Renaissance architecture in German countries. German Art XVII Century Finishing Comments

Albrecht Durer (1471-1528) was the most striking representative of the art of German revival. outstanding painter, engraver, scientist.

The revival era in Germany was very short - from about the middle of the XV century. Up to 1520s.

Development of art Revival in Germany passed under the influence of ideas Reformation (Religious and socio-political movement in Western and Central Europe of the XVI-early XVII centuries, aimed at reforming Catholic Christianity in accordance with the Bible). This historical period also has Peasant War (1524-1526). All this: the cruel suppression of peasant riots, religious split and the departure of several lands from Catholicism - the development of rebirth in Germany has tormented.
The main masters of German Renaissance:

Master E. S. (OK 1420-after 1468)
Matias Grünevald (approx. 1470-1528)
Albrecht Durer (1471-1528)
Lucas cranes Senior (1472-1553)
Hans von Kulmbach (bl.1480-1522)
Hans Baldung (Ok. 1484-1545)
Hans Golbien (Jr.) (1497-1543)
URR Count (approx. 1490-ok. 1529)
Albrecht Altdorfer (bl.1480-1538)
Faith Ros (1447-1533)
Burt Notke (OK 1435-1509)
Hans Burgkmayr (1473-1531)
Willm Dedek
Daniel Gopfer (approx. 1470-1536), engraving

Let us turn to the work of the most prominent masters.

Mattias Grunevald (1470 / 1475-1528)

It has been preserved little work, only about 10. Creativity Grunevald (real name Mattias Gothart Nidhardt) It was reopened at the beginning of the XX century. German expressionists who considered him their direct predecessor. His creativity also influenced the surrealists. Mattias Grunevalda consider the last great artist of Northern Gothic.
Grunevald is considered a man of broad erudition and multilateral adaratence, a typical representative of the intelligentsia of the Renaissance. It was worried about the problems of religion, philosophy and a public device, as well as science. His art is permeated by humanism, compassion for human flocks that he saw around. In his eyes there was a reformation - the first revolution in Europe, shooking the consciousness of people; He witnessed the bloody disappeared with the rebel people. Movied by a susceptible soul, Grunevald, as well as Bosch, portrayed in his art a true tragedy of the life of the noble and honest soul of a man who was subjected to persecution and insults in a cruel world who lost a human face.
The main work of Grunevald and the masterpiece of German painting - "Iengeim Altar" (1512-1516)

Museum Exposition

Unterlinden Museum (Colmar, France). First diligence of the altar

Until 1793, the altar was in the church of Isaenheim. At the time of the French revolution, paintings and sculptures were transported to storage in the district city of Colmar. Carved wooden parts remained in Isaenheim and from 1860 lost. Three deadlocks of the altar are currently demonstrated in Colmar separately.
On the first (external) debit depicts the scene of the crucifixion of Christ. The crucifixion is often found on gothic altar images. But never before Mattias Grünevalda was not depicted so painfully. In Calvary, Grunevald depicted next to Jesus his mother Maria, the Apostle John, Maria Magdalina and John the Baptist. The whole scene with the Exterpassed figure of Christ, with a shocked, faint with the violence and other characters causes a state of deep shock.
During the litrogenous year, the altar flaps were opened at certain dates, revealing the paintings corresponding to a religious event. Ansenheim altar has three velocity options.

The second diligence of the Iengeim altar depicts the Annunciation, Christmas of Christ ("Angel Concert") and ascension.

The Third Racing of the Isaenheim Altar with Wooden Sculptures of Saints Anthony, Augustine and Jerome, who, as suggesting, performed a carpet on the tree of Nicholas Hagenauer.

M. Grunevald "Certificate of Christ" (1503). Old Pinakotek (Munich)

The artist depicted rarely encountered the iconographic plot of the Gospel. The guards led Christ to the House of High Priest Kaiaf and mild over him. They put a bandage on his eyes and, hitting her face, demanded to find out who beat. Grunevald depicts Christ in the image of a man of exceptional meekness and patience. The horror of cynical abuse and inhumanity was transmitted by Grünevald sharply through the flavor - cold tones and their dissonances.
The picture shows and the figure of Joseph from Ahrimafi, who will later remove the lifeless body of Christ from the cross. And now Joseph is trying to persuade the guards to complicate over Christ. As if heard and sharp sounds of flutes, blows of the drum, which publishes a person standing in the depths of the left.

Lucas cranes Senior (1472-1553)

L. Cranes. Self-portrait (1550). Gallery Uffizi (Florence)

German painter and Renaissance era schedule, portrait master, genre and biblical compositions. In his work combined the traditions of Gothic and the principles of revival.
According to his beliefs, he was a supporter of the ideas of the Reformation, a friend of Luther.

Lucas cranes Senior "Portrait of Martin Luther"

Artists Hans Krants and Lucas cranes younger - his sons.
Fine art cranes initially studied at his father. From early adolescence, he was in search of vocation in Germany, Palestine, Austria, the Netherlands.
Later he created an art workshop in which assistants worked, published books, and then sold them.
The early works of the artist differ in innovation. In them, he depicted the inconsistency of his era. Becoming the court artist, he reached great mastery in the genre of the portrait, captured many of their famous contemporaries. Portraits of crane brush are made with sympathy to models, but without their idealization and without much desire to penetrate their inner world.

Lucas cranes Senior "Melancholy" (1532). Board, oil. 51x97 See State Museum of Arts (Copenhagen)

The picture shows three nude babies that are trying to roll a big ball through the hoop with the help of sticks. The winged woman plashes the rod, perhaps, going to make another hoop. This is melancholy. She looks pensively by playing children. According to the Renaissance Epoch, the whole world is based on the analogies. Melancholy at that time was associated with Saturn, a dog, a carpenter. The witch jump in the black cloud refers to these analogies.

Lucas cranes Senior "" Madonna with a baby (Madonna in the vineyard) "(about 1520). State Museum of Fine Arts. A.S. Pushkin (Moscow)

Hans Golbien Jr. (1497-1543)

One of the greatest German artists. The most famous representative of this surname. Painting studied at his father - Hans Golbien senior.

Hans Golbien Junior. Self portrait (1542). Uffizi Gallery (Florence)

With a brother, Ambrosius Golbeyn, two years worked in Basel (Switzerland) in the workshop of H. Herbister, where he met many humanists and scientists of this period, including the erosion of Rotterdam, illustrated his work "Praise Stupidity".

Hans Golbien Jr. "Portrait of Erasmus Rotterdam"

Golbien illustrated other books, participated in the creation of the German translation of the Bible Martin Luther. Like his father, created stained glass and wrote portraits.
The most important works of the Basel period of the Golbein are the portrait of the Bonifacea of \u200b\u200bAmerbach; Ten paintings of the Lord's passions; The frescoes in the new town hall, organ doors in the local cathedral, the flaps of the altar folding for the Freiburg Cathedral, the images of the Nativity of Christ and the worship of the Magi; Madonna with saints for the city of Zolled; The famous "Madonna Meyer family", Portraits of Erasmus Rotterdam, Dorota Offenburg, as well as drawings to the Old Testament (91 sheet) and "Dance of Death" (58 sheets), engraved on a letcelburger tree.

Hans Golbaine Jr. Darmstadt Madonna (Madonna Meyer Family) (1526)

The picture is written by a golbein under the influence of Italian religious painting of the Renaissance and portrait art of old Dutch masters. In the center of the picture depicted Virgin Mary with a baby Jesus surrounded by Mayer, his first improper and the second wives and daughter. Who are two more characters on the left, is reliably unknown. Darmstadt Madonna is a demonstration of the commitment of Burgomist Mayer Catholic religion. An unusual framing of the picture is explained by her destination for the personal chapel of the Meyer family in the palace in Gundeldingen.
In 1526-1528 The artist was in England, where he met Thomas Maorm. In the first visit to England, as well as in the second (1532-1543), he wrote predominantly portraits and was even a court painter King Henry VIII.

Hans Holbien Jr. "Portrait of Heinrich VIII"

The picturesque works of the Holbain are characterized by expressive pattern, plastic, thought out modeling, transparency of lighting, brightness and width of the brush. His drawings are full of observation, sometimes not devoid of caustic sarcasm, amaze the beauty of the shape and decoration. He suffered in Germany italian rebirthBut did not lose their national character.

Hans Golbien Jr. "Portrait of Christina Danish" (1538). London National Gallery

Artists of the Danube School of Painting

"Danube Schonic Painting" - the direction of the German Fine Art I Half XVI century. (1500-1530)
In the works of the artists of the Danube school appeared new genre - scenery .
In the question of the origin of the school there is no unity: according to the majority of the authors, its creators were the young Lucas senior cranes, Yorg Brother's senior, as well as the native of the Danube Rusta Rusta region, Jr.
Others believe that the school arose on the local soil, and the consecration of Crants and Bray, traveling along the Danube, was under its influence.

Wolf Gruber "Danube Landscape near Krems" (1529). Cabinet engravings (Berlin)

The painting of the Danube School was distinguished by artistic fantasy, bright emotionality, fabulous perception of nature, interest in forest and river landscapes, to space and light, dynamic letter of writing, expressive pattern and color intensity.

Lucas cranes Senior "Hunt for deer Kurfürst Friedrich III Wise" (1529)

Germany to the beginning of the XVI century. It was fragmented to many dwarf states. It was the time of colliding of the interests of various classes, religious storms. The flowering of culture in Germany was not so organic as in Italy. There was no own ancient inheritance, the antiquity became known already in the processing of Italians. In contrast to the ITALY IS PLEANING MR.

The cycle "Seasons" included six paintings, each of which was dedicated to two months. "Harvest", "Senokos", "Summer Day", "Snow Hunters" and "Return of the Three"
Germany, being in the center of Europe, was exposed to external influences. Developing in the general direction of the European Renaissance, German art has largely advanced by its own way. In the art of Germany, the XV-XVI centuries. Gothic reminiscence manifested. Local traditions had important for the development of German art. Writers-mystics XIII-XIV centuries. They gave a rich material to artists of the next two centuries.
The art of German revival was formed in one of the most dramatic periods in the history of Germany. In 1453, Vizantiya fell. Recubated heretical teachings. The end of the world was expected in 1500.

Albrecht Durer (1471-1528). Revival in Germany is called the epoch of Durera. Durer is the first German artist whose popularity was a pan-European already in life.
Albrecht Durer, like many Creators of Renaissance, was a versatile personality. His talent developed equally in engraving, painting, art theory. His creative credo is expressed in the treatise "Four books about the proportions" in which he wrote, turning to the artist: "Do not shift from nature in the hope that you could find the best and myself, for you will be deceived, for, truly, the art is concluded in Nature: Who knows how to detect him, he owns them. "

Durer was born in Nuremberg in semen Jeweler in 1471. He was a third child in a large family. Albrecht received the first drawing skills in the Father's workshop, then she studied Mikhael Volhemut in the largest workshop of the city for three years. On December 1, 1489, Durer graduated from training and according to the workshop rules went to travel through the cities of Germany. Streams lasted 4 years. In 1493, Durer fulfilled his first self-portrait, representing a dreamy young man with a flower in his hand. In the spring of 1494, his father called Dürer to Nuremberg, where he married the daughter of the influential Nuremberg Burger, mechanics and musician Hans Freya, 15-year-old Agnes.
Soon after the wedding, the artist went to Italy. During his stay in Italy, Dürer paid a lot of attention to the image of a naked body. Returning from Venice to Nuremberg, Durer captured the Alpine Mountains and lying on his way of the city in numerous watercolors ("Type of Innsbruck" 1495, "Type of Trent").

Woodography (from Greek. Xylon - Tree and Grapho - write) - Engraving on a tree when the printed shape is cleaned with a high printing method - with a flat surface of a wooden board, covered with paint.
1495-1500. - The beginning of independent activities, when, returning from Italy, the artist simultaneously began to try himself in painting, engraving on a tree and copper engraving. Durer created engravings on mythological, domestic and literary plots. It works on altar images, giving them realistic accuracy. Portraits of Durer laid the beginning of this genre in German painting. By the end of the 90s. His name becomes famous not only in Germany, but also in Europe, mainly due to the popularity of engraving. The main for Durera at that time were engraving on the tree. He turned to a common one-board engraving on a tree, over time, moved to the creation of a series of engravings connected in the form of a loose book with the accompanying text on the turnover of sheets. In the second half of the 90s. Durer proceeds to a new technique: it introduces a hatching in the form of bending lines, applies crossed strokes that give deep shadows. Among the best seeies of this period - "St. Ekaterina "1498," Apocalypse "engravings series. The descriptions of disaster descriptions and the death of humanity were kept in the Apocalypse at that time a strong impression. Dürer illustrations reflect reform moods. Babylon is a papal Rome, and the characters are dressed in modern German and Venetian costumes. The series consists of 15 engravings, which subsequently joined Dürer title page. Earlier sheets - "Opening the seventh seal", "Father worship" differ in abundance of figures, in later - "seven lamps" - the figures are enlarged, the forms are interpreted more generally. In the final sheet "Heavenly Jerusalem" shown, as an angel locks the defeated Satan in the underworld. Another Angel shows John Heavenly Jerusalem, similar to a medieval city with massive gates and numerous towers.

The second series of engravings on the tree is called "big passions". It was completed only in 1510-1511. The first 7 sheets are narrated by the most tragic episodes of the life of Christ ("Miliation of the Bowl", "Bache", "Cee Man", "Missing Cross", "Mourning" and "Position in the Coffin"). One of the most popular sheets of the series was the "carrying of a cross", in which Durer presented Christ the crossed under the severity of the cross.
Theme engravings on copper is diverse. These are mythological, literary, and household plots. One of the most famous works - "Prodigal son". Among genre images - "Three Peasants".

Engraving "Melancholy" 1514 is one of the most mysterious works of Durer. She depicts a lonely seated woman in a laurel wreath, personifying creative genius. On the side she has a bundle of keys and wallet, on his knees - a closed book, in the right hand of the circula - a symbol of geometry and construction art. On the wall behind the woman hangs the scales, hourglass, Bell and Magic Square. The main hero of Dürer is a man whom the artist places in the center of the Universe. Durer creates a generalizing type of a man of the Renaissance in the "Self-portrait".
Etching (Fr. EAI Fort - letters, strong vodka, i.e. nitric acid) - view of engraving on metal, where in-depth printed form elements are created by etching with acids. Scratched recesses fill the paint and cover the board with moistened paper, getting an impression on a special machine.

1500, portrait of an unknown 1504, portrait of Pirkheimer 1524. In a self-portraight of 1500, Durer depicted himself in the form of Christ. Durer placed his self-portraits in many paintings, he signed full name Almost all of their capital works, put a monogram on engravings and even in drawings. In Portraight, the influence of the Netherlands school affects the thoroughness of the details, for portraits is characteristic of an extraordinary expressiveness.
Durer anticipated the emergence of the scenery of the mood, he believed that in nature everything was decent to capture - a piece of turf, rabbit.
In the film "Four Apostles" Durer created monumental figures of people, feelings of their own dignity, confident in their strength.
In their theoretical works, Durer divided the craft, which is based on skill, and art based on theory. In 1525, Durer releases "a guide to the measurement of a circulation and a line", a year later - "Instructions to strengthen cities, castles and fortresses," after the death of Dürer, which followed in 1528, his work "four books about the proportions of man" .

Lucas Cranes Senior (1472-1553) was born in the artist's family in the Upper Franconia, he studied at his father, then settled in Thuringia, becoming a court painter of the Saxon Kurfürst. Cranes was familiar
With Luther, illustrated its writings. In the early works of Kranakh, dramatic and lyricity are combined. In the landscapes everything is lovingly and carefully written. In monumental altar compositions ("Altar of St. Catherine", "Princely Altar"), the artist uses genre motifs. His "Maria with a baby", Venus is close to Italian samples, with * which he was well acquainted. In portraits of their contemporaries, cranes sought to detailed transfers all the details of the appearance.

In the last period of creativity, the masters prevailed mythological and fabulous plots, the features of mannerism appear.
Altrecht Altdorfer (approx. 1480-1538), Head of the Danube School. He worked in South Germany and Austria. Themes of his paintings biblical and mythological.
Altdorfer drawings are full-fledged artwork. In 1510, the "Forest Landscape with the Battle of St. George, "in which the desire for tonal painting is most fully expressed. The beginning of the maturity of the Master was noted by the creation of the Altar of the Monastery of St. Florian near the Austrian city of Linz in 1516-1518. Altar height 2 m 70 cm, 16 paintings are located on it. With closed sash, 4 paintings are visible with scenes from the legend of St. Sebastian. When the 1st pair of sash was opened, the viewer saw eight paintings with images of Christ's passions.

Crants and Luther were familiar, in 1522 the cranes for their money issued an essay of Luther "September Gospel", providing him with engravings. On the outside of the stems, the scenes "position in the coffin" and "Resurrection" were written. The top row consisted of night scenes and "Claws of Christ". The bottom turned on the scene during bright day lighting. In all compositions, the horizon line passed on the same level. All scenes are permeated by boiling passions, then hidden, then breaking out. Dramatic exacerbity is especially manifested in almost Bosshovsky grotesque. In all scenes, Christ is a sacrifice designed by God for a mortgage. Coloring is the most wonderful feature of the painting of the altar. In "Praying about the Bow", the red choppers are written on a background of pure gold. Most amazing work Altdorofer "Battle of Alexander with Darim" 1529; In it, the action unfolds against the background of the grand scenery shown on top.

In the work of artists of the Danube School, but not only they have the unity of man with nature. The support for antiquity was boring in German revival. Artists willingly took plots from ancient history and mythology. But the ancient Greek and Roman stories are not solved in the ancient spirit.
Grunevald, so erroneously from the XVII century. They began to call the largest German painter, architect Mattias Nithardt (approx. 1470-1528). Nithardt worked in Frankfurt am Main, Mainz, was a court painter Mainz
Archbishopes and Kurfürst. The artist's work was most fully expressed by the National Spirit, his globility is closely popular, religious images are interpreted in the spirit of mystical heresy. The creative manner of Grunevald is inherent in drama and expression, the special ratio of color and light. The most famous work of Grünevalda - "Iengeim Altar" was a monuuminal nine-night composition, the addition of the painted wooden sculpture was supplemented. In the center of the composition - performed deep tragedy, transmission of flour and pain scene of the crucifix of Christ.

Silver griffel gives colorless, unstaining lines
On primed or toned paper. Figure silver blade does not allow blots.
Lugarne (FR. Lucarne) - window opening of various shapes in the roof scap or dome.
Hotel (Fr. Hotel) - in French architecture - urban mansion, is usually placed on a relatively cramped plot, will move off the territory and fell apart from the street and neighboring sites with closed buildings of service outbuildings and high stone fences forming a closed courtyard with a front entrance from the street. The garden is located behind the main building.

Hans Golbien Jr. (approx. 1497-1543), younger than Düreir on a quarter of a century, as the artist was formed in the era of the maturity of Renaissance, becoming his brightest figure. Golbaine from all German artists was closest to Italian revival. The life of the artist is known only in the most common features. In the house of the father of Hans Golbien senior, famous painterHe comprehends the basics of painting. It is in the quality of the apprentice, in adulthood works in France, the Netherlands, from 1532 he remains to live in England, where Thomas Mor and Heinrich VIII patronize him. The strongest parties to the golbein tag were drawing and portrait. Early portraits of Golbien are created in the technique of silver pencil, after 1522 the Master more often resorts to softer materials - black and colored chalk pencils. The artist draws his late portraits on the pink paper, which gives the warmth to the human face.

Among the countries of Western Europe, who had a developed feudal system of relations, in Germany, the exit of medieval obscures was the most winding, complicated way.

In economic and politically, Germany has developed contradiction and difficult; No less contradictory was the spiritual culture, and in particular her art.

On the outcome of the Middle Ages in Germany, the same processes occurred as in other European countries: the role of cities was intensified, the burggerism and merchants became increasingly important, the medieval workshop system was disintegrated. Similar shifts were performed in culture and worldview: the self-consciousness of a person was awakened and increased, his interest was grew to the study of real reality, the desire to possess scientific knowledge, the need to find their place in the world; There was a gradual prudency of science and art, the liberation of them from the age-old authority of the Church. The towns of Humanism originated in the cities. The German people belonged to one of the greatest cultural conquests of the Epoch - the largest contribution to the development of typography. However, spiritual shifts took place in Germany slower and with great deviations than in countries such as Italy and the Netherlands.

At the turn of the XIV and XV centuries. In German lands, not only did not have the trends towards the centralization of the country, but, on the contrary, her fragmentation increased, promoting the survivability of feudal obscures. The birth and development in certain industries of the growth of capitalist relations did not lead to the unification of Germany. It was a variety of large and small principalities and independent imperial cities, which heard almost independent existence and tried to maintain such a state of affairs. The contradictions of the social development of Germany were reflected in the German architecture of the XV century. As in the Netherlands, there was no one decisive turn to a new hand-shaped content and a new language of architectural forms, which characterizes the architecture of Italy. Although Gothic as a dominant architectural style was already on the outcome, its traditions were still very strong; The overwhelming majority of the XV B facilities. In one way or another carries an imprint of its impact.

The proportion of monuments of cult architecture in Germany XV century. It was greater than in the Netherlands. The construction of the grandiose gothic councils initiated in the preceding centuries (for example, the cathedral in the ul) continued. New temple buildings, however, no longer differed by a similar scope. These were simpler churches, predominantly level; The oil of the same height in the absence of a transpact (which is characteristic of this period) contributed to the merger of their internal space into a single foreseeable integer. Special attention was paid to the decorative decision of the arches: vaults of mesh and other complex drawings prevailed. The unified harshest is characterized by an extension to the old. The architectural forms themselves acquired greater complications and worship in the spirit of "Flaming" Gothic. More importantly, however, that is the increasing place in the German architecture of the XV century. The monuments of secular architecture are beginning to occupy, in which, on the one hand, the continuation of the valuable traditions of the civilian gothic architecture of previous centuries is found, and on the other hand, they find favorable soil for their development new, progressive trends. This is, first of all, urban communal buildings, which are already noticeable, less than before, dependence on the forms of church architecture.

In the architecture of residential buildings of representatives of the urban patrician in Germany, as in the Netherlands, there has not yet been a coup, which marked the appearance in the cities of the Monumental Palazzo, belonging to the richest last names, but in C. Eravenia with medieval innovations are noticeable - more complex and free layout. , Application on facades is richly decorated frontoths and lanterns-Erkers, and in the courtyards - covered galleries.

German visual art in the XV century was still closely connected with the church. The weakening of his dependence on the church was only due to the fact that the works of painting and sculptures to a certain extent were released from the architectonic coodor of the church building. Images separated from the walls and focused in one place inside the cathedral, in the monumental altar constructure. Thus, painting and sculpture were able to relatively independent existence.

One of the achievements of German art XV century. There was a rise in painting, weakly developed in Germany in the preceding time. But machine paintings It was created during this period still little. The leading place was occupied by the altar image. History of German painting XV century. It is primarily the history of individual major altars, usually included a number of compositions related to the generality of thematic design.

The art life of Germany was distinguished by a big fragility. The disunity of individual regions of the country led to the emergence of a plurality of local foci of art. However, German art as a whole still had a well-known community. The most important thing was that the religious image lost its distracted spiritualist nature and with all certainty approached the life. The chief emphasis was postponed to the narrative beginning and the expression in the religious plot of living human feelings. But all these innovations did not unite yet the unity of aesthetic views. Even within one work, he often did not feel integrity. The artists themselves did not have a certain criterion in the assessment and perception of the world.

Very few who came to us with reliable works of artists still make it possible to make an idea of \u200b\u200bthe creative individuality of each of them. This testifies to, by the way, about the new position of the artist, that the medieval system of creativity, washing the artistic individuals of individual masters, was now gone into the past. The artist took more honorable place in society, being from now on not an ordinary shop artisan, but by the head of the workshop and a respected Burger.

For the first half of the XV century. The central figure of German painting and the present innovator was working in Constant and Basel Konrad VIC (1400 / 10-1445 / 47), which for the first time realistic quest take a consistent nature to a certain extent. VIC is the first of the German painters to solve the problem of the relationship of human figures with a surroundings - landscape or interior, starting to interpret the picture as deep, three-dimensional construction. For that time, these landscapes were a great innovation. The new thing was that nature is put forward here in the first place, and the figures are included in the landscape. The artist is trying to give a hint of a spatial length from the first plan of deep down. One of the binding elements in the paintings of the Vita becomes color. Despite the usual for the XV century. The dominance of local shades, the artist often introduces any dominant tone, for example grey colour Walls in the interiors connecting all other colors among themselves. He knows the use of halftone, protruding usually in the shadows. All this does not interfere, however, the Vitza according to the custom of that time in some cases, in the backgrounds of gold areas or to surround the head of the saints with golden nimbami.

The same stylistic line continues in the second half of the XV century. South Tyrol Master Michael Pacher from Bruneck (Ok. 1435-1498) - painter and sculptor, woodcarver. Two altars of his work are widely known - the altar of St. Wolfgang (finished in 1481, in the church of the town of Saint Wolfgang) and the altar of the fathers of the church (finished approx. 1483 g. Munich). The quest, marked in the works of Vita, in the work of Pacher, find a continuation, rising at a higher step and taking clearer forms.

For the development of realistic tendencies of German painting in the second half of the XV century. A certain meaning is found at this time the connection of individual masters with more targeted in their advanced conquests by the Netherlands art. In the work of these artists, a tendency to figurative integrity, compositional orderliness, subordination of individual details of the whole detail appears.

The largest masters of this kind was the Upperian painter and chart of Martin Schongauer (approx. 1435-1491), known in the history of art primarily as an outstanding engraver. The best work of the Schongauer painter is "Madonna in a pink gazebo" (1473). This picture is one of the most significant works of early German Renaissance. The artist depicts a symbolic motive here a loved one here (the pink gazebo was a symbol of paradise), but in his interpretation this motive does not contain anything naive-idyllic, as, for example, in Lochan. The image is devoid of harmony of Italian Madonn; He seems restless and angular. Such inconsistency concluded within one work is typical of all German revival, making up one of its main features.

Schongauer occupies an important place in the history of the German Renaissance Engraving. The flowering of the cutting engraving on copper began with the middle of the XV century. Even earlier, he received the spread of the engraving on the tree. The engraving was in Germany the most democratic type of art, which carried out the most diverse functions of both religious and purely secular order. She had the broadest spread and enjoyed very popular people. Engraving on a tree in the XV century. It was still quite craft. In the second half of the century, a significant artistic height reached copper engravings. The most early outstanding master in this field of art was an anonymous master of playing cards (40s. XV century). In some manuscripts, several copies have been preserved from his cards; In addition, several more engraved engravings have been known for religious topics that are not deprived of the well-known grace and grace.

As the first truly major master, which has played a decisive role in the further development of German engravings, is Schongauer. Until our time, he had more than a hundred it engravings on copper. As in the picture described above, in engraving PA religious topics, Schongauer managed to create a number of significant images entering into sowing features and dignity. The realistic elements are greatly increasing in them, many live impressions are used. We see from Schongauer a new, much more diverse use of a linear stroke, with which it reaches the depth and transparency of the shadows using thin, gentle silvery shades. They created a number of excellent engravings on the themes of the life of Christ and Mary ("Christmas of Christ", "worship of the Magi", "crossing the cross", etc.).

In the second half of the XV century. The art school of Nuremberg is developing. Teacher Durer Michael Wolgemouth (1434-1519) stood at the head of the workshop, which produced a huge number of registered altars. As creative personality, he is not much interesting. The best works of Wolgemut belong to early period (Hoferovsky Altar, 1405).

Its completion and at the same time a transition to a new stage German painting XV century. Finds in the work of the Arience of the Arience School of the Augsburg of the Hansburg of the Older School (approx. 1465-1524), an artist who can be included in the history of the XVI century, with the same right. Early work Holbean older style is entirely adjacent to the German painting XV century. (Altar of the Augsburg Cathedral, 1493; Altar of St. Paul, 1508, Augsburg). As new features, it is possible to note the elements of certain calidity and clarity, which are extremely strengthened in the late things of the artist, created already in the orbit of new trends. In earliest things of the older, the older and deep tones are dominated; Later, the flavor becomes lighter and cold. His most famous work is the altar of St. Sebastian (1510; Munich), created during the heyday of Durer's creativity. Correctly built figures, calm, clear expression of persons, spatial ordering, soft plastic shapes, classic motifs in the architectural environment and ornamentics tolerate this work in new world Art of high revival.

A significant place in the German XV century art. occupies sculpture. Its general character, as well as passed by it in the XV century. The path of development is close to the German painting of this time. But in the sculpture, gothic traditions are also felt; The development of realistic elements is encountered here to even more resistance to old, medieval representations. The abstract symbolism of religious images is still dominant here, the system of conditional gestures and attributes, conditional, sharply underlined expression of persons persists. These gothic features continue to exist during the entire XV century., Often fully subordinating the work of individual artists, especially in the fatal regions of Germany.

However, despite the vitality of gothic traditions, and in the German sculpture of the XV century. Those big and deep changes in the human consciousness are beginning to affect what the Renaissance has brought with them. These changes are primarily reflected in the two most important features. The first of these is that old gothic forms become deliberate and exaggerated, as if in a born desire, in order to preserve the former piousness and naive exalted faith. However, due to the fact that medieval views by this time are already largely undermined, once the organic forms of medieval gothic are now acquired by mechanical, artificial shade, often turning into purely external, sophisticated and non-delayed decorative techniques.

The second and most important feature of the sculpture of Germany XV century is that it is taking off (mainly by the end of the century), individual manifestations of the direct human feeling, the attention of the artist to the surrounding reality and to the living person of a person. The artistic meaning of the German sculpture of the XV century. But it was concluded that it was in this beginning the destruction of the old, medieval art system, on the invasion of the dead routine of the church art of the first timid glimpses of sincere life affirmation, the first signs of the expression of human feelings and desires that reduce art from the sky to the Earth.

The first third of the XVI century was for Germany a period of heyday of the Renaissance Culture, which occurred in the situation of a tense revolutionary struggle. In response to the pressure of princes and nobles on the peasantry increased in the second half of the 20th century, the rural population of Germany has risen to protect their interests. The peasant unrest, to which the city bottoms joined, by the end of the first quarter of the XVI century. Ground into a powerful revolutionary movement, seizing extensive spaces of south-western German lands. In a number of uprisings, the opposition moods of the knighthood and the burgher population of cities found the outcome. There were days when the German people united in a rustling of the struggle against common enemies - the princely authority of Roman Catholicism.

Under these conditions, the famous Luther's theses against the feudal church, who saw the light in 1517, "they had a flammifying effect, similar to a lightning strike in a barrel of powder." The revolutionary lift put forward a number of wonderful personalities. With the names of the heroic leader of the Peasant Revolution of Thomas Münzer, the leaders of the Knight's uprisings of Franz von Zikkingen and Ulrich von Gutten, the head of the German Reformation of Martin Luther is connected by one of the brightest pages of German history.

The beginning of the XVI century in Germany was noted by the flourishing of humanism and secular science directed against the remnants of feudal culture. Increasing interest in antiquity, ancient languages. All these phenomena took peculiar forms in Germany. There was no that sequence of philosophical views, which in the Italian thinkers led to unconditional faith in the human mind. The same in front of us and the German art of the XVI century. Nevertheless, the fracture is felt in it with all power. Separate major creative individuals boldly put and allow new artistic tasks. Art in its best samples becomes independent, independent area Cultures, one of the means of knowledge of the world, manifestation of free activities of the human mind. As in other Western European countries, in Germany from the beginning of the XVI century. The leading role is started to play secular architecture. Residential urban mansion, town hall or trading house - those dominant in this era of the types of buildings. In large German shopping cities, who experienced their flourishing at the beginning of the XVI century, a large construction was conducted.

Despite the diversity of the forms of the German Architecture of the Renaissance, associated with the fragmentation of the country and the presence of many more or less separate areas, some general principles are clearly pronounced in German architecture. The traditions of medieval gothic architecture do not die in German architecture throughout the century, overlapping its mark on the figurative system of Renaissance structures in Germany.

The basis of the German Renaissance Construction is based on two principles: utilitarian feasibility in the organization of internal spaces and possibly greater expressiveness and painting of external forms. Plan as the organizing beginning in which the purpose of the architect's purpose of the architect finds its embodiment; It is formed as a spontaneously depending on the needs of the owner and destination at home. The protrusions of the walls, various in the form and size of the tower, the frontones, teeth, arches, stairs, eaves, hearing windows, ornate ornamented portals, relief speakers, sharply outlined windows, polychrome walls create a completely peculiar and extremely picturesque impression. Special attention is paid to the design of interiors, which in its spirit corresponds appearance building. Elegant ornamented fireplaces, richly designed knock ceilings, lined with wood and often painted walls give the inland rooms of German houses that painting, which already in this era foreshadows a wide development on the basis of Germany at a later baroque interior.

In a critical period german historyAt the end of the XV century, the greatest artist of Germany Albrecht Durer begins its activities. Durer belonged to the number of those ingenious people-creators who come during the great fermentation of ideas that confess the transition to a new historical stage, and their work converts to that chaotic progressive phenomena in a holistic system of views and artistic forms, from all over Full of the content of the era and opening a new stage of the national culture. Durer was one of those universal revival people. Not adjacent to any political grouping in the revolutionary struggle, Durer with the whole orientation of his art was heading of that powerful cultural movement, which fought for freedom of human person. All his work was a gymnast man, his body and spirit, strength and depth of his intellect. In this sense, Durer can be viewed as one of the largest humanists of the Renaissance. However, the image created by him is deeply different from the Italian ideal, the ideal of Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael. Durer was a German artist, and his creativity is deeply nationally. He loved the people of his homeland, and the generalized ideal created by him reproduced the appearance of the man whom he saw near himself is a harsh, rebellious, fulfilled inner strength and doubt, volitional energy and gloomy meditation, alien calidity and clear harmony.

The chief teacher of Dürer in his quest was nature. He also learned a lot, studying the classic images of antiquity and Italian revival. The love and attention of the artist to nature speaks his stubborn sketches from nature - the human face and body, animals, plants, landscapes, as well as its theoretical studies on the study of the human figure, which he devoted a number of years. It is unlikely that something significant, besides the painting techniques, he could learn from his teacher of Wolgemut, devoid of every hill and depth.

Albrecht Durer was born in 1471 in Nuremberg in the family of an artisan - Golden Affairs of the Master. Dierer's father was from Hungary. Initial art training Durer received from his father; In 1486, he entered the Wolgemut Workshop. By 1490-1494 Its journey in southern Germany and Switzerland, in 1494-1495. He visited Venice. The first works that have come down to us are drawings, engravings and several picturesque portraits. The earliest of them is a silver pencil drawing "Self-portrait" (1484). A deep sense of nature is permeated with watercolor landscapes of Dürer, obviously related to the beginning of the 1490s., Completed by him during walks around Nuremberg, during a trip to South Germany and Switzerland and on the way to Venice. Extremely new ones they are also their free manner of watercolor writing based on the thoughtful integrity of the color, and a variety of composite constructions. These are "Type of Innsbruck" (1494-1495; Vienna), "Sunset" (approx. 1495; London), "Type of Trient" (Bremen), "Landscape in Franconia" (Berlin).

Upon returning from Venice, Durer performed a number of engravings on copper and nadier (on copper - "selling love", 1495-1496, "St. Family with grasshopper", Ok. 1494-1496, "Three peasants", approx. 1497 g . "The Blind Son", approx. 1498; Engravings on the tree - "Hercules", "Men's Bath"), in which the searches of a young master decided with all the clarity. These engravings, even in cases where they contain religious, mythological or allegorical plots, primarily represent genre scenes with a pronounced local character. In all of them there is a modern Dürer of a living person, often peasant type, with a characteristic, expressive face, dressed in a suit of that time and surrounded by precisely transmitted by a setting or landscape of a certain locality. Large place is given to household details.

These engravings opens a brilliant Pleiad of the graphic works of Durera, one of the greatest masters Engravings in world art. The artist now freely owns a cutter, applying a sharp, angular and nerve bar, with which winding, intense contours are created, the form is placable, light and shadows are passed, the space is constructed. The texture of these engravings with their finest transitions of silver tones is distinguished by amazing beauty and variety.

The first major work of Durer was a series of engravings on a large format tree of fifteen sheets on the topic of the Apocalypse (printed in two publications with the German and Latin text in 1498). This work carries in itself a complex plexus of medieval views with experiences caused by the stormy public events of those days. From the Middle Ages in them there are allegority, symbolism of images, the intricacy of complex theological consensions, mystical fiction; From modernity - the overall feeling of tension and struggle, collisions of spiritual and material forces. The allegorical scenes introduced images of representatives of different classes of German society, live real people, filled with passionate and disturbing experiences and active action. The famous sheet with the image of four apocalyptic riders with onions, sword, weights and forks, who plunged people who fled them from them - a peasant, a town-dweller and emperor. There is no doubt that four riders symbolize in the representation of the artist destructive forces - war, illness, divine justice and death that are neither ordinary people nor Emperor. These sheets covered with a bizarre winding ornament lines penetrated by hot temperament are captured by bright figuations and fantasy power. They are extremely significant and their skill. The engraving is raised here to the level of large, monumental art.

In the 1490s. Durer performed a number of significant picturesque workFrom which portraits are of special interest: two portraits of the Father (1490; UFFA and 1497; London); "Self-portraits" (1493; Louvre and 1498; Prado), "Portrait of the Oswet of Clell" (1499; Munich). In these portraits, a completely new one is approved, until it is unfamiliar to German art attitude towards a person. A person is interested in the artist in itself, beyond any side ideas of religious order, and in the first place - as a specific person. Portraits of Durera are invariably acutely individual. Durer fixes in them the unique, private, characteristic, which is concluded in every human person. The moments of the generalizing estimate are shifted only in their special tensions, nervousness, known inner concern - that is, the qualities reflecting the state thinking man In Germany, in the complex, full tragism and the timeless time.

Around 1496, the first significant picturesque work of Durer on a religious plot was created - the so-called Dresden altar, the middle part of which occupies the scene of the worship of Mary's baby to Christ, and on the side flaps there are figures of Saints Anthony and Sebastian. It is possible to note here all the same features: some expressions of the XV century, expressed in the incorrect perspectives, in sharp, pointed contours, the deliberate udety infant, and at the same time increased attention to the image of a living thinking person with a characteristic individual person.

These first paintings of Durera are distinguished by the well-known stiffness of pictorial manner. They dominate graphic, fractional pattern, clear, cold local tones, clearly separated from each other, somewhat dry manner of a thorough, smoothed letter.

1500 G. It turns out to be a turning point in the work of Durera. Passionately looking for truth from the first creative steps in art, he now comes to the consciousness of the need to find those laws by which the impressions of nature should be implemented in artistic images. An external reason for the studies started by him was held near this time and the meeting with the Italian artist Jacopo de Barbari, who showed him a scientifically built image of a human body. Durer greedily seizes for the information reported to him. Secret classical ideal The human figure from this moment does not give him peace. He devoted work on her mastery for many years, afterwards to summarize the known three "books about proportions", over the preparation of which he worked from 1515 for more than ten years.

The first figurative embodiment of these quest is the famous self-portrait of 1500 (Munich, Pinakotek), one of the most significant works of the artist, marking his full creative maturity from this portrait disappear all elements of navality; It does not contain any attributes, the details of the situation, there is nothing side, distracting the attention of the viewer from the image of a person. The greatest creative honesty of Dürer and never changing him sincerity makes it make it in this image the shade of concern and anxiety. Easy fold between eyebrows, concentration and underlined seriousness of the expression give the face of a raid barely catchy sadness. Restless the total speakers are fractional curly strands of hair framing; Thin expressive fingers of the hands seem to be nervously moving around the collar fur.

The search for Durer is poured into the form of experimental classes. In the period between 1500 and 1504. He performed a series of drawings of a naked human figure, the prototype for which the ancient monuments served. The purpose of these drawings is to find the ideal proportions of the male and female body. The artistic embodiment of the results of the survey of Dürer is the engraving on copper 1504 "Adam and Eve", which are directly transferred by figures from stythey drawings. They are only placed in a fabulous forest and surrounded by animals. By this time, Dürer acquires broad fame. It gets closer with the circle of German scientists - Humanists - V. Pirkheimer and others. In full force, his scientific classes unfold. Like Leonardo da Vinci, Durer was interested in the most diverse scientific issues. From the young age and throughout his life, he applied to the study of plants and animals (a number of his wonderful drawings were preserved with images of various herbs, colors and animals), he also studied the construction of construction and fortification.

About 1500g. Durer performed several monumental customs. Puumgartner's altar, "Mailing of Christ" (both in Munich Pinakotek), "Waughs" (1504 g.; Florence, Uffizi) are the first in the German art with religious compositions of a purely renaissance character. As in all works of Durera, in these paintings, the artist's interest to the living person, to his mental state. Full of life and landscape backgrounds. During the same years, Dürer begins work on three large series of engravings on a tree (the so-called "small" and "large" passions of Christ and a series of scenes from the life of Mary), which were completed by him much later. All three series in 1511 were published in the form of books with printed text ..

To 1506-1507 The second trip of Durera to Venice belongs. The most significant way of creative quest, a mature artist now could more consciously perceive the impressions of the art of the Italian Renaissance. The works created by Durer immediately after this trip are the only works of the master, close in their fine techniques to classic Italian samples. These are relevant rest and harmony two pictures on religious topics - "Holiday of rosets" (1506; Prague) and "Madonna with Chizhik" (1506; Berlin), "Portrait of Venetian" (1506; Berlin) and "Adam and Eva" (1507; Prado). Of later things, the same features retain the "Madonna with a baby" (1512; Vienna). All these pictures are inherent in essentially alien durer, figurative soothing, equilibrium of composite constructions, the smoothness of rounded circuits, the smoothness of plastic formation of forms. Madrid "Adam and Eve" are especially characteristic of this sense. From these images disappeared any angularity and nervousness of ordinary Durerian figures. There are no individual, unique. These are the perfect images of excellent human creatures, built on the principles of the classic canon, speaking the highest human beauty based on the harmony of bodily and spiritual principle. Their gestures are distinguished by restraint and grace, the expression of people is a dream.

This style does not become dominant in the subsequent work of Durera. The artist will soon return to exacerbated, brightly individualized images, permeated drama and internal tensions. However, now properties get new quality. After all the theoretical surveys carried out by Durer, after deeply experienced and reworked in their own creativity from the monuments of Italian revival, his realism rises to a new, higher step. Mature and late paintings and chiefs of Durer acquire the traits of large generalization and monumentality. They significantly weakens the connection with the late child art and the truly humanistic principle increases, which received deeply philosophical interpretation.

In 1513-1514 Durer created a number of works that marks the top of his work. This is primarily three engravings on copper, the famous "Rider, Death and the Devil" (1513), "St. Jerome "(1514) and" Melancholy "(1514). The small sheet of machine engraving is interpreted in these works as a large monumental work of art. These three engravings are not related to each other, but they constitute a single figurative chain, since their theme is alone; All of them embody the image of the human mind, each - somewhat otherwise.

The first sheet - "Rider, Death and the Devil" - emphasizes the volitional beginning in man. Dressed in the mail and helmet, armed with a sword and a spear, a strong and calm rider rides on a powerful horse, not paying attention to the ugly devil, who is being strengthened to keep his horse, on a terrible death showing him a symbol of time - hourglass, that under The horses on the ground lies the human skull. The flow of the horse is uncontrolled and confident, the person's face is performed by will and inner concentration.

"St. Jerome "embodies the image of clear human thought. In the room that carefully reproducing the situation of the German house of the XVI century, the old man is sits behind the work desk with a head of a light halo. From the window there are sun rays that fill the room with silver light. Cordic silence reigns. On the floor there is a doded lion and a dog.

The most impressive image was created in the third engraving - famous "Melancholy".

In this sheet, the symbolic principle is the strongest, which has gone for a wide variety of interpretations from scientists of many generations. Currently, it's hard to say exactly what sense to invest Durer to all the items presented here, the attributes of medieval science and alchemy, which denote the polyhedron and sphere, scales and bell, planer and a serrated sword, hourglass, sleeping dog, numbers on a blackboard writing Amur; As interpreted the artist traditional for the allegory of Melancholia. Image of the planet Saturn. But the image of a powerful woman - a winged genius, immersed in deep focused meditation, is so significant, so permeated with the feeling of limitless power human spiritThat all these details are moved to the background, and the first place is the humanistic start. It is characteristic that the external tranquility of this image does not hide the inner peace. The concentrated view of Melancholia, expressing the condition of hard meditation, a restless rhythm of the folds of her clothes, the world of fantastic attributes, which hesitates it from all sides - all this is extremely typical for aesthetics of German revival.

These generalizing philosophical images were the result of many years of thinking of the artist, testifying to his deep Knowledge man and life. The activity of Durer in these mature years continues to be very diverse. He performs many portraits in painting, engraving and drawing, constantly sketches folk types. From him there remained a whole series of images of peasants, most of which applies precisely to these years (engravings on copper - "Dancing peasants", 1514; "Pushkin", 1514; "on the market", 1519). At the same time, he is engaged in decorative art and book graphics, depicting the Grand Triumphal Arch (1515) in Engraving on the order of the emperor (1515) and decorating the drawings on the fields of his prayer (1513).

In 1520-1521 Durer traveled through the Netherlands. Judging by the artist's substantive diary preserved from this trip, he met the Netherlands painters and looked at the Netherlands art with great interest. However, the creativity of Dürer of the next years does not reflect the impact of the Netherlands art. At this time, his own style achieved the top of its development, and as an artist, he continued to go its original way.

In a number of wonderful portraits made for 1510-1520, Durer, as it were, summarizes the long-term study of the human person. After all searches classic beauty And attempts to create ideal norms continues to attract a person as he was at that time in Germany, first of all, the representative of the German intelligentsia is irritable, anxious, internally contradictory, fulfilled volitional energy and spiritual power. He writes his teacher of Wolgemut - a weak old man with a hooked nose and covered parchment skin (1516; Nuremberg), the powerful and proud emperor Maximilian (1519; Vienna), the young intellectual of that time Berngard von resin (1521; Dresden); Workshops outlines the character of Golzhauer (1526; Berlin).

Clearly designated individual similarities in all these portraits is invariably combined with a high idea of \u200b\u200ba person expressed in special moral significance and press deep thoughtlying on each face. They do not have the slightest shade of piousness inherent in portrait images of the XV century. These are purely secular Renaissance portraits in which the first place is occupied by the unique personality of a person, and the mind speaks as a unifying uniform. In all the technicians in which these portraits were completed, Durer now works with equal perfection. In painting, it reaches great softness and harmonicity of colorful combinations, in the engraving - the amazing subtlety and tenderness of the texture, in the picture - laconism and strict accuracy of the line.

All perennial searches of Durer find themselves completion in the wonderful "four apostles" (1526; Munich, Pinakotek). The artist was found here by the synthesis between the generalizing philosophical start in the assessment of humanity and the private properties of an individual personality. Creating "Apostles", Durer was inspired by the images of the best people of his era, which represented the type of a wrestler in those revolutionary years. It is enough to look at the tired focused face of the old man with the LBU of Socrates - the Apostle Peter or on the burning rebellious inner fire the gaze of the Apostle Paul, in order to feel the bright individuality of living people in these magnificent sages. And at the same time, all four images are imbued with one high ethical beginning, the most important for Durer, - the force of the human mind.

The work of Durer did not have immediate followers, but his influence on the art of Germany was huge, decisive. Dürer did not have a big workshop with many disciples. His disciples are unknown. Probably connect with him first of all three Nuremberg artists - the Brothers Hans Zebald (1500-1550) and Bartera (1502-1540) Meshem and Georg Lenza (approx. 1500-1550), which is mainly known as masters of small-format engraving (so-called Kleinmetersters ; They also worked as painters). Their high-grade engraving masses are completely secular in nature and indicate the strong influence of Italian engraving.

The complexity of the era, generating contrasts and extremes in the field of culture and art, perhaps, the most effectively affects the works of the contemporary Düreir - Mattias Grunevald (mind in 1528), a wonderful master, one of the largest painters of Germany. At first glance, it may seem that the art of Grünevald in its ideological content, as well as on artistic qualities, lies outside the main path of development of the European Renaissance.

However, in reality it is not. A similar impression is caused by the fact that the creative method of Grünevald is sharply different from the style of modern Italian art and from classical trends that are felt in a number of Dierer works. But at the same time, the works created by Grunevald should be assessed as the most characteristic and, perhaps, the most national original phenomenon of German revival.

With no less power than Dürer, Grünevald seeks to solve the main problems of his time, and above all - to the exaltation by the art of the art of the power of man and nature. But he goes with another way. The defining property of his art is the inseparable, blood connection with the spiritual past of the German people and with the psychology of the modern person from the bottom. That is why Grunevald is looking for an answer to topical issues exclusively in the sphere of an encouraging of the usual and understandable people of religious images, which he interprets not in terms of orthodox church (old Catholic or New Protestant), and in the spirit of mystical heresy who came out of the subsoil opposition.

Grunevald's paintings on the plots of the Gospel Legend carry ideas and feelings, deeply consonant in those who lived in those stormy days simple people Germany. No German artist managed to express the contradictory state of anxiety, tensions, horror, babysitting and joy, as Grunevald did in his works.

About Grünevalde art historical science has not been known for a long time. Its name still remains conditional. Recently, we have found a number of documents in which a certain Master Mattias is mentioned, apparently, who worn the Gothhardt-Neithardt double surname (it is possible that the name Gothhardt was a pseudonym of the artist, and Neuithardt - His this last name). If we agree that all these miser archival mentions refer to one artist, they will have to recognize the master who worked in Ashaffenburg, Zeligenstadt (on Main), Frankfurt am Main and the deceased in Galle, who was the court artist of the Archbishop of the Mainz Albrecht. The most interesting indication refers to the fact that Grünevald had some connection with the peasant uprisings and for his sympathies to the revolutionary movement in 1526 was dismissed from the service.

Much more definitely described the circle of works of the artist. His creative individuality is so uniquely sorely scenic and the picturesque manner is so bright that the works belonging to his brushes are determined relatively easily. The main work of Grünevald is the famous Isaengeim altar (Ok. 1516), currently located in Colmar. This is a huge structure consisting of nine picturesque compositions and a colored wooden sculpture (made in 1505 by the Strasbourg sculptor Nicaus Hagenauer).

The central part of the Iengeim altar is a scene of Calvary. In this image, the artist has invested all the power of his temperament, striving with the ultimate activity to influence the viewer, shake his imagination. The face of the crucified Christ is distorted by the death flour. The fingers of the hands and legs are reduced by a convulsion, the whole body is covered with bleeding wounds. The figures of Our Lady, the Apostle of John and Mary Magdalene express the sophisticated peaceful suffering, manifested in their painfully exalted movements. The main means of incarnation of thematic design for the artist is the inherent powerful scenic power. Behind the scene of the crucifixion opens a night gloomy, desert landscape. On his background, the figures are outlined, as if discovering from the picture. By the body of Christ from top to bottom, the flow of blood passes, a peculiar extension of which is the numerous shades of red in the clothes of standing figures. An unreal mysterious light is distributed from the body of a crucifier around the image.

The idea of \u200b\u200bthe Isaengeim altar is characterized by an exceptional depth. The very image of human suffering was erected to the level of generalized philosophical ideas. He sounds like an expression of the grief of all mankind, as a symbol of nationwide suffering. The impressive strength of this work of Grunevald increases the fact that along with the power of human feelings in it is embodied by the natural power of nature, which breaks into each of the scene artists.

With no less force expressed in the scenes of the Isaengeim altar, an idea of \u200b\u200bthe victory of light above darkness, a feeling of joyful babysitting. This is especially clear in that song, where the apotheosis is represented by the Virgin. From the sky on the figure of Mary with the baby, the cascade of golden rays is overthound. The joyful songs will be given by their singing and playing angels on musical instruments. On the bizarre patterned columns and the thread of the elegant building of the chapel, in front of which the Virgin sits, iridescent paints overflow. Right fabulous landscape opens on the right.

In a picturesque attitude, the Scene "Resurrection of Christ" is striking. It also takes out a bright start. Here, Grunevald reaches a special pictorial effect. The body of Christ seems to be dematerialized, dissolving in the rays of light, outgoing from it itself; The flowery halo surrounding the figure, composed of yellow, red and greenish tones, shrirly bursts the dark blue of the night, as if triumphant over her victory.

The most calm and balanced work of the Grünevald, relating to the late period of his creativity, - "The meeting of St. Erasmia and Mauritius "(1521-1523; Munich). Making some traditional conventions, like golden nimbes around the heads of the saints or the attribute of martyrdom in the hands of Erasma, Grünevald at the same time depicts the life scene of a meeting of two luxuriously dressed people with individual, expressive faces in this picture. In the form of a greatest, bishop's brilliant golden robe, it embodies the appearance of his cartridge - Albrecht Archbishop; From nature, the face of Negro is written off.

From among the other works of Grunevald, dated 1503 "Bacheling of Christ" (Munich), "Crucifix" (Basel), "St. Kiriak and St. Lavrenty "(Frankfurt am Main)," Madonna "(1517/19, Church in the destiner). A number of first-class on the skill of his drawings are preserved, which are predominantly preparatory material for paintings, as well as sketching individual heads and figures.

The special course of the German Renaissance, which is distinguished by a pronounced national peculiarity, forms the work of the masters of the so-called Danube school led by Altdorfer. In the art of these artists, the imprint of the instability of the German artistic culture of the XVI century is noticeable, in many ways the living remnants of the past, uniting new, realistic reasonable views on the world with confused irrational representations.

Albrecht Altdorfer (approx. 1480-1538) worked in Regensburg. From the earliest years artistic life Works are not preserved. In the ripe period, he performed as a master with a bright and original creative handwriting. The naive simplicity of untreated human feelings and relationships that bear the shade of burgher sobriety coexists in his works with a peculiar romance and the poetry of the folk fairy tale. The best images of Altdorfer are those where the largest place is reserved by the landscape.

In a number of paintings, the artist unfolds against the background of the fabulous nature of the scene of mythological or biblical content, like a small novelmall, filling them with hundreds of household or fantastic details. It builds complex spatial compositions,

in which the workshops applies lighting effects. The works of Altdorfer are easily recognized by the special painting handwriting. The master works fine brush, overlapping nervous sharp smears; The texture of his painting, somewhat dry and print, sparkles greenhouse, red, yellow and blue dots.

The main features of Altdorfer's creativity are completely revealed in one of his wounds that have come down to us - "rest on the way to Egypt" (1510; Berlin). The inefficious genre motive woven into the fancy situation of the folk fairy tale. The feeling of romantic poetry of the whalp night scene painting Altdorofer "Christmas of Christ" (1512; Berlin). Workshops transferred night lighting. The ruins of a brick building, overgrown in colors and herbs, where Mary's shelter with a baby and Joseph were found for themselves, are illuminated by yellowish lunar lights. In the dark sky there are bright Suns of Angels. In the "Susanna Bath" (1526; Munich) Altdorfer erects a motley multi-storey fantastic building-palace, from which the steps are descended to the terraces surrounded by balustrades, destroyed ten-kami small figures. In the foreground, the heroes are located under the seven of a magnificent tree biblical legenda. Another variation of Christmas theme gives the "Holy Night" (Berlin) (Ill. 343).

A kind of unique work of German art XVI century. The picture of Altdorofer "Battle of Alexander Macedonsky with Godi" (1529; Munich) can be considered, according to its plan, it seems to be something like a space landscape. The whole first picture plan is busy filled with movements by crowds of fighting troops, riders with banners and spears. They opens a vast landscape, in which the artist seems to seek to embody the image of the whole universe. The high horizon allows you to see unbarrous damage with seas and rivers, mountains, forests and buildings. The sky is permeated with rays of light, which illuminate the bizarre outlines of the clouds and throw bright stains to the ground, dramatically distinguishing individual details of the landscape and figures of people.

In total, innovative character is carrying forest landscapes Altdorfer. These small pictures, made in almost miniature techniques, possess special charm. In the picture "St. George in the forest "(1510; Munich) The artist depicts a fabulous dense forest With the giant trees covering all the sky. Little Figurine St. George on horseback is completely absorbed by the coming century boron. In a narrow lumen between the trunks, a dark blue distance is visible. Forest throat is overflowing with greenish, blue and red shades. Thoroughly and masterfully described each piece.

Altdorfer a lot and productively worked in the field of engraving, performing engravings on the tree and on copper. His multicast engravings on a tree, printed from several boards (for example, "Madonna") are interesting. In the late years, he successfully resorted to the technique of etching; Its etching landscapes distinguished by the ease and tenderness of the texture.

Some sides of their creativity, and primarily an exacerbid interest in nature, the largest painter Saxony Lucas Cranes is approaching Altdorfor. Cranes (1472-1553) were born in the town of Crohn in Franconia. On the early years of the artist's life, we only know that in 1500-1504. He was in Vienna; In 1504, Krants were invited to Wittenberg to the yard of the Saxon Kurfürst Friedrich Wise, and then, until the end of his life, he worked at the court of his successors. In Wittenberg, Krants held the position of a prominent rich Burger, repeatedly visited the burgomistrome of the city, stood at the head of the extensive workshop that produced a huge number of works, as a result of which it is not always possible to allocate genuine paintings by the artist.

Cranes consisted of friendly relations with Luther, illustrated several of its writings. The artist's youth work has not been preserved. In the earliest of the works that have arrived before us, first of all in engravings, it is possible to note the signs of the tie of Kranakh with late-Cles traditions (engravings on the tree 1502-1509 - "Crucifix"; "St. Jeronim", "The Temptation of St. Anthony" ), There are still no correct promising construction, they are overwhelmed with details, fiction elements are present in the images; The drawing itself seems composed of confusing curly lines.

However, in these works, the artistic personality of Cranach is described as one of the characteristic representatives of the German revival of the Dierer's era. His creativity, despite the abundance of religious and fabulous plots, is imbued with a sense of modernity. Throughout the creative path, the artist shows an exacerbated interest in the person of his era: it is particularly attracted by a portrait genre, interests the way of life of various classes, he pays special attention to the costume and details of life. We find the topics and plots from the topics, generated by the ideas of modern Humanists to him.

Attention to nature is peculiar to the master, starting with the earliest days that have come down to us. The landscape in his famous Berlin painting is played by a decisive role "Holidays in Egypt", 1504. Here we meet with the most lively image native nature At Kranah. Truthfully depicts the northern forest, closely overlooking Maria with baby and Joseph. Like Altdorfer, the cranes lovingly transfers all the details of the landscape - trees, flowers, herbs. He contributes to the interpretation of the gospel legend elements of genre narration, pushing religious content into the background. From the traditional techniques of the artistic interpretation of the church plot, he retreats in the "crucifix" of 1503 (Munich).

Extremely entertained by crane engraving on a tree, reproducing scenes from the life of the court society of Wittenberg (a number of sheets 1506-1509. With the image of knightly tournaments, a deer hunting, riders, etc.). The motives observed by the artist at the courtyard of Wittenberg Kurfürst, were constantly introduced into the picturesque and graphic compositions on religious and mythological plots.

One of the important features of Kranakh is that it belongs to the number of those German artists of the XVI century, which showed interest in the achievements of the modern classical art of Italy. In a number of their works, the cranes addresses the classical techniques for the transmission of space and the interpretation of the human figure. It creates images of Madonna, like by the type by Italian samples ("Maria with a baby", Wroclaw), introduces the elements of the Renaissance architecture in curly compositions ("Altar

sv. Anna ", Frankfurt), is trying. Any ideal proportions of the naked body (Venus, 1509; Leningrad). However, the ratio of the crane to the examples of classical art used by them is not so creative as Dierer. In the pictures of this kind, it usually does not go further a few naive repetition of ready-made recipes. But the best works of Cranach are inherent in the features of peculiar refinement. The calm rhythm of soft rounded circuits sometimes caresses the eye with its smooth movement; The jewelry study of the details is caught by the viewer. The artist discovers a subtle colorful flair. Avoiding sharp color contrasts, cranes can create exquisite combinations of tones. An example is the Moscow Madonna with a Baby, where the dark heavy greenery of the bushes is a beautiful colorful chord with a light green stripe of a second plan scenery and C, blue far.

Portraits made by the master in the early and middle period of creativity are of great interest. In them, the realistic properties of his art are brighter. To the best of them belongs to the "Portrait of Luther's Father" (1530; Vartburg). Here is given a bright image of a person with a characteristic expressive face. The highest achievement of portrait art crane is the profile image of Luther (1520-1521, copper engravings). It is done during the greatest closeness of Kranchi with the head of the Reformation. The artist creates such a simple, a serious image of a person who is no longer found in his art.

But since the second decade of the XVI century. Other trends are growing in the work of the masters.

In a number of his paintings on religious topics 1515-1530, as well as in portraits, it is possible to note the desire to follow the well-known stencil of the human figure - elegant, fancut and conditional. In the years of increasing reaction, which coincide with the last twentieth of the life of Kranech, this line takes the top in his work. Decorative images of images are put forward on the fore, painting becomes petty and dry.

With Augsburg is connected in the initial period of its creative activity One of the great masters of the German Renaissance is Hans Golbien Jr. (1497-1543).

Golbaine is a painter of a completely different type and temperament than Durer. As a person of the next generation, the son and student of the painter, to a large extent of the passage on the path of high rebirth, Golbaine to a much lesser extent than Durer, is associated with medieval traditions. From the young age he is imbued with new, secular ideas; Ironic-related to the old church, interest in antiquity, love for knowledge, the book characterizes the very first of its creative steps. Seventeen-eighteen-year-old Junior Golbaine, along with her brother Ambrosius, early deceased by the artist, left his hometown and moved to Basel. Here he immediately found himself in the nearest surroundings then in the Basel Erasmus Rotterdam. Basel was at that time the university city and a significant cultural center. The direction of art of the Golbaine was determined here very quickly. He immediately showed himself as a major portrait, as an outstanding master of the book and a wonderful decorator. He addressed the religious topics much less often of other artists, while surpassed them in a purely secular interpretation of the plots.

The creative path of the Golbein is characterized by clarity and certainty. Already in the early youth work, for example, in the portraits of the Basel Burgomistra Meyer and his wife, 1516 (Basel), fully expressed a characteristic attitude towards him. The features of the inner and external harmony, equilibrium and the tranquility, which was so painfully looking for Durer, easily and naturally become the basis of the images of Gabean.

The best properties of the art of the Golbaine with all force affect early, the Basel period of his work. An excellent example in this sense is the famous portrait of a young humanist Boniface Amerbha (1519; Basel) is one of the best portrait images of the Holbein, showing the entire attractiveness of his balanced strong realism. In this work, an image of a representative of the new European intelligentsia, which came out from under the authorities of the Church, comprehensively developed, beautiful physically and solid spiritually, surrounded by a halo of a special nobility. The portrait is very well connounged: a tree trunk and an oak branch behind the shoulder of Amerbach against the background of the sky give him a special airiness.

Golbien was one of their largest graphs of his era. Drawings of his full of unfading freshness. Especially good numerous portrait sketches over which it works throughout life. Early years include brilliant drawings "Portrait of Paracellas" (1526) and "Portrait of an Unknown" (approx. 1523), made by black pencil and colored shallow. According to deep vitality and at the same time, in grace, accuracy and freedom can be called genuinely innovative.

The advanced character of the art of the Holbein with a lot of power in 1516-1529. Golbaine also worked hard on book ornamentation, performing many titles, vignettes, frames, initials for humanistic, and later reformer literature. In them, he acts as a first-class decorator, perfectly knowing the classic ornament, and at the same time as a draftsman, which freely possesses the art of an image of a naked body. The art of Golbien as the decorator attracted the attention of his contemporaries. The most early registered work of the artist (1515) of this kind was the painting of the table lid (kept in the destroyed state in the zurich museum), on the surface of which a number of funny household scenes and allegorical images are represented. Between 1521 and 1530. Golbaine performed several monumental wall paintings by order of the city authorities of Basel and individual residents of Basel and Lucerne.

Golbain also left a lot of first-class feathers with a pen and watercolor for window painting, made plastic, freely and easily distinguished by complete liberation from the stiffness and angularity of the Middle Ages.

On the same Basel years there are a number of picturesque works of Golbayin religious content. Madonna Burgomistra Meyer is hardly the most italianizing from all religious compositions in the art of the German Renaissance. This is evidenced by its clear, somewhat impassive harmony, a symmetric construction with a highlighted main figure in the middle and an equal number of figures on the sides, the ideal types of Our Lady and Baby, quietly falling straight folds of clothes, thoughtful consistency of colorful combinations.

In 1526, Golbaine made his first trip to England. Like all German artists of that time, he traveled a lot. In Italy, he was, apparently, twice - in 1518-1519 and, possibly, in 1530-1531; He visited France and the Netherlands. In England, he stayed this time two years. Brospopriceing with Thomas Maorm, he thus was introduced into the circle of the highest English intelligentsia. Between 1526 and 1528 They are completed in London several works. From 1527 preserved preparatory to the unfulfilled picture of the pen, depicting the numerous family of Thomas Mora (Basel). In the same year, Golbien writes the most Thomas Mora (New York, the Friton Museum), in 1528, performs a portrait of the German Astronomer of Brief (Paris).

In 1528, Golbaine returned to Basel. However, he was not destined to stay here for a long time. In 1528-1529. Events have unfolded in the city that have strongly changed lifestyles and working conditions for the artist. Religious distribution led to the mining of Catholicism; Basel became a Protestant city. The wave of iconocrust swept, the works of painting and sculptures were destroyed from the churches. Golbaine remained in Basel until 1532. During this time, he graduated from the painting of the large hall of the Basel Town Hall, wrote a portrait of his wife with children (1528-1529; Basel) and fulfilled a large series of illustrations to the Bible (91 wood engravings, published in 1538. ).

In 1532, Golbaine finally moved to England. For the last eleven years of his life, he almost all dedicated to portrant art. Once again, in the circle of the Germans, who lived in London, he writes a number of portraits of German merchants. In 1536, Golbien became court artist of the English king Henry VIII. From this time, in his art, they begin to show the features of decline. Surrounded by a halo of European glory, he is too fond of his high position, it is too given in his work in its work, and sometimes the whims of the English nobility. Wide famous portraits Golbienn of the last five years of his life: Heinrich VIII (1539-1540; Rome), Queen Jen Seymour (1536; Vienna), Danish Christians (1538; London), Edward Prince Wales (1538-1539; New York) Although completed with great attention and virtuosity, at the same time they are distinguished by some dryness, monotony characteristics and petty in the detail finish. The most valuable of what was created in the last years of the life of Golbien is his portrait drawings, even more perfect than those that he performed in his early years. The richest collection of these drawings stored in the Windsor Palace shows Golbiena as one of the best drawers in world art.

The value of the creativity of the Golbien is already in the life of the artist goes far beyond his homeland. A particularly important role was played by his art for the formation of English portrait painting.

German sculpture in the XVI century. did not achieve such a high level of development as painting and graphics. Among the sculptors of this century there were no artists, equivalent Durer or Golbien. True, in sculpture, the development of renaissance elements is encountered on an incomparably greater resistance of church gothic traditions than in painting (especially since the sculpture is connected mainly with church orders). The religious struggle of the XVI century strongly complicated the development of plastics; One of the indirect consequences of the Reformation was attempts to strengthen the traditional Catholic church sculpture. This led, in particular, to extremely larger the gothic forms, often reaching the works of church sculptors of the XVI century. to monstrous ugliness.

The most interesting works, the German sculpture of the XVI century. They are associated with those who, somehow, tried to develop in their works the principles of Renaissance realism. Centers of renaissance flows in the German sculpture of the XVI century. There were the same advanced South German cities in which the creativity of the greatest were developed. The German Renaissance - Durera and Golbien. It was in Nuremberg and Augsburg that the largest German sculptors worked. Peter Fisher Senior (approx. 1460-1529), born in Nuremberg, and lived there all his life, representing the greatest interest among all these masters. In his father-inherited from the father, Peter Fisher on the old shop worked, he worked together with his sons; In such a modest artisan, he looks at his sculptural self-portrait, which is placed in the lower part of his main creation - Cracks of St. Zebald in the Church of this Saint in Nuremberg (1507-1519).

The sons of Peter Fisher Senior continued and developed clear and simple realistic principles of the art of their father, although none of them could compare with him on the scale of dating. The addictions are still different; The most committed to realistic distortions of the revival were mentioned above Peter Fisher Jr., who worked a lot on the image of a naked human body (for example, in a bronze plaque with the image of Orpheus and Euridic; approx. 1515), as well as the third son of Fisher - Hans (approx. 1488-1550), the author of an outstanding for the German revival of the bronze statuette of a young man (approx. 1530; Vienna), clearly ascending to Italian samples. The fifth son of Fisher - Paulu (mind in 1531) belongs one of the most famous statues of the German Renaissance - the so-called Nuremberg Madonna (tree, approx. 1525-1530), elegant and lyrical, preserving some traditional gothic features.

The most bright after Fisher's senior German sculptor XV century. There was Adolf Dahuher (approx. 1460/65 - 1523/24), born in Ulm and since 1491 settled in Augsburg. They are performed by vividly realistic busts on the benches for the Choir of Fugger Capella in the Church of St. Anna in Augsburg (1512-1518; then in the Berlin Museum); Particularly interesting for its life-complete and plastic power of his "Judith from Ololfern". Realistic Renaissance principles, expressed without special individual brightness, but consistently and clearly characteristic of his large group "Mourning Christ" in the altar of the same chapel.

The Nuremberg Master Adam Kraft (1455 / 60-1509) belongs to a series of reliefs depicting the "Cross Way" (1505-1508), in which genre realistic elements are extremely strong. Types and costumes are taken from the surrounding artist of life, the relationship between the figures is built on a real dramatic action, pronounced naturally and simply, without gothic tendering and conventionality. Purely secular household motif uses Kraft in the relief, decorating the building of urban scales in Nuremberg (1497).

By the second half of the century, realistic trends in Nuremberg sculpture fade away. Antique and renaissance images become the property of scientists of connoisseurs or rooting their forms of court. By the middle of the XVI century. In connection with those deep social and economic shocks that Germany experienced at this time, the entire German culture in general and German art in particular come to a state of deep decline. In the second half of the XVI century, after leaving the scene of the last masters of German Renaissance, the Art of Germany on long years froze in its progressive development.

The architecture of the German Renaissance, the meaning of which we owe extensive research to the Labor, House, Betzold and Hoffman, then the pictures and publications of ortweyn and the reader, Fritus and others, cannot be equal to their Italian sister, neither magnitude or logic and clarity. In melting and in the building of the building, it retained the established forms. Gothic crusade with ribs and gothic through threads dominated most of the few newly built churches that arose now in Germany. The extreme corner towers, during the transition from medieval castles to modern palaces, often designated the external framing of the magnificent, equipped with extensive inner courtyards of the princely residential buildings, whose stairs inside the surmise towers, not to mention the exceptions, during the entire century there were still screws. Houses of citizens preserved their frontaths outside, and in Northern Germany, inside had a sense, pointing to their origin from the Lower Saxon peasant house, in the upper Germany with richer buildings they retained the courtyard through which at least one arched gallery, connecting the front of the house with rear. The works of the German Renaissance all these buildings are mainly due to decorations that imitate antique, thanks to pilasters and friezes, decorated with symmetrical vegetable curls, vases, amours and fabulous animals in the spirit of the UpperiTalian early Renaissance and thanks to arbitrarily recycled Greek-Roman capitals, whose carriers are often swollen At the bottom of the "Balyasny" or "Candelabrone" columns. These new forms of decorations are primarily on portals, lanterns, staircase towers, frontions. In the German Renaissance, however, from the very beginning there is no shortage and in complex multi-storey facades with pilasters and semi-column; Unfortunately, from the very beginning it lacks only the feelings of pure proportions and organic dismemberment, manifested only in the second half of the century.

It is stricter and most importantly imitated by antique art, it is clear that the German architects that themselves visited Italy. Actually, the Italians erected in Germany did not belong to the German Renaissance, as, for example, surrounded by Gallery with semi-curvous arcades Adorable Miscellaneous Palace of Belvedere in Prague (1536), then the courtyard of the Palace in Landsgut (1536-1547) in the style of a classic high Renaissance, and Also, the currently pure Palace portal (1555) on the Yenadafe in Dresden, the construction of Giovanni-Maria Noseni, described by Makovsky, especially his magnificent princely chapel (1585) in the cathedral in Freiberg and the magnificent Palace of Pisels in Brega (1547), whose supernatalian builders However, with the assistance, of course, German workers made so much concessions to the German taste that we can rank it to the German Renaissance.

True German architecture of the Renaissance, whose acquaintance with Italian forms is based on the ornaments of engravings and artistic guidelines, comes from the Italianized German ornamenty XVI century, first thoroughly illuminated by Lychvarkk, and recently Derie. To its then sources include engravings on the tree of Peter Flettner (Fletner, mind. In 1546), extended by Gauput not without stretching to the first plan of general development, after Reimers made a summary of his engravings on a tree and drawings, Domainig - Medals, and Conrad Lange - all his works in general. The printed works that had the greatest influence were: a small book on the art of Fogtgerra (1537), "Mauritan ornament" Flettner (1549), illustration of the same Flettner to German Vitruvia (1548) of Rivius and, finally, the book shackled by the book on the architecture of Vendel Ditterlin ( 1598), on all sails floating in the wonderful country of the style of Baroque.

Page 1

Among the countries of Western Europe, who had a developed feudal system of relations, in Germany, the exit of medieval obscures was the most winding, complicated way. In economic and politically, Germany has developed contradiction and difficult; No less contradictory was the spiritual culture, and in particular her art.

At the outcome of the Middle Ages in Germany, the same processes occurred as in other European countries: the role of cities was intensified, manufactured manufacturing, and merchants were becoming increasingly important, the medieval shop system was discharged. Similar shifts were performed in culture and in the worldview: a person's self-consciousness increased and increased, his interest was grew to the study of real reality, the desire to have scientific knowledge, the need to find their place in the world; There was a gradual prudency of science and art, the liberation of them from the age-old authority of the Church. The towns of Humanism originated in the cities. The German people belonged to one of the greatest cultural conquests of the Epoch - the largest contribution to the development of typography. However, spiritual shifts took place in Germany slower and with great deviations than in countries such as Italy and the Netherlands.

At the turn of 14 - 15VV. In German lands, not only was not observed, the trends towards the centralization of the country, but, on the contrary, her fragmentation increased, promoting the survivability of feudal obscures. The birth and development in certain industries of the growth of capitalist relations did not lead to the unification of Germany. It was a variety of large and small principalities and independent imperial cities, which heard almost independent existence and tried to maintain such a state of affairs. E-TIM is largely determined by the nature of the class relationship. In its work, "Peasant War in Germany" Engels characterizes the social life of Germany to the beginning of 16 W.: " . . Different estates of the empire - princes, nobles, pretrates, patricians, burghers, plebeians and peasants - made an extremely chaotic mass with very diverse, in all directions with mutually intersecting needs "hostile, the felvic interests of the estates often led them to contradictions and mutual clashes, which prevented the main The case is to combat feudalism, overcoming medieval traditions in the economy, politics, culture, in the company of public life. Continuously increasing universal discontent, sometimes breaking out in the form of individual local uprisings, has not yet taken the nature of the nationwide revolutionary movement, which covered Germany in the first decades of the 16th century.

The contradictions of the social development of Germany were reflected in the German architecture of the 15th century. As in the Netherlands, there was no one decisive turn to a new hand-shaped content and a new language of architectural forms, which characterizes the architecture of Italy. Although Gothic as a dominant architectural style was already on the outcome, its traditions were still very strong; The overwhelming majority of the seater of the 15B facilities. In one way or another carries an imprint of its impact. The sprouts of the new, were forced to break through in a difficult struggle through the thickness of conservative layers.

The proportion of monuments of cult architecture in Germany 15th century was greater than in the Netherlands. The construction of the grandiose gothic cathedrals initiated in the preceding century (for example, in Ulm) continued. New temple buildings, however, no longer differed by a similar scope. These were simpler churches, predominantly level; Needing the same height in the absence of a transpetuity contributed to the merger of their internal space into a single foreseeable integer. Special attention was paid to the decorative decision of the arches: vaults of mesh and other complex drawings prevailed. Examples of such structures include the Church of Our Lady in Ingolstatt and Church in Anaberg. An extension to the old temples is characterized by a single level - the choir of the Church of St. Lawrence in Nuremberg and the Church of the Church of Our Lady in Esslingen. The architectural forms themselves acquired greater complications and worship in the spirit of "Flaming" Gothic. A sample of the decorative wealth of forms can be considered a Cathedral Cleaver in Eichstatte.