1. Olympiad tasks school stage of the All-Russian Olympiad for schoolchildren in 2013-2014
   for literature grade 8
   Tasks.

   
   1.1 I walk on my hind legs.
   
   
   
   

   
   
   
   It walks smoothly like a swan;
   Looks sweet like a darling;
   The nightingale sings the word;
   Her rosy cheeks are burning,
   Like the dawn in the heavens of God.

   
   

   2.5. Her eyes are like two mists
   Half smile, half cry,
   Her eyes are like two deceptions
   Covered in the mist of failure.

   A combination of two riddles,
   Half-delight, half-frightened,
   A fit of mad tenderness
   Anticipation of mortal torment.

   7, 5 points (0.5 points each for correct name works, 0.5 for the correct title of the author of the work, 0.5 points for the correct name of the character)

   3.What places is connected with life and creative way poets and writers? Find matches.

   1.V. A. Zhukovsky. 1. Tarkhany.
   2.A. S. Pushkin. 2. Spasskoye Lutovinovo.
   3.H. A. Nekrasov. 3. Yasnaya Polyana.
   4.A. A. Blok. 4. Taganrog.
   5.N. V. Gogol. 5. Konstantinovo.
   6.M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. 6. Belev.
   7.M. Yu. Lermontov. 7. Mikhailovskoe.
   8.I. S. Turgenev. 8. Sinful.
   9.L. N. Tolstoy. 9. Chess.
   10.A. P. Chekhov. 10. Vasilievka.
   11 S. A. Yesenin. 11. Spas Corner.

   5.5 points (0.5 points for each correct answer)

   4.1. Oh, memory of the heart! You are stronger
   The mind of a sad memory
   And often with its sweetness
   You captivate me in a distant country.
   4.2. And the crows? ..
   Come on to God!
   I'm in mine, not in someone else's forest.
   Let them shout, raise the alarm
   I won't die of croaking.
   4.3 I hear the songs of a lark
   I hear the trills of a nightingale
   This is the Russian side
   This is my homeland!
   4.4. Hello, Russia is my homeland!
   How joyfully I am under your foliage!
   And there is no singing

2. 
   
   ALLEGORY
   

   3. ANALOGY
   

   4. ANOMASY
   Replacement of a person's name with an object.

   5. ANTITHESIS
   

   6. APPLIFICATION
   

   7. HYPERBALL
   Exaggeration.

   8. LITOTA
   

   9. METAPHOR
   

   10. METONYMY
   

   11. OVERLAY
   

   12. OXIMORON
   Contrast matching

   13. DENIAL OF DENIAL
   The proof is the opposite.

   14. REFREN
   

   15. SYNEGODOHA
   

   16. CHIASM
   

   17. ELIPSIS
   

   18. EPHEMISM
   Replacing the coarse with the graceful.

   ALL artistic techniques work the same in any genre and do not depend on the material. Their selection and appropriateness of use are determined by the author's style, taste and the specific way of developing each particular thing. Olympiad tasks for the school stage of the All-Russian Olympiad for schoolchildren in 2013-2014
   for literature grade 8
   Tasks.

   1. Many fables contain expressions that have become proverbs and sayings. Indicate the name of IA Krylov's fables according to the lines given.
   1.1 I walk on my hind legs.
   1.2 The Cuckoo praises the Rooster for praising the Cuckoo.
   1.3 When there is no agreement among the comrades, their business will not go well.
   1.4 Deliver, God, and us from such judges.
   1.5 A great man is only loud in business.

   5 points (1 point for each correct answer)

   2. Identify the works and their authors according to the given portrait characteristics... Indicate whose portrait it is.
   2.1 In Holy Russia, our mother,
   Not to find, not to find such a beauty:
   It walks smoothly like a swan;
   Looks sweet like a darling;
   The nightingale sings the word;
   Her rosy cheeks are burning,
   Like the dawn in the heavens of God.

   2.2. an official cannot be said to be very remarkable, short in stature, somewhat pockmarked, somewhat reddish, somewhat even blind in appearance, with a small bald spot on the forehead, with wrinkles on both sides of the cheeks and complexion, which is called hemorrhoidal

   2.3. (He) was a man of the most cheerful, most meek disposition, incessantly sang in an undertone, glanced carelessly in all directions, spoke a little in his nose, smiled, screwing up his light blue eyes and often grabbed his hand for his thin, wedge-shaped beard.

   2.4. All of him, from head to toe, was overgrown with hair, like the ancient Esau, and his nails became like iron. He stopped blowing his nose long ago,
   he walked more and more on all fours and was even surprised that he had not noticed before that this way of walking was the most decent and most comfortable.

   2.5. Her eyes are like two mists
   Half smile, half cry,
   Her eyes are like two deceptions
   Covered in the mist of failure.

   A combination of two riddles,
   Half-delight, half-frightened,
   A fit of mad tenderness
   Anticipation of mortal torment.

3. Literary RECEPTION - includes all the means and methods that the poet uses in the "arrangement" (composition) of his work.
   To unfold the material and create an image, mankind has developed over the centuries certain generalized methods, techniques based on psychological laws. They were discovered by ancient Greek rhetoricians and since then have been successfully used in all arts. These techniques are called TRAILS (from the Greek. Tropos - turn, direction).
   Trails are not recipes, but helpers, developed and tested over the centuries. Here they are:
   ALLEGORY
   An allegory, an expression of an abstract, abstract concept through concrete.

   3. ANALOGY
   Matching by similarity, matching.

   4. ANOMASY
   Replacement of a person's name with an object.

   5. ANTITHESIS
   Contrast juxtaposition of opposites.

   6. APPLIFICATION
   Listing and piling up (homogeneous parts, definitions, etc.).

   7. HYPERBALL
   Exaggeration.

   8. LITOTA
   Understatement (inverse of hyperbole)

   9. METAPHOR
   Disclosure of one phenomenon through another.

   10. METONYMY
   Establishing connections by contiguity, that is, association by similar characteristics.

   11. OVERLAY
   Direct and figurative meanings in one phenomenon.

   12. OXIMORON
   Contrast matching

   13. DENIAL OF DENIAL
   The proof is the opposite.

   14. REFREN
   A repetition that enhances the expressiveness or strength of the impact.

   15. SYNEGODOHA
   More instead of less and less instead of more.

   16. CHIASM
   Normal order in one and shape-shifting in the other (gag).

   17. ELIPSIS
   An artistically expressive pass (of some part or phase of an event, movement, etc.).

   18. EPHEMISM
   Replacing the coarse with the graceful.

   ALL artistic techniques work the same in any genre and do not depend on the material. Their selection and appropriateness of use are determined by the author's style, taste and the specific way of developing each particular thing.

4. impersonation
5. Literary prima are phenomena of a very different scale: they relate to a different volume of literature - from a line in a poem to an entire literary trend.
   Literary prims listed on Wikipedia:
   Allegory # 8206; Metaphors # 8206; Rhetorical figures # 8206; Quote # 8206; Euphemisms # 8206; Autoepigraph Alliteration Allusion Anagram Anachronism Antiphrasis Verse graphics Disposition
   Sound writing Gaping Allegory Contamination Lyrical digression Literary mask Logogryph Macaronism Minus-prim Paronymy Stream of consciousness Reminiscence
   Curly poems Black humor Aesop's language Epigraph.

Artistic techniques in literature and poem they are called tropes. They are present in any work of a poet or prose writer. Without them, the text could not be called artistic. In the art of words - an indispensable element.

Artistic techniques in literature, what are the paths for?

Fiction is a reflection of reality passed through inner world the author. A poet or prose writer does not just describe what he sees around him, in himself, in people. He conveys his individual perception. One and the same phenomenon, for example, a thunderstorm or flowering trees in spring, love or grief - each writer will describe in his own way. In this he is helped by artistic techniques.

By tropes, it is customary to understand words or phrases that are used in a figurative sense. With their help, in his work, the author creates a special atmosphere, vivid images, and achieves expressiveness. They emphasize important details of the text, helping the reader to draw attention to them. Without this, it is impossible to convey ideological meaning works.

Paths are seemingly ordinary words consisting of letters used in a scientific article or just colloquial speech. However, in a work of art they become magical. For example, the word "wooden" becomes not an adjective that characterizes the material, but an epithet that reveals the image of a character. Otherwise - impenetrable, indifferent, indifferent.

Such a change becomes possible thanks to the author's ability to select capacious associations, to find the exact words to convey his thoughts, emotions, sensations. It takes a special talent to cope with such a task and create a work of art. Just stuffing the text with paths is not enough. You must be able to use them so that each carries a special meaning, plays a unique and inimitable role in the test.

Artistic techniques in a poem

The use of artistic techniques in poems is especially relevant. Indeed, a poet, unlike a prose writer, has no opportunity to devote, say, whole pages to a description of the hero's image.

Its "scope" is often limited to a few stanzas. In this case, you need to convey the immense. In the poem, literally every word is worth its weight in gold. It should not be superfluous. The most common poetic techniques:

1. Epithets - they can be such parts of speech as an adjective, participle and sometimes phrases consisting of nouns used in a figurative sense. Examples of such artistic techniques - “ Golden autumn"," Extinguished feelings "," king without retinue ", etc. Epithets do not express objective, namely author's description something: an object, a character, an action or a phenomenon. Some of them become stable over time. They are most often found in folklore works... For example, "clear sun", "spring is red", "good fellow".

2. A metaphor is a word or phrase figurative meaning which allows you to compare two objects with each other based on a common feature. Reception is considered a difficult path. Examples include constructions: "head of hair" (a hidden comparison of a hairstyle with a head of hay), "lake of the soul" (comparison of a person's soul with a lake according to a common feature - depth).

3. Impersonation is an artistic technique that allows you to "revive" inanimate objects... In poetry, this is mainly used in relation to nature. For example, "the wind speaks with a cloud", "the sun gives its warmth", "winter looked at me sternly with its white eyes."

4. The comparison has much in common with metaphor, but it is not stable and hidden. The phrase usually contains the words "like", "like", "like". For example - “And like the Lord God, I love all people in the world”, “Her hair is like a cloud”.

5. Hyperbole is an artistic exaggeration. It allows you to draw attention to certain features that the author wants to highlight, considers them characteristic of something. And therefore deliberately exaggerates. For example, "a man of giant stature," "she cried out an ocean of tears."

6. Litota is the opposite of hyperbole. Its purpose is to play down, soften something. For example, "an elephant the size of a dog," "our life is just a moment."

7. Metonymy is a trope that is used to create an image based on one of its characteristics or elements. For example, “hundreds of feet were running along the pavement, and hooves were hurrying alongside”, “the city was smoking under the autumn sky”. Metonymy is considered one of the varieties of metaphor, and has, in turn, its own subspecies - synecdoche.

Poetic techniques are an important part of a beautiful rich poem. Poetic techniques significantly help to make the poem interesting and varied. It is very useful to know what poetic techniques used by the author.

Poetic techniques

Epithet

An epithet in poetry is usually used to emphasize one of the properties of the described object, process or action.

This term is of Greek origin and literally means “attached”. At its core, an epithet is a definition of an object, action, process, event, etc., expressed in an artistic form. Grammatically, an epithet is most often an adjective, but other parts of speech, such as numbers, nouns, and even verbs, can also be used. Depending on the location, epithets are divided into prepositional, postpositional and dislocation.

Comparisons

Comparison is one of the expressive techniques, when used, certain properties most characteristic of an object or process are revealed through similar qualities of another object or process.

Trails

Literally, the word "trope" means "turnover" in translation from Greek... However, the translation, although it reflects the essence of this term, cannot reveal its meaning even approximately. Trope is an expression or a word used by the author in a figurative, allegorical sense. Thanks to the use of tropes, the author gives the described object or process a vivid characteristic that evokes certain associations in the reader and, as a result, a sharper emotional reaction.

Trails are usually divided into several types, depending on what kind of semantic shade the word or expression was used in figuratively: metaphor, allegory, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, irony.

Metaphor

Metaphor - expressive means, one of the most common tropes, when on the basis of the similarity of one or another feature of two different objects, a property inherent in one object is assigned to another. Most often, when using a metaphor, to highlight a particular property of an inanimate object, authors use words whose direct meaning serves to describe the features of animate objects, and vice versa, revealing the properties of an animate object, they use words whose use is characteristic of describing inanimate objects.

Impersonation

Impersonation is an expressive technique, when using which the author consistently transfers several signs of animate objects to an inanimate object. These signs are selected according to the same principle as when using a metaphor. Ultimately, the reader has a special perception of the described object, in which the inanimate object has the image of a living being or is endowed with the qualities inherent in living beings.

Metonymy

When using metonymy, the author replaces one concept with another based on the similarities between them. Close in meaning in this case are the cause and effect, the material and the thing made of it, the action and the tool. Often the name of the author is used to designate a work, or the name of the owner for property.

Synecdoche

Genus trope, the use of which is associated with a change in quantitative relationships between objects or objects. So, it is often used plural instead of a single one, or vice versa, a part instead of a whole. In addition, when using synecdoche, the genus can be designated by the name of the species. This means of expression in poetry is less common than, for example, metaphor.

Antonomasia

Antonomasia is an expressive means, when using which the author uses a proper name instead of a common noun, for example, based on the presence of a special strong line character of the given character.

Irony

Irony is a powerful means of expression that has a tinge of mockery, sometimes light mockery. When using irony, the author uses words with the opposite meaning in meaning so that the reader himself guesses about the true properties of the described object, object or action.

Gain or gradation

When using this expressive means, the author arranges theses, arguments, thoughts, etc. as their importance or persuasiveness increases. Such a consistent presentation allows you to multiply the significance of the thought expounded by the poet.

Opposition or antithesis

Opposition is an expressive means that makes it possible to make a particularly strong impression on the reader, to convey to him the strong excitement of the author due to the rapid change of the opposite in meaning concepts used in the text of the poem. Opposite emotions, feelings and experiences of the author or his hero can also be used as an object of opposition.

Default

By default, the author intentionally or involuntarily omits some concepts, and sometimes entire phrases and sentences. In this case, the presentation of thoughts in the text turns out to be somewhat confused, less consistent, which only emphasizes the special emotionality of the text.

Exclamation

An exclamation can appear anywhere in a poetic work, but, as a rule, authors use it, intonationally highlighting especially emotional moments in a verse. At the same time, the author focuses the reader's attention on the moment that particularly excited him, informing him of his experiences and feelings.

Inversion

To give the language literary work more expressiveness are used special means poetic syntax, called figures of poetic speech. In addition to repetition, anaphora, epiphora, antithesis, rhetorical question and rhetorical address, in prose and especially in versification, inversion is quite common (Latin inversio - permutation).

The use of this stylistic technique is based on the unusual order of words in a sentence, which gives the phrase a more expressive connotation. The traditional construction of a sentence requires the following sequence: the subject, the predicate and the definition in front of the designated word: "The wind drives gray clouds." However, this word order is characteristic, to a greater extent, for prose texts, and in poetic works there is often a need for the intonation of a word.

Classic examples of inversion can be found in Lermontov's poetry: "A lonely sail gleams / In the blue mist of the sea ...". Another great Russian poet Pushkin considered inversion to be one of the main figures of poetic speech, and often the poet used not only contact, but also remote inversion, when other words are wedged between them when the words are rearranged: "Old man obedient to Perun alone ...".

Inversion in poetic texts performs an accent or semantic function, a rhythm-forming function for building a poetic text, as well as the function of creating a verbal-figurative picture. V prose works inversion serves to arrange logical stress, for expression copyright to the heroes and to convey their emotional state.

Alliteration

Alliteration is understood as a special literary device consisting in the repetition of one or a number of sounds. Wherein great importance has a high frequency of these sounds in a relatively small speech section. For example, "Where is the grove neighing guns neighing". However, if whole words or word forms are repeated, as a rule, alliteration is out of the question. Alliteration is characterized by an irregular repetition of sounds, and this is precisely the main feature of this literary technique. Usually the technique of alliteration is used in poetry, but in some cases alliteration can also be found in prose. So, for example, V. Nabokov very often uses the technique of alliteration in his works.

Alliteration differs from rhyme primarily in that the repetitive sounds are concentrated not at the beginning and end of the line, but absolutely derivative, albeit with a high frequency. The second difference is the fact that, as a rule, consonants are alliterated.

The main functions of the literary technique of alliteration include onomatopoeia and the subordination of the semantics of words to associations that evoke sounds in a person.

Assonance

Assonance is understood as a special literary device consisting in the repetition of vowel sounds in a particular utterance. This is the main difference between assonance and alliteration, where consonants are repeated. There are two slightly different uses of the assonance technique. First, assonance is used as an original instrument that gives artistic text, especially poetic, special flavor.

For example,
"Our ears are on the top of the head,
A little morning lit up the guns
And the forests are blue tops -
The French are right there. " (M.Yu. Lermontov)

Second, assonance is widely used to create imprecise rhymes. For example, "the hammer city", "the princess is incomparable."

In the Middle Ages, assonance was one of the most commonly used methods of rhyming poetry. However, in modern poetry, and in the poetry of the past century, it is quite easy to find many examples of the use of the literary method of assonance. One of the textbook examples of the use of both rhyme and assonance in one quatrain is an excerpt from the poetic work of V. Mayakovsky:

“I will turn not into Tolstoy, so into fat -
I eat, I write, from the heat of the bald.
Who has not philosophized over the sea?
Water."

Anaphora

Anaphora is traditionally understood as such a literary device as monotony. Moreover, most often it comes about repeating words and phrases at the beginning of a sentence, line or paragraph. For example, "The winds were not blowing in vain, the thunderstorm was not in vain." In addition, with the help of anaphora, one can express the identity of certain objects, or the presence of certain objects and different or identical properties. For example, "I go to the hotel, I hear a conversation there." Thus, we see that the anaphora in the Russian language is one of the main literary devices that serve to link the text. There are the following types of anaphora: sound anaphora, morphemic anaphora, lexical anaphora, syntactic anaphora, stanza anaphora, rhyme anaphora and stropic-syntactic anaphora. Quite often, anaphora, as a literary device, forms a symbiosis with such a literary device as gradation, that is, an increase in the emotional character of words in the text.

For example, "A cattle dies, a friend dies, a man dies himself."

Genres (types) of literature

Ballad

Lyro-epic poetic work with a pronounced plot of a historical or everyday character.

Comedy

Type of a dramatic work. Displays everything ugly and ridiculous, funny and absurd, ridicules the vices of society.

Lyric poem

A type of fiction that emotionally and poetically expresses the feelings of the author.

Peculiarities: poetic form, rhythm, no plot, small size.

Melodrama

A kind of drama, the characters of which are sharply divided into positive and negative.

Novella

A narrative prose genre characterized by brevity, a sharp plot, a neutral style of presentation, lack of psychologism, an unexpected denouement. Sometimes it is used synonymously with a story, sometimes it is called a kind of story.

A poetic or musical-poetic work, distinguished by solemnity and sublimity. Notable odes:

Lomonosov: "Ode to the capture of Khotin," Ode to the day of her Majesty Empress Elizabeth Petrovna's accession to the All-Russian throne. "

Derzhavin: "Felitsa", "To Rulers and Judges", "Grandee", "God", "Vision of Murza", "On the Death of Prince Meshchersky", "Waterfall".

Feature article

The most authentic kind of narrative, epic literature that displays facts from real life.

Song, or song

The oldest form of lyric poetry. A poem consisting of several verses and a chorus. Songs are subdivided into folk, heroic, historical, lyrical, etc.

The story

An epic genre between the story and the novel, in which a number of episodes from the life of the hero (heroes) are presented. In terms of volume, the story is larger than a story and depicts reality more broadly, drawing a chain of episodes that make up a certain period of the life of the main character. There are more events and characters in it than in the story. But unlike a novel, a story, as a rule, has one storyline.

Poem

Type of lyrical epic work, poetic plot narration.

Play

Common name dramatic works (tragedy, comedy, drama, vaudeville). Written by the author for performance on stage.

Story

Small epic genre: a prose work of a small volume, which, as a rule, depicts one or more events in the life of the hero. The circle of characters in the story is limited, the described action is short in time. Sometimes a storyteller may be present in a work of this genre. The masters of the story were A.P. Chekhov, V.V. Nabokov, A.P. Platonov, K.G. Paustovsky, O.P. Kazakov, V.M. Shukshin.

novel

Big epic work, which comprehensively depicts the life of people in a certain period of time or during a whole human life.

Characteristic properties of the novel:

The multilinearity of the plot, covering the fate of a number of characters;

The presence of a system of equivalent characters;

Covering a wide range of life phenomena, posing socially significant problems;

Significant time duration of action.

Examples of novels: "The Idiot" by FM Dostoevsky, "Fathers and Sons" by IS Turgenev.

Tragedy

A kind of dramatic work telling about the unfortunate fate of the protagonist, who is often doomed to die.

Epic

The largest genre of epic literature, an extensive narration in verse or prose about outstanding national historical events.

Distinguish:

1. ancient folklore epics of different peoples - works on mythological or historical subjects, telling about the heroic struggle of the people against the forces of nature, foreign invaders, witchcraft, etc.

2. a novel (or a cycle of novels) depicting a large period of historical time or a significant, fateful event in the life of a nation (war, revolution, etc.).

The epic is characterized by:
- wide geographical coverage,
- a reflection of the life and everyday life of all strata of society,
- nationality of the content.

Examples of the epic: "War and Peace" by Leo Tolstoy, " Quiet Don"M. A. Sholokhova," The Living and the Dead "by K. M. Simonov," Doctor Zhivago "by B. L. Pasternak.

Literary trends Classicism Art style and direction in European literature and art of the 17th - early 19th centuries. The name is derived from the Latin "classicus" - exemplary. Features: 1. Appeal to images and shapes antique literature and art as an ideal aesthetic standard. 2. Rationalism. Work of fiction, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and consistency of the universe itself. 3. Interest for classicism is only eternal, unchanging. He discards individual signs and traits. 4. The aesthetics of classicism gives great value social and educational function of art. 5. A strict hierarchy of genres has been established, which are divided into "high" and "low" (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strict boundaries and clear formal features. The leading genre is tragedy. 6. Classicistic drama approved the so-called principle of "unity of place, time and action", which meant: the action of the play must take place in one place, the time of action must be limited by the time of the performance, one central intrigue must be reflected in the play, not interrupted by side effects ... Classicism originated and got its name in France (P. Corneille, J. Racin, J. La Fontaine, etc.). After the Great French Revolution, with the collapse of rationalistic ideas, classicism fell into decay, and romanticism became the dominant style of European art. Romanticism One of the largest destinations in European and American literature late 18th - first half of the 19th century. In the 18th century, everything that was factual, unusual, strange, found only in books, and not in reality, was called romantic. Main features: 1. Romanticism is the most vivid form of protest against the vulgarity, routine and prosaic nature of bourgeois life. Socio-ideological prerequisites - disappointment in the results of the Great French revolution and the fruits of civilization in general. 2. General pessimistic orientation - the ideas of "cosmic pessimism", "world sorrow". 3. Absolutization of the personal principle, philosophy of individualism. In the center romantic piece there is always a strong, exceptional person who opposes society, its laws and moral and ethical standards. 4. "Duality", that is, the division of the world into real and ideal, which are opposed to each other. For a romantic hero subject to spiritual illumination, inspiration, thanks to which he penetrates into this ideal world. 5. "Local flavor". A person opposing society feels a spiritual closeness to nature, its elements. That is why romantics so often have exotic countries and their nature as a place of action. Sentimentalism Current in European and American literature and art of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. Starting from educational rationalism, he declared the dominant of "human nature" not reason, but feeling. I looked for the path to an ideal-normative personality in the release and improvement of "natural" feelings. Hence the great democratism of sentimentalism and the discovery by it of the rich spiritual world of ordinary people. Close to pre-romanticism. Main features: 1. Loyal to the ideal of the normative personality. 2. In contrast to classicism with its educational pathos, feeling, not reason, declared the main thing in human nature. 3. The condition for the formation of an ideal personality was considered not "reasonable reorganization of the world", but release and improvement " natural feelings". 4. Sentimentalism was discovered by the rich spiritual world commoner. This is one of his conquests. 5. In contrast to romanticism, sentimentalism is alien to the "irrational": the contradictory moods, the impulsiveness of emotional impulses, he perceived as accessible to rationalistic interpretation. Characteristic features of Russian sentimentalism: a) Rationalistic tendencies are clearly expressed; b) The moralizing attitude is strong; c) Educational tendencies; d) Improving literary language, Russian sentimentalists turned to colloquial norms, introduced vernacular. Favorite genres of sentimentalists - elegy, message, epistolary novel (novel in letters), travel notes, diaries and other types of prose, in which confessional motives prevail. Naturalism Literary direction, which took shape in the last third of the 19th century in Europe and the United States. Characteristic features: 1. Striving for an objective, accurate and dispassionate depiction of reality and human character... The main task of naturalists was to study society with the same completeness with which a scientist studies nature. Artistic knowledge was likened to scientific knowledge. 2. A work of art was considered as a "human document", and the completeness of the act of cognition carried out in it was considered the main aesthetic criterion. 3. Naturalists refused to moralize, believing that the reality depicted with scientific impartiality is itself quite expressive. They believed that for a writer there are no unsuitable plots or unworthy topics. Hence, plotlessness and social indifference often arose in the works of naturalists. Realism A true portrayal of reality. A literary trend that developed in Europe at the beginning of the 19th century and remains one of the main directions of modern world literature. The main features of realism: 1. The artist depicts life in images that correspond to the essence of the phenomena of life itself. 2. Literature in realism is a means of a person's knowledge of himself and the world around him. 3. Cognition of reality proceeds with the help of images created by typing the facts of reality. The typification of characters in realism is carried out through the "truthfulness of details" of the specific conditions of the characters' existence. 4. Realistic art is life-affirming art, even with a tragic resolution of the conflict. Unlike romanticism, the philosophical foundation of realism is gnosticism, the belief in the cognizability of the surrounding world. 5. Realistic art is characterized by the desire to consider reality in development. It is able to detect and capture the emergence and development of new social phenomena and relationships, new psychological and social types. Symbolism Literary and artistic direction of the late 19th - early 20th century. The foundations of the aesthetics of symbolism took shape in the late 70s. biennium 19th century in creativity French poets P Verlaine, A. Rembo, S. Mallarmé and others. Symbolism arose at the turn of the epochs as an expression of the general crisis of a Western-type civilization. He had a great influence on all subsequent development of literature and art. Main features: 1. Continuous connection with romanticism. The theoretical roots of symbolism go back to the philosophy of A. Schopenhauer and E. Hartmann, to the work of R. Wagner and some of the ideas of F. Nietzsche. 2. Symbolism was predominantly directed towards the artistic commemoration of "things in themselves" and ideas that are beyond sensory perception. The poetic symbol was seen as a more effective artistic tool than the image. The Symbolists proclaimed the intuitive comprehension of world unity through symbols and the symbolic discovery of correspondences and analogies. 3. The musical element was declared by the Symbolists to be the basis of life and art. Hence - the dominance of the lyric-poetic principle, belief in the overreal or irrational-magical power of poetic speech. 4. Symbolists refer to the ancient and medieval art in search of genealogical relationship. Acmeism A current in Russian poetry of the 20th century, which was formed as an antithesis to symbolism. Acmeists opposed the mystical aspirations of symbolism to the "unknowable" "the element of nature", declared a concrete-sensory perception of the "material world", the return to the word of its original, non-symbolic meaning. it literary movement established itself in theoretical works and artistic practice of N.S. Gumilyov, S.M. Gorodetsky, O.E. Mandelstam, A.A. Akhmatova, M.A. Zenkevich, G.V. Ivanov and other writers and poets. All of them united in the group "Workshop of Poets" (operated from 1911 - 1914, resumed in 1920 - 22). In 1912 - 13gg. published the journal "Hyperborey" (editor ML Lozinsky). Futurism (Derived from the Latin futurum - future). One of the main avant-garde movements in European art of the early 20th century. The greatest development received in Italy and Russia. The general basis of the movement is a spontaneous feeling of the "inevitability of the collapse of old things" (Mayakovsky) and the desire to anticipate, to realize through art the coming "world revolution" and the birth of a "new humanity". Main features: 1. A break with traditional culture, the establishment of the aesthetics of modern urban civilization with its dynamics, impersonality and amoralism. 2. The desire to convey the chaotic pulse of the technicized "intense life", the instant change of events-experiences, fixed by the consciousness of the "crowd man". 3. For Italian futurists were characterized not only by aesthetic aggression and outrageous conservative taste, but in general a cult of strength, an apology for war as a "hygiene of the world", which later led some of them to the Mussolini camp. Russian Futurism arose independently of Italian and, as an original artistic phenomenon, had little in common with it. The history of Russian futurism was formed from the complex interaction and struggle of four main groups: a) "Gilea" (cubo-futurists) - V.V. Khlebnikov, D.D. and ND Burlyuki, VV Kamensky, VV Mayakovsky, BK Lifshits; b) "Association of ego-futurists" - I. Severyanin, I. V. Ignatiev, K. K. Olimpov, V. I. Gnedov and others; c) "Poetry Mezzanine" - Khrisanf, VG Shershenevich, R. Ivnev and others; d) "Centrifuge" - SP Bobrov, BL Pasternak, NN Aseev, KA Bolshakov, etc. Imagism Literary trend in Russian poetry of the XX century, whose representatives stated that the purpose of creativity is creating an image. The main expressive means of the Imagists is metaphor, often metaphorical chains that juxtapose various elements of two images - direct and figurative. The creative practice of the Imagists is characterized by shocking, anarchic motives. The style and general behavior of Imagism was influenced by Russian Futurism. Imagism as a poetic movement arose in 1918, when the "Order of the Imagists" was founded in Moscow. The creators of the "Order" were Anatoly Mariengof, who came from Penza, the former futurist Vadim Shershenevich, and Sergei Yesenin, who was previously a member of the group of New Peasant poets. Imagism actually disintegrated in 1925. In 1924, Sergei Yesenin and Ivan Gruzinov announced the dissolution of the Order, other imagists were forced to abandon poetry, turning to prose, drama, cinema, largely for the sake of earning money. Imagism has been criticized in Soviet press... Yesenin, according to the generally accepted version, committed suicide, Nikolai Erdman was repressed

Literary and poetic techniques

Allegory

Allegory is the expression of abstract concepts through concrete artistic images.

Allegory examples:

The stupid and stubborn are often called the Donkey, the coward - the Hare, the cunning - the Fox.

Alliteration (sound writing)

Alliteration (sound writing) is the repetition of identical or homogeneous consonants in a verse, giving it a special sound expressiveness (in versification). In this case, the high frequency of these sounds in a relatively small speech section is of great importance.

However, if whole words or word forms are repeated, as a rule, we are not talking about alliteration. Alliteration is characterized by irregular repetition of sounds, and this is precisely the main feature of this literary technique.

Alliteration differs from rhyme primarily in that the repetitive sounds are concentrated not at the beginning and end of the line, but absolutely derivative, albeit with a high frequency. The second difference is the fact that, as a rule, consonants are alliterated. The main functions of the literary technique of alliteration include onomatopoeia and the subordination of the semantics of words to associations that evoke sounds in a person.

Examples of alliteration:

"Where the grove neighing guns neighs."

"Up to a hundred years
grow
us without old age.
Year to year
grow
our cheerfulness.
Praise,
hammer and verse,
the land of youth. "

(V.V. Mayakovsky)

Anaphora

Repetition of words, phrases, or sound combinations at the beginning of a sentence, line, or paragraph.

For example:

« Not intentionally the winds were blowing

Not intentionally there was a thunderstorm "

(S. Yesenin).

Black eye girl

Black maned horse!

(M.Lermontov)

Quite often, anaphora, as a literary device, forms a symbiosis with such a literary device as gradation, that is, an increase in the emotional character of words in the text.

For example:

"The cattle dies, the friend dies, the man himself dies."

Antithesis (opposition)

Antithesis (or opposition) is a comparison of words or phrases that are sharply different or opposite in meaning.

The antithesis makes it possible to make a particularly strong impression on the reader, to convey to him the strong excitement of the author due to the rapid change of the opposite in meaning concepts used in the text of the poem. Opposite emotions, feelings and experiences of the author or his hero can also be used as an object of opposition.

Examples of antithesis:

I swear the first day of creation, I swear it the last in the afternoon (M. Lermontov).

Who was nothing, he will become to all.

Antonomasia

Antonomasia is an expressive means, when using which the author uses a proper name instead of a common noun for a figurative disclosure of the character's character.

Examples of antonomasia:

He is Othello (instead of "He's a big jealous man")

The stingy is often called Plyushkin, the empty dreamer - Manilov, the person with excessive ambitions - Napoleon, etc.

Apostrophe, address

Assonance

Assonance is a special literary technique that involves repeating vowel sounds in a given utterance. This is the main difference between assonance and alliteration, where consonants are repeated. There are two slightly different uses of assonance.

1) Assonance is used as an original tool that gives a literary text, especially a poetic one, a special flavor. For example:

Our ears are on top of our heads
A little morning lit up the cannons
And the forests are blue tops -
The French are right there.

(M.Yu. Lermontov)

2) Assonance is widely used to create imprecise rhymes. For example, "the hammer city", "the princess is incomparable."

One of the textbook examples of the use of both rhyme and assonance in one quatrain is an excerpt from the poetic work of V. Mayakovsky:

I will turn not into Tolstoy, so into fat -
I eat, I write, from the heat of the bald.
Who has not philosophized over the sea?
Water.

Exclamation

An exclamation can appear anywhere in a poetic work, but, as a rule, authors use it, intonationally highlighting especially emotional moments in a verse. At the same time, the author focuses the reader's attention on the moment that particularly excited him, informing him of his experiences and feelings.

Hyperbola

Hyperbole is a figurative expression containing an exaggerated exaggeration of the size, strength, meaning of any object or phenomenon.

Hyperbole example:

Some houses are as long as the stars, others are as long as the moon; to the skies of baobabs (Mayakovsky).

Inversion

From lat. inversio - permutation.

Changing the traditional order of words in a sentence to give the phrase a more expressive shade, intonational highlighting of a word.

Inversion examples:

The lonely sail is white
In the fog of the blue sea ... (M.Yu. Lermontov)

The traditional order requires a different construction: A lone sail in the blue mist of the sea gleams white. But this will no longer be Lermontov and not his great creation.

Another great Russian poet Pushkin considered inversion to be one of the main figures of poetic speech, and often the poet used not only contact, but also remote inversion, when other words are wedged between them when the words are rearranged: "Old man obedient to Perun alone ...".

Inversion in poetic texts performs an accent or semantic function, a rhythm-forming function for building a poetic text, as well as the function of creating a verbal-figurative picture. In prose works, inversion serves to place logical stresses, to express the author's attitude towards heroes and to convey their emotional state.

Irony

Irony is a powerful means of expression that has a tinge of mockery, sometimes light mockery. When using irony, the author uses words with the opposite meaning in meaning so that the reader himself guesses about the true properties of the described object, object or action.

Pun

Play on words. A witty expression, a joke based on the use of words that sound similar but different in meaning, or different meanings one word.

Examples of puns in literature:

In a year for three clicks you on the forehead,
Give me boiled spelled.
(A.S. Pushkin)

And who served me before poem,
Torn by a string, poem.
(D.D. Minaev)

Spring will drive anyone crazy. Ice - and that got under way.
(E. Meek)

Litotes

The opposite of hyperbole, a figurative expression containing an exorbitant understatement of the size, strength, value of any object or phenomenon.

Litota example:

The horse is led by the bridle by a peasant in large boots, in a sheepskin coat, in large mittens ... with a nail! (Nekrasov)

Metaphor

Metaphor is the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense based on some kind of analogy, similarity, comparison. The metaphor is based on similarity or similarity.

Transferring the properties of one object or phenomenon to another according to the principle of their similarity.

Examples of metaphors:

Sea problems.

Eyes are burning.

Boils desire.

Noon blazed.

Metonymy

Examples of metonymy:

Everything flags will visit us.

(flags replace countries here).

I am three plates ate.

(here the plate replaces the meal).

Address, apostrophe

Oxymoron

Deliberate combination of conflicting concepts.

See her fun to be sad

Such smartly nude

(A. Akhmatova)

Impersonation

Impersonation is transference human feelings, thoughts and speech on inanimate objects and phenomena, as well as on animals.

These signs are selected according to the same principle as when using a metaphor. Ultimately, the reader has a special perception of the described object, in which the inanimate object has the image of a living being or is endowed with the qualities inherent in living beings.

Examples of impersonation:

What, dense forest,

Thoughtful,
Sadness dark
Fogged out?

(A.V. Koltsov)

Caution wind
From the gate came out,

Knocked through the window
Ran on the roof ...

(M.V. Isakovsky)

Parcelling

Parcellation is a syntactic technique in which a sentence is intonationally divided into independent segments and highlighted in writing as independent sentences.

Parcel example:

“He went too. To the store. Buy cigarettes ”(Shukshin).

Periphrase

A periphery is an expression that descriptively conveys the meaning of another expression or word.

Examples of paraphrase:

King of beasts(instead of a lion)
Mother of Russian rivers(instead of Volga)

Pleonasm

Verbosity, the use of logically redundant words.

Examples of pleonasm in everyday life:

In May month(suffice it to say: in May).

Local aboriginal (suffice it to say: aboriginal).

White albino (suffice it to say: albino).

I was there personally(suffice it to say: I was there).

In the literature, pleonasm is often used as stylistic device, means of expressiveness.

For example:

Sadness-melancholy.

Sea ocean.

Psychologism

An in-depth image of the hero's mental and emotional experiences.

Refrain

A repeating verse or group of verses at the end of a song verse. When a refrain grows into an entire stanza, it is usually called a chorus.

A rhetorical question

A proposal in the form of a question that is not expected to be answered.

Example:

Or is it new for us to argue with Europe?

Or has the Russian lost the habit of victories?

(A.S. Pushkin)

Rhetorical appeal

An appeal addressed to an abstract concept, an inanimate object, an absent person. A way to enhance the expressiveness of speech, to express an attitude towards a particular person, object.

Example:

Russia! where are you rushing?

(N.V. Gogol)

Comparisons

Comparison is one of the expressive techniques, when used, certain properties most characteristic of an object or process are revealed through similar qualities of another object or process. At the same time, such an analogy is made so that the object, the properties of which are used in comparison, is better known than the object described by the author. Also, inanimate objects, as a rule, are compared with animate ones, and the abstract or spiritual with the material.

Comparison example:

then my life sang - howl -

Buzzed - like the autumn surf –

And she cried over herself.

(M. Tsvetaeva)

Symbol

Symbol- an object or word that conventionally expresses the essence of a phenomenon.

The symbol contains a figurative meaning, and in this it is close to the metaphor. However, this closeness is relative. Symbol contains a kind of secret, a hint, allowing only to guess what is meant, what the poet wanted to say. The interpretation of the symbol is possible not so much by reason as by intuition and feeling. The images created by symbolist writers have their own characteristics, they have a two-dimensional structure. In the foreground - a certain phenomenon and real details, in the second (hidden) plane - the inner world lyrical hero, his visions, memories, pictures created by his imagination.

Examples of symbols:

dawn, morning - symbols of youth, the beginning of life;

night is a symbol of death, the end of life;

snow is a symbol of cold, cold feeling, alienation.

Synecdoche

Replacing the name of an object or phenomenon with the name of a part of this object or phenomenon. In short, replacing the name of a whole with the name of a part of that whole.

Examples of synecdoches:

Native hearth (instead of "home").

Floats sail (instead of "sailing boat is sailing").

“... and it was heard until dawn,
how jubilant Frenchman... "(Lermontov)

(here "French" instead of "French soldiers").

Tautology

Repetition in other words of what has already been said, which means that it does not contain new information.

Examples of:

Car tires are tires for a car.

We have come together.

Trope

Trope is an expression or a word used by the author in a figurative, allegorical sense. Thanks to the use of tropes, the author gives the described object or process a vivid characteristic that evokes certain associations in the reader and, as a result, a sharper emotional reaction.

Types of trails:

metaphor, allegory, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, irony.

Default

Silence is a stylistic device in which the expression of thought remains unfinished, is limited to a hint, the speech started is interrupted in the expectation of the reader's guess; the speaker, as it were, declares that he will not talk about things that do not require detailed or additional explanation. Quite often the stylistic effect of silence is that an unexpectedly interrupted speech is complemented by an expressive gesture.

Default examples:

This fable could be better explained -

Yes, so as not to tease the geese ...

Gain (gradation)

Gradation (or amplification) is a series of homogeneous words or expressions (images, comparisons, metaphors, etc.) that consistently intensify, increase or, conversely, lower the semantic or emotional significance of the transmitted feelings, the expressed thought or the described event.

An example of upward gradation:

Not sorry not I call not crying ...

(S. Yesenin)

In care sweetly hazy

Not an hour, not a day, not a year will go away.

(E. Baratynsky)

Downward gradation example:

He promises half the world, And France only himself.

Euphemism

A word or expression that is neutral in meaning, which in conversation replaces other expressions considered indecent or inappropriate in this case.

Examples of:

I'm going to powder my nose (instead of going to the toilet).

He was asked to leave the restaurant (he was kicked out instead).

Epithet

Figurative definition of an object, action, process, event. The epithet is a comparison. Grammatically, an epithet is most often an adjective. However, other parts of speech can also be used in its capacity, for example, numerals, nouns or verbs.

Examples of epithets:

velvet leather, crystal ringing.

Epiphora

Repetition of the same word at the end of adjacent segments of speech. The opposite of anaphora, in which words are repeated at the beginning of a sentence, line, or paragraph.

Example:

"Festoons, all festoons: pelerinka from scallops, on the sleeves festoons, epaulettes from scallops... "(N. V. Gogol).

Poetic meter Poetic meter is a certain order in which stressed and unstressed syllables are placed in the foot. A foot is a unit of verse length; a repetitive combination of stressed and unstressed syllables; a group of syllables, one of which is stressed. Example: The storm conceals the darkness of the sky 1) Here, after the stressed syllable, one unstressed one follows - in total, two syllables are obtained. That is, it is a two-syllable size. After a stressed syllable, two unstressed ones can follow - then this is a three-syllable size. 2) There are four groups of stressed-unstressed syllables in a line. That is, it has four feet. SINGLE SIZE Brachycolon is a monocotyledonous poetic size. In other words, a verse consisting of only stressed syllables. An example of a brachycolon: Forehead - Chalk. Bel Coffin. Sang Pop. Sheaf of Arrows - Holy Day! Crypt is Blind. Shadow - To hell! (V.Khodasevich) DOUBLE DIMENSIONS Khorey Two-syllable poetic foot with stress on the first syllable. That is, the first, third, fifth, etc. syllables are stressed in a line. Main dimensions: - 4-stop - 6-stop - 5-stop An example of a four-foot chorea: The storm is covering the sky with darkness ∩́ __ / ∩́ __ / ∩ __ / ∩́ (A.S. Pushkin) Yamb Two-syllable poetic foot with stress on the second syllable. That is, the second, fourth, sixth, etc. syllables are stressed in a line. The stressed syllable can be replaced with a pseudo-stressed syllable (with a secondary stress in the word). Then stressed syllables are separated by not one, but three unstressed syllables. The main dimensions are: - 4-foot (lyrics, epic), - 6-foot (poems and dramas of the 18th century), - 5-foot (lyrics and dramas of the 19-20th centuries), - free mixed feet (fable of the 18-19th centuries ., comedy of the 19th century) An example of iambic tetrameter: My uncle of the most honorable rules, __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ When it’s not a joke, __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩ / __ ∩́ / He Respect himself __ ∩ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ I couldn't think of it better. __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩ / __ ∩́ / (A.S. Pushkin) An example of a pentameter iambic (with pseudo-stressed syllables, they are in capital letters): We are busy to lead the city together, __ ∩́ / __ ∩ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ But, it seems, we do not look at HIM ... __ ∩́ / __ ∩ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩ / __ ∩́ (A.S. Pushkin) THREE-SYMBOL SIZES Dactyl Three-syllable poetic foot with an accent on the first syllable. Main dimensions: - 2-foot (in the 18th century) - 4-foot (from the 19th century) - 3-foot (from the 19th century) Example: Sky clouds, everlasting strangers! ∩́ __ __ / ∩́ __ __ / ∩́ __ __ / ∩́ __ __ / With an azure step, a pearl chain ... ∩́ __ __ / ∩́ __ __ / ∩́ __ __ / ∩́ __ __ / (M.Yu Lermontov) Amphibrachiy Three-syllable poetic foot with stress on the second syllable. Main dimensions: - 4-foot ( early XIX in.) - 3-foot (with mid XIX v.) Example: Not wind rages over the pine forest, __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ __ / Brooks did not run from the mountains - __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ / Moroz-voivod dozome __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ __ / Bypasses his own. __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ / (N.A. Nekrasov) Anapest Three-syllable poetic foot with stress on the last syllable. Main dimensions: - 4-foot (from the middle of the 19th century) - 3-foot (from the middle of the 19th century) Example of a 3-foot anapest: Oh, spring without end and without edge - __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ Endless and endless dream! __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / I recognize you, life! Accept! __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ And greet with the sound of the shield! __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / (A. Blok) How to remember the features of two-syllable and three-syllable sizes? You can remember with the help of this phrase: Dombay is walking! Lady, in the evening, lock the calitus! (Dombay is not only a mountain; in translation from some Caucasian languages ​​it means "lion"). Now let's move on to three-syllable feet. The word DAMA was formed from the first letters of the names of three-syllable feet: D- dactyl AM- amphibrach A- anapest And in the same order these letters belong following words suggestions: You can also imagine this:

Plot. Plot elements

Plot a literary work is a logical sequence of actions of the heroes.

Plot elements:

exposition, setting, culmination, denouement.

Exposition- introductory, initial part of the plot, preceding the outset. Unlike the plot, it does not affect the course of subsequent events in the work, but outlines the initial situation (time and place of action, composition, character relationships) and prepares the reader's perception.

Tie- the event from which the development of the action in the work begins. Most often, there is a conflict in the tie.

Climax- moment highest voltage plot action in which the conflict reaches a critical point in its development. The culmination can be a decisive clash of heroes, a turning point in their fate, or a situation that fully reveals their characters and especially clearly reveals a conflict situation.

Interchange- the final scene; the position of the actors, which has developed in the work as a result of the development of the events depicted in it.

Drama elements

Remark

The explanation given by the author in dramatic work, describing how he imagines his appearance, age, behavior, feelings, gestures, intonations of the characters, the situation on the stage. The remarks are guidelines for the performers and the director who directs the play, as an explanation for the readers.

Replica

Utterance, a phrase of a character that he utters in response to the words of another character.

Dialogue

Communication, conversation, statements of two or more actors, whose remarks follow alternately and have the meaning of actions.

Monologue

The speech of the actor, addressed to himself or to others, but, unlike dialogue, does not depend on their cues. Way to reveal state of mind character, to show his character, to acquaint the viewer with the circumstances of the action, which have not received stage embodiment.

Similar information.

What makes fiction different from other types of text? If you think that this is a plot, then you are mistaken, because lyric poetry is a fundamentally "plotless" area of ​​literature, and prose is often plotless (for example, a poem in prose). Initial "entertainment" is also not a criterion, since in different eras fiction performed functions that were very far from entertainment (and even opposite to it).

"Artistic techniques in literature are, perhaps, the main attribute that characterizes fiction."

What are art techniques for?

Techniques in literature are intended to give the text

• various expressive qualities,
• originality,
• to reveal the attitude of the author to what is written,
• and also to convey some hidden meanings and links between parts of the text.

At the same time, outwardly, no new information seems to be introduced into the text, because the main role play different ways combinations of words and parts of a phrase.

Artistic techniques in literature are usually divided into two categories:

• trails,
• figures.

Trail is the use of the word in an allegorical, figurative sense. The most common trails are:

• metaphor,
• metonymy,
• synecdoche.

Figures are the methods of syntactic organization of sentences that differ from the standard arrangement of words and give the text one or another additional meaning. Examples of shapes are

• antithesis (opposition),
• inner rhyme,
• isocolon (rhythmic and syntactic similarity of parts of the text).

But there is no clear boundary between figures and paths. Techniques such as

• comparison,
• hyperbola,
• litota, etc.

Literary techniques and the emergence of literature

Most artistic techniques generally originate from primitive

• religious beliefs,
• will accept
• superstition.

The same can be said about literary devices. And here the distinction between tropes and figures takes on a new meaning.

The trails are directly related to ancient magical ideas and rituals. First of all, this is the imposition of a taboo on

• name of the item,
• animal,
• pronouncing the person's name.

It was believed that when a bear was designated by its direct name, one could bring it on to the one who utters this word. This is how

• metonymy,
• synecdoche

(bear - "brown", "muzzle", wolf - "gray", etc.). These are euphemisms (“decent” replacement for an obscene concept) and dysphemisms (“obscene” designation for a neutral concept). The first is also associated with a system of taboo on some concepts (for example, the designation of the genitals), and the prototypes of the second were used initially in order to avoid the evil eye (according to the ideas of the ancients) or to etiquately belittle the named object (for example, oneself in front of a deity or a representative of a higher class). With the passage of time, religious and social ideas "debunked" and underwent a kind of profanation (that is, the removal of the sacred status), and the tropes began to play an exclusively aesthetic role.

The figures seem to have a more "mundane" origin. They could serve the purpose of memorizing complex speech formulas:

• rules,
• laws,
• scientific definitions.

Until now, similar techniques are used in children's educational literature, as well as in advertising. And their most important function is rhetorical: to convert increased attention the public on the content of the text by deliberate "violation" of strict speech norms. These are

• rhetorical questions,
• rhetorical exclamations,
• rhetorical appeals.

"The prototype of fiction in the modern sense of the word were prayers and spells, ritual chants, as well as performances by ancient orators."

Many centuries have passed, "magic" formulas have lost their power, however, on a subconscious and emotional level, they continue to influence a person, using our inner understanding of harmony and order.

Video: Visual and expressive means in literature