Dramma (Greek. DSB? MB) is one of the birth of literature (along with lyrics, epic, as well as Laroepics), transmitting events through the characters' dialogs. Since ancient times, there existed in folk or literary form of various nations; Regardless of each other, antique Greeks created their dramatic traditions, the ancient Indians, the Chinese, the Japanese, the Indians of America.

In Greek, the word "drama" displays a sad, unpleasant event or a situation of one particular person.

Drama (gr.drama - action)

• 1) in a broad sense - every plot literary work written in colloquial form and without author's speech; B.C. It is intended for presentation in the theater; In a narrow sense, the literary work of this kind, different from the comedy seriousness of the conflict, the depth of experiences;
• 2) Any amazing event in life.

Types of drama

Tragedy- At the heart of its tragic conflict. The hero turns out to be in disharmony with society, conscience and himself. Attempts to escape from a closed circle lead to the death of the hero. The main pathos of the tragedy is how the main character opposes difficulties and is trying to fight failures. Wanting to change the position, the hero makes actions that further aggravate his position. Often in the tragedy hero himself turns out to be to blame for what is happening. I will contact Rock, Fatum, and confront it is impossible. Examples - Hamlet (W. Shakespeare), Boris Godunov (A.S. Pushkin).

Comedy - Full opposite of tragedy. It was originally considered a low genre, since her heroes were representatives of the lower class. In the comedy, such life positions and characters that cause laughter are depicted. In comedies, negative phenomena of reality and vices of people are submitted. For example, "Auditor" (N.V. Gogol). But the comedy is designed not only to cheer the public. In such comedies, many ridiculous situations, in which the will of fate enters a positive hero, as a result of which he turns out to be rejected by everyone and remains one. For example, "grief from the mind" (A. Griboyedov).

Tragicomedy, a dramatic or stage work with signs of both tragedies and comedies, and lined up in its specific laws.

Throughout the entire history of theatrical art, the term did not have a strict value. Tragicomedia was consistently considered an intermediate, auxiliary interceptive formation. So, another 19 century. encyclopedic Dictionary Brochaus and Efron determines the tragic comedation as a "dramatic work, in which the tragic plot is depicted in a comic form, or which represents an erratic journey of tragic and comic elements." The definition of tragicomedy could fall, for example, and so-called. "High Comedy", dedicated to serious public and moral issues (grief from the mind of A. Griboyedov), and a satirical comedy, sharply beating defects of society (the wedding of Krchinsky or the case of A.Sukhovo-Koblin). The basis for this was the purely formal presence of both comedy and tragic topics, episodes, characters. Only in the middle of the 20th century. Cultural sciences (art and theater, theaters, literary criticism) allocated tragicomedia into a separate genre with their structure-forming features. At the same time, theoretical studies of the architectonics of the young, but very rapidly developing genre began. drama genre theater

Disputes around the tragicomedy genre do not poke today: there is too strong a centuries-old stereotype of the perception of a chaotic combination, intertwing of tragic and comic. However, the criterion for checking any theory is practice. And it is numerous paradoxes or failures of theatrical practice, in which tragicomedia stubbornly opposes the usual methods of scenic embodiment, is forced to closely pepper in the patterns of this mysterious genre.

Let's say, only through the architectonics of tragicomedy, the world theatrical director managed to find the keys to the drama Chekhov. Late Chekhov Pieces ("Seagull", "Uncle Vanya", " The Cherry Orchard"Ivanov") for many decades, they were put in the deadlock of researchers and practitioners of the theater (the phrase "of Chekhov's mystery" very soon became a truism), causing numerous discussions and no less numerous scenic interpretations. At the same time, the failures of Chekhov's statements were commonplace; And rare luck was based, as a rule, on the fundamental rethinking of the entire structure of the play. So, the first stage of "Seagull" in Alexandrinsky Theater failed, not looking at the brilliant work V.F. Commissionerzhevskaya in the role of Nina; And the formulation of K.S. Stanislavsky in the MHT, despite the stunning audience, did not cause special approval of the author himself. MHT consistently defended Elegy, sad and even the tragic intonation of a performance, an abundant playing of halftone, subtle psychological nuances and the filigree development of the psychology of characters. Chekhov stubbornly determined the genre of his plays as a "comedy".

Much later, only freed from the charismatic, fascinating magic of performances of Stanislavsky, theorists and practices of the theater managed to understand: Chekhov's heroes are actually very funny. All heroes, and not only those that were traditionally accepted to consider in the comic light (Charlotte Ivanovna, Simeon-Pisch - in the "Vishnevian Garden", Medvedenko - in the "Seika", Natasha - in the "three sisters", Serebryakov - in "Uncle" Vanya "), but also the main characters of all Chekhov plays: Ranevskaya, Treplev, Vozyitsky, etc. It does not remove the tragicity of their destinies, moreover: the more funnier and the smaller looks like every hero, the worst and larger than his tragedy.

Gradually became clear that A. Chekhov became the founder of a new genre, in which the tragic and comic one does not simply exist in an inseparable unity, but mutually determine and exacerbate each other. The emphasis on one side (no matter - comic or tragic) completely destroys the genre structure of its plays, translating them into a completely different plane.

However, these features of tragicomedy have become clear not immediately. The practical awareness of the principles of tragicomedy largely contributed to the birth and development in the second half of the 20th century. new theatrical current - so-called The theater of the absurd, considered by His ancestor, is A.P. Chekhov (E. Ionessko, S. Beckett, H. Pinter, S. Mrogin, J. Wife, F. Arrabal, etc.).

It seems that the term "absurdism", despite the firmly employed place in the classification of art directions, is not quite correct - no wonder most of the playwrights of this direction strongly rejected him. This term reveals philosophical, semantic filling of drama, without affecting its artistic logic and architectonics. Meanwhile, in art principles The theater of the absurdity is clearer than anywhere else, all the fundamental principles of tragicomedia are traced.

If in all other theater genres (comedy, tragedy, drama) conflict is built on a well-defined moral absolute, then in tragicomedia, the moral absolute is as if transferred for brackets. Here the author not only does not answer the question "good or bad", but also does not put such a question. Moral problems appear before the viewer or reader in relativistic lighting; Simply put - everything is relatively relatively, everything is good, and bad at the same time. Any event, collision, turning the plot is not amenable to unambiguous interpretation; All that is happening - multival about and fundamentally variatively. Humor is extremely interesting here: comic does not fulfill social sanction (traditional for a satirical comedy: blasting, ridiculation), but is a social heuristic function of the knowledge of reality. Here, comic is intended to destroy the problem, the situation, the nature, to present them in an unusual form, consistently and fundamentally destroying the audience stereotype of perception and forcing for a new, non-standard look. So, humor in tragicomedia appears as an analysis tool, emphasizing and even absoluting his cognitive role. Tragicomedy activates the thinking of the audience, provoking the consideration of the same problem with the most different points of view.

In truly tragic works of the theater of the absurdity, no doubt, not only the aesthetic ideas of Chekhov are traced. Here, creatively reworked principles of many theatrical directions of the late 19th - early 20th centuries are bugged here. In particular, the English Theater of the Paradox (O. Wilde, B. Show) is not by chance E. Ionessko believed that the "Paradox Theater" should be considered the most accurate determination of his aesthetic direction. Or: the theory of "theory" (i.e. the show of ordinary, habitual phenomena in a strange, unusual perspective) of German playwright and director B. Brecht, which focuses on the socio-research orientation of his theater.

IN theoretical study Architectonics tragicomic invaluable contribution made by the largest Russian scientist M. Bakhtin. Exploring the serious-raising genres of antiquity (in particular, the "short-range dialogue" and "Menippov Satira"), Bakhtin wrote a lot about the "dialogic nature of truth and human thought about it ... The case goes exactly about the test of the idea, truth, and not about testing a certain human character, individual or social and typical "(allocated M. Bakhtin).

The theoretical and practical development of the problems of tragicomedy made it possible to conclude the only possibility of adequate stage embodiment: the main artistic method of the genre - Grotesque (Franz. GroteSque, from Ital. Grotesco is fancy), i.e., conscious violation of life forms and proportions; disclosure of ridiculous, caricature, lowlands in tragic phenomena; Sudden displacement of serious, tragic in the plane of the comical. Grotesque penetrates all the structural components of tragicomedia - from the problems and the reflected realities to the characters of the actors. Linear logic is fundamentally missing, everything "shifted", everything does not correspond to each other: the hero is the situation; character - action; The purpose is tools; life - being; Thoughts - actions; etc. Tragicomic works are not amenable to scenic interpretation with the means of traditional realistic director and acting art. In this, strictly speaking, is the secret of numerous failures of Chekhov's performances. The characters of tragicomic heroes are not volumetric and multifaceted, but are discrete, bizarrely woven from numerous contradictory, but inseparable components. Without remembering the full report in this, it is impossible to understand each of the Chekhov plays (let's say, in the famous scene from the "three sisters", when a cute, thin, sensitive Olga rather evil rises a robbery Natasha for a green belt to a pink dress).

The tragicomedy in Russia has been extremely interesting and extremely paradoxically developed. The richest traditions of the Russian realistic theater practically did not anticipate the appearance of A.hehkhov - on the contrary, his plays arose as if on the entire previous story. The Russian Theater has always been peculiar to a distinct and consistent "educational", educational function; The moral absolute, the ideal was certainly present - even in those cases (satirical comedy), when he was driven out beyond the play. Czechs with its moral relativism and sympathy to all, without exception, the heroes of their works for a long time remained the only, "separate" author - in fact outside theatrical traditions and without followers. Chekhov's motives were, as already mentioned, first picked up and continued abroad "absurdists". At the same time, the living and diverse development of the theory and practice of the theater of the absurdity was familiar to the majority of Russian theatrical figures of 1950-1970. Preferably, the social situation of the "iron curtain" prevented international cultural contacts. It would seem that in Russia the development of tragicomedia went into a dead end, almost froze, leaving only a shadow of memory about himself a mysterious giant phenomenon of Chekhov, the founder of a new genre.

However, by the end of the 1960s (and again - almost "on an empty place") a new bright Russian phenomenon emerged - Dramaturgia A. Vampilova ("Provincial anecdotes" - "case with the metranpage" and "twenty minutes with an angel", " Duck hunting"). Vampilov's plays extremely difficult to pierce his way on stage - for reasons mainly ideological nature: the lack of a clearly pronounced moral absolute (ie, the main sign of the genre) was perceived as a lack of drama. But, however, when they still managed to put, performances, as a rule, were not obtained, the history of Chekhov plays was completely repeated. Directors fought in search of " positive heroes"In Vampilovskaya drama, they tried to find volume and linear logic in consistently discrete characters of its heroes. As a result, the scenic options changed the plays of Vampilov almost beyond recognition. As the most bright curiosis, you can bring in an example later (1979) the screening of the play of Vampilov "Duck hunting" - "vacation in September" (R.Melnikova): almost the worst Character Vampilova, a waiter, evil genius and alter ego chief The hero, by the will of the director and the artist Gogachev, was transformed into its main moral opponent.

At about the same time (1967), the most repertoire playwright of Russia A. Arbuzov wrote a strange and amazing play - "My Ploy" is perhaps the only one of all its works that practically did not fall into scenic frames. The reason is the same: "My Ploy" is written in the tragicomedy genre, and therefore it was extremely difficult to comprehend it. Recall: access to practical and partly theoretical understanding of the genre, having a serious European history by this time, while the Soviet theater is difficult. In fact, I had to go to the touch, re-mastered the laws of the genre and comprehending their patterns.

Nevertheless, after a decade, by the end of the 1970s, most of the most interesting comediographic experiments of Soviet playwrights accounted for tragicomedia. And, probably, it is natural. The tragicomedy at that time served as a catalyst for public thinking, which allowed to escape from rectilinear dogmas as communist ideology and dissidents. This time can be called the time search time, prospects; And the fundamentally heuristic, the cognitive function of the tragicomedy came here as it is impossible by the way.

One after another, tragicomedies appeared both mastty and very young playwrights: E. Radzinsky ("She in the absence of love and death"), A. Smirnov ("My relatives"), L. Petrushevskaya ("Apartment of Colombina", "Three girls in blue "), A. Sokolova (" Fantasy Farijova "), A. Galina (" Eastern Tribune "), A. Arbuzova (" Happy Days of Unfortunate Man "," Tales of Old Arbat "), M. Roshchina (" Pearl Zinaida "); C. Gorina ("Til", "That Münhhausen", "The house that the Swift built"); A. Cervinsky ("HAPPINESS MY", "KRESTIC-NOLIKI", "Blonde around the angle" - according to the last of them, a film was raised that completely destroyed the slender tragicomic structure of the play and turned it into a simple water-tree). Many of these pieces are delivered - not always successfully; Many are shielded; Some lucky less. But almost every of these plays was very widely discussed by theatrical public, the truth - for the most part With regard to the problems, but not aesthetic principles of the genre. And, probably, it is also natural: in the period of the socio-ideological crisis, the heuristic side of the tragicomedia was most in demand.

But the next period is the mid-1980-1990 - he pushed the tragic comedation to the background. The time of political restructuring, social shocks, who fell off the whole of the familiar life of Russians, gave rise to their tragic worldship. The most popular were melodramas, carrying out a beautiful invented world, giving a brief rest from severe reality. Russian theaters In those days, also experienced a deep economic crisis.

The last period of the history of Russia gives rise to hopes for the return of tragicomedia in a living Russian theater process - as its full participant. The drama of L. Petrushevskaya, A. Shipenko, N. Kolyada and many others still work in this genre. Many people demonstrate to this genre theater directors - R. Viktyuk, S. Arzibashev, M. Zakharov, Kozlov, M. Levitin, E. Nyakrosyus, I. Rayhelgauz, V. Fokin, and others, whose creative authority in our theater is unconditioned.

Comedy masks - A kind of Italian folk theater. As a rule, the actor was playing masked, which were repeated in other performances. The actors spoke in different languages \u200b\u200band ridiculed the nobles and merchants. Among the famous authors - Locatelli, Rock; The influence of this genre experienced Moliere.

Farce- The concept adjacent to the words "Intermedia", "Fabio". This is the term carnival, using the Terminology M. Bakhtin, origin. The genre is close to the comedy masks. Who wrote and performed these comedies, it is difficult to establish, for their authors had actors without a group or even crowds of people who were collected in the square. They ridiculed everything and all (except King): merchants, citizens-breeders, clergy and monks. Often it was getting and caring commoner, failing to navigate in the urban time. The then intelligentsia was also delivered: students and teachers, if they suspected lazy people and in general, in search of knowledge. Of course, the clergymen were the fierce persecutors of street singers and the crochets. This democratic genre liked Shakespeare, Molore, Cervantes, K. Goldeni, and they used them. Such clowns and buffonads would have come to the yard in our time, but the genre was degenerated, the masters did not appear, and the last greetings from that distant era, apparently, are only clowns in modern circuses.

Drama - combines tragedy and comedy. The routines of the drama - in primitive poetry, in which the elements of lyrics, epic and drama intercourse were merged later in connection with music and mimic movements. Previously, than the rest of the peoples, the drama as a special kind of poetry was formed in the Hindus and the Greeks.

Greek drama, developing serious religious and mythological plots (tragedy) and funny, hoped from modern life (comedy), reaches high perfection and in the XVI century is a model for the European drama, until the time of the undistributing religious and narrative secular scenes (Mystery, School Drama and Intermediate, Fastakhtshpili, Sotises).

Medieval drama - The most richly represented in literary monuments and the developed form of dramatic creativity of the Western European Middle Ages is the liturgical action and the dramatic genres growing out of it.

Hence, a common definition of the medieval drama as a whole, as the instruments of Christian propaganda created by the Church, the symbolic expression of the Catholic dogma created by the Church. This concept of medieval (not comic) drama can be found not only in the old literature of the question, but also in the newest, summarizing research, reviews.

The liturgical action, according to the stammember (article in "Reallexikon der Deutschen Literaturgeschichte", 1925-1926), grows from "the desire to repeat everything in clear symbols and imprinted in the believer mass of the saving truths of Christianity." In fact, however, the development of medieval drama seems much more complex.

First of all, the history of liturgical act does not cover all the dramatic products of the Middle Ages. It remains abroad, on the one hand, such a peculiar phenomenon, as a literary drama (lesedrama) of the X century - imitation of the Terentation Grotzvita Gandersheim, representing interesting example The assimilation of the dominant estate - the aristocratic-clerical top - the forms of the Roman comedy for the tasks of Christian propaganda, however, and did not provide direct influence on the further development of the medieval theater.

On the other hand, the evolution of dialogic forms in the medieval literature and the emergence of such works, as a dramatized pastoral "Jeu de Robin et marion" "Gorbun from Arras" (XIII), testifies to the "secular" and even "courteous" sources of creativity of bourgeois poetic associations of that time (PUY), which played at the same time a prominent role in the late development of liturgical genres.

Finally, such phenomena as monologic and dialogic pharyys representing the first step to their later dramatization ("De Clerico et puella" (XIII), "Le Garcon et L" Aveugle "(XIII)], as the late design of the carnival games (Fastnachtspiele ), indicate the coexistence with the liturgical action of the scomerous act, the heritage of the "pagan" mime, which had a significant impact on the introduction of the comic element in a liturgical drama and its further development.

True, the dramatic products of this type are represented only in random, rare and relatively late monuments; But the lack of recording is quite natural here, since the squamorous act was served mainly public groups remaining outside the written culture.

On the other hand, it is unlikely to doubt that for its success, the church had to take into account the "social order" of these groups, and the meaning of this "order" was intensified as the liturgical action was separated from the altar to the pellets, and the pellery passed to the square. In addition, no one of the estates of the Middle Ages - and above all, the clerics did not represent a homogeneous, cohesive generality of economic interests, a public group: the interests of the estate, the tops of which were feudal senites - the princes of the Church (the reflection of their nationalist tendencies to independence is, for example , Ludus de AntechRisto), and the bottoms formed one of the main parts of the medieval lumen-proletariat, were very far away; And their discrepancy increased as the feudal society decay, the growth of cities and the development of commercial capital: the interests of the urban clergy were closer to the interests of a merchant citizen than Vagant-cleric.

In this regard, it is significant, for example, as in the "pilgrim poems" of the Middle Ages - poems glorifying, in order to attract pilgrims, any local religious center - the praise of shrines is often connected with the praise of the city itself, his good roads, his rich shops and Conduct merchants. It is not surprising that therefore, in the development of liturgical action, it is possible to note the increasingly increasing display of the interests and sentiment of the third class, mostly the city part of it, and that the development is completed at the beginning of the reformational battle using the third class of the heritage of the liturgical drama as the instruments of the fight against the church.

The origins of liturgical act are undoubtedly connected with theatricalization church service In purely cult purposes (about the impact of Eastern mystical acts through the cults of Eastern churches - Egyptian, Syrian, Greek.

Two points were decisive here: the enrichment of the church service as a spectacle to create specific decorative installations (nursery for Christmas, the coffin for Easter) and the introduction of dialogical forms in the execution of the Evangelical text (the so-called respondents, distributing the singing of the text between two semi-either or priest and community, and arising In the century, the trails, paraphrase text when reducing the same melody).

When transferring the execution of the text to the participants of the spectacular installation (clerics, mimicing shepherds in Yasle or Mironositz and Angela in the coffin) was created simplest form liturgical action. Further development The plots of liturgical act, gradually developing into a religious drama, is achieved primarily compiling the most easily dramatized episodes of the Gospel.

So in the Christmas action to the episode of the worship of the shepherds joins the release of overwhelmed grandmothers (according to the medieval tradition, - witnesses of the virginity of the Virgin Mary), the conversation of Mary and Joseph, the gift infant, the episode of the worship of the Magi (originally presented separately on the feast of baptism - January 6), in his The turn enriched with episodes of Herod, beating infants, I cry Rachel (symbolizing orphaned mothers) and escape to Egypt. In the Easter action, the episodes of the Mironos and Angel and Angel's episode are combined with the episode of the tag of the apostles Peter and John to the coffin, the episode of Mary Magdalene, the exits of Pilate, Jews and Guardians, finally with the scenes of descent to hell and dramatization of the act of crucifixion.

The dramatization of the Evangelsk Fability also joins the dramatization of the episodes of the Bible, who interpreted the church tradition as a kind of prologue to the evangelical scenes (the creation of the world, the uprising of Satan and the sin), as well as the dramatization of the legendary material, in particular the legends about the coming of the Antichrist.

Further development of a religious drama after separating it from church service is characterized by an increasingly realistic interpretation, an expansion of the comic and satirical element and differentiation of dramatic genres. The realistic interpretation is primarily expressed primarily in a gradual refusal from the cult Latin language, accessible only to the clerics, and in the transition to the national language (in the first half of the XII century in France, on the fracture of the XII-XIII centuries in Germany); The cult language is limited only to church chants administered to the text, while all the speeches of the acting persons are conducted in the national language: in the preserved texts, all the stages of this development are reflected - purely Latin, Latin-folk and purely popular religious dramas.

Further, the realistic interpretation affects everything richer by household material, introduced into the design of the religious plot: in the French Miracles of the XIV century, in the German "passions" of the XV century to the scene, conscientious household furnishings of the modern citizen in all its details; The scene, for example, the crucifixes in German mysteries repeats with all the details of the public execution of the XV century, Holy Joseph in the Staroangalian mystery When going to run to Egypt, grumbling to his wife and with gentle tenderness stacked "his small tool" - the exact image of the English artisan.

If the Church imposed a ban on too free interpretation of the main actors of the Gospel Fabul, then it still remained enough characters and episodes who gave place to a comic element. Herod and Pilate, Jews and guards, Even the shepherds, the apostles (running apostles on distillation from the "Holy Sepulcher") and the Holy Joseph (Vocchnya and Switching with the Virgin Mary) and, in particular, the devil and his servants represented sufficient material for comedians; It is characteristic (the introduction of special comic episodes in the Fabul has already been implemented, as, for example, in the Christmas action of the screenshots between the shepherds (Poppy Scene in Woodkirk Mystery) or the purchase of worldwide worlds in the world of Easter Affairs (favorite in German Mysteries Kramerszene ). As the religious drama develops, these scenes being developed in the passage of Fablo are gaining increasingly specific gravity, Crazy in the end in independent comic plays.

If, as mentioned above, the appearance of the first secular pieces coincides with the first performances of the poets of the third class (Rutböfa's dialogues, "Jeux" Adam de La Gall), the further differentiation of the dramatic genres of the Middle Ages coincides with the beginning of the heyday of the city culture of commercial capital.

This assimilation and development of the new form forms of alien, already dying culture is observed in almost all areas of literary creativity, - for example, a lush flourishing of religious lyrics in the same era: in its struggle with a direct enemy - a feudal aristocracy - a city dweller, culturally too Weak, willingly resorts to the most impacting forms of the old, in many ways hostile knight of the estate culture - the culture of the clergy.

A large religious drama in the XV century is everywhere becoming the property of organizations of the city - shops, guilds, etc. organizations (sometimes, as in Paris, created specifically for theatrical productions), which only could have been - with a gradual decree of the monasteries - recoup costly productions.

This transition, a finally withdrawing a large religious drama on the square of the city and transmitting the execution of its roles to citizens (for the clerics, the roles of the most revered actors - Christ, Mary - or, mostly, only director), makes new characteristics in the design of the drama itself : The complication of decorative and scenic design is so typical for the flourishing of trade capital culture. A lot of details for the flourishing of the endless set of details, sometimes resembling the art of Baroque, and finally use the mass; The number of actors increases to several hundred, and the introduction of mass scenes allows you to achieve before unknown effects.

The realism of the interpretation increases, the subjects often takes the secular character ("Osada Orlean", about 1429, popularization in the drama of the curuiest themes - "The destruction of Troy" Jacques Mill, 1450--1452).

The small form of a religious drama with its bright household color, created already outside the church, in the bourgeois poetic associations (PUY) of the rich cities of France, - Miracle - is inferior to the allegorically didactic morality in the same time with it (along with the traditional biblical subjects) greater space for secular topics - practical morality, rules of behavior (in the "condemnation of feast", for example, appear personals not only diseases, but also therapeutic agents, up to "bloodletting" and "client"), sometimes even purely household scenes, at the same time, the political satire and religious struggle turned into the instrument of political satire and religious struggle.

Allegorically didactic nature and other forms of the secular drama, which achieves its full development in this era and part of the liturgical drama released from comic interlude, is part of the continuing little inspected in monuments, but still the existing tradition. Such: in France - Soty - satirical genre, from the parody of the church service passing to political and social satire, and the farce - from the Latin "Farsa" - "filling", that is, a serious drama interlude, in which the third class For the first time creates its household and social comedy and which continues to exist until the XVII century, affecting the literary comedy of classicism.

Parallel this genre (as well as allegorical morality) forms a German Fastnachtspiel, receiving literary design at Masonzinger XV-XVI centuries, including Hans Saks.

The limit for the development of a medieval serious drama was not at all the beginning of the Reformation, as it is drawn in the old history of literature. On the contrary, Protestants make a number of attempts to use even a great religious drama for their own purposes (Protestant German Mystery of Jakob Ruef Doctor, English Protestant Mysteries, compiled by the order of Cromwell John Bale), while allegorically didactic small genres become a favorite tool in the borrowed struggle.

The limit for the development of the medieval drama is imposed by the assimilation of the Renaissance and the reformation of the forms of an ancient tragedy, finally reinforced in the drama of classicism. Mystery, who is prohibited from not only Protestant, but also the Catholic authorities, is used as a pedagogical tool at school, descends into the layers of the wealthy peasantry, where he continues to exist until the XIX century; More resistant are small allegorically didactic genres affecting (as mentioned above) and the creativity of humanists.

French playwrights, imitating Greek, strictly kept certain provisions, which were considered unchanged for the aesthetic dignity of the drama, are: the unity of time and place; The duration of the episode depicted on the scene should not exceed the day; The action should occur at the same place; The drama should be properly developed in 3-5 acts, from the taste (clarification of the initial position and characters of the heroes) through the average peripetia (changes of the provisions and relationships) to the junction (usually a catastrophe); The number of actors is very limited (usually from 3 to 5); This is exclusively top representatives of the Company (kings, queens, princes and princesses) and their closest rugs, which are introduced from the scene for the convenience of dialogue and feed replicas. Such are the main features of the French classic drama (Cornel, Rasin).

The severity of the requirements of the classic style was already less respected in the comedies (Moliere, Lope de Vega, Boualersha), gradually transferred from convention to the image ordinary life (genre). Free from classic conventions Creativity Shakespeare opened the drama new paths. The end of the XVIII and the first half of the XIX century are commemorated by the appearance of romantic and national drum: lescing, Schiller, Goethe, Hugo, Clayst, Grabbe.

In the second half of the XIX century in the European drama, realism (Duma-son, Ogor, Sardan, Pisharon, Ibsen, Zuderman, Schnitcher, Hauptman, Beyerlain) takes over in a European drama.

In the last quarter of the XIX century, a symbolism (Hauptman, Pshbyshevsky, Bar, D "Annunzio, Horofmanstal) begins to master the European scene.

Drama in Russia is listed from the West in late XVII century. Independent dramatic literature appears only at the end of the XVIII century. Until the first quarter of the XIX century, a classic direction prevails in drama, both in tragedy and in comedy and comedy opera; The best authors: Lomonosov, Princess, Ozers; Attempting I. Lukina to draw the attention of playwrights to the image of Russian life and the morals remained vain: all their plays are lifeless, walked and alien to Russian reality, except for the famous "inexpensive" and "brigadier" of Fonvizin, "Yabedy" Capnica and some comedies I. A. Krylov .

At the beginning of the XIX century, the Schakhovskaya, Khmelnitsky, Zagoskin, a puppeteer, a puppeteer, became imitators. Comedy Griboedov "Woe from Wit", later the "auditor", "marriage" of Gogol, become the basis of the Russian household drama. After Gogol, even in Waterville (D. Lensky, F. Koni, Sologub, Karatygin) noticeably desire to get closer to life.

Ostrovsky gave a number of wonderful historical chronicles and household comedies. After him, the Russian drama became solid soil; The most outstanding playwrights: A. Sukhovo-Kobylin, I.S. Turgenev, A. Potekin, A. Palm, V. Dyachenko, I. Chernyshev, V. Krylov, N.Y. Solovyov, N. Teaev, gr. A. Tolstoy, gr. L. Tolstoy, D. Averkiev, P. Boborakin, Prince Sumbatov, News, N. Galotich, Spachinsky, EVT. Karpov, V. Tikhonov, I. Scheglov, Vl. Nemirovich-Danchenko, A. Chekhov, M. Gorky, L. Andreev and others.

Vaudeville- (Franz. Vaudeville\u003e Vau de Vire - the name of the valley in Normandy, where at the beginning of the 15th century. This genre of theatrical art appeared) - the type of comedy, as a rule, one-act: play of entertainment or entertaining intrigue and an imperious household plot in which dramatic The action is combined with songs, music, dancing.

Melodrama(from Greek Melos - Melody, Song and Drama - Drama). - 1. Musically - a dramatic work, in which the speech of the characters is accompanied by music, but, unlike the opera, the actors do not sing, but they say. 2. The type of drama for which is characterized by an acute, entertaining intrigue, exaggerated patte and emotional glow of feelings ("tears"), often - tendency moralization. In Russia was popular in the 30-40th. 19th century (N.V. Kupolnikov, N.A. Field).

As is known, all literary works depending on the nature of the depicted relate to one of three childbirth: epic, lyrics or drama .

1 ) Joke2) Apocrypha3) ballads a4) Basnya5) epics

6) Drama7) Life 8) Mystery9) historical songs

10) Comedy11) Legend12) Lyrics13) Novella

14) Oda 15) Essay16) Pamflet.17) Tale

18) Proverbs and sayings 19) Pois 20) Story21) Roman

22) Fairy Tale23) Word 24) tragedy25) Chastushka26) Elegy

27) Epigram 28) Epic29) Epos.

Video Tutorial "" Literary childbirth and genres ""

Epos. (from Greek. "Nattery") is a generalized name of works depicting external events in relation to the author.

LYRICS (from Greek. "Performed under LIRA") is a generalized name of works in which there is no plot, and you are depicted feelings, thoughts, the experiences of the author or his lyrical hero.

DRAMA (from Greek. "Action") - a generalized name of works intended for the scene; Drames prevail the characters' dialogues, the copyright is minimized.

The varieties of epic, lyrical and dramatic works are called the species of literary works.

View and genre - concepts in literary very close.

Genres call variations of the type of literary work. For example, a genre specification of the story may be a fantastic or historical story, and the genre variety of comedy - waterville, etc. Strictly speaking, literary genre - This is a historically established type of artwork, containing certain, characteristic structural features characteristic of this group and aesthetic quality.

Types (genres) of epic works:

epopea, Roman, Tale, Story, Tale, Bass, Legend.

Epopea - large work of fictiontelling about significant historical events. In antiquity - narrative poem of heroic content. In the literature of 19-20 centuries, the genre of Roman-epic appears - this is a work in which the formation of the characters of the main characters occurs during their participation in historical events.

Roman is a large narrative artwork with a complex plot, in the center of which is the fate of the person.

The story is an artistic work that occupies a middle position between the novel and the story in terms of the volume and complexity of the plot. In antiquity the story was called any narrative work.

The story is an artistic work of a small size, which is based on the episode, the case of the Hero's life.

The fairy tale is a work of fictional events and heroes, usually with the participation of magical, fantastic forces.

Basnya (from "beyt" - to tell) is a narrative product in poetic form, small size, moral or satirical nature.

Types (genres) of lyric works:

oda, Anthem, Song, Elegy, Sonnet, Epigram, Message.

Oda (from Greek. "Song") - choral, solemn song.

Hymn (with Greek. "Praise") - a solemn song on the poems of a software character.

Epigram (with Greek. "Inscription") is a short satirical poem of a mocking nature, which arose in the 3rd century BC. e.

Elegy - the genre of lyrics dedicated to sad thoughts or a lyrical poem, imbued with sadness. Belinsky called Elegy "Summer Song Content." The word "Elegy" is translated as "Reed Flute" or "File Song". Elegy originated in ancient Greece in the 7th century BC. e.

Message is a poetic letter, appeal to a specific person, request, wish, recognition.

Sonnet (from Provencal Sonette - "Song") - poem from 14 lines with a certain rhyme system and strict stylistic laws. Sonnet originated in Italy in the 13th century (the creator is the poet of Jacopo and Lentini), in England appeared in the first half of the 16th century (Sarry), and in Russia - in the 18th century. The main types of Soneta are Italian (from 2 cat-renov and 2 tercets) and English (from 3 katrenins and final two-bending).

LarEpic species (genres):

Drama is One of the three birth of literature (along with epic and lyrics). The drama belongs to the theater and literature: being a first-axis performance, at the same time perceived in reading. It was formed on the basis of the evolution of theatrical ideas: nomination of actors connecting the pantomime with a pronounced word, marked its occurrence as a kind of literature. Intended for collective perception, the drama has always been to the most acute social problems and in the brightest samples became folk; Its base is socio-historical contradictions or eternal, universal anti-necinomy. Dramatism dominates in it - the property of the human spirit, awakened by situations, when the cherished and pressing for a person remains unfulfilled or is under threat. Most dramas are built on a single external action with its peripetias (which corresponds to the principle of unity of action, which goes back to aristotle). The dramatic effect is due, as a rule, with a direct confusion of heroes. It is either traced from ties to the junction, exciting large intervals (medieval and eastern drama, for example, "shakuntala" by Kalidas), or is taken only in his culmination MomentClose to the junction (ancient tragedy or many of the drama of the new time, for example, "Nuredannica", 1879, A.N.ostrovsky).

Principles of constructing drama

Classical aesthetics of the 19th century absolutized these principles of constructing drama. Considering the drama - after hegel - as the reproduction of collapsed volitional impulses ("shares" and "reactions"), V.G. Belinsky believed that "there should be no person in the drama that would not be necessary in the mechanism of her The stroke and development "and that" the decision in choosing a path depends on the hero of the drama, and not from the event. " However, in the Chronicles of W. Waxpiera and in the tragedy "Boris Godunov" A.S. Pushkin Unity of external action was weakened, and A.P. Chekhov is missing at all: several equal plot lines are simultaneously deployed here. Often, the internal action prevails in the drama, in which the heroes do not so much do anything, how many stable conflict situations are experiencing and reflecting intensively. Internal action, whose elements are already present in the tragedies "King Edip" Sofokla and Hamlet (1601) Shakespeare, dominates in the drama of the late 19 - mid 20th century (G. Ibsen, M.Terlink, Chekhov, M. Gorky, B. Show , B.Brcht, a modern "intellectual" drama, for example: J. Nui). The principle of internal action is polemicly proclaimed in the work of the "Kvintessence of Ibsenism" (1891).

The basis of the composition

The universal basis of the composition of the drama is the membership of its text. At the stage episodes, within which one moment is tightly adjacent to another, adjacent: the imaged, the so-called real time definitely corresponds to the time of perception, artistic (see).

The membership of the drama on episodes is carried out in different ways. In the folk medieval and eastern drama, as well as Shakespeare, in Boris Godunov, Pushkin, in the plays of Brecht, the place and time of action are changing frequently, which informs the image as if epic freedom. The European drama of 17-19 centuries is based, as a rule, on a few and lengthy stage scenic episodes that coincide with acts of performances, which gives the shown flavor of life reliability. At the most compact mastery, the aesthetics of classicism insisted space and time; The proclaimed N. Balo "Three Unities" preserved until the 19th century ("Mount from Wit", A.S.Griboyedov).

Drama and saying characters

Presentation of characters are crucial in dramawhich marks their volitional action and active self-examination, the narrative (stories of the characters about the earlier, reports of the messengers, the introduction of a copyright) is a subordinate, but it is not at all; The words delivered by acting persons constitute a solid, continuous line in the text. Theatrical-dramatic speech has the addressing of a double genus: the actor's character enters the dialogue with scenic partners and monologically appeals to the audience (see). The monologue principle of speech will be in the drama, firstly, impuditly, in the form of the replicas included in the dialogue to the side, not receiving the response (those of the statements of Chekhov heroes, marking a surge of emotions of disobeds and lonely people); Secondly, in the form of the monologues actually, which reveal the hidden experiences of the acting persons and thus strengthen the drama of the action, expand the sphere of the depicted, the meaning is really detected. Connecting dialogical collaboration and monological rhetoric, speech in drama concentrates the appeal and effective ability of the language and acquires special artistic energy.

In historically early stages (from antiquity to F.shiller and Vgugo) D., mainly a poetic, widely relied on monologues (the outpour of the soul of heroes in the "scenes of pathos", the statements of the messengers, replicas to side, direct appeals to the public) that Brought it closer to her oratorical art and lyrical poetry. In 19-20 centuries, the tendency of the heroes of the traditionally poetic drama "torture to the full depletion of forces" (Yu.A.Standberg) is often perceived alienation-ironically, as a tribute to Routine and False. In the 19th century drama marked with a close interest in private, family-household life, the conversational dialogue began (Ostrovsky, Chekhov), monologic rhetoric comes down to a minimum (Late Pieces of Ibsen). In the 20th century, the monologue is re-activated in the drama applied to the deepest socio-political collisions of modernity (Gorky, V.V. Majakovsky, Breht) and universal Antinomies of Being (Anui, J.P.Sartr).

Speech in drama

Speech in a drama designed to pronounce in a wide space Theatrical room, designed for the massive effect, is potentially sound, full-haired, then-there is a dramatic writer ("without eloquence there is no dramatic writer" - noted by D. Didro). The theater and drama need situations where the hero speaks to the public (the culmination of the "Auditor", 1836, N.V. Gogol and "Thunderstorms", 1859, A.N. Oostrovsky, supporting episodes of Mayakovsky comedy), as well as in theatrical hyperbole: A dramatic character needs more loud and clearly pronounced words, rather than those demanded positions (journalistically bright monologue of the lonely rising baby stroller Andrei in the 4th act of "three sisters", 1901, Chekhov). Pushkin was told about the drama of the drama to the conventionality of the images ("from all kinds of essays the most implausible writings dramatic". A.S. Pushkin. About tragedy, 1825), E.Zol and L.N. Tolstoy. The readiness to be silent to indulge in passions, a tendency to sudden solutions, to sharp intellectual reactions, throwing the expression of thoughts and feelings inherent in the heroes of the drama much more than the characters of narrative works. The scene "connects in close space, in the interval of some two hours all movements, which even a passionate creature can often only survive in a long period of life" (Talma F. on scenic art.). The main subject of search for playwright-significant and bright, entirely filling the consciousness of mental movements, which are predominantly reactions on what is happening in this moment: for just uttered the word, on whose movement. Thoughts, feelings and intentions, indefinite and vague, reproduce a dramatic speech with less concreteness and completeness than the narrative form. Such limited drama is overcome by its stage reproduction: intonation, gestures and facial painhers of actors (sometimes fixed by writers in remarks) capture the shades of experiencing heroes.

Drama appointment

Drama's appointment, according to Pushkin, - "Act into many, hold his curiosity" and for the sake of this to capture the "truth of passions": "Laughter, pity and horror the essence of three strings of our imagination, shaded by dramatic art" (A.S. Pushkin. O Folk Drama and the Drama "Marfa Posadanny", 1830). The drama is especially closely related to the laughter sphere, for the theater was strengthened and developed in the framework of mass festivals, in the atmosphere of the game and fun: "Comedan Instinct" is the "primary all kinds of dramatic skills" (Mann T.). In the former epochs - from antiquity and up to the 19th century - the main properties of the drama responded to the trends in general practitioner and generally educational. The transforming (idealizing or grotesque) began in art dominated over the reproducing, and the shown noticeably deviated from the forms of real life, so that the drama not only successfully competed with the epic native, but was also perceived as a "wedge of poetry" (Belinsky). In the 19-20th centuries, the desire of art to life-like and naturalness, responded to the predominance of the novel and a decrease in the role of the drama (especially in the West in the first half of the 19th century), at the same time radically modified its structure: under the influence of the experience of novelists, traditional conventions and hyperbololism of dramatic images began to reduce to a minimum (Ostrovsky, Chekhov, bitter with their desire for the household and psychological accuracy of images). However, the new drama retains the elements of "implausing". Even in everyday reliable plays Chekhov, some of the sayings of characters are conditionally poetic.

Although the drama is invariably dominated by a speech characteristic, its text is focused on spectacular expressiveness and takes into account the possibilities of scenic technology. Hence the most important demand for drama is its scenicness (due to ultimately, acute conflict). At the same time, there are dramas designed only to read. These are many plays of the countries of the East, where the breakdown periods of the drama and the theater sometimes did not coincide, the Spanish Drama-Roman "Selestina" (end of the 15th century), in the 19th century literature - the tragedy of J. Baron, Faust (1808-31) I.V . There is a problematic installation of Pushkin to the scenicness in Boris Godunov and especially in small tragedies. The Theater of the 20th century, which has been successfully mastering almost any genre and generic forms of literature, erases the former border between the actual drama and the drama for reading.

On the stage

When setting on the stage of drama (like other literary works), it is not simply executed, but translates with actors and director to the language of the theater: on the basis of literary text, intonational-gesture patterns are being developed, decorations, noise effects and mice are being created. Scenic "completion" of drama, in which it is enriched and largely modifies its meaning, has an important artistic and cultural function. Thanks to him, the semantic rehabilitation of literature is carried out, which inevitably accompany her life in the consciousness of the public. The range of stage interpretations of the drama, as the modern experience convinces, very wide. When creating an updated actual stage text, it is undesirable as illustrative, concrembly in reading the drama and the combination of the play to the role of its "strips" and arbitrary, modernizing the reprovement of the previously created product is its transformation to the expression by the director of its own dramaturgical aspirations. The respectful-care attitude of the actors and the director to the meaningful concept, the features of the genre and style of a dramatic work, as well as its text becomes an imperative when contacting the classics.

Like a birth literature

Drama as a genus literature includes many genres. Throughout the history of the drama, there are tragedy and comedy; For the Middle Ages, a liturgical drama, mysteria, miracle, morality, school drama are characteristic of the Mystery. In the 18th century, drama was formed as a genre that prevailed in the future in world dramaturgy (see). Melodramas, farces were also spread, water. The modern drama gained an important role of tragicomedia and tragifars that prevail in the theater of the absurdity.

The origins of the European Drama - the creativity of the ancient Greek tragiacs of Eschil, Sofokla, EuroPide and Comediograph of Aristophana. Focusing on the shape of the mass festivities that had ritual-cult origins, following the traditions of choral lyrics and oratory, they created the original drama, in which the characters communicated not only with each other, but also with the choir expressing the author's mind and spectators. The ancient Roman drama is represented by the Float, Terenzem, Seneca. Ancient Drama entrusted the role of the public caregiver; She has the philosophicity, the greatness of tragedy images, the brightness of the carnal and satirical game in comedies. The theory of drama (primarily the tragedy genre) since the days of Aristotle performed in european culture At the same time as the theory of verbal art as a whole, which testified to the special significance of the dramatic kind of literature.

In the east

Drama flourishing in the East refers to a later time: in India - from the middle of the 1st millennium of our era (Calidas, Bhas, Speud); The ancient Indian drama was widely relied on the epic stories, the motifs of the Vedas and Sandolidaries. The largest playwrights of Japan - Dzeami (early 15th century), in whose work the drama for the first time received a complete literary form (genre of Ykauk), and Mondzaemon Tikamatsu (end 17 - early 18th century). In the 13-14th centuries, a secular drama was formed in China.

European Drama of the New Time

The European Drama of the New Time, based on the principles of ancient art (mainly in tragedies), at the same time inherited the traditions of the medieval folk theater, mainly comedy-farce. Her "Golden Age" - the English and Spanish Renaissance and Baroque Drama Titanism and the duality of the Renaissance Personality, her freedom from the gods and at the same time dependence on the passions and power of money, the integrity and inconsistency of the historical flow were embodied in Shakespeare in a truly folk dramatic form, synthesizing tragic and comic , real and fantastic, possessing composite freedom, plot multiplicity, combining thin intelligence and poetry with rude farce. Calderon de la Barka embodied the ideas of Baroque: the dualisticness of the world (the antinomy of earthly and spiritual), the inevitability of suffering on earth and the steamless self-confidence of a person. The classic has become the drama of French classicism; The tragedies of P. Kornell and Zh.Rasina psychologically deeply launched a conflict of personal feeling and debt before the nation and the state. The "High Comedy" of Moliere combined the tradition of a national spectacle with the principles of classicism, and the satir on public defects - with folk cheerfulness.

The ideas and conflicts of the Epoch of Enlightenment were reflected in the drams of Gelasing, Didro, P. Bravash, K.Goldoni; In the genre of the Meshchansky drama, the versatility of classicism norms was questioned, a democratization of the drama and its language occurred. In the early 19th century, romantics were created the most informative playwriths (Kleist, Bayron, P. Shelli, V.Guhugo). Pafos of individual freedom and protest against bourgeoisality were transmitted through bright events, legendary or historical, enveloped in performed lyrism monologues.

The new rise in the Western European drama belongs to the Rubel 19-20 centuries.: Ibsen, Gauputman, Strindberg, shows focus on acute socio-moral conflicts. In the 20th century, the traditions of the drama of this era were inherited by R.Rollan, J.prirley, Sh.O'Kayyi, Y.O'Niel, L. Pyrandell, K. Sapeke, A.Miller, E.Deta Filippo, F. Dührrenmatt, E .Wolbi, Tuilliams. Noticeable place in foreign art It occupies the so-called intellectual drama associated with existentialism (Sartre, Anui); In the second half of the 20th century, the drama of the absurd (E. Ionessko, S. Bekket, G.pinter and others). Acute social and political collisions of 1920-40x were reflected in the work of Brecht; Its theater is emphasized rationalistic, intellectually tense, frankly conditional, oratory and rally.

Russian drama

The status of high classics The Russian drama has gained since 1820-30 (Griboedov, Pushkin, Gogol). Ostrovsky's multi-headed drama with its through conflict of human dignity and the power of money, with the nomination of a lifefriend, marked with despotism, with its sympathy and respect for the "little man" and the predominance of "life-like" forms became decisive in the formation national repertoire 19th century. Psychological dramas, performed sober realism, created L.N. Tolstoy. At the turn of the 19-20 centuries, the drama has undergone a radical shift in the works of Chekhov, who, having comprehended by the spiritual drama of the intelligentsia of his time, extinguishes deep drama in the form of mournful-ironic lyrism. Replica and episodes of his plays are associated with an associative, according to the principle of "counterpoint", the mental state of the heroes are detected against the background of the usual flow of life with the help of a subtext developed by Czech in parallel with the symbolist meterlink, which was interested in the "Secrets of the Spirit" and the hidden "tragedy of everyday life."

At the origins of the Patriotic Drama soviet period - Creativity of Gorky, continued by historical and revolutionary plays (N.F. Podogodin, B.A. Lavenev, V.Visnevsky, K.A. Trenev). Bright samples of satirical drama were created by Mayakovsky, M.A. Bulgakov, N.R. Edman. The genre of the play-fairy tale, combining light lyrism, heroic and satir, designed by E.L. Shvants. The socio-psychological drama is represented by the work of A.N.Afinogenova, L.M. Lonovova, A.E. Kornechuk, A.N.Arbuzova, later - V.S. Rasova, A.M. Wrodyin. L.G.Zorina, R. Ibrahimbekova, I.P.Drotshe, L.S.Petrushevskaya, V.I. Sulakina, A.M. Galina. The production topic was the basis of socially acute Pieces by I.M. Dvoretsky and A.I. Helman. A peculiar "drama of morals", combining social and psychological analysis with a grotesque-water jet, created A.V.Vampilov. Over the past decade, the Success is the success of N.V. Kolada. The drama of the 20th century sometimes includes a lyrical principle ("lyrical drama" meterlinka and A.A. Block) or narrative (Brecht called his plays "epic"). The use of narrative fragments and active installation of stage episodes often gives the creativity of the playwright to the color of the documentary. And at the same time, the illusion of the reliability of the depicted and is given to the demonstration of conventions of the conventional and is given to the demonstration of conventions (direct appeals of the characters to the public; reproduction on the scene of memories or dreams of the hero; spent song-lyrical fragments). In the mid-20th century, a documentary drama is distributed, reproducing real events, historical documents, memoir literature ("Cute Liar", 1963, J. Kilti, "Sixth July", 1962, and "Revolutionary Etude", 1978, M.F.Satrov) .

The word drama happened from Greek Drama, that in translation means - action.

Dramatic genres - Total genresarising and developing within the drama as a literary race.

Drama specifically depicts, as a rule, a person's privacy and his social conflicts. At the same time, the emphasis is often done on universal contradictions embodied in the behavior and actions of specific characters. Drama is a literary work that depicts serious conflict, struggle between actors

As a genre of drama drama adds in the middle of the 19th century. This is an intermediate genre between comedy and tragedy.

Types of drama (dramatic genres)

• Tragedy

  The tragedy is a dramatic work, in which the main acting person (and sometimes other characters - in side clashes), distinguished by the maximum of the power of will, mind and feelings for a person, violating some kind of conscious (from the point of view of the author) and an irresistible law; At the same time, the hero of the tragedy may or at all do not realize their guilt - or not to conscious of it for a long time - acting either for predominates of over (for example, an antique tragedy), or being in the power of blinding passion (for example, Shakespeare). The fight against an ingredient law is conjugate with great suffering and inevitably ends the death of the tragic hero; The fight against an ingredient law is his revaluation at the inevitable celebration - it causes spiritual enlightenment in us - Qatarsis.

  The hero of any dramatic work is steadily striving for its purpose: this is an aspiration, a single action, encounters a counter-action ambient. No need to forget that the tragedy developed from religious cult; The initial content of the tragedy is the resistance of rock, its convincing and inevitable presenters, which neither death or gods can get around. Such, for example, the construction of "Edipa" of Sofokla. In the Christian theater, the tragic effect is the fight against God; Such, for example, "worship the cross" Calderon. In some Shakespeare tragedies, for example, in "Julia Cesar", an antique rock is reborn, fate, in the form of cosmic forces who take terrible participation in the dramatic struggle. In German tragedies, usually, violation of the Divine Law, German tragedies of religious - and religious on Christian. Such in most of its tragedies Schiller (in the "Robber" - God very often takes the features of Jewish, here affects the influence of the Bible), Claysta, Goebbel, and others. The Christian worldview is felt in the tragedy sketches of Pushkin, as, for example, in "Pira during plague. " "Dramatic Wine" - Violation of the norms of a certain life; "Tragic Wines" is a violation of the law of absolute. On the other hand, a tragedy, developing in socio-government, devoid of religious pathos in the narrow sense of the word; The hero of the tragedy may not fight with God, but with the "historical necessity", etc.

  The Hero of the Social Tragedy encroaches the main foundations social Life. The protest of the household drama hero is caused by household conditions; In another environment, he may calm down. In a society, where a woman is equal with a man, Nora ibsen must show a lot of calm, on the contrary, the hero of the social tragedy - like any tragedy - with any conditions - rebar. He does not find a place and the framework of sociality. Such, for example, Coriolian Shakespeare; In any environment, its indomitable arrogance should be manifested. He rebels against the immutable requirements of citizenship. There is no tragedy if the hero is not strong enough.

  (That's why the "thunderstorm" is not a tragedy. Katerina is too weak; barely feeling his sin, his tragic religious guilt - she cums up with him; she is unable to deal with God).

  The counter-action of other characters of the tragedy should also be maximum; All the main characters of the tragedy should be gifted by emergency energy and intellectual acute. The tragic hero acts without evil intention - this is the third mandatory sign of the tragedy. Edipa His murder and the healing is destined over; Macbeth implements the witch predictions. The hero of the tragedy - without guilt to blame, doomed. At the same time, he is humane, he is capable of deep suffering, he acts on his suffering. The heroes of the tragedy are richly gifted in the power of their passions. Topics of tragedy - mythologous. In myth, an effective primary priority of human relations, not darkened by household healing. The historical images of the tragedy uses as images of a folk legend, and not as a scientific material. She is interested in history - legend, not history - science. True tragedy is the truth of passion, and not an accurate realistic image. The tragedy enlightens our spiritual consciousness; In addition to artistic imagery, it is inherent in the patos of philosophical penetration. The tragedy inevitably ends the death of the hero. His passion is directed against the fate itself and with the other way; The death of the hero is the only possible outcome of the tragedy. However, the daring power of the hero initiates in the moments of sympathy, the insane hope of his victory.

• Drama (genre)

  the drama appears at the end of 18. This is a play with modern household themes. The difference from the melodrama is that the drama does not seek to swear. The task is to describe a plot of modern life with all the details and show some drawback, vice. It can solve in a comedy character. Drama modgets mix with melodrama.

• Criminal drama
• Existential drama
• drama in verse
• 
  Melodrama

  appeared in France. Melodrama - play, which directly addresses the emotions of the audience, causing compassion, fear, hatred of IPR. Unfortunately, as a rule, occur due to external reasons: natural disasters, sudden death, villains acting from mercenary motives. In the tragedy, such a villain is encouraged: he doubts and suffer. In melodrama, a person is intended and involved in a single emotional gust. The plots are taken from the life of ordinary people, the final is usually prosperous.

  Melodrama is a drama, which is increasing not so much seriousness of the dramatic struggle and the detailed image of the life, in which this struggle is developing as sharpness of scenic positions. The sharpness of the scenic provisions arises in part as a consequence of complex and spectacular circumstances (dramatic node), in which melodrama arises, partly as a consequence of the ingenuity and resourcefulness of its characters. The heroes of the melodrama are planting in an isolated prison chamber, stitching and thrown into the water (A. Duma), and they still saves. Sometimes they save them and happy randomness; The authors of meloders in the desire to all new and new effects, are sometimes greatly abused by such random turns in the fate of their heroes. The main interest of melodrama, therefore, purely fablystic. This interest is often intensified in melodramas sudden "recognition" (term Aristotle); Many heroes of melodrama have been acting under the fictional name for a long time, the dramatic struggle is conducted between close relatives, for a long time about it, etc. In connection with the superficial image of life, the melodrama is developing under the sign of "tragic guilt" (see "Tragedy") . However, the melodrama is far from the tragedy, there is no spiritual deepening in it; Characteristics of melodrama are more schematic than in any other dramatic work. In melodrames often encounter villains, noble adventurers, helpless-touching characters ("Two orphans"), etc.

• hierodrama
• mystery
• Comedy

  The comedy developed from the ritual cult that had a serious and solemn character. Greek word κω? Μος of one root with the word κω? Μη - village. Therefore, it is necessary to assume that these funny songs are comedy - appeared in the village. And indeed, the Greek writers have guidance on the fact that the villages of this type of works arose in the villages, called the mimes (μι? Μος, imitation). The etymological significance of this word also points to the source where the content for mimes was obtained. If the tragedy borrowed its content from the testes about Dionysse, the gods and heroes, that is. From the world of fiction, then mime this content took from household life. Mimes were singing during the festivities dedicated to a known time of the year and associated with sowing, harvest, vintage, etc.

  All these household songs were improvisations of jokingly satirical content, with the character of the malice of the day. Same diharic songs, so. With two singers, were known to the Romans under the name of Atellan and the fencerrrian. The content of these songs was changeable, but, despite this variability, they enhanced in a certain form and accounted for something a whole, which was sometimes part of the Greek tetralogy, consisting of three tragedies about one hero ("Oresthey" of Eschila consisted of tragedies "Agamemnon", "Hoeofors", "Evmenda") and the fourth satirical play. More or less defined form in the VI century. to R. Kh. In V c. Prior to R. H., according to Aristotle, he enjoyed fame to the comedian chionide, from which only the names of some plays were preserved. Aristophane is t. O. The successor of this type of creativity. Aristophane Although in his comedies and climbs Eurypid, his contemporary, but his comedies are building on the same plan, which was developed by Eurypid in his tragedies, and even the external comedy construction is no different from the tragedy. In IV century R. Kh. Menander Greek is put forward. . We have already told about the float, since his comedies imitate Menander comedies. In addition to this, we add that the Float has a lovely intrigue. In the Comedy of Float and Terrence there is no choir; At Aristophan, he had more important than in the tragedy of Eurypid and his predecessors. Choir in his parabazisis, so. Retreats from the development of action, applied to the audience to interpret and clarify them the meaning of the dialogues of the actors. The next writer after the Float was terents. He just like the Float, imitates Meander and another Greek writer Apollodore. Comedy Terentation was not intended for mass, but for the elected aristocratic society, therefore he does not have the obscenity and rudeness, which in abundance we find at the Float. Comedy Terentation is characterized by a moral character. If the Float has the fathers fooling up with their sons, then the terence they are managers family life. Semitted girls in terenation in contrast to the Float married their seductors. In the falselycical comedy, the moral element (vice is punished, virtue triumphs) comes from the terenation. In addition, the comedy of this comedian is distinguished by a greater thoroughness in the outcome of the acting persons than in Float and Menandra, as well as the elegance of the syllable. In the era of Renaissance in Italy, a special kind of comedy was developed:

  ComMedia Dell'Arte All'improvviso. - The comedy, played by professional Italian actors not on the written text, but according to the scenario (ITAL. SCENARIO or SOGGETTO) which only places the milestones of the content of the plot, providing the actor himself to climb the role in those words that his stage experience will be prompting, gaining, inspiration or education. This genus of the game bloomed in Italy around the middle of the XVI century. Strictly delimit the improvised comedy from the literature (Sostenuta Erudita) is difficult: both genres were in undoubted interaction and differed mainly by execution; The written comedy was sometimes turned into a script and back, a literary comedy was written according to the scenario; There are explicit similarities between the characters of the same. But in the implied they are even more than in writing, frozen in certain, fixed types. Such are the greedy, in love and invariably fouritted pantalon; Dr. Graziano, sometimes a lawyer, sometimes a medic, a scientist, pedant, is an amicing incredible etymology of words (like Pedante from Pede Ante, since the teacher makes students of ITTU ahead); Captain, hero in words and coward in practice, confident in its irresistible for any woman; In addition, two types of servants (Zanni): one - smart and cunning, Master at all sorts of intrigue (Pedrolino, Brigalla, Skapino), the other is a foolish harlequin or even more stupid medical care, representatives of an involuntary comiability. Several apart from all these comic shapes are lovers (Innamorati). Each actors elected some one role and remained faithful to her, often all his life; Thanks to this, he got off with his role and reached perfection in it, putting his personality imprint on her. This prevented masks finally frozen in immobility. Good actors had a great stock of their own or borrowed Tirara (CONCETTI), which they kept in memory to at the right moment to use one or another, depending on circumstances and inspiration. Lovers had a concentti, jealousy, reproaches, enthusias, and so on; Much, they have turned in Petrarch. In each troupe there were about 10-12 actors and, accordingly, in each scenario, as much roles. Various combination These almost unchanged elements creates a variety of plots. Intrigue usually comes down to the fact that parents from greed or rivalry interfere with young people to love in their choice, but the first Zannt on the side of youth and holding all the yarn of intrigue in their hands, eliminates obstacles to marriage. The form is almost without exception trick. Scene in C. d. Arte, as in the literary Italian and ancient Roman comedy, depicts the area and the two or three houses of acting persons who go on it, and all conversations occur at this amazing square without passersby, dates .. In the comedy there is nothing to look for a rich psychology of passions, in Its conditional world is the truthful reflection of life there is no place. The advantage of her in motion. The action develops easily and quickly, without long, with the help of conventional conventional eaves, disguise, unrecognizing each other in the dark, etc. It was precisely this in the Italians of the Moliere. The time of the highest flourishing of the comedy masks falls on the first half of the XVII century.

  By 19 century, the comedy of characters becomes greater importance.

  COMEDY. The comedy depicts a dramatic struggle, exciting laughter, causing a negative attitude towards the aspirations, passions of acting persons or to the receptions of their struggle. Analysis of the comedy is associated with laughing nature analysis. According to Bergson, it is funny any human manifestation, which is contrary to the public relations due to the cosiness. Funny in a lively man Sight car, automatism; For life requires "tensions" and "elasticity". Another sign of funny: "The shock depicted should not hardly hit our feelings, for laughter is incompatible with mental excitement." Bergson points to the following moments of comedy "automatism", causing laughter: 1) Mix "handling people, as with puppets"; 2) Mix the mechanization of life affecting repeated stage positions; 3) Figure the automatism of the acting persons blindly following its idea. However, Bergson overlooks that every dramatic work, both comedy and tragedy, is formed by a single, one-piece desire of the main acting person (or the person leading the intrigue) - and that this desire in its continuous activity acquires the nature of automatic. Signs specified by Bergson, we find both tragedy. Not only Figaro addresses people as with puppets, but also Yago; However, this appeal is not mixed, but terrifies. Talking by the Bergson language - "tensions", devoid of "elasticity", flexibility - can be tragic; Strong passion - not "elastic". Determining the signs of the comedy, it should be noted that the perception of funny changeable; That one cares, the other can be mixed. Then: There is quite a lot of plays, where the dramatic (tragic) scenes and replicas alternate with comedy. Such, for example, "grief from the mind", some plays of Ostrovsky and so on. These considerations should not, however, to interfere with the establishment of comedy - comedy style. This style is not determined by those targets to which colliding, fighting the aspirations of the acting persons are directed: stamina can be depicted in the comedy and tragedy plan ("stingy" Moliere and the "miser knight" Pushkin). Don Quixote is ridiculous, despite all the elevation of his aspirations. The dramatic struggle is mixed when it does not cause compassion. In other words, comedy characters should not suffer so much so that it did it. Bergson rightly indicates incompatibility of laughter with mental excitement. The comedy struggle should not be cruel, in the net-style comedy should not be terrifying scenic provisions. As soon as the comedy hero begins to suffer, the comedy goes into the drama. Since our ability to compassion is associated with our sympathies and antipathies, it is possible to establish the following relative rule: the more disgusting the Hero of the comedy, the more he may suffer without causing pity, without leaving the comedy plan. The very character of the heroes of comedy to suffering is not predisposed. The comedic hero differs from either extreme trebleness, rapid resourcefulness, saving it in the most ambiguous positions - as, for example, Figaro - either animal stupidity relieving it from the excessive-acute consciousness of his position (for example, Kaliban). This category of comedic characters includes all heroes of household satire. Another sign of the comedy: Comedy struggle is conducted by means of awkward, ridiculous or humiliating - or at the same time ridiculous and humiliating. Comedy struggle characterize: erroneous assessment of the situation, inept recognition of persons and facts leading to incredible and long-term delusions (eg. , Klezlekova is adopted for the auditor), helpless at least stubborn resistance; The tricks are ineptful, unattainable goals - with the fact that devoid of all sorts of scrupulousness, the means of small deception, a flattery, bribe (eg, tactics of officials in the "auditor"); Fighting pathetic, ridiculous, humiliating, Schutovskaya (moreover, not cruel) is such a pure type of comedy struggle. A strong effect produces a mixing replica when it gives a funny face.

  Shakespeare's power in the Falstaff image is in combination: a funny joker. The comedy does not care deeply, however, we do not think of life without death and suffering; Therefore, by the subtle comment Bergson, the comedy produces an impression unreal. Moreover, it needs a convincing household color, in particular, in a well-developed language characteristics. Comedy fantasy is also different if it can be expressed, rich in household development: there are specific details of the legend, so to speak, life of mythological creatures (for example, Scene of Caliban in Shakespeare). However, comedy characters are not types similar to the types of household drama. Since the net style comedy characterizes the struggle. It is not enough and humiliating, its characters are not types, but caricatures, and what they are caricatured, the brighter comedy. Laughter is hostile to tears (buoystone). It should also be added that the junction of the comedy struggle, in view of its non-rigid nature, is not significant. The comedy victory of vulgarity, lowness, stupidity - as we climbed the winners, - it touches us a little. The defeat of Chatsky or Nesilitylessness does not cause bitterness in us; Laughter in itself is satisfaction for us. Therefore, the comedy is permissible and random junction - at least by interference with the police. But where the defeat threatens to someone with a real suffering (for example, Figaro and his beloved), such a finale, of course, is unacceptable. As far as in the comedy, the interchange itself is insignificant, it is clear from the fact that there are comedies, where it can be foreseen in advance. These are countless comedies, where in love is prevented by the marriage of their brutal and funny relatives; Here is a marriage isolation predefined. We are fascinated in the comedy process of ridiculous; However, interest rises if the junction is difficult to foresee. An omission is positive, happy.

  Distinguish:
  1) Satira, a high-style comedy, aimed against defects, dangerous for society,
  2) a household comedy, ridicuing the characteristic disadvantages of a certain society,
  3) the comedy of provisions entertaining funny scenic provisions devoid of serious social significance.

• Vaudeville

  Waterville call a dramatic collision in comedy plan (see comedy). If the comedy dramatic struggle should not be cruel, then it is even more applied to the water waters. Here, usually, a comedy violation of any very minor social norm, for example, the norms of hospitality, good-neighborly relations, etc. Due to the insignificance of the violated norm, waterville is usually reduced to a sharp short collision - sometimes to one scene.

  History of waterville. Etymology of this word (VAUX-DE-VIRE, Virgin Valley) gives an indication of the initial birth of this type of dramatic creativity (G. Vir is in Normandy); Subsequently, this word through the distortion was comprehended by Voix De Ville - a rustic voice. Under the hydroevil began to understand such works in which the phenomena of life are determined from the point of view of naive rustic views. The light character of the content is a distinctive feature of the waterville. The creator of waterville, characterizing these works from its content, was french poet The XV century Le-Gu, who was subsequently mixed with another poet Olivier wishes. Le-Gu issued a collection of poems Vaux de Vire Nouveaux. These light comic songs in the spirit of the Le-Gu and the Bolshal were made in Paris the property of wide urban masses, thanks to the fact that they were on the bridge of the Pon Negmeni. In the XVIII century, the woodwork, the fuselier and Durneal in the imitation of these water waters began to make plays of the same content. The text of waterville is accompanied by music from the beginning of the second half of the XVIII century. The musical performance of watervals contributed to the fact that the entire text was written in verses ("Melnik" Ableximov). But soon, with the fulfillment of water waters, artists began to be made to the text in the prosaic form of change - improvisation on the current malice of the day. This gave the opportunity to the authors themselves alternate verse with prose. From that time, the branching of the water waters begins for two types: on the actual water and operetta. In Waterville, conversation prevails, and in operetta - singing. However, the operetta began to differ in its content from waterville. After this differentiation of the water waters, it remains at first a humorous image of life in general urban class, and then medium and minor bin.
• Farce

  farca is called, usually, comedy, in which the hero violates the socio-physical norms of public life. So in Lysistrate Aristofhan Heroine seeks to force men to stop the war, encouraging women to refuse them in love affairs. So, Argan ("Mnimy Patient" of Moliere) brings the interests of their family to sacrifice the interests of his imaginary stomach. The area of \u200b\u200bthe farce is the advantage of erotic and digestion. From here on the one hand, the extraordinary danger for the farce is to fall into the greatest vulgarity, on the other - the extreme acuteness of the farce, directly hitting our vital organs. In connection with the physical elements of the farce, it scenicly, it is natural, characterizes the abundance of external-efficient movements, collisions, embraces, fights. Farc by nature of its peripheralic, eccentric is an eccentric comedy.

  History of farce. Farcey developed from domestic scenes introduced as independent intermenids into medieval plays of a religious or moralistic nature. Farcey supported the tradition of comic ideas coming from the Greco-Roman scene, and gradually transformed into a comedy of new centuries, preserved as a special kind of easy comedy. Artists in former times were usually lovers.

Dramaturgia has its advantages over Epos. There is no author's comment here. This construction gives the illusion of objectivity. The reaction of the viewer is always emotional than the reader's reaction. The action continuously, the rate of perception is dictated by the performance. The main impact of the dramatic kind is emotional. Since ancient times there is a concept caresisa - peculiar "cleansing" fear and compassion.

The admission of dramatic genus is generally conflict where the action is built. It can be defined as "oppositely directed human will." In drama, the goal is never achieved calmly. Obstacles can be both material and psychological. The conflict depends not only on the will of the playwright, but also from social reality.

End of the 19th century - European New drama . Representatives: Motherlink, Hauptman, Chekhov. Their innovation is that the external conflict is eliminated in the plays. However, a steady conflict state remains.

Drama means "action", the sequence of the events depicted depending on the actions of the heroes. Action is any change on stage, incl. and psychological. Action is associated with conflict

The words in the drama are not like epic, here they are part of the action, an image of actions. The word tends to become action. Performative - A special type of statement, in which the word coincides with the act. ("I declare war", "I curse"). The word in the theater is always directed to someone \u003d replica. Either herself is a response to someone's speech. Continuous dialogue creates a reality effect.

In the drama, unlike the epic, the transfer of thoughts and feelings of heroes from the author's face is impossible. We will only learn about them from monologues and dialogues, or from auto-speakers, or from the characteristics of other actors.

In the 20th century, drama seeks to get close to the epic. IN " Epic Theater"Bertold Brecht at the end of the play is a direct score: a moment when the actors take off the masks. Thus, the actor does not merge with the hero. The viewer here should not empathize with the hero (like in a classic drama), but to think.

Epos differs from the drama story, work with heroes; Epos is to a monologue, drama - to the dialogue.

Article V.E. Khalizheva:

Dramatic works, like epic recreating the event rows, actions of people and their relationship. The playwright is subordinate to the "law of developing actions", but there are no narrative image in the drama. (per say. rare cases when there is a prologue in the drama).

The author's speech is auxiliary and episodic. List of actors, sometimes with brief characteristics; denote time and place of action; Description of the stage atmosphere; Remarks. All this is adverse text of a dramatic work. The main text is a chain of the statements of characters consisting of replicas and monologues \u003d\u003e a limited set of fine means, compared with the epic.

The time of action in the drama should fit into the strict framework of the scenic time. The chain of dialogs and monologues gives the illusion of the present time. "All narrative forms," \u200b\u200bwrote Schiller, "tolerate the present in the past, all dramatic do the past.

The appointment of the drama, according to Pushkin - "Act into many, occupy his curiosity," and for the sake of this to capture the "Truth of Passion": "The drama was born on the square and was a folk suffering<…>people require severe sensations<…> Laughter, pity and horror The essence of three strings of our imagination, shaded by dramatic art. "

Especially close Uzami is associated with dramatic genus with a laughter sphere, for the theater is being protected and develops within the mass festival, in the atmosphere of the game and fun.

The drama is to externally spectacularly filtered. Her imagery, as a rule, turns out to be hyperbolic, throw, theatrically bright (for this, for example, the Tolstoy reproached Shakespeare?).

In the 19-20th centuries, when the desire for everyday reliability prevailed in the literature, the conventional drema became less bright. At the origins of this phenomenon, the so-called "Meshchansk Drama", the creators of which were Didro and Lessing. Works of the largest Russian playwrights 19 - 20 V. - Ostrovsky, Gorky, Chekhov - are distinguished by the reliability of recreated life forms. And yet, in their work, psychological and speech hyperboles are preserved.

The most responsible role in dramatic works belongs to the conventions of speech self-discharge of heroes, dialogues and monologues. Conditions of replica "to the side" who, as it were, for others, not on the stage of characters, but are well audible to the viewer, as well as monologues, pronounced by heroes alone, which are a purely stage receipt of the outward speech internal. Speech in the dramatic work often acquires similarity with the speech of artistic-lyrical or oratory. Therefore, hegel is partly due to the drama as a synthesis of the epic beginning (events) and lyrical (speech expression).

The drama has in art as if two lives: theatrical and actually literary. But the dramatic work is not always perceived by the audience reading. The emancipation of drama from the scene was carried out gradually, for a number of centuries and ended quite recently: in the 18th - 19th centuries. Worldwide significant patterns of dramaturgy (from antiquity and up to 18 century) at the time of their creation were practically not realized as literary works: they were only as part of the scenic art. Neither Shakespeare, no Moliere was perceived by contemporaries as writers. "Opening" in the 18th century Shakespeare as a great dramatic poet played a decisive role in the purpose of drama not only for the production, but also for reading. In the 19th century, the literary advantages of the play sometimes put the above scenic. He got the distribution of the so-called LEDRAMA (drama for reading). These are "Faust" Goethe, dramatic works of Bairon, small tragedies of Pushkin. Dramas created for reading are often potentially scenic.

The creation of a performance on the basis of a dramatic work is associated with its creative advantages: the actors create an intonational-plastic drawings of executable roles, the artist declares the stage space, the director develops miceanssen. In this regard, the concept of the play somewhat changes, often specifically specified and summarized: stage Statement Makes new semantic shades to drama. At the same time, the principle of loyalty to read literature is primarily important for the theater. The director and actors are called upon to convey the made work to the viewer with the highest possible. The loyalty of the stage reading takes place where the actors deeply comprehend the literary work in its main substantive, genre, style features and match it as people of their era with their own views and tastes.

In the classic aesthetics of the 18th - 19th centuries, in particular, Hegel, Belinsky, drama (especially the tragedy) is considered as the highest form of literary creativity: like the "crown of poetry". A number of epochs and in fact imprinted itself by the advantage in dramatic art. Eschil and Sophokl during the period of slave-owned democracy, Moliere, Cornel and Rasin at the time of classicism.

Up until the 18th century, the drama not only successfully competed with the epic, but also often became the leading form of reproducing life in space and time. The reasons:

And although in the 19-20th century, the socio-psychological romance (the genre of the epic kind of literature, the Genre of the epic kind of literature, was still put forward by the dramatic work of the Honorary Place.

The dramatic genus of literature has three main genres: the tragedy, comedy and drama in the narrow sense of the word, but there are such genres such as waterville, melodrama, tragicomedy.

Tragedy (Greek.

Triadia, letters. - Goat Song) - " dramaturgical genre, based on the tragic collision of heroic characters, its tragic outcome and executed patellics ... "266.

The tragedy shows reality as a clot of internal contradictions, there are reality conflicts in extremely intense form. This is a dramatic work, which is based on an irreconcilable life conflict leading to the suffering and death of the hero. So, in a collision with the world of crimes, lies and hypocrisy, the carrier of advanced humanistic ideals Danish prince Hamlet, the hero of the same name tragedy W. Shakespeare, is tragically dying.

In the struggle, which is the tragic heroes, the heroic features of a human character are detected with a great fullness.

The genre of the tragedy has a long story. He originated from religious cult rites, was a scenic playing of myth. With the advent of the theater, the tragedy was formed as an independent genre of dramatic art. The creators of the tragedies were ancient Greek playwrights V c. BC e. Sofokl, Euripide, Eschil, who left her perfect samples. They reflected tragic collision Traditions of the generic system with a new public order. These conflicts were perceived and depicted by playwrights mainly on mythological material. The hero of the ancient tragedy turned out to be drawn into an unresolved conflict or by the will of the authority rock (fate), or by the will of the gods. Thus, the hero of the tragedy of Eschil "Prometheus Chained" suffers because he broke the will of Zeus, when he gave fire to people and taught them crafts. In the tragedy of Sofokla "Tsar Edip", the hero is doomed to be a fatherly trash, marry his own mother. Antique tragedy usually included five acts and was built in compliance with the "three unities" - places, time, actions. The tragedies were written by poems and was distinguished by the elevation of speech, her hero was a "high hero."

The founder of the modern tragedy is rightfully considered the Great English playwright William Shakespeare. At the heart of His tragedies "Romeo I. Julletta", "Hamlet", "Othello", "King Lear", "Macbeth" lie acute conflicts. Shakespeare characters are no longer heroes of myths, but real people fighting with real, and not mythical forces and circumstances. In an effort to maximize the truthfulness and completeness of the reproduction of life, Shakespeare developed all the best aspects of the ancient tragedy, at the same time released this genre from those conventions that in his era have lost their meaning (mythological plot, compliance with the "three unity" rules). Characters of the tragedies of Shakespeare are striking their vital persuasive. Formally shakespeare tragedy Far from antiquity. Shakespeare's tragedy covers all sides of real reality. The identity of the hero of his tragedies is open, not defined to the end, capable of changes.

The next stage in the development of the genre of the tragedy is associated with the work of French playwrights of P. Cornel ("Medea", "Horace", "Death Pompey", "Oedip", etc.) and J. Rasin ("Andromaha", "Iphigations", "Fed - RA "dr.) * They created brilliant samples of the tragedy of classicism - the" high-style tragedy "with mandatory compliance with the rule of" three unities ".

At the turn of the XVIII -XIX centuries. F. Schiller updated the "classic" style of the tragedy, creating the tragedy "Don Carlos", "Maria Stewart", "Orleansian Virgo".

In the era of romanticism, the life of a tragedy becomes the life of a person with his mental searches. The tragic dramas was created by V. Hugo ("Ernani", "Lucretia Borgia", "Ryui Blaz", "King is amused", etc.), J. Bairon ("Two Fascari"), M. Lermontov ("Masquerade").

In Russia, the first tragedies within the framework of classicism poetics were created in the XVIII century. A. Sumarokov ("Honor"), M. Heraskov ("Flames"), V. Ozerov ("Polyken"), Ya. Princess ("Didona").

In the XIX century Russian realism also gave convincing samples of the tragedy. The creator of the tragedy of the new type became A.

C. Pushkin. The main hero of his tragedy "Boris Godunov", in which all the requirements of classicism were violated, the people showed as the driving force of history. The understanding of the tragic conflicts of reality was continued by A.N. Ostrovsky ("without guilt," etc.) and L.N. Tolstoy ("Power of Darkness").

At the end of the XIX - early XX century. The tragedy of "high-style" is reborn: in Russia - in the works of L. Andreeva ("Soluchelovka", "King Hunger"), Vyach. Ivanova ("Prometheus"), in the West - in the work of T.-s. Elliota ("Murder in the Cathedral"), P. Klodel ("Annunciation"), Gauptman ("Rats"). Later, in the XX century, - in the work of J.-P. Sartre ("Fly"), J. Anuua ("Antigona").

Tragic conflicts in Russian literature XX century. Found a reflection in M. Bulgakov's drama ("Turbine Days", "Run"). In the literature of socialist realism, they acquired a kind of interpretation, since the conflict based on the irreconcilable clashes of class enemies became dominant in them, and the main character died in the name of the idea ("Optimistic tragedy" of Sun. Vishnevsky, "Storm" B.

N. Bill-Belotserkovsky, "Invasion" L. Leonova, "Eagle on the shoulder wearing" I. Selvinsky and others). At the present stage of the development of Russian drama, the genre of tragedy is almost forgotten, but the tragic conflicts are comprehended in many plays.

Comedy (Lat. Sotoisias, Greek. Kotosia, from Kotoe - a fun procession and 6s1, a song) - the type of drama, in which characters, situations and actions are presented in funny forms or penetrated comic1.

Comedy, like the tragedy, originated in ancient Greece. "Father" comedy is considered ancient Greek playwright Aristophane (V-IV centuries. BC). In his works, he ridiculated the greed, bloodthirstiness and immorality of the Athenian aristocracy, ratified for the peaceful patriarchal life ("riders", "clouds", "Lisuistrate", "Frog").

In the European literature of the new time, the comedy continued the traditions of ancient literature enriching them. European literature highlighted sustainable comedies. For example, the comedy of masks, the comedy del Arte (Sothetsey (1E1GAG1E), which appeared in Italy in the XVI century. Her characters were typical masks (Harlequin, Pulchinell, etc.). This genre influenced the creativity of J.-B. Moliere, . Goldoni, K. Gozzi.

In Spain, a comedy "Cloaming and swords" was popular in the work of Lope de Vega ("Ovechy Source"), Tirsto de Molina (Don Hil Green Pants), Calderon ("not joking with love").

The theorists of art solved the issue of public appointment of the comedy. In the era of revival, its role was limited to the correction of morals. In the XIX century V. Belinsky noted that the comedy not only denies, but also claims: "True indignation on contradictions and public vulgarity there is a parable of a deep and noble soul, which is standing above its society and carry the ideal of another, the best public." First of all, the comedy was supposed to be aimed at ridicule of ugly. But, along with a laugh, invisible "honest person" of the comedy (according to the observation of N.V. Gogol, the only honest face of his comedy "The Auditor" was laughter), there could be a "noble comicity", symbolizing the positive start, presented, for example, In the image of Chatsky in Griboedov, Figaro at Beaouta, Falstafa at Shakespeare.

Significant success, the art of the comedy reached the work of W. Shakespeare ("Twelfth Night", "Taming of the Shrew" and others). The playwright expressed a renaissance idea about the irresistible power of nature over the human heart. The deformity in his comedies was funny, the fun reigned in them, they had the whole characters of strong people who know how to love. Shakespeare's comedies still do not come up with the scenes of the theaters of the world.

The French Comediographer of the XVII century achieved brilliant success. Moliere is the author of the world famous "Tartuf", "Misdenin in the nobility", "miser." Boualersha ("Seville Barber", "Marriage Figaro") became famous comediographer.

In Russia, the People's Comedy existed long. An outstanding comedographer of Russian education was D.N. Fonvizin. His comedy "inexpensive" mercilessly climbed the "Blizzard Wild", reigning in the family of spaces. Wrote comedy I.A. Wings ("lesson daughters", "fashionable shop"), ridicuing adhesion in front of foreigners.

In the XIX century Satyrian samples, social realistic comedy create A.S. Griboedov ("Woe from Wit"), N.V. Gogol ("Auditor"), A.N. Ostrovsky ("Profitable Place", "His People - Treaty", etc.). Continuing the traditions of N. Gogol, A. Sukhovo-Kobylin in his trilogy ("Wedding of Krechinsky", "Case", "Death of Tarelkin") showed how officials "facilitated" the whole of Russia, bringing her troubles comparable to the damage caused by Tatar Mongolian igom and invasion of Napoleon. Known comedies M.E. Saltykov-generous ("death of Pazukhin") and A.N. Tolstoy ("Fruits of Enlightenment"), which approached the tragedy in something (there are elements of tragicomedia).

The comedy spawned various genre varieties. There are a comedy of provisions, the comedy of intrigue, the comedy of characters, the comedy of morals (household comedy), comedy-buffonad. There is no clear boundary between these genres. In most comedies, elements of different genres are combined, which deepens comedy characters, diversified and expands the very palette of the comic image. This clearly demonstrates Gogol in the Revolution. On the one hand, he created a "comedy", based on the chain of a ridiculous misunderstanding, from which the main thing is the mistake of six county officials who took the powerful auditor "Elistracichka", Kleblorekov, which served as a source of many comic situations. On the other hand, the comic effect, excited by various ridiculous life positions, does not exhaust the content of the "auditor". After all, the reason for the error of county officials lies in their personal qualities? - In their cowardice, spiritual rudeness, mental limitations - to the essence of the character of Khlezkobov, who, living in St. Petersburg, learned the manner of the behavior of officials. We have a bright "comedy character", more precisely, the comedy of realistic issued social types presented in typical circumstances.

In the genreality, the comedies are also distinguished by satirical ("adopted" phonvizin, "auditor" of Gogol) and high, close to the drama. The action of these comedies does not contain funny situations. In Russian dramatic, it is primarily "grief from the mind" by A. Griboyedov. In unrequited love of Chatsky to Sofye, there is nothing comic, but the situation in which a romantic young man put himself, Comic. The position of the educated and progressively thinking Chatsky in the society of Famusov and silent dramatic. Lyric comedies distinguish, an example of which is the "cherry garden" A.P. Chekhov.

At the end of the XIX - early XX century. Comedy appear, characterized by increased psychologism, installation of complicated characteristics. These include "comedies of ideas" B. Show ("Pygmalion", "Millionaire", etc.), "Comedy of sentiments" A.P.hekhova ("Cherry Sad"), tragicomedy L. Pilandelle ("Six characters in search of the author "), J. Anuua (" Dicking ").

In the XX century He declares Russian avant-garde, including in the field of drama, whose roots undoubtedly go to folklore. However, the folk began at the Pieces of V. Kapnik, D. Fonvizin, in Satire I. Krylov, N. Gogol, M. Salfova-Shchedrin, the traditions of which in the XX century. Locked M. Bulgakov ("Bagrous Island", Zoyikina Apartment, Adam and Eve), N. Erdman ("Suician", "Mandate"), A. Platonov ("Charmanka").

In Russian avant-garde XX century. Conditionally allocate three stages: Futuristic ("Zangezi" V. Klebnikov, "Victory over the Sun" A. Klychey, "Mistere-Buff" V. Mayakovsky), post-futuristic (the theater of Absurd Oboyutov: "Elizabeth you" D. Harms, "The Christmas tree in Ivanovsky" A. introduced) and the drama of the avant-garde of modernity (A. Arto, N. Saby, A. Shipenko, A. Slavovsky, A. Kretzov, I. Savelyev, L. Petrushevskaya, E. Gremina, etc. ).

Avant-garde tendencies B. modern drama are the subject of literary research. For example, M.I. Gromov, sees the origins of this phenomenon in the 20s of the 20th century. Attempts to create an "alternative" art (Oborrytov Theater), which long years In the underground, he breeding "samizdat" and "dissident", and in the 70s (the years of stagnation) was formed on the scenes of numerous studios "Ander Grand", received the right to legally work in the 90s (years of restructuring) when it became possible to familiarize himself With the Western European avant-garde drama of all types: "Theater of absurdity", "Theater of cruelty", "Paradox theater", "Happensing", etc. On the stage of the studio "Laboratory" was put by a play by V. Denisova "Six Ghosts on the Piano" (her The content is inspired by the picture of Salvador Dali). Critics struck the cruel absurd reality of Pieces A. Galina ("Stars in the morning sky", "Sorry", "Title"), A. Dudareva ("Dolka"), E. Radzinskoye (" Sport games 1981 "," Our Decameron "," I am standing at the restaurant "), N. Sadur (" Lunar Wolves "),

A. Kazantseva ("Dreams Evgenia"), A. Zhelezov ("Askoldova Mogil", "Nail"), A. Buravsky ("Russian Teacher"). This kind of play gave rise to criticism E. Sokoshydansky to conclude: "It seems the only thing that the dramatic writer can convey in the current conditions is a certain madness of the moment. That is, the feeling of the turning point of history with chaos celebration "267. In all these plays there are elements of tragicomedia. Tragicomedy is a kind of dramatic works (drama as a kind), which has signs of both tragedies and comedies, which distinguishes tragicomed from the intermediate between the tragedy and the comedy forms, that is, from the drama as a kind.

Tragicomedy refuses the moral absolute of comedy and tragedy. The globility underlying it is associated with the feeling of the relativity of existing criteria of life. The revaluation of moral obscures leads to uncertainty and even the abandonment of them; Subjective and objective began blurred; An unclear understanding of reality can cause interest in it or a complete indifference and even recognition of the alogicity of the world. Tragicomic worldview in them dominates the torque of history, although the tragicom began was present in the Dramaturgia of Euripid ("Alkestid", "Ion").

The "clean" type of tragicomedia became characteristic of the Drama Baroque and Mannerism (F. Beaumont, J. Fletcher). His signs - a combination of funny and serious episodes, mixing the elevated and comic characters, the presence of pastoral motives, the idealization of friendship and love, confusing effect with unexpected situations, the prevailing role of the case of the fate of the actors, the heroes are not endowed with the constancy, but in their images is often emphasized One trait that turns the character in the type.

In the drama of the end of the XIX century. In the work of the city of Ibsen, Yu.A. Strindberg, Gauptman, A. Chekhov, L. Pilandello, in the XX century. - Lorki, J. Felod, J. Anuu, E. ionesko, S. Beckett The tragicomic element is enhanced, as in the Russian avant-garde drama XX century.

Modern tragicomedia does not have clear genre signs and is characterized by the "tragiccomic effect", which is created by the show at the same time both in the tragic, and in comic lighting, inconsistency of the hero and the situation (the tragic situation is a comic character, or vice versa, as in Griboedovskaya comedy "Woe from Wit"); Unresoluteness of the internal conflict (the plot involves the continuation of the action; the author will refrain from the final assessment), the feeling of the absurdity of being.

A special type of entertainment comedy is waterville (FR. Vaudeville from Vau de Vire - the name of the valley in Normandy, where at the beginning of the XV century - Senks-checks.

In France, Watervili wrote E. Labish, O. Skreb. In Russia, the waterville appeared at the beginning of the XIX century. He inherited OT. comic Opera XVIII century Interest in national plots. Watervili wrote A.S. Griboedov ("Pointed Infidelity"), D.T. Lensky ("Lev Gurych Sichikkin"), V.A. Sologub ("Ranger, or a prank of the Hussar officer"), P.A. Kratygin ("borrowed wives", "Chudak-deceased"), N.A. Nekrasov ("Petersburg Rostovist"), A.P. Chekhov ("Bear", "Proposal", "Wedding", "On the Harm of Tobacco"). In the second half of the XIX century.

Waterville was supplanted with operetta. Interest in him returned at the end of the XX century.

In theatrical art XIX. -XX centuries. Comedy-Devili Easy Containment with external comic techniques began to call farce. Farce (Fr. Farce, from Lat. Farcio - Start: SR. Mystery "Started" by comedy inserts) - Type of People's Theater and Literature of Western European countries Xiv- XVI centuries, especially France. Distinguished comic, often satirical orientation, realistic concreteness, free formation; Saturated buffronada. His heroes were townspeople. Farca masks were deprived of an individual start (farce close to the comedy masks), although they were the first attempt to create social types268.

The means of creating a comic (satirical) effect are the speech comic comedian comedy, the game of paradoxes, irony, in the latest comedy - humor, irony, sarcasm, grotesque, wit, sharpness, pun.

The wit is based on the sense of humor (in fact, this is the same thing) - a special associative ability, the ability to critically approach the subject, notice the absurdity, quickly respond to it269. The paradox "expresses the idea at first glance is absurd, but, as it turns out, to a certain extent fair" 1. For example, in Gogol "Marriage" after a shameful flight, Podskolovina Arina Panthevimonovna proven to Kochkarev: Yes, I still live like a dozen, and this country has not yet been careful. Yes I'm for that, father, you plush in the face, if you fair man. Yes, you after that scoundrel, if you are an honest person. To pepper in front of the whole world!

The features of the grotesque style are characteristic of many comedies created in Russian literature XX century. ("Suician" N. Erdman, Zoykina Apartment M. Bulgakov, "The house that Svift built" Gorina). A comic allegory and a satirical symbol used in his plays-fairy tales E. Schwartz ("Dragon", "Shadow").

Drama as a genre appeared later tragedy and comedy. Like the tragedy, it is to reconcile sharp contradictions. As a kind of dramatic kind, she was distributed in Europe in the Epoch of Enlightenment and then was understandable as a genre. The independent genre of the drama was in the second half of the XVIII century. In the enlighteners (the Meshchansky drama appeared in France and Germany). It marked interest in the social security of life, to the moral ideals of the democratic environment, to the psychology of the "middle man".

During this period, the tragedy thinking is experiencing a crisis, a single look at the world, approving the social activity of the individual, is a shift. In the process of developing the drama, its internal drama is thickened, a safe union is occurring less and less often, the hero is in disregard with society and with himself (examples - the plays of Ibsen, B. Shaw, M. Gorky, A. Chekhov).

The drama is a play with a sharp conflict, which and the difference from the tragic is not so sublime, more landed, commonly solvable and anyway. The specifics of the drama lies, firstly, in the fact that it is troops on a modern, and not on the ancient material, secondly, the drama approves a new hero who rebuilt against his fate, circumstances. The difference of drama from the tragedy is in the essence of the conflict: the conflicts of the tragic plan are insoluble, for the resolution does not depend on the personal will of the person. The tragic hero is involuntarily involuntarily, and not because of the mistakes performed. Dramatic conflicts, unlike tragic, are not insurmountable. They are based on the clash of characters with such forces, principles, traditions that oppose them from the outside. If the hero of the drama is dying, then his death is largely an act of a voluntary solution, and not the result of a tragically hopeless position. So, Katerina in the "thunderstorm" by A. Ostrovsky, sharply experiencing that she broke the religious and moral standards, without being able to live in the oppressive atmosphere of Kabanov's home, rushes in the Volga. Such a junction was not mandatory; Obstacles on the path of rapprochement of Katerina and Boris can not be considered insurmountable: the riot of the heroine could end and differently.

Drama flourishing begins at the end of the XIX-early XX century. In the era of romanticism in the drama reigned tragedy. The birth of the drama is associated with the appeal of writers to modern social theme. The tragedy is usually created on historical material. The role of the main character was a major historical person, the leading struggle in extremely unfavorable circumstances. The appearance of the dramatic genre described the increased interest in the knowledge of modern public life, dramatic Fate "Private" man.

The range of drama is extremely wide. The playwright depicts the daily private life of people, their relationship, clashes caused by class, property, class differences. In realistic drama XIX century. A predominantly psychological drama developed (Drama A.N. Ostrovsky, Ibsen, etc.). At the turn of the centuries, the drama has changed in the work of A.P. Chekhov ("Ivanov", "Three sisters") with its mournful-ironic lyrism, using the subtext. Similar trends are observed in the work of M. Meterlinka with his hidden "tragedy of everyday life" ("blind", "Monta Witta").

In the literature of the XX century. Drama horizons expanded significantly, its conflicts became complicated. In the players of Gii M. Gorky ("Promenban", "Enemies", "Children of the Sun", "Barbaras") is the problem of the responsibility of the intelligentsia for the fate of the people, but it is considered predominantly on family-domestic material.

In the West of the drama, R. Rollan, J. Priestli, Yu.O. Nil, A. Miller, F. Durrenmatt, E. Olbi, T. Williams.

"Element" of drama is modern, the privacy of people, situations based on solvable conflicts relating to the fate of individual people who do not affect social importance.

There were such types of drama, as a lyrical drama M. Meterlinka and A. Blok ("Balabanchik", "Rose and Cross"), intellectual drama J.-P. Sartre, J. Anuu, drama absurd E. ionesko ("Lysayapes", "Chairs"), S. Beck ("Waiting for Godo", "End of the game"), oratorical, rally theater - Political theater B. Brecht with His "epic" plays ("that the soldier that this").

In the history of the Soviet Theater, the political theater, the tradition of which was laid by V. Mayakovsky, V. Kiroschon, A. Athenogen, B. Lavrenev, K. Simonov, distinguished pronounced copyright position, took an important place. In the 60s - 90s of the XX century. Publicistic dramas appeared ("Man on the part" by I. Palendsky, "Protocol of one meeting" A. Gelman, "Interview in Buenos Aires" G. Borovik, "Further ... Further ... Further" M. Shatrov) and documentary Drama ("leaders" of Sokolovsky, "Joseph and Nadezhda" O. Kuchkina, "Black Man, or I, Poor Soso Jugashvili" V. Korusia, "Sixth July" and "Blue Horses on Red Grass" M. Shatrov , "Anna Ivanovna" V. Shalamov, "Republic of Labor" by A. Solzhenitsyn, etc.). In the drama genre, such varieties appeared as plays-disputes, play-dialogues, play-chronicles, play-parables, fairy tales and "New Drama".

Separate varieties of drama are closed with adjacent genres, using their means of expressiveness: with tragicomedia, farce, masks theater.

Allocate such a genre like melodrama. Melodrama (from Greek. M? LOS - song, melody and drama - action, drama) - 1) genre of drama, play with acute intrigue, exaggerated emotionality, sharp oppression of good and evil, morally-tensile trend; 2) a musical and dramatic work, in which monologues and the dialogues of the actors are accompanied by music. J.J. Rousseau developed the principles of this genre and created his sample - "Pygmalion"; A sample of Russian melodrama - "Orpheus" E. Fomina.

Melodrama arose in the XVIII century. In France (Piesen, J.-m. Monvel and G. de Picusloquer), the heyday reached in the 1930s of the XIX century., Later, the external enactment began to prevail. In Russia, the melodrama appeared in the 20s of the XIX century. (Pieces of N.V. Kupollyan, N.A. Polevoy, etc.), the interest in it was revived in the 20s of the XX century. The elements of the melodrama are in the works of A. Arbuzova ("old-fashioned comedy", "Tales of Old Arbat") 270. Dramatic genres turned out to be very mobile.

Summing up the sorts of kinds, types and genres of literature, it should be noted that there are interdic and ringed forms. According to B.O. Corr., you can select works in which the properties of two generic forms are connected - "courses" 271.

For example, the epic beginning, according to the observation of V. Khaliyva, is in the Pieces of A.N. Ostrovsky and B. Brecht, M. Meterlink and A. Blok created "lyrical dramas", the lapidic beginning in poems was a well-known fact. Essays, literature "Consciousness" literature, essays, such as "experiments" of M. Monteney, "Favoring leaves" and "secluded" V. Rozanova (it is syncretism: the beginning of the artistic artists in it are connected to publicistic and philosophical, as in the works of Am. Remizov "Somaton" and M. Svavina "Eyes of Earth").

So, summarizes his thinking V.E. Khali-Zev, "... The tribal forms are distinguishable, traditional and unspokenly dominated in literary creativity for many centuries, and the forms" rinodes ", unconventional, rooted in the" post-monitor "art. The first with the second interact very actively, each other is complementary. Now Platonovsko-Aristotelian-Hegelian Triad (Epos, Lyrics, Drama), as can be seen, is largely shaken and needs to be adjusted. At the same time, there is no reason to declare the usual three kinds of literature outdated, as this is sometimes done with the light hand of the Italian philosopher and theorist of art B. Croce. From among Russian literary criticism in such a skeptical spirit, A.I. Beletsky: "For ancient literats, the terms Epos, Lyrics, drama were not yet abstract. They denoted special, external ways to transfer the work of the listening audience. Crossing the book, poetry refused these ways to transfer, and gradually<...> Views (meaning of childbirth. - V.Kh.) became more and more fiction. Do I need to give the scientific existence of these fictions? "1. I do not agree with this, we note: literary works of all eras (including modern) have certain generic specificities (the form of epic, dramatic, lyrical or frequent in the XX century. "Flood of consciousness", essay). The generic affiliation (or, on the contrary, the involvement of one of the "rinode" forms) largely determines the organization of the work, its formal, structural features. Therefore, the concept of "literature" in the composition of theoretical poetics is integral and urgent. "2 ? Control questions and tasks I 1.

What served as the basis for the allocation of three literature clans. What are the signs of an epic, lyrical, dramatic method of reality reality? 2.

Name the childbirth artistic literature, Give them a characteristic. Tell us about the relationship between childbirth, species, genres of literary works. 3.

What is the difference between the story from the novel and the story? Give examples. four.

What are the distinctive signs of the novel? Give examples. 1 Belletsky A.I. Selected works on the theory of literature. G. 342. 2.

Khalizhev V.E. Theory of literature. P. 318 - 319.

Control questions and tasks 5.

Why, in your opinion, the novel and the story became leading genres of realistic literature? Their differences. 6.

Finish Article M.M. Bakhtina "Epos and Roman: On the methodology of research of the novel" (Ad. 1, p. 667). Complete tasks and answer the questions offered after the article. 7.

Gogol originally called the "Dead Souls" "Roman", then - "Small Epopea". Why did he stop at the definition of the genre of his work as "poems"? eight.

Determine the features of the Roman-epic in the works of "War and Peace" of L. Tolstoy and "Quiet Don" M. Sholokhov. nine.

Give the genre definition of the work of N. Shmelev "Summer Lord" and justify it (Roman-fairy tale, Roman-myth, Roman-Legend, Bul-Few, Myth-Memories, Free Epos, Spiritual Roman). 10.

Read Article O. Mandelstam "End of Roman". Tmadelshtam O. Works: in 2 tons. M., 1990. P. 201-205). On the example of the novel B. Pasternak "Dr. Zhivago" explain what is the innovation of the Writers of the XX century. To the problem of modern novel. Is it possible to say that "... Compassion mea of \u200b\u200bRoman - human biography"? I. How do you determine the genre of the Bulgakov work "Master and Margarita", in which history and fellow, lyrics and myth, life and fantasy (novel, comic epic, satirical utopia) are freely connected?

What is the features of lyrics as a kind of literature? 2.

Finish Article V.E. Khalisev "Lyrics" (Admission 1, p. 682). Prepare answers to the proposed questions. 3.

On the article Article L.Ya. Ginzburg "On Lyric" (Admission 1, p. 693) Prepare the message "Style features of lyrics". Name the main lyrical and limier genres, indicate their differences. What is the classification of lyrics based on the thematic principle? four.

Explain that the concepts of "suggestive lyrics" and "meditative lyrics" mean. Give examples. five.

Check out Article A.N. Pashkirov "Poetics of the Premontal Elegy:" Time "M.N. Muravyova "(Appendix 1, p. 704). Prepare a message "What is the path in its development from pre-romanticism to romantomism?". 6.

Tell us about the history of the development of the Sonet genre. 7.

Read the article G.N. Esipenko "Studying Soneta as a genre" (Literature at school. 2005. No. 8. P. 29-33) and fulfill the assignments proposed in it related to the analysis of Sonyetov N. Gumileva, I. Northernina, I. Bunin (optional), And also write a poem in the form of a sonnet (permissible to imitate any poet). eight.

What ways of lifestyle uses A. Pushkin in the "Gypsy" poem? nine.

What works are called LarEpic? For example, one of the poems of V. Mayakovsky ("Man", "Good!"), S. Yesenin ("Anna Onegin") or A. Teddovsky ("By the right of memory"), analyze how lyric and epic elements are combined in them. 10.

What is the image of the lyric heroine of the "Denisian cycle" F.I. Tyutchev? 13.

Determine the worm of lyric heroine in poetry M. Tsvetaeva and A. Akhmatova. fourteen.

Is it possible to talk about the peculiar "passivity" of the lyrical hero B. Pasternak, as R. Jacobson believed? fifteen.

How is the biography of A. Block connected with his work? What evolution has undergone the image of a lyrical hero? sixteen.

Why did modern poetry have lost most of the traditional genres?

Describe division into genres in dramatic genus. 2.

Finish Article V.E. Khalizheva "Drama" (Appendix 1, p. 713). Prepare answers to the proposed questions. 3.

Tell us about the main stages of the development of the tragedy genre. four.

What is the difference between the drama from the tragedy? five.

Name the types of comedy. Give examples. 6.

Describe "Small" dramatic genres. Give examples. 7.

How do you understand the genre definition of Piez A. Ostrovsky? Is it possible to call the drama "thunderstorm", "idle" by classic tragedies? eight.

Determine the genre of the "Cherry Garden" A.P. Chekhov (comedy, tragedy, farce, melodrama). nine.

On an example of one of the plays, analyze the new approaches of Chekhov to the organization of dramaturgical action (decentralization of plot lines, refusal to divide characters to the main and secondary) and techniques for creating individual characters (self-characteristics, monologues-replica, building a speech batch of the image to change the style of a stylist tonality; "Random »Replicas in dialogues that emphasize the instability of the psychological state of characters, etc.). 10.

Read and analyze one of the plays of modern playwright (optional). eleven.

Give the definition of the concept of "subtext" (see: Literary Encyclopedia of Terms and Concepts. M., 2001. P. 755; Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary. M., 1987. P. 284). Give examples of lyrical and psychological subtext in the Pieces of A.P. Chekhov (to choose from), in the novels of E. Hemingway, in the poems of M. Tsvetaeva ("Tosca in Motherland! Davgthn ...") and O. Mandelstam ("Grimbal Ode").