing interest of Russian historians to everyday history. The main directions of scientific search are formed, under the new angle of view, well-known sources are analyzed, new documents are introduced into scientific circulation. According to M.M. Chrome, in Russia the history of everyday life is now experiencing a real boom. As an example, you can bring the emerging in the publishing house "Young Guard" Series "Live History. Everyday life of mankind." Along with the translation works in this series, A.I. books were published Runovova, E.V. Romanenko, E.V. Lavrentieva, S.D. Okhlyabinina and other Russian authors. Many studies are based on memoir literature and archival sources, they are described in detail the life and morals of narration heroes.

Exit to a fundamentally new scientific level in the study of the everyday history of Russia, which has long been in demand by researchers and readers, is associated with the intensification of work on the preparation and publication of documentary collections, memoir literature, reprinting previously published works with detailed scientific comments and a reference apparatus.

Today we can talk about the formation of individual trends in the study of the everyday history of Russia - this is the study of everyday life of the Empire period (XVIII - the beginning of the XX C), the Russian nobility, peasants, citizens, officers, student, spiritual estate etc.

In the 1990s - early 2000s. The scientific problem "Casual Russia" is gradually mastered by the historians of universities, which began to use new knowledge in the process of teaching historical disciplines. Historians of Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov even prepared a textbook "Russian everyday life: from sources until the middle of the XIX century", which, according to the authors, "allows you to add, expand and deepen the knowledge of the real life of people in Russia." Sections 4-5 of this publication are devoted to the everyday life of the Russian Society of the XVIII - the first half of the XIX century. and cover a fairly wide range of issues of almost all segments of the population: from the city grounds to the secular society of the Empire. It is impossible to disagree with the recommendation of the authors to use this publication as an addition to existing textbooks, which will allow to expand the idea of \u200b\u200bthe world of Russian life.

Prospects for the study of the historical past Russia in the perspective of everyday life are obvious and promising. Evidence of this is the research activity of historians, philologists, sociologists, cultural scientists, ethnologists. By virtue of its "world responsiveness", everyday life is recognized as a sphere of interdisciplinary research, but at the same time requires methodological accuracy in approaches to the problem. As the culturologist I.A. noticed Mankiewicz, "in the space of everyday life, the" lines of life "of all spheres of human existence is converged ..., everyday life is" our all interspersed with not our ... ".

Thus, I would like to emphasize that in the 21st century, everyone is recognized that the history of everyday life has become a noticeable and promising course in historical science. Nowadays, the history of everyday life is no longer called, as it was before, the "history of the bottom", and separate it from the compositions of non-professionals. Her task is to analyze the living world of ordinary people, studying the history of everyday behavior and everyday experiences. The history of everyday life is interested, first of all, repeated events, the history of experience and observation, experiences and lifestyles. This is a story, reconstructed "bottom" and "from within", by the person himself. Everyday life is the world of all people in which not only material culture, food, housing, clothing, but also everyday behavior, thinking and experiences are investigated. A special microforic direction of "history of everyday life" is developing, concentrating on single societies, villages, families, autobiographies. Of interest are small people, men and women, their collisions with significant events, such as industrialization, state education or revolution. Historians outlined the subject area of \u200b\u200bthe everyday life of a person, pointed to the methodological significance of its research, since the development of civilization as a whole is displayed in the evolution of everyday life. Research of everyday life helps to identify not only the objective sphere of the human being, but also the sphere of its subjectivity. A picture of how the acts of people affecting the course of history are determined by way of everyday life.

Chapter 2. Casual life and morals of medieval Russia

The study of the everyday life of our ancestors is seen logical to organize in accordance with the main milestones of the human life cycle. The cycle of human life is eternal in the sense, in which he is predetermined by nature. A person is born, growing, marrying or getting married, gives birth to children and dies. And it is quite natural that he would like to properly celebrate the main milestones of this cycle. Nowadays, urbanized and mechanized civilization of rites relating to each life cycle link are reduced to a minimum. There were no cases in antiquity, especially in the era of a generic organization of society, when the main milestones of the individual's life were considered part of the life of the genus. According to GV Vernadsky, ancient Slavs, like other tribes, the milestones of the life cycle were observed with complex rites reflected in the folklore. Immediately after the adoption of Christianity, the church assigned to the organization of some ancient rites and introduced its own new rituals, such as the rite of baptism and the celebration of the name in honor of the holy intercession of each man or a woman.

Based on this, several spheres of the everyday life of a resident of medieval Russia and related events, such as love, wedding, funeral, food, festivities and entertainment, were identified for analysis. We also seemed interesting to explore the attitude of our ancestors to alcohol and women.

2.1 Wedding

Wedding customs in the era of paganism were celebrated from different tribes. In Radmich, Vyatichi and Northerners, the bridegroom was supposed to kidnap the bride. Other tribes were considered normal to pay the ransom of the family. This custom probably developed from redemption for the abduction. In the end, the open fee was replaced by a gifts of the bride from the groom or her parents (Veno). Among the Poluna there was a custom who demanded that the parents or their representatives brought the bride to the house to the bridegroom, and her dowry should have been delivered to the next morning. Footprints of all these vintage rituals can be clearly seen in Russian folklore, especially in wedding rites even a later time.

After converting Russia to Christianity, the engagement and wedding was authorized by the Church. However, at first, only the prince and boyars cared for church blessing. The main mass of the population, especially in rural areas, was content with the recognition of marriage with relevant births and communities. Cases of wedding evasion in the church with ordinary people were frequent until the XV century.

According to the Byzantine legislation (Eclog and Kneyon), in accordance with the customs of the peoples of the south, the lowest age requirements for future marital couple were established. Eclog VIII century allows men to marry men at the age of fifteen years, and women are thirteen. In the defense system of the IX century, these requirements are even lower: fourteen years for the groom and twelve - for the bride. It is known that the ecologist and the cose existed in the Slavic translation and the legality of both guidelines was recognized as Russian "lawyers." In medieval Russia, even Saama, the low age demands of the Kneyyron were not always observed, especially in princely families, where marriages most often were committed to diplomatic reasons. It is known for at least one, the case when the princely son married at the age of eleven years, and Vsevolod III gave his daughter to the Rostislav in the famous Rostislav, when she was only eight years old. When the bride's parents accompanied her, "they both cried, because their beloved daughter was so young."

In medieval moral sources there are two points of view for marriage. Don of them - the attitude towards marriage as the sacrament, the sacredness, expressed in the flavor of 1076. "Mount the Bludnika, for he desets the groom's clothes: from the kingdom of marriage with disgrace, it will be expensive," he is hesitated, presbyter Jerusalem.

Jesus, Syrakhov's son, writes: "Give the daughter to marry - and make a great deal, but just give it to my husband."

We see that in the opinion of these fathers of the Church, marriage, marriage, is called the "kingdom", "great matter", but with reservations. The groom's clothing is sacred, but only a person worthy can enter the "Marriage Kingdom". The marriage can become a "great matter" only if the "Massage Male" is married.

The sage Menander, on the contrary, sees in the marriage only evil: "From marriage to everyone Big bitterness", "deciding to marry, ask the neighbor, already married", "do not marry, and will never be nothing wrong with you."

In the "Domostroy" it is indicated that prudent parents ahead of time, since the birth of a daughter began to prepare to issue her to marry good dowry: "If the daughter has a born, prudent father<…> from all profits postponed on the daughter<…>: or the tummy grows to her with the ranks, or from the share of her, that there God will send, buy a canvas and canvases, and pieces of fabric, and cavities, and a shirt - and all these years it is put in a special chest or a box and dress and dress , and monista, and church utensils, and tinted tin and copper and wooden, adding always a little, every year ... ".

According to Sylvester, who is attributed to the authorship of the "Domostroja", this approach made it not "to a loss" to gradually collect good dowry, "and everything will give God, it will be fully." In the case of death, the girl was taken to remember "her dowry, and her sorcest, and alms distributed."

In the "Domostroy" described in detail the wedding rite itself or, as they called, "Wedding Chin".

The wedding procedure was preceded by a collusion: the groom with his father or elder brother came to the test in the courtyard, the guests were brought to the guests "the best wines in the cups", then "after the blessing, the cross will become and saying and writing contractual records and inline diploma, as angry, and how much for the contract and what Dowry ", after which," securing everything by the signature, all take on the bowl of honey, congratulate each other and change the certificates. " Thus, the conspiracy was a conventional deal.

Then the gifts were brought: the son-in-law was taking the "first blessing, a cup or bucket, velvet, a stone, forty-sable." After that, they walked on half of the mother of the bride, where "the mother-in-law asks Father Broundichov about health and kissing through a handkerchief and with him and with the fiance, and with everyone as well."

The next day the mother of the groom arrives to watch the bride, "here and it is aware of Kamco and sables, and she will give the bride to the ring."

The wedding day was appointed, "painted" guests, the groom chose them roles: planted father and mothers, invited boyars and boyars, a thousand and chase, friend, Swaha.

On the day of the wedding itself, a friend came to the gold with a friend, the bed was brought behind him "in the sleigh with the forefront, and in the summer - headboard to the irradiation, covered with a blanket. And in the sleigh two horses are rarely, and about Sanya Boyar servants in an elegant dress, on the irradiation The bedding elder in gold holds the Holy Image. " For the bed I was walking the Swaha, the outfit was prescribed by the custom: "Yellow Sandetteer, a red coat, and in the scarf and in the beaver tear. And there will be a case in winter - so in the fur hat."

Already only one episode is clear that the wedding rite was tightly regulated by the tradition, all the other episodes of this rite (preparing bed, arrival of the groom, wedding, "revealing" and "knowledge", etc.) as strictly played in accordance with the canon.

Thus, the wedding was an important event in the life of a medieval person, and the attitude towards this event, judging by the moral sources, was ambiguous. On the one hand, the sacrament of marriage was exalted, on the other, the imperfection of human relations was reflected in an ironic-negative attitude to marriage (an example of this - the statements of the "wise menander"). In fact, we are talking about two types of marriages: a happy and unhappy marriage. It is believed that a happy marriage is a marriage of love. In this regard, it seems interesting to consider how the issue of love is reflected in moral sources.

Love (in modern understanding) as love between a man and a woman; "The basis of marriage, judging by the moral sources, did not exist in the consciousness of medieval authors. Indeed, marriages were not committed by love, but by the will of the parents. Therefore, in the case of well-established circumstances, for example, if the" kind "wife came out, the wisers advise to appreciate and Keep this gift, otherwise - to accept and be on the onset: "Do not leave my wife to wise and good: her virtue is more expensive than gold"; "If you have a wife in my soul - do not drive her, if you hate you - do not trust her." However, the word "love" is practically not practically used in these contexts (only two such cases were found in the results of the analysis of texts of sources). During the "wedding rank", the father-in-law punishes the son-in-law: "My daughter's fate took a crown with you (name) and you would be a complaint her and loving in a legitimate marriage, as the fathers and fathers of our fathers lived. Affects the use of subjunctive inclination (" would be Slave her and love her "). In one of the aphorisms, Menandra says:" The Great Communication of Love is the birth of a child. "

In other cases, the love between a man and a woman is interpreted as evil, a destructive temptation. Jesus, Syrakhov's son, warns: "Do not look at the most, otherwise you will seduce with her spells." "Carnal and voluptuous things to avoid ..." - advises Saint Vasily. "Sophisticated thoughts are better to be bent" - it ends him.

In the "Tale of Akir Program" is given to the Son's instruction: "... do not seize the beauty of female and the heart do not lead it: if you give all the wealth to her, and then you will not get good from her, only you will warm up before God."

The word "love" on the pages of moral sources of medieval Russia is mainly used in the contexts of love for God, evangelical quotes, love for parents, love others: "... the merciful Lord lovers loves"; "I remembered the words of the Gospel:" Love your enemies ..., "Love you tightly"; " Democritus.Wanted to be loved in life, and not terrible: for who everyone is afraid, he is afraid of everyone. "

At the same time, a positive, adding role of love is recognized: "Who loves much, he is angry little," said Menander.

So, love in moral sources is interpreted in a positive sense in the context of love for neighbor and to the Lord. Love for a woman, according to the analyzed sources, is perceived by the consciousness of a medieval person as a sin, danger, temptation of unrighteousness.

Most likely, such a interpretation of this concept is due to genre uniqueness of sources (instructions, moral prose).

2.2 Funeral

No less significant ritual than a wedding, in the life of medieval society was a funeral rite. Details of the descriptions of these rituals make it possible to identify the attitude of our ancestors to death.

The funeral rites in the pagan times included memorial peers that were held at the burial site. Above the grave of the prince or some outstanding warrior hung up a high hill (Kurgan) and hired professional rims to mourn his death. They continued to fulfill their duties and in the Christian funeral, however, the form of crying changed respectively Christian concepts. Christian funeral rites, like other church services, were, of course borrowed from Byzantium. John Damaskin is the author of the Orthodox Panhid ("funeral" service), and the Slavic translation is worthy of the original. Christian cemeteries were created near the churches. The bodies of the outstanding princes put in sarcophagas and were placed in the cathedrals of the princely capital.

Our ancestors perceived death as one of the inevitable links in

birth chain: "Do not strive to have fun in the world of this: for all joys

sveta's light end. Yes, and that crying is also supervised: today they cry, and tomorrow - feast. "

You should always remember about death: "Death and exile, and troubles, and the visible all misfortunes stand before our eyes and hours."

Death completes the earth's life, but for Christians, earthly life is only a preparation for the afterlife. Therefore, death is special respect: "Chado, if in someone's house in the house, then, leaving them in trouble, do not go to the feast to others, but first to visit those who are grieving, and then go to appear and remember what you already go destroyed death. " "Merylo Righteous" regulates the norms of behavior at the funeral: "Do not cry loudly, but it is worthplingfully sad, not grief to indulge in, but mournful to do business."

However, in this case, in the minds of medieval authors of the moral literature, there is always a thought that the death or loss of a loved one is not the worst thing that can happen. Much worse - spiritual death: "Not over the dead cry, over unreasonable: for it is common to everyone, and this - its will"; "Crying over the dead - he lost his light, but to pay and fool - left his mind."

The existence of the soul in that future life should be provided by prayers. To secure a continuation of a prayer, a rich man usually bequeathed a part of his property to the monastery. If for some reason he could not do this, then his relatives were to take care of this. Then the Christian name of the deceased will be entered into the synod - a list of commemorative names in prayers at each service or at least on certain days established by the Church to commemorate the departed. The princely family usually kept their own synod in the monastery, whose donors were traditionally the princes of this kind.

So, death in the consciousness of the medieval authors of the moral literature is the inevitable end of human life, it is necessary to be ready for her, but always remember about it, but for Christians, death is the border of the transition to another, afterlife. Therefore, the sorrow of the funeral rite must be "worthy", and the death of the spiritual death is much worse than physical death.

2.3 Meals

Analyzing the statements of medieval sages about food, it is possible, firstly, to conclude the attitude of our ancestors to this issue, secondly, to find out what specific products they used and what dishes, they were preparing.

First of all, it can be concluded that moderation is preached in the folk consciousness, healthy minimalism: "There are no diseases from many yokes, and the suggestion will bring to the clever; many have died, remembering their lives."

On the other hand, the attitude towards the food is trembling, the food is a gift, the benefit sent over and not any: "When you sit behind a rich table, remember who eats bread dry and cannot bring water in the ailment." "And there is and drinking with gratitude - will be sweet."

The fact that the food was prepared at home and was diverse the following entries in the "Domostroy": "And food meat and fish, and all sorts of pies and pancakes, various porridges and kislets, any dishes stove and cook, - all the hostess itself knew how So that and to teach servants could be what knows. " Behind the process of cooking and consuming products, the owners themselves carefully followed. Every morning it is recommended "husband with a wife to consult about the household", plan, "when and that from food and drink to prepare for guests and for ourselves", count the necessary products, after which "the chef to send what should be cooked, and bakery, And for other billets, the goods are also sent. "

In "Domostroy" also described in more detail, which products on what days of the year, depending on the church calendar,

use, a variety of recipes for cooking dishes and drinks is given.

Reading this document, you can only admire the larger and leaving of the Russian owners and wonder wealth, the abundance and diversity of the Russian table.

Bread and meat were two main foods in the diet of Russian princes of Kievan Rus. In the south of Russia, bread baked from wheat flour, rye bread was more common in the north.

The most ordinary varieties of meat were beef, pork and lamb, as well as geese, chickens, ducks and pigeons. The meat of wild animals and birds also consumed. Most often, the "Domostroy" is mentioned by Zaynutin and Swans, as well as cranes, herons, ducks, tetheriev, Ryabchiki, etc.

The church encouraged food to eat. Wednesdays and Fridays were declared launched days and, moreover, three posts were installed, including the Great Post. Of course, the fish was already in the diet of Russian people before the baptism of Vladimir, and Ikra, too. In "Domostroy" mention Beloryobitsa, a sterlet, sturgeon, Belugu, Pike, Golts, herring, bream, Pescarev, Caras and other types of fish.

To lenger food, all the dishes from crucible oil, "and flour, and all sorts of pies and pancakes bakes and juits, and rolls do different porridges, and noodles pea, and captured peas, and sober, and Kundropy, and boiled and sweet Porridge and disassembly are pies with pancakes and with mushrooms, and with rhymes, and with girlfriends, and with poppy seeds, and porridge, and with replica, and with cabbage, or nuts in Sugar or baked pies with what God sent. "

From the legumes of Rusichi grown and actively used the beans and peas. Actively used in food and vegetables (this word marked all the fruits, and fruits). The "Domostroy" lists radish, watermelons, several varieties of apples, berries (blueberries, raspberries, currant, strawberry, lingonberry).

The meat was cooked or roasted on a spit, vegetables ate with boiled or raw. Also mentioned in the sources of the saltin and stew. Stocks were kept "in the cellar, on the glacier and in the barn." The main view of the conservation was Solly, Solii "and in barrels, and in tubs, and in measurements, and in Chans, and in buckets"

From the berries cooked jam, they did the fruits, and also prepared left masses (felling pies) and hercedal.

The author of the "Domostroja" several chapters devotes a description of how to properly "fulfill all sorts of honey", cook and store alcoholic beverages. Traditionally, in the era of Kievan Rus did not chase alcohol. We used three types of beverages. Kvass, non-alcoholic or slightly chopped drink, made from rye bread. It was something resembling beer. Vernadsky indicates that it was probably a traditional drink of Slavs, as he mentioned in the records about the journey of the Byzantine Messenger to the leader of Hunov Attila at the beginning of the fifth century, along with honey. Honey was extremely popular in Kievan Rus. It was cooked and drank both laity and monks. According to the chronicles, Prince Vladimir Red Sunshiko ordered three hundred honey boilers on the occasion of the opening of the Church in Vasilev. In 1146, Prince Izyaslav Ii discovered in the cellars of his rival Svyatoslav five hundred honey barrels and eighty barrels of wine 73. Several varieties of honey were known: Sweet, dry, with pepper and so on.

Thus, the analysis of moral sources allows you to identify such trends in nutrition. On the one hand, moderation is recommended, a reminder that Falling for the Hungry Hungry Year may come. On the other hand, studying, for example, "Domostroy", it is possible to draw conclusions about the diversity and wealth of Russian cuisine, due to the natural wealth of Russian lands. Compared with modernity, Russian cuisine has not changed much. The main set of products remained the same, but their diversity has declined significantly.

Part of the moral statements is dedicated to how it is necessary to behave on the feast: "There is no neighbor on the feast and do not bother him in his joy"; "... In the feast, it is not reckless, be like the one who knows, but silent"; "When you call you on a feast, do not sit at the honorable place, someone from among the invited someone will be more respectable, and the owner will come to you and say:" I will give him a place! "- And then you will have to go to the last place with shame. .

After the introduction of Christianity in Russia, the concept of "holiday" primarily gets the meaning of the "church holiday". In the "Tale of Akir Program" it is said: "Do not pass by the church on a festive day."

From the same point of view, the church regulates the aspects of sex life of the parishioners. So, according to the "house-building," her husband and wife were forbidden to cohabit on Saturdays and Sundays, and those who did it were not allowed to go to church.

So, we see that the holidays in the moral literature paid a lot of attention. They were preparing in advance, but a modest, respectful behavior, moderation in food was encouraged on the fear. The same principle of moderation prevails in the moral statements "On Khmele".

In a number of similar works condemning drunkenness, widespread in the ancient Russian handwritten collections "The Word about Kyrille Kirill, Philosopher Slovensky." It warns readers from a detrimental addiction to black beyon, draws unhappiness, threatening drunk - impoverishment, deprivation of a place in a social hierarchy, loss of health, excommunication from the church. In the "Word" grotesque appeal to the reader of Hmel himself with a traditional sermon against drunkenness.

This is how the drunkard is described in this work: "The need for him is sitting at home, and the diseases on his shoulders lie, sadness and sorrow by hunters with hunger, the poverty in his wallet is a nest of a whine, they attached to him angry laziness like a cute wife , and sleep - as a father, and fucking - as a favorite children "; "He's hurt from drunkenness to him, and the hands are trembling, the eyesight of the eyes of a fool"; "Drunkenness The beauty of the face destroys"; Drinking "people of good and equal, and masters in slavery will plunge", "a brother with a brother quicor, and her husband gets away from his wife."

Other moral sources also condemn drunkenness, calling for moderation. In the "wise wise menander" it was noted that "the wine, in the abundance, drunk, Intrust the little"; "The abundance of a drink of wine is enthusiastic and sound."

The following historical anecdote attributed to Diogenes is given in the monument "Bee": "This was given a lot of wine on the feast, and he, taking it, shed. When the rest began to give him, why he ruins wine, so answered:" If there is no wine from me Died, I would die of wine. "

Isy, the presbyter Jerusalemsky, advises: "Honey Pey Pomalu, and the less, the better: you will not stumble"; "It is necessary to refrain from drunkenness, because the breakdown follows moans and repentance."

Jesus, son of Syrakhov, warns: "Drunk worker does not get rich"; "Wine and women will be corrupted and reasonable ...". He will repeat the Holy Vasily: "Wine and women are seduced and wise ..."; "Avoiding I. drunkenness and sorry of this life, do not say Lukovo, never talk about your back. "

"When you invite you to a feast, do not get enough to a terrible intoxication ...", "the son of Pop Sylvester, author" Domostroja ".

Especially terrible, in the opinion of the authors of the moral prose, is the impact of hop on a woman: so says Hmel: "If the wife is noticed with me, Whatever it was, but will get enough, I will teach her insane, and it will be all the people of all people.

And the bodily lust is erected in it, and it will be laundered between: people, and from God is excommunicated from the Church of God, so it would be better for her to be born ";" and always take care of the wife of the Crumpled: a drunk husband: - bad and wife drunk and In peace is not ajegy. "

So, the analysis of the texts of the moral prose shows that the drunkenness was traditionally in Russia, a drunk man was strictly condemned by the authors of the texts, and therefore, and the society as a whole.

2.5 The role and place of a woman in a medieval society

Many of the statements of moral texts are dedicated to a woman. Initially, a woman, according to the Christian tradition, is perceived as a source of danger, sinful temptation, death: "Wine and women will be corrupted and intelligent, who pinned to the harlot - will still be impudence."

The woman is the enemy of the human race, so the wise men warned: "Woman does not reveal the soul of His soul, for it will destroy your hardness"; "But most of all the person should refrain from conversations with women ..."; "Because of women, many fall into trouble"; "A kiss of a beautiful woman Beware, like a snake poison."

There are integer individual treatises about "good" and "evil" wives. In one of them, dated the XV century, the evil wife is likened to "Okaw the Devil", this is "hellish trade, Queen of the Square, the Governor to Lady, Arrow Satanic, Agrowing the Hearts of Many.

Among the texts with which the ancient Russian scribes replenished their writings "On Evil Wives", draw attention to the peculiar "worldly parables" - small storylocks (about the husband, weeping about the evil wife; about selling children from an evil wife; about the old woman looking into the mirror ; about married in a rich widow; about the husband who pretended to the patient; about the first wife and asking for himself another; about the husband, whose name was the monkeys and others on the sight). All of them condemn the woman as a source of solventy, misfortune for a man.

Women are full of "female delights", frivolous: "Thoughts for women are unstable, like a church without a roof", false: "From a woman rarely we will find out the truth ";initially, prone to the vice and deception: "The girls do not blush foolishly creative, but others are ashamed, but they taper and worse."

The initial vanity of a woman is in her beauty, and, the ugly wife is also perceived as a torment. So, one of the anecdot "bees", attributed to Solon, says: "This, asked by someone, advises to marry, said" no! If you take the urba - there will be a torment, if the beauty will want other things to admire it. "

"It is better to live in the desert with a lion and a snake than with a false wife and chatty," says Solomon.

Seeing the arguing women, Diogen says: "Look! Snake from Viuki Idua asks!" .

"Domostroy" regulates the behavior of a woman: it should be a good mistress, follow the house, be able to prepare and take care of the husband, take guests, everyone likes and not to cause complaints. Even in the church, the wife goes "Recomident to her husband." Here's how the norms of the behavior of a woman in a public place are described - in the church service: "In the church, she does not talk with anyone with anyone, silently stand, singing to listen with attention and reading the Holy Scripture, not looking at anywhere, not to be noticeable to the wall, nor to the pillar , And do not stand up with the staff, do not overcall from foot to the leg; stand, the hands of the hands on the chest is crucifically, unshakably and firmly, the bodily eyes of the dollar dropping, and hearty - to God; to pray to God with fear and trepidation, with frost and tears. Not leave the church to the end of the service, to come to the very beginning "

The contradictions between the abstractness of the general laws of science (including history) and the specific life of ordinary people served as the basis for the search for new approaches in historical knowledge. The story displays the general, distracted by private, paying attention to the laws and general development trends. A simple person with his specific circumstances and details of life, with the peculiarities of his perception and experiences of the world did not have the place, he was absent. An individualized daily life of a person has fallen out of the sight of historical scientists, the sphere of its experiences, the specific historical aspects of his being.

Historians turned to the study of everyday life as one of the possible ways of permission of the contradiction named above. The situation currently in history also contributes to this.

Modern historical science is experiencing deep internal transformation, which manifests itself in the change of intellectual orientations, research paradigms, history itself. Today's situation in historical knowledge is increasingly characterized as postmodern. Having survived the "new science of structuralism", which became "new science" in the 60s, "linguistic turn" or "semiotic explosion" in the 80s of the twentieth century, historiography could not be imposed on themselves the impact of the postmodern paradigm, which spread its influence All spheres of humanitarian knowledge. The situation of the crisis, the peak of which Western historical science was experiencing in the 70s of the XX century., Domestic science is experiencing today.

The very concept of "historical reality" is subject to revision, and with him and its own identity of the historian, his professional sovereignty, the criteria for the reliability of the source (the boundaries between the fact and fiction) are blurred), faith in the possibility of historical knowledge and the desire for objective truth. Trying to solve the crisis, historians are developing new approaches and new ideas, including contact the category "everyday life" as one of the options out of crisis.

Modern historical science revealed ways to approach the understanding of the historical past through his subject and the carrier - the person himself. Comprehensive analysis of the material and social forms of the everyday existence of a person - his life micrometer, the stereotypes of its thinking and behavior - is considered as one of the possible approaches in this respect.

In the late 80s - early 90s of the 20th century, after the Western and in domestic historical science there is a surge of interest in everyday life. The first work appear, where everyday life is mentioned. A series of articles in Almanane "Odyssey" is printed, where an attempt was made to theoretical understanding of everyday life. These are articles G.S. Knaba, A.Ya. Gurevich, G.I. Miserable. Interests also reasoning S.V. Obolenskaya in the article "Someone Josef Shefer, Soldier of the Hitler's Wehrmacht" on the methods of studying the history of everyday life on the example of consideration by the individual biography of some kind of Josef Shepher. A successful attempt by a comprehensive description of the daily life of the population in the Weimar Republic is the work of I.Ya. Biscuit. Using an extensive and diverse source base, it fully described the daily lives of various layers of the population of Germany of the Weimar period: socio-economic life, morals, spiritual atmosphere. It gives convincing data, specific examples, describes nutrition, clothing, housing conditions, etc. If in the articles G.S. Knaba, A.Ya. Gurevich, G.I. The beast is given theoretical understanding of the concept of "everyday life", then Articles S.V. Obolensk and monograph I.Ya. Biscuit is historical work, where the authors on specific examples are trying to describe and determine what is "everyday life."

The beginning of the attention of domestic historians began to study everyday life in recent years, since it lacks sources and serious theoretical understanding of this problem. It should be remembered that it is impossible not to take into account the experience of Western historiography - England, France, Italy and, of course, Germany.

In the 60-70s. XX century There was an interest in research related to the study of a person, and in connection with this, German scientists are first beginning to engage in the history of everyday life. The slogan sounded: "From the study of state policy and analysis of global social structures and processes, we turn to small life worlds, to the everyday life of ordinary people." There was a direction "History of everyday life" (AlltagsGeschichte) or "Back History" (Geschichte von Unten). What did you understand and understand in everyday life? How do you interpret its scientists?

It makes sense to call the largest German historians everyday life. Classic in this area, of course, such a socialist sociologist as Norbert Elias with his works "On the concept of everyday life", "On the process of civilization", "Court Society"; Peter Borshad and his work "Talk about the history of everyday life." I would definitely like to name the historian engaged in issues of the new time, - Lutza Neukhammer, who works at the University of Hagen, and very early, already in 1980, in the article of the Magazine "Historic Didactika" ("Geschichtsdidaktik"), explored the history of everyday life. This article was called "notes to the history of everyday life." His other work "Life experience and collective thinking is known. Practice "Oral History".

And such a historian, like Klaus Tenfeld, is engaged in both theoretical and practical issues of the history of everyday life. His work of the theoretical plan is called "difficulties with everyday life" and is a critical discussion of everyday-historical flow with an excellent list of literature. The publication of Claus Bergman and Rolf Shercher "History in everyday life - everyday life in history" consists of a number of works of the theoretical plan. Also, the problem of everyday life as theoretically, and practically engaged in Dr. Pillchit from Essen, who issued a number of works of the theoretical plan. One of them is "a new story of everyday life and historical anthropology." The following works are known: Peter Steinbach "Casual Life and the History of the Village", Jürgen Cockfold "Classes or Culture? Breakthroughs and deadlocks in the working history ", as well as comments, Martin will give up the work of Yurgen Kokkka, and its interesting work on the issues of the history of everyday life in the Third Reich. There is also a generalizing work of Y. Krycinsky "The history of the everyday life of the German people. 16001945 "in five volumes.

Such work as "History in everyday life - everyday life in history" is a collection of works of various authors dedicated to everyday life. The following problems are considered: the daily activities of workers and servants, architecture as a source of history of everyday life, historical consciousness in everyday life, etc.

It is very important to note that on the problem of the history of everyday life was carried out in Berlin (3-6.10.1984) the discussion, which on the final day was called "History from below - a story from the inside." And under this title edited by Yurgen Kokka, discussion materials were published.

Representatives of the Annal School were expressed by the latest needs and trends in historical knowledge in the early 20th century - this is Mark Block, Lucien Fevr and, of course, Fernan Strajel. Annals in the 30s. XX century They turned to the study of the man-worker, the subject of their study becomes the "history of the masses" in opposition to the "stories of stars", the story, which is not "on top", and "bottom". The "geography of a person", the history of material culture, historical anthropology, social psychology and others remaining before the shadow of the direction of historical research.

Mark Block was concerned about the challenge of contradiction between the inevitable schematics of historical knowledge and the lively cloth of the real historical process. His activity was aimed at resolving this contradiction. In particular, he emphasized that the center of attention of the historian should have a person, and immediately was in a hurry to fix myself - not a person, but people. In the field of view of the block - the typical, mostly massive phenomena in which repeatability can be detected.

A comparative and typological approach is the most important in a historical study, but in history, regularly appears through the private, individual. Generalization is associated with simplification, straightening, the live fabric of the story is much more difficult and controversial, therefore the block compares the generalized characteristics of a historical phenomenon with its options, shows in an individual manifestation, thereby enriches the study, makes it saturated specific options. So, M. Blok writes that the picture of feudalism is not a combination of signs abstracted from living validity: it is timed to the real space and historical time and relies on evidence of numerous sources.

One of the methodological ideas of the block was that the study of the historian begins at all from the collection of material, as often imagine, and from the formulation of the problem, with the development of a preliminary list of issues that the researcher wants to specify sources. Not pleased with the fact that the society of the past, let's say medieval, pleased to inform about yourself the mouth of chronicists, philosophers, theologians, historian by analyzing the terminology and vocabulary of the preserved written sources can make these monuments much more. We set someone else's culture new questions, which she herself did not put, we are looking for answers to these questions in it, and someone else's culture responds to us. With a dialogical meeting of cultures, each of them retains its integrity, but they are mutually enriched. Historical knowledge is such a dialogue of cultures.

The study of everyday life involves the search for fundamental structures in the history of the order of human actions. This search begins with the historians of the Annals School. M. Blok understood that under the cover of phenomena, understood by people, there are hidden layers of a deep social structure, which determines the changes occurring on the surface of social life. The task of the historian is to make the past "say", i.e., to say what it did not realize or was not going to express.

Writing a story in which living people operate are the motto of the block and his followers. Collective psychology attracts their attention also because it expresses socially deterministic behavior of people. New then for historical science, the question is human sensitivity. It is impossible to apply for the understanding of people, not knowing how they felt. Explosions of despair and rage, reckless actions, sudden spiritual fractures - a lot of difficulties are given to historians who instinctively tend to reconstruct the past according to the schemes of the mind. M. Blok and L. Fevr in the history of feelings and image of thinking were seen their "protected areas" and carried out enthusiastically to these topics.

M. Bloka has the theory of the "Time of Large Duration" theory, subsequently developed by Fernal Street. Representatives of the Annal School are their advantage of the time of great length, that is, they study the structures of everyday life, very slowly changing in time or in general actually not changing. At the same time, the study of such structures is the most important task of any historian, as they show the essence of the daily life of a person, the stereotypes of his thinking and behavior governing his daily existence.

The direct thematization of the problem of everyday life in historical knowledge is usually associated with the name of Fernana Strajel. This is quite natural, because the first book of its famous labor "Material economy and capitalism Hu-Hushb." So it is referred to: "The structures of everyday life: possible and impossible." He wrote about how to know everyday life: "Material life is people and things, things and people. Examine things - food, housing, clothes, luxury items, tools, cash, plans of villages and cities - In short, everything that serves a person is the only way to feel his daily existence. " And the conditions of everyday existence, the cultural and historical context, against which the human life unfolds, his story, has a decisive influence on the actions and behavior of people.

Fernandra Stelle wrote about everyday life: "He was the starting point for me," he emphasized, - everyday life - that side of life, in which we were involved, without even giving themselves in the report - the habit, or even the routine, these thousands of actions occurring And ending with themselves, the fulfillment of which does not require a drawing solution and which occur, in truth, almost without affecting our consciousness. I believe that humanity is more than half of the half in this kind of everyday life. Innumerable actions transmitted by inheritance accumulating without any order. Repeating to infinity before we came to this world help us live - and at the same time subordinate us, much solving for us during our existence. Here we are dealing with prompting, impulses, stereotypes, techniques and methods of action, as well as various types of obligations forcing acting, which sometimes, more often than this can be assumed to rise to the most immemorial times. "

Next, he writes that this ancient past is strengthened into modernity and he wanted to see himself and show to others like this past, barely noticeable history - as it were, the preceding mass of everyday events - for the long ages of previous history entered the flesh of the people themselves, for whom experience And the misconception of the past has become commonplace and the daily necessity that escapes the attention of observers.

The works of Fernan Brodel contains philosophical and historical reflections on the marked routine sign of material life, about complex interlacing of various levels of historical reality, about the dialectics of time and space. The reader of his works is facing three different plans, three levels in which the same reality is seized in different ways, the content and spatial-temporal characteristics are changed. We are talking about a fleeting event-political time at the highest level, significantly more long-term socio-economic processes on deeper, and almost timeless natural and geographical processes at the very deep level. Moreover, the distinguishes between these three levels (in fact F. Stradel sees a few more levels in each of these three) - this is not an artificial dissection of living reality, but its consideration in different refractions.

In the lowest layers of historical reality, constancy, stable structures, the main elements of which are man, earth, cosmos are dominant in the nasty depths. Time leaks here so slowly that it seems almost fixed. At the next level - the level of society, civilization, the level, which studies the socio-economic history, is valid for the average duration. Finally, the most superficial layer of history: here the events alternate as waves in the sea. They are measured by short chronological units - these are political, diplomatic and the like "event" history.

For F. Stramel, the sphere of his personal interests is an almost fixed history of people in their close relationship with the Earth, on which they go, and which feeds them; The story of a continuously repeated person's dialogue with nature is so persistent as if it were out of reach for damages and shocks applied. Until now, one of the problems of historical knowledge remains to approve that the story as a whole can only be understood in comparison of it with this unwarked space of almost fixed reality, in identifying long-term processes and phenomena.

So what is everyday life? How can it be determined? Attempts to give an unequivocal definition did not have success: everyday life is used by some scientists as a collective concept for the manifestation of all forms of privacy, others understand the daily repetitive actions of the so-called "gray daules" or the sphere of natural non-inflexive thinking. German sociologist Norbert Elias in 1978 noted that there is no accurate, clear definition of everyday life. How this concept is used in sociology today includes the most diverse scale of shades, but they still have not yet identified and incomprehensible to us.

N. Elias attempted to define the concept of "everyday life." He has long been interested in this topic. Sometimes he himself was counted to those who dealt with this problem, as in the two works of the "Court Society" and "On the Civilization Process", he considered issues that can be easily classified as problems of everyday life. But N. Elias himself did not consider himself a specialist in everyday life and decided to clarify this concept when he was invited to write an article on this topic. Norbert Elias made preliminary lists of some ways to apply this concept that are found in scientific literature.

Ecology of life: Do you know which one of the highest paid professions in Switzerland? Teacher. The average salary of the teacher is about 115 thousand francs per year, and vacation within a year is 12 weeks!

This text is not about the fact that the clock with the largest dial is in Zurich, and in Switzerland more mountain peaks than in any other European country. For such facts, please feel tourist portals. Here I gathered a collection of facts, for the trail of which was attacked in conversations with the Swiss, who are related to daily life in the country and can be useful to you when visiting it or moving.

House with a secret

Only a quarter of Swiss live in their own home, most are rented by real estate, since the average cost of a small house can easily reach 1 million euros. Previously, by law, each private or apartment building was supposed to have its bomb shelter, so that it was where to hide in the case of a nuclear attack. For example, Bad & Breakfast, which we looked through, divides the refuge with a neighbor-farmer, and in a 4-apartment building, in front of the entrance to the bomb shelter, is located next to the laundry room on the utility floor. But according to the latest report of the Swiss authorities, even though they are not built for a long time, now there are about 300 thousand private bomb shelters in the country and 5 thousand public shelters that can accommodate all the population in case of danger.

Serve or serve?

Despite the long and successful history of preserving military neutrality (and Switzerland managed to be neutral from 1815), the Swiss army is always ready. All men are required to serve in the army, and there are very few deconents. Not least because the passage of the service is very competently organized. Men go to regular weekly fees, which in total for 10 years (from 19 to 30) make up 260 days. Although, if a man does not want to serve, he has an alternative: to pay 3% of his salary to the state until he is 30 years old.

Employees - also people

The rights of employees in Swiss companies are often more important than customer service. Most stores, including supermarkets, closes on Lunch from 12 to 14 hours, and at 18-19 hours already finish their work. Of course, this schedule adhere to all cantons. Some shops and restaurants are even fighting (!) For the right to work on Sunday or late. But not everyone and not everywhere allow you to violate the rights of our employees. It is almost impossible to find working grocery on Sunday, for the elimination of airports and train stations.

Teachers - Millionaires

Do you know what one of the highest paid professions in Switzerland? Teacher. The average salary of the teacher is about 115 thousand francs per year, and vacation within a year is 12 weeks! OK, "Millionaire" is a hyperbole, but how the system of attracting teachers and the tariffing of their labor will make the honor of any state. In this country, in general, the unemployment rate is miserable 2%.

Asphalt with diamond crumb

PDDs are observed by everyone: the kids run to the garden in reflective capes, cyclists buy special insurance in order to ride through public roads, and Bern's authorities thought to decorate the pedestrian zebra dust from Swarovski crystals to improve her visibility at night. Now the square meter of the pedestrian transition uses about 500 grams of crystalline dust.

Lawyer for Bobika

If you thought that in Switzerland they care only about people, then mistaken. The rights of animals here, in many respects, equated to human. Animals can even be represented in court. In Zurich, the famous lawyer Adrian Goethel, among whose clients was more than two hundred dogs, cats, animals with farms and birds. And although at a national referendum in 2010, the Swiss citizens voted against the introduction of the Institute for Animals for Animals, the current law on animal rights to the smallest details regulates the procedure for the detention and treatment of them, both home and wild.

Let it be not on a lawyer of Bobika, but on the most Bobika money will have to allocate. The tax on the maintenance of the dog is 120 francs per year. And if you have two of them, the second will go at a double rate - 240 francs. About three continue not worth it?

And Dalai Lame is not alien ...

In Switzerland there is the smallest vineyard in the world, whose honorary owner is now Dalai Lama. It takes only 1.67m2, where there are three vines. The vineyard is surrounded by a sampling of stones, which are brought from different countries of the world, including the sixis-cellogram of the marble chip on the nicknamed "Freedom Stone".

Golden chocolate

It was here that the chocolate brought a new breed of chocolate - gold chocolate. Eight gold chocolate truffles from Delafée confectioners are 114 francs. How did they manage to achieve, they carefully hide, telling the tale about the best Ecuadorian cocoa beans, mixed with cocoa butter and golden dust. But, it is golden or not, and the manufacturers of chocolate in Switzerland are a serious professional community, only whose members are eligible for the manufacture of chocolate and its sale.

Starbucks wins

Continuing the topic of food: There are now more coffee shops Starbucks now than banks. Large mocha in Starbucks costs about 5-6 francs, which is approximately equal to the value of the mug of the pouring beer.

The main thing is not to confuse

Remember what the Like button on Facebook looks like? So, in Switzerland she has a completely different meaning. Thus, they denote the number "1". For example, at home or bus. But "7" they write like us: with a horizontal dash in the middle. Such writing has been preserved, mostly in small towns and villages, so if you see, consider what you're lucky.

Eating cheap?

Believe that Asian and Mexican food is from the category of "eating inexpensive"? Only not in Switzerland. Here is an exotic kitchen, which falls into the category of expensive pleasures. Want to eat cheap? You in Italian or French restaurant. Although, the concept of "inexpensive" is not at all about this country :).published

Task 25. In the story of O. Balzak "Gobsek" (written in 1830, the final edition - 1835) Hero, an incredibly rich rich, sets out his gaze to life:

"The fact that in Europe is delighted, asia is punishable. The fact that in Paris is considered a vice, for the Azores Islands recognized as a necessity. There is nothing durable on Earth, there are only conventions, and in each climate they are different. For someone who will be used by all social standards, all your moral rules and beliefs are empty words. Only one-sole feeling invested in us by nature: instinct of self-preservation ... Find out with my, learn that of all the earthly goods, there is only one, quite reliable, so that it cost a person to chase him. Is this gold. In gold, all the forces of mankind are concentrated ... and as for the morals, the person is the same: everywhere there is a struggle between the poor and rich, everywhere. And she is inevitable. So it is better to put pressure on how to allow others to be given you ".
Stress in the text of the sentence, which, in your opinion, most clearly characterize the Personality of Gobsek.
What do you think the author gives her hero the name Gobsek, what does "algelot" mean? What, from your point of view, could make it so? Record the main conclusions.

A person, deprived of sympathy, concepts of good, alien compassion in his desire for enrichment, is called "Logodlog." It is difficult to assume that it was that it could make it such. Hint, perhaps in the words of Gobsek himself, that the best man teacher is misfortune, only it helps a person to find out the price of people and money. Difficulties, misfortune of their own life and the surrounding Gobsek society, where the main measure of everything and the greatest blessing was considered gold, made from Gobsek "Logglot".

Relying on the conclusions made by you, write a small story - the history of the life of Gobsek (childhood and youth, travel, meetings with people, historical events, sources of its wealth, etc.), told by him.
I was born in the family of a poor artisan in Paris and very early lost my parents. Once on the street, I wanted one to survive. In the soul, all boiled when I saw the magnificent outfits of the aristocrats, the gilded carriages that swept around the pavement and the disintegration of you to join the wall so as not to be crushed. Why is the world so unfair? Then ... Revolution, ideas of freedom and equality, which broke the head. Do not even say that I joined the Jacobins. And with what delight I accepted Napoleon! He forced a nation to be proud of himself. Then there was a restoration and everything was returned, against which they fought for so long. And again the world is gold. I didn't remember about freedom and equality and I left for the south, in Marseille ... After a long year of deprivation, wandering, the dangers managed to get rich and assimilate the main principle of the present life - it is better to put pressure on himself than to be crushed by others. And here I am in Paris, and to me to ask for money, from whose carriage had to shine sometime. Do you think I'm glad? Not at all, it further approved me in the opinion that the main thing in life is gold, only it gives power over people.

Task 26. Before you reproduce two paintings. Both artists wrote works mainly on household topics. Consider illustrations by turning attention to the time of their creation. Compare both works. Is there anything in common in the image of heroes, the authors for them? Maybe you managed to notice different? Write down the results of your observations in the notebook.

General: Household scenes are depicted from the life of the third estate. We see the location of the artists to their characters and their knowledge of the subject.
Various: Charradaled in his paintings calm sincere scenes, full of love, light and peace. Mullet we see endless fatigue, hopelessness and humility of hard fate.

Task 27. Read fragments of the literary portrait of the famous writer 19 century. (author Essay - K. Powesty). In the text, the name of the writer is replaced by the letter N.
What kind of writer told K. Powesty? To answer, you can use the text § 6 of the textbook, in which the literary portraits of writers are given. Stress in the text of the phrase, which, from your point of view, allow you to accurately determine the name of the writer.

They are clear and visual for wide writing circles were the stories and poems N, the colonial correspondent, who was standing under the bullets, and communicated with the soldiers, and did not bete the society of the colonial intelligentsia.
About everyday life and work in the colonies, about the people of this world - English officials, soldiers and officers who create an empire for thirty lands From native farms and cities lying under the blessed sky of the Old England, N. N. He and writers close to him in the general direction, praised the empire as the Great Mother, not tired of detachment for the distant seas. New and new generations of their sons.
Children of different countries read out "Jungle books" of this writer. Its talent was inexhaustible, the language is accurate and rich, his fiction was full of plausibility. All these properties are enough to be a genius, belong to humanity.

About Joseph Reddard Kipling.

Task 28. The French artist E. Delacroix traveled a lot in the countries of the East. His fascinated the ability to portray bright exotic scenes, worried imagination.
Come up with several "eastern" plots, which, as you think, could be interested in the artist. Write down the plots or their names.

Death of the Persian Tsar Daria, Shahsey-Wahshi in Shiites with a self-healing to blood, the abduction of brides, jumps from nomadic peoples, a falcon hunting, hunting with chepads, armed bastouins riding camels.

Give the names of Delacroix's paintings shown on with. 29-30.
1. "Algerian women in their rest", 1834;
2. "Lion hunting in Morocco", 1854;
3. "Moroccan, sadding horse", 1855.

Try to find albums with reproductions of the works of this artist. Compare titles, details you, with genuine. Record the names of other paintings of Delacroix about the East, who are interested in you.
"Cleopatra and Peasant", 1834, "Massania in Chios", 1824, "Death of Sardanapal" 1827, "Fight of the Gyara with Pasha", 1827, "The fight of Arab Skakunov", 1860, " Tangarian fanatics »1837-1838

Task 29. Contemporaries rightly believed caricatures. Houses. Illustrations for works of Balzak.

Consider several such works: "Little Clerk", "Robert Maker - Exchange Player", "Legislative Current", "Action of Lunar Light", "Representatives of Justice", "Lawyer".
Make signatures under the pictures (use for this quotation from the Balzac text). Write the names of the heroes and the names of the works of Balzak, with the illustrations to which the work of the house could be.

Task 30. Artists of different eras sometimes appealed to the same plot, but they interpreted it in different ways.

Consider in the textbook 7 grade of the reproduction of the famous picture of David "Oath Horati", created in the Epoch of Enlightenment. What do you think this plot could interest the romance artist who lived in the 30-40s. XIX century? What would the work look like? Describe it.
The plot could be interested in romantics. They sought to depict the heroes at the moments of the highest voltage of spiritual and physical forces, when the inner spiritual world of man is exposed, showing his essence. The work could look the same. You can replace costumes, bringing them to modernity.

Task 31. In the late 60s. XIX century Impressionists who defended new views on art broke into the artistic life of Europe.

In the book of L. Volynsky "Green Tree of Life" there is a small story about how one day K. Monte, as always in the open sky, wrote a picture. For a moment, the sun hid for a cloud, and the artist stopped working. At that moment, he caught the city of Kourbe, who was interested in why he does not work. "Waiting for the Sun," answered Monet. "You could still write a back plan scenery," Karba shrugged.
What do you think I answered him the impressionist Monet? Record the possible answer options.
1. Male paintings are permeated by light, they are bright, sparkling, joyful - "For the expanser you need a light."
2. Probably, I waited for inspiration - "I miss the light."

Before you two female portraits. Considering them, pay attention to the composition of the work, details, features of the image. Put under the illustrations of the work of works under the illustrations: 1779 or 1871

What are the fitted features notes allowed you to correctly fulfill this task?
For clothes and in the manner of the letter. "Portrait of the Duchess de Bohor" Gainesboro - 1779 "Portrait of Zhanna Samari" Renuara - 1871. Portraits of Gainesboro were carried out mainly to order. In the sophisticated manner, cold-detached aristocrats were depicted. Renoir also portrayed ordinary French women, young fun and immediate, full of life and charm. The technique of painting differs.

Task 32. The opening of the impressionists paved the road to postimputsionists - painters striving with the maximum expressiveness to bore their own unique vision of the world.

The canvas of the Gajic field "Tahitian pastoral" was created by the artist in 1893 during his stay in Polynesia. Try to make a story about the content of the picture (which happens on the canvas, as the Gauguen refers to the world, captured on canvas).
Considering the civizization of the disease, Gajn for exotic places, sought to merge with nature. It was reflected in his paintings, which was portrayed by the Polynesian, simple and measured. Emphasized the simplicity and manner of writing. On the plane canvases, static and contrasting compositions were depicted, deeply emotional and at the same time decorative.

Consider and compare two still life. Each work tells about the time when it was created. Is there anything general in these works?
At the still lifes, simple ordinary things and imperious fruits are depicted. Both still life distinguishes simplicity and concise composition of the composition.

Have you noticed the difference in the image of items? What is she?
The class reproduces the objects in detail, strictly withstands the perspective and lighting, uses soft tones. Cezann presents us a picture of how different points of view, uses a clear contour to emphasize the volume of the subject, and bright saturated paints. The crumpled tablecloth looks not so soft, like a class, but rather plays the role of the background and gives the sharpness of the composition.

Come up and write down the imaginary conversation of the Dutch artist P. Clase and French painter P. Cesanna, in which they would talk about their still lifes. Why would they praise each other? What would criticize these two masters of still life?
K.: "I used the light, an air environment and a single tone to express the unity of the objective world and the environment."
S.: "My method is hatred for a fantastic image. I write only the truth and I want to hit Paris with the help of carrot and apple. "
K.: "It seems to me that you are not detailed enough and incorrectly depict objects."
S.: "The artist should not be too scrupulous, or too sincere, or is too dependent on nature; The artist is more or less than the owner of his model, and mostly - its means of expression. "
K.: "But I like your work with color, I also consider it an essential element of painting."
S.: "Color is the point where our brain comes into contact with the universe."
*note. In the preparation of dialogue, quotes are sesane.

The history of everyday life is a branch of historical knowledge, the subject of studying which is the sphere of human ordness in its historical and cultural, political and eventful, ethnic and confessional contexts. The focus of the history of everyday life, according to the modern researcher, N. L. Pushkareva, a reality that is interpreted by people and has a subjective importance to them as a solid life world, a comprehensive study of this reality (living world) of people of different social layers, their behavior and emotional Reactions to events.

We are interested in what they understood and understood under everyday life and how to interpret her scientists?

A huge contribution to the study of everyday representatives of the school "Annov" - Mark Block, Lucien Fevr and Fernan Strajel. "Annals" in the 30s. XX century They turned to the study of the man-worker, the subject of their study becomes the "history of the masses" in opposition to the "stories of stars", the story visible is not "top", and "bottom". According to N. L. Pushkareva, they offered to see in the reconstruction of the "everyday" element of the recreation of history and its integrity. They studied the features of the consciousness of not outstanding historical personalities, but a massive "silent majority" and its influence on the development of history and society. Representatives of this area investigated the mentality of ordinary people, their experiences, and the material side of everyday life. A. Y. Gurevich noted that this task was successfully performed by their supporters and successors who were grouped around the Annala created in the 1950s magazine. The history of everyday life acted in their works as part of the macrocontext of the life of the past.

The French historians of the second generation of the Annals School "Annals" continued "Line Stolel" the "Annov" line was studied between the lifestyle of people and their mentality, household social psychology. The use of a Broadland approach in historiography of a number of Central Europe countries (Poland, Hungary, Austria) began in the middle - the second half of the 70s, comprehended as an integrative method of knowledge of a person in history and the "spirit of time". According to N. L. Pushkareva, it received the greatest recognition from medievists and specialists in the history of early new time and is less practiced by experts studying the recent past or modernity.

Another approach in understanding the history of everyday life arose and to this day prevails in German and Italian historiography.

According to S. V. Obolensk, German researchers called on the study of "microfores" of ordinary, ordinary, inconspicuous people. They believed that an important detailed description of all beggars and disadvantaged, as well as their mental experiences. For example, one of the most common topics of research is the life of workers and labor movement, as well as working families.

A significant contribution to the development of the history of everyday life was introduced by N. L. Pushkareva. The main result of the research work Pushkareva is the recognition of the direction of gender studies and the history of women (historical feminology) in the domestic humanitarian knowledge.

Most written by Pushkareva N. L. Books and articles are devoted to the history of women in Russia and Europe. Association of American Slavists The book Pushkareva N. L. is recommended as a textbook at US universities. The works of N. L. Pushkareva have a high citation index among historians, sociologists, psychologists, cultural scientists.

N. L. Pushkarev pays direct attention to the study of the issues of privacy and everyday life of representatives of various estates of the Russian Society of the XVIII - early XIX century, including the noble. It is installed along with the universal features of the "female ethos" specific differences, for example, in the upbringing and lifestyle of the provincial and metropolitan nobility. Giving a special meaning when studying the emotional world of Russian women, the relation "General" and "individual", N. L. Pushkareva emphasizes the importance of the transition "to the study of privacy as the history of specific persons, sometimes not very famous and not exceptional. This approach makes it possible" Get to know "with them through literature, office work documents, correspondence.

The last decade has demonstrated the growing interest of Russian historians to everyday history. The main directions of scientific search are formed, under the new angle of view, well-known sources are analyzed, new documents are introduced into scientific circulation. According to M. M. Chrome, in Russia the history of everyday life is now experiencing a real boom. As an example, you can bring the emerging in the publishing house "Young Guard" Series "Live History. Everyday life of mankind." Along with the transfer works in this series, A. I. Rugenova, E. V. Romanenko, E. V. Lavrentoye, S. D. Olyabinin and other Russian authors. Many studies are based on memoir literature and archival sources, they are described in detail the life and morals of narration heroes.

In the 1990s - early 2000s. The scientific problem "Casual Russia" is gradually mastered by the historians of universities, which began to use new knowledge in the process of teaching historical disciplines. Historians of Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov even prepared a tutorial "Russian everyday life: from the sources until the middle of the XIX century", which, according to the authors, "allows you to supplement, expand and deepen the knowledge of the real life of people in Russia." Sections 4-5 of this publication are devoted to the everyday life of the Russian Society of the XVIII - the first half of the XIX century. and cover a fairly wide range of issues of almost all segments of the population: from the city grounds to the secular society of the Empire. It is impossible to disagree with the recommendation of the authors to use this publication as an addition to existing textbooks, which will allow to expand the idea of \u200b\u200bthe world of Russian life.

Prospects for the study of the historical past Russia in the perspective of everyday life are obvious and promising. Evidence of this is the research activity of historians, philologists, sociologists, cultural scientists, ethnologists. By virtue of its "world responsiveness", everyday life is recognized as a sphere of interdisciplinary research, but at the same time requires methodological accuracy in approaches to the problem. As the cultureologist I. A. Mankiewicz noted, "in the space of everyday life, the" lines of life "of all spheres of human existence converge ..., everyday life is" our all intertwined with not our ... "