What is needed for state printing. The history of the arms of the coat of arms and the first seals of Soviet Russia

27.09.2019

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The print arose in ancient times in the East, and their appearance was associated with the rapid development of trade. The seals were fastened to design the first trading contracts. Presumably the first seals appeared in ancient Egypt and Babylon. We also used the seals ancient times in China, and in Russia they, according to historians, appeared somewhere in the century.

Printing ancient China

The first prints that were used in ancient China were performed by the stamp function that the owner put on his belongings, as well as documents. Gradually, printing becomes a symbol of power, all Chinese officials had their own seals. And the loss of printing the official is strictly punished. For the loss of the print of the official could be reduced, fined or even dismiss. The print had a great value, so all the prints found on the battlefield were supposed to be delivered, and the award was assigned for them. Fake official seals strictly punishable by reference, and sometimes the death penalty.

First, the main materials for the manufacture of seals were wood, metal and bones of animals. A little later, precious and semi-precious stones began to be used. Imperial seals made from gold. Side faces were made to decorate verses or various favorable wishes.

In the seals, hieroglyphs were mainly engraved, but prints were also found with drawings. The most famous print of this type is the seal of the first emperor of China Qin Shihuandi. It was made in 221 BC. In honor of the victory and uniting all the kingdoms under the rule of one emperor. The material was the jade stone, on which the master engraved "at the order of heaven, let (emperor) lives long and happily." And on print print, flying figures resembling Taoice fairies were depicted.

Printing ancient Russia

The first mention of the press in Russia refers to x century. It was found in one of the treaties of Russia and Byzantium, and there was said about the seals that merchants used. However, scientists believe that these were not the same press, which later fastened the diplomas. These prints were replaced with credentials and were a certain identity card ambassador and merchants of ancient Russia. There is no unambiguous opinion about what it was for the seal. Some researchers believe that these were plates or bloves that were hung on the neck, but most still believed that the seals, as well as in Europe, served as Pranks.

In ancient Russia, princes were with princes, they marked the details of military equipment, craft products and even trees on the border of land possessions. In Novgorod, archaeologists discovered wooden cylinders dated to the 70th year of the X century, on which the princely signs or inscriptions "princess" were depicted. These cylinders could close the bags with fur and various vessels, as a rule with silver, so that the tribute belonging to the princess, no one could open along the way.

In ancient Russia, the seal served rather a certificate of personality, and the trade could perform a seal or stamp.

Gradually, the appearance and purpose of the seals changed in the days of the Russian medieval prints serve round metal items with images on both sides. Such seals were called "Bully", and the oldest printed Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich, which shows the sign of Rurikhechi - a trident (about 945-972).

Gradually, printing began to be used to bond or sealing documents. Prints replaced the signatures of the princes, which issued complained letters or concluded agreements with other princes or states. It is these prints that studies the historical science of the Sphragistics ("Sphragus" in translation from Greek means printing) or sigillography ("Sillum" is a seal in translation from Latin).

Scientists share prints into two groups by the method of fastening the document. The first group is the so-called hanging print. They were listed with special forceps and were praised on laces to the document. The second group is applied seals that were drawn with various stamps, including robbing.

Most princes used seals, on both sides of which are saints. This is explained by the fact that the princes, as a rule, were two names - worldly (secular) and given when baptized (Christian). The images of the two saints on the front and back of the print indicated the Christian name and the patronymic of the prince. The worldly name, as a rule, was used in the chronicles. Novgorod, Kiev, Chernihiv, Smolensk and other Russian princes used similar seals. In addition to princes of print or "Bulla", there were church hierarchs - Metropolitans and bishops. They were also among the representatives of the Prince administration. Since the time of ancient Russia, several hundred lead "Bull" preserved, which were found by archaeologists.

From the 14th century, prints begin to change gradually. For example, on the back of the prince's printed printing, the name and title of the owner begin to write, and the image of the saint patron saint is preserved on the facial. During the 14-15 centuries, metal "Bully" begin to gradually be outstanding with wax hangs and applied seals. It appears secular images (exceptions made up the seals of church hierarchs), as well as the inscription around the image (circular legend), which indicated not only the name, but also the position of the owner. Such printing began to be actively used in various institutions and public services and by the end of the 15th century almost displaced printing from metal. This is due to both low cost of wax and with a replacement of parchment on paper. As for the princes, instead of the metal "Bull", they gradually begin to apply the carved stones as personal seals - gemma, which was usually inserted into the metal rim.

Seals of the Moscow state

In the last years of his life, Prince Vasily II used an eight-marched gemma depicting a lion torping the snake. Then this seal moved to his son, Ivan III, who also used her a quarter of a century, changing naturally only the name of the owner. But when the united Russian lands created a nationwide seal, he chose another image for her: the rider hit the Dragon's speech on the front side, and a double-headed eagle was depicted on a revolving. This seal was used throughout the 16-18 centuries. Princely or royal printing was usually kept one person, the position of whom was called the printer, and at the beginning of the 17th century a special printed order arose.

In the second half of the 17th century, the Russian ruler had more than a dozen different seals, which became more complicated as all new and new lands joined. The new kings used the prints of their predecessors, replacing only the legend that was manufactured separately from the main image and the matrix that was removable.

Printing of the Russian Empire and USSR

At the very beginning of his reign, Peter I used old prints, and then ordered to cut a few new ones. New prints were distinguished by the arrangements of the coat of arms on the wings of the eagle and the presence of the chain of the Order of St. Andrew the First-Called, which surrounded the shield with an eagle and the imperial crown over the shield. For new seals, the title brief was characterized.

In the 30s of the 18th century, Empress Anna Joanovna invited the famous European engraver Johann Genndlider to St. Petersburg, who cut out a new state seal with a powerful two-headed eagle. This large state seal, engraved by him in the Petrovsky sample and made in a highly artistic manner served as Russian kings for more than a hundred years - until the end of the reign of Nicholas I.

Also, the state coat of arms appeared in the seals of government agencies and departments. At the order of Catherine II, his own seal was established, which was placed on the image of the coat of arms of the city.

The temporary government created in 1917 placed on his seal of a double-headed eagle, but without a crown, a scepter and power and no rider.

The Soviet state naturally refused the old symbols. Work on the creation of a new print was launched in 1918 and the "Sickle and Hammer" emblem was chosen as an image. The inscriptions on the seal were the following: "The proletaries of all countries, join!" and "Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic." All authorities, both central and local, should have applied printing with the emblem of the RSFSR (and then the USSR), which entered the emblem "Sickle and Hammer".

Printing is an integral component of modern life. In fact, humanity is typing a breathtaking amount of information daily by applying it on paper and other media. However, before today, the results of today, people had to work for a long time to work on improving the technologies and principles of fingerprints to various carriers.
If you look from the standpoint of today, the principles of informing information on the carrier were not always perfect. People have some time knocked out images and symbols on the stones, thus creating unrealistic, but not too capable records, besides, not very understandable to modern man.

Part 1. Print history: Evolution of ideas and technology

Media search

The first step in the field of information transfer to the material carrier was Papirus, which was invented in Egypt, and after some time in the city of Pergami came up with the skin so that it could be easily applied ink - so it turned out to be parchment. However, the creation of both carriers was very laborious, and no one even thought about the press of books or other volume works.
The present revolution was the invention of paper in ancient China. It consisted of bamboo and silk tree fibers. The advantage of this process was its simplicity: all the "ingredients" were roused in hot water, then paper sheets were formed from the resulting liquid mass. Note, we use this technology so far! Glory to the Chinese!

So the Chinese and make paper

Transfer idea or offset printing
Historians are still arguing, to whom the first idea of \u200b\u200baccelerating the process of creating manuscripts by transferring information from already ready-made carriers on paper or other carriers (for example, foil or metal). Some believe that the natives of the Polynesian islands, looking at how insects do holes in the plants, invented to transfer images from banana leaves to other surfaces - spending holes in them and pouring a dye into them. Well, maybe modern lovers of screening paints really come from Polynesia - time has passed a lot.
However, a recognized breakthrough in the field of printing occurred in the XV century, when the German jeweler Guttenberg invented the method of typical liter. He came up with that you can cast stencils in a mirror reflection from lead, and then applied paper prints. At first, cardboard was used as an enveloping material, and then rubber, which has been playing an important role for a long time. By the way, the first printed book - the Bible - was burned in the city of Cologne as the "work of Satan's hands," for she deprived the income of the correspondencers. However, Guttenberg is lucky - he remained intact and was able to continue his business.

Printing machines
However, after two hundred years, people have a desire to differentiate printed texts, without casting new stencils and pads every time ... Then the stencil decreased to one letter and a printed machine appeared. By the way, next year, three hundred years since the invention of the Inventory of Henry Mill in 1714. This fact is confirmed by a patent for the invention issued by the Queen of England. But here's just the images of this typewriter.

The principle of operation of printed machines can be seen in some modern printers, which will be told in the next post. The typewriters have a set of hammers with letters engraved on them and numbers. When you click on the keys, the hammers hit on the paper through the painted tape. In some models of printing machines, ribbons of different colors were used to create color text, for example, the highlighting of the capital letters of paragraphs red. If you think about it, you can also see the type of color printers.

Of the inventions of past centuries
Another popular printed machine was created almost a hundred years later. For the first time, the serial model was developed by Italian Terry Pellegrino in 1808. He created a writing apparatus for one blind girlfriend, Countess Carolina Fantoni de Fivisono.

And only in 1863 the ancestor of all modern printing machines appeared. The Americans Christopher Lehte Showles and Samuel Sulu were already employees of the printing house and came up with the device first for quick numbering pages, which inspired them to develop a workable, but not very comfortable typewriter, printing words and letters.
They received a patent for the invention in 1868. The first embodiment of their invention was equipped with two rows of keys with an alphabetic location of the letters from A to Z only in the lower case. There were no numbers on that typewriter. In general, with a quick consistent press on the letters located nearby, the hammers with the lites were stuck, forcing the stop of the work and their hands to rapate the jam.

And then, Mr. Showles developed the QWERTY keyboard usually, which resolved the question of the "knobs" when printing. After analyzing the combination of letters in English, he suggested a variant in which the most common letters are separated as far as possible, which made it possible to avoid ships of the hammers when printing.
However, the classic printed machine Underwood (Underwood) appeared in 1895 and became the most popular at the beginning of the 20th century. As a result, many manufacturers of printed machines performed their models in the same style and also have the main elements.

As for the Cyrillic layout of Yatsuken, it was also invented in America at the end of the XIX century. Then all the firms produced Russian-speaking cars only with the layout of Yiukhen, and the Yatsuken used today appeared on the keyboard only after the reform of the Russian language, as a result of which the letters "Yat" and "I" disappeared from the alphabet. And although the typewriters went down in history and became a museum heritage, they led to the further development of printing technologies.

First printer - chimer
The first printer, invented by Charles Bebid, (he created the famous counting machine), was not created, but it was he who proves a close evolutionary connection between printers and printing machines. Difference Engine was never created, and only according to the drawings of the image 150 later in the London Museum of Sciences This unit was restored. The printer weighed 2.5 tons and consisted of 4000 parts. Such a printer was practically a complicated version of the printed machine. Its design was so difficult that ten years left for the assembly.

Printers to which we are accustomed

However, all this - the prehistory and working models of printers arose only in the fifties of the twentieth century, after creating the first computer. They were developed in the United States and in the USSR, however, we will tell about the evolution of the printing technology of the 20th century in the following post.

And finally, one more picture is a very strange printed machine:

From time immemorial, the symbolic signs came into use, which were cut on thimbles, painted on weapons, banners, etc.

These signs were, as the result of the desire to allocate themselves from the mass, to give themselves a significant difference from all, noticeable from warriors, for example, sometimes even in the midst of battle. Such signs are known since the times of Homer (XII-VII centuries. BC), Virginia (70-19. BC), PLANE (65 BC), etc.

A characteristic feature of these signs was that they were only random, they could change on the arbitrariness of its owner. And further. With their manufacture there were no rules. In this, their main difference from the coat of arms.

But there was time. The human society did not stand in place, it constantly and steadily kneaded, carrying out the forward movement forward. Distinctive signs changed and the most importantly, their functions changed, i.e. Appointment, the role they was recognized to perform.

Middle ages and the difference of human society came. During this period, numerous wars and gravestics were conducted, and which the huge number of warriors participated, whose main task was to defeat themselves, to defeat their enemy. And this forced to appreciate the persons who were distinguished by his valor, courage, courage, strength and endurance. It is these persons (warriors), as well as the heroes of antiquity, have placed special symbolic images (signs) in memory of their military affairs on their military clothing and armed.

During the crusades, when the knighthood of all Western Europe moved to the East to liberate the coffin of the Lord, the desire for such signs was even more urgent. These knights are already signs of courage, valor, heroism.

Signs in service with this time become permanent. This is another feature of these signs, in contrast to the ancients.

But true coat of arms, in the full sense of their understanding, as hereditary signs appeared in Western Europe in the XI-XII centuries. In the era of tournaments and crusades. The immediate reasons for the appearance of the coat of arms (concluded) in the peculiarities of the warriors (participants in tournaments and crusades, first of all) - everything is hidden by iron. Since then there were no firearms, they were still fought by swords, sabers, spears, arrows, axes, etc., they could only be defended by equipment from iron from which arrows, helmets, chain rails, lats were made , boots, shields. Helmets and took the entire knight's head completely, as if when he had a warriors in this mass of the metal. And therefore, to find out who is precisely hidden under formidable and massive weapons (equipment) was impossible. It is the need to distinguish the knights from each other (especially in battle or during the competition in tournaments) explains the appearance of distinctive signs on the knightly shields, special for each knight. Subsequently, Knight's signs became constant, which we have already spoken above. But the main thing is that the signs became related, began to be inherited from the Father to the Son, from generation to generation, and only after that they began to be called coat of arms.

Thus, a characteristic feature and distinctive feature of the coat of arms (primarily from all the signs preceding him) is heredity. And the very word "coat of arms" itself translated from Polish means "heir", "inheritance". After all of all that was said about the emble, it can be given such a conditional definition, taking into account the time and conditions of its appearance and use, affecting and the question (at least indirectly) about its functions: "The coat of arms are called special figures or symbolic images of the merchambers composed on the basis of precisely specific rules and serving a permanent distinctive sign of a separate person, kind, general, institutions (as well as corporations, union, etc.), cities, regions and a whole state. "

The existence of any state is unthinkable without the presence of indispensable iconic attributes - state symbols that personify the system of its state, social and spiritual values, reflecting the features of the historical development and operation of this society, the customs and traditions in it. The emergence of the state is almost immediately determined by the emergence of a certain image, which reflects, as a rule, the internal structure of this state, its power, territories included in its composition, etc.

There are special rules for the compilation of this pattern, which establishes and studies the science of Heraldry. In this science, two main directions are distinguished: heraldic and historical heraldic. If the first is the study of the coat of arms as "drawings", according to which it is possible to determine the owner's belonging to this picture or another name, its origin, etc., then the historical and heraldic direction involves the study of the coat of arms in the context of a historical process.

The coat of arms and the state - these two concepts are closely related to each other. The emergence of the state is almost immediately determined by the appearance of a certain image, which reflects, as a rule, the internal structure of this state, its power, territories included in its composition, etc.

There are special rules for the compilation of this pattern, which establishes and examines the science of Heraldry, which is engaged in the study of the coat of arms as "drawings", for which it is possible to determine the owner's belonging of this picture to a name or another, its origin, etc. It is impossible to limit your knowledge of only the rules for the preparation of the coat of arms, but also, that is important, it is necessary to know quite well the story of the state or the kind in question.

Russian heraldry officially originated with Alexei Mikhailovic Romanov. Alexey Mikhailovich, according to the historiographic tradition, was not an active sovereign, the degree of his participation in making the most important political decisions to historians is not reliably known, although events had events that had a long-term influence on Russian history occurred during his reign.

The fact is that the development of an eagle, as the stamp emblem, began with Byzantium, and only then he appeared in Russia. The first historical mentions of Russia and Byzantium relations are dating 957 year - a year when Princess Olga made a trip to the Tsargrad and adopted Christianity

Immediately after the appearance of an eagle in Russia, its formation as a state coat of arms began. However, the coat of arms of that time almost never obeyed heraldic rules.

Only Peter I set the image of the eagle correct, thanks to which the Russian heraldry received extensive development. It is from him that the new milestone begins in the history of the coat of arms of Russia.

The main historical events that are reflected in the state coat of arms are the change in borders or the conclusion of the world with some state. However, the change of rulers, their personal attachments and personal qualities also affect the state coat of arms.

This is noticeable, for example, when a woman goes back to the throne - the state coat of arms becomes more elegant, contours more smooth, etc. In the Russian coat of arms, this was reflected only twice - with Elizabeth Petrovna and Catherine II (Precedence of Peter III, the successor Paul I)

Eagle himself, as a state emblem, is known from time immemorial. Its image is used in the coat of arms of many countries of the world: Austria, Germany, Iraq, Spain, Mexico, Poland, Syria, USA. But the two-headed eagle was preserved only in the emblem of Albania and Serbia, which emphasizes their ancient origin.

The Russian double-headed eagle has undergone many changes from the moment of its appearance and formation as an element of state coat of arms. These changes appeared under the influence of history.

The history of the emergence of the seals

We bring to your attention a small excursion in the history of the emergence of seals in ancient China and read about how the production of seals in our country emerged and developed, since the time of ancient Russia and to the present day.

Printing ancient China

The first prints that were used in ancient China were performed by the stamp function that the owner put on his belongings, as well as documents. Gradually, printing becomes a symbol of power, all Chinese officials had their own seals. And the loss of printing the official is strictly punished. For the loss of the print of the official could be reduced, fined or even dismiss. The print had a great value, so all the prints found on the battlefield were leaving for delivery, and the award was assigned for them. Fake official seals strictly punishable by reference, and sometimes the death penalty.

An interesting point in the history of the seals of ancient China was the fact that the press was gradually turned into a real work of art. The production of seals was on a par with the art of calligraphy, painting or poetry. Master, manufacturing the press, should have possess many outstanding skills. He had to know and follow the laws of the composition, to be a wonderful calligrapher, as well as a wizard of engraving. No deviation from generally accepted canons was not allowed. The master was supposed to portray a few hieroglyphs in the limited print space, placing them according to the laws of the composition to achieve the maximum aesthetic effect. That is why the ancient Chinese seals were attributed to the cultural heritage of China, and the names of the masters entered the story.

In the seals, hieroglyphs were mainly engraved, but prints were also found with drawings. The most famous print of this type is the seal of the first emperor of China Qin Shihuandi. It was made in 221 BC. In honor of the victory and uniting all the kingdoms under the rule of one emperor. The material was the jade stone on which the master engraved "At the rally of heaven, let (emperor) lives long and happily." . And on print print, flying figures resembling Taoice fairies were depicted.

Printing ancient Russia

In ancient Russia, the seal served rather a certificate of personality, and the trade could perform a seal or stamp.

Scientists share prints into two groups by the method of fastening the document. The first group is so-called hanging prints. They were listed with special forceps and were praised on laces to the document. The second group is applied seals that were drawn with various stamps, including robbing.

For almost five centuries, for almost five centuries, for almost five centuries used the hanging metal seals on the sample of Byzantine. They were made of lead, silver, silver with gilding or even gold. In the middle of the XI century, the prints of the "Greco-Russian" type begin to appear. On one side of such seals was depicted saint, and there was a Greek benevolent inscription on the other.

Seals of the Moscow state

Gradually, the Moscow state has grown, the authorities have strengthened, the administrative apparatus has been formed, the number of documentation has increased. From the 17th century, prints began to be widely used by various institutions. For example, the order of the big one who ordered government finances had a seal with the image of the scales and the inscription "Printing a stateless order of large treasures." In the seals of other state structures, the image was often absent, there was only an inscription. In the seals of cities and various lands, there were images that later entered the city coat of arms. The seal of the Smolensk Principality came to this day: the gun on the boiler, and the paradise bird is depicted on the trunk.
In the second half of the 17th century, the Russian ruler had more than a dozen different seals, which became more complicated as all new and new lands joined. The new kings used the prints of their predecessors, replacing only the legend that was manufactured separately from the main image and the matrix that was removable.

Printing of the Russian Empire and USSR

In the 30s of the 18th century, Empress Anna Joanovna invited the famous European engraver Johann Genndlider to St. Petersburg, who cut out a new state seal with a powerful two-headed eagle. This large state seal, engraved by the Petrovsky sample and made in a highly artistic manner served as Russian kings for more than a hundred years - until the end of the reign of Nicholas I.

The temporary government created in 1917 placed on his seal of a double-headed eagle, but without a crown, a scepter and power and no rider.

● For the first time, the seal appeared at the end of the IV century in Rome. Later they were widely used in Western Europe and Byzantium. As a rule, in the Middle Ages, the prints were used to certify the signature or to protect the authenticity of the signature. In the era of the Roman Republic, printing was applied only to preserve the document from the brass. This is how it was described by one of the authors (N.P. Lyapidevsky - approx. Ed) Process of the Print Application: "The document was coagulated into the tube or was in a square shape, wrapped in the canvas, was laid by a thread, the end of which, in the place where they converged with The wrapper was bonded by a piece of wax, and it was placed on it. " At such printed documents were attached by officials, and in some cases the witnesses put their personal seals. Thus, in order to further be familiar with the document, you first needed to break the seal. So the Romans guarded their documents from fakes and curious eyes. However, as already emphasized, the seal did not testify the signatures of the parties. For example, in order to confirm the signature of the donor in the contract, he had to personally appear in court and confirm his signature and the fact of donation, otherwise the gifted was not entitled to claim this gift.

● The initial method of pasting and staging was arbitrary, but later, during the reign of Nero's emperor, the Senate decided that the documents were stuck in a triple thread, for which in the middle of the fields was to drill holes through which these threads were skipped, and then they were torn on the turnover of the document.

It is surprising that in our century automation and progress on documents, such an archaic method is still used, which has not yet outlived itself, protecting documents from forks.

Until the XI century, there were no certain rules in Europe. Printing as a means of approving documents appears later in Germany, at King Charlem Great.

However, from the XI century. The mechanism of use of printing transos in the right of printing. Every citizen belonged to the nobility had the right to have his coat of arms, but not every nobleman had the right to personal seal and the right to approve the documents. This right was the character of special privileges.

Vassals at the conclusion of various kinds of transactions could take advantage of the seal of his Mr.; Persons living in church lands - the seal of the church or the monastery; Children - the seal of their parents. Printing is considered during this period as a punishment in the form of deprivation of special rights.

● In the XI-XII centuries, the appearance of germany and France seals did not have much differences, but, as a rule, on knightly and baron seals were images of the rider in full service, hunting, dragons, eagles, stars; On the seals of women - image of lily. The prints also had various forms: the prints of secular persons - round, spiritual individuals and women - oval. It was possible to meet and printing unusual forms, for example, has a heart shape seal of Conrad Turing, the shape of a pear - Rudolph Habsburg.

In addition, the press was subdivided into public and private, unilateral and bilateral (one side of which was simple, and the other - elegant, with various decorations for special solemn cases).

Wax or metal served material for the manufacture of seals. Homeland Metal Print is Byzantium, from where metal printing gradually moved to the west. The emperors and kings usually used gold and silver prints. Others consumed lead, copper, tin. Iron used extremely rarely.

● No less interesting question about printing. The most ancient color of the print was white, often he met on the royal documents - since the times of Meroving to the time of Emperor Friedrich III. Yellow wax printing was used in the XII-XV centuries. In Germany, she used the dukes, bishops, as well as monasteries and individuals. But in France, the use of yellow print referred to an exceptional privilege of kings. At the beginning of the XIV century, only the most notable and honorary citizens were allowed to use green seal, but already from the second half of the XIV century. And until the XVI century, it became commonplace. In the XVII century, the German emperors put red-stroke prints. The exceptional right to use royal red print, and then only in the form of a great grace, only elected individuals allowed. But in the second half of the XVI century. She fully displaces green printing from turnover, even on documents of individuals. The oldest draft of the Chernovsky Print is known in diplomacy since 1248. She also enjoyed grandmaster of the Maltese Order, and she was also in the go for some noble birth.

The content of prints of seals, as a rule, was determined by the belonging to any class, it could be a generic coat of arms, but most often there were inscriptions consisting of the name of the owner, sometimes with the joining of the birth of the owner or the year of making the print itself. When names in the XI century, ordinary listers were used, later gothic. The names themselves and some words of the inscriptions, as in the texts of the documents, are executed in abbreviated form.

No less interesting and method attaching seals to certificates. Two ways were practiced: Attaching the hanging seals and staging of writing on the documents themselves.

The hanging prints were minted on separate slices of wax, lead, gold, silver and attached to the documents on the laces. Print names also wore various: for metal and wax, the term "Bulla" was used; Lead prints were called molyvoids; Golden - Christulus.

● The seal appeared in the XI century. The main place of findings of the ancient Russian press is Novgorod, where in archaeological excavations they are in abundance of sealing plants, thousands of top princes, tyunov, archbishop, governors. When buying the Earth, letters with hanging seals were made, on which suspended prints were more indicated by the consent of the parties, rather than we had the nature of the state strengthening, since the press could also belong to the parties to the transaction, and witnesses, and special persons constituting these certificates. In Novgorod, the seals were fastened to the wills or spiritual letters, all transactions on the transfer of Votchin, Khopov, and in general, all the "boss", "exchange", "redemption", "sentenced", "contributable", etc. We give as an example of the use of seals an exposure from the historical and research review of Novgorod: "When making transactions with driven property, when buying various products of Novgorod artisans, special attention was paid to the quality of the goods sold as a quality. Special officials put on goods to print with the prints of the Words of God. This meant that this product is not a fake, but made "according to God's truth".

(In Moscow, acted a printed order, the duty of which was also the attachment of state press to the fortresses - ext. Ed.).

Published by Peter I in 1720, the General Regulation exhibits a document into a special rank. In accordance with this regulations, all instances from top to bottom and bottom are taken up with each other in writing, "for both in the Senate and in the colleges the verbal decrees will never be supplemented." Historians believe that "this formula is presented the essence of bureaucratic orders, the paper is turned into a full-awake host of the situation." And, undoubtedly, the larger weight of the provision - paper - it gives nothing more than a seal that turns it into the omnipotent document.

Since the time of Peter the Great, there were a lot of transformations and reforms aimed at the fencing of documents from fakes, and so far, the leading role in this is occupied by paper and printing, changing in form and content, but not essentially.