The meaning of the word humanism. Best examples of humanity from life

14.04.2019

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Humanism in the works of Thomas Mora "Utopia" and Eugene Zamyatina "We"

Introduction

Today, the whole world is experiencing difficult times. The new political and economic situation could not but affect culture. The relationship with the authorities changed dramatically. The overall rod of cultural life disappeared - centralized system Management and a single cultural policy. The definition of further cultural development paths was the case of society itself and the subject of disagreements. The lack of a unifying sociocultural idea and the retreat of society from the ideas of humanism led to a deep crisis, in which the culture of all mankind was to the beginning of the XXI century.

Humanism (from Lat. Humanitas - humanity, lat. Humanus - Human, lat. Homo - man) - a worldview, in the center of which is the idea of \u200b\u200ba person as a higher value; It originated as the philosophical course in the Renaissance.

Humanism is traditionally defined as a system of views that recognize the value of a person as a person, his right to freedom, happiness and development, and declaring the norm of relations between people the principles of equality and humanity. Among the values traditional culture The most important place was occupied by the values \u200b\u200bof humanism (good, justice, nonstusting, finding truth), which was reflected in classic literature Any country, including England.

Over the past 15 years, these values \u200b\u200bhave experienced a certain crisis. Humanism was opposed to the ideas of ownership and self-sufficiency (the cult of money). As an ideal, people were proposed "Self-Mademan" - a person who made himself and not in need of any external support. The ideas of justice and equality - the basis of humanism - lost its former attractiveness and now do not even be included in the program documents of most parties and governments of various states of the world. Our society gradually began to turn into a nuclear, when his individual members began to close within their home and their own family.

The relevance of the topic chosen by me is due to the problem that worried humanity for thousands of years and worries now - the problem of humanism, tolerance, respect for the neighbor, the sharp need to discuss this topic.

I would like to show my research that the problem of humanism, originated in the Renaissance Epoch, which was reflected both in the works of English and Russian writers, remains relevant to this day.

And for starters, I would like to return to the origins of humanism, considering his appearance in England.

1.1 The appearance of humanism in England. The history of humanism in english literature

The birth of a new historical thought belongs to late Middle AgesWhen in the most advanced countries of Western Europe, the process of decomposition of feudal relations was actively walking and a new capitalist production method was born. This was a transitional period, when centralized states in the form of absolute monarchies in the scale of entire countries or individual territories were everywhere, there were prerequisites for the formation of bourgeois nations, there was an extreme extension of the social struggle. The bourgeoisie to emerge in the middle of the city top was then a new, progressive layer and performed in his ideological struggle with the dominant class of feudalists as a representative of all the lower layers of society.

New ideas find their most vivid expression in the humanistic worldview, which has had a very significant impact on all areas of culture and scientific knowledge of this transition period. The new worldview was basically a secular, hostile purely theological interpretation of the world that dominated the Middle Ages. He was typical of his desire to explain all the phenomena in nature and society from the point of view of the mind (rationalism), reject the blind prestige of faith, so strongly embarrassed by the development of human thought. Humanists bowed to the human person, admired her as the highest creation of nature, the carrier of the mind, high feelings and virtues; The man-creator of humanists, as it were, opposed the blind strength of the divine fishery. The humanistic worldview was peculiar to individualism, which at the first stage of his history, essentially, performed as an instrument of ideological protest against the current-corporate building of a feudal society, who suppressed the human person, against the church ascetic morality, which served as one of the means of this suppression. At that time, the individualism of the humanistic worldview was still the active public interest of most of his figures, was far from selfishness peculiar to the later developed forms of bourgeois worldview.

Finally, for the humanistic worldview was characterized by a greedy interest in ancient culture In all its manifestations. Humanists sought to "revive", i.e., to make a model for imitation, creativity of ancient writers, scientists, philosophers, artists, classical Latin, partly forgotten in the Middle Ages. And although already from the XII century. In medieval culture, an interest in the ancient heritage began to awaken, only during the occurrence of a humanistic worldview, in the so-called Renaissance (Renaissance) era, this trend became the dominant.

The basis of rationalism of humanists lay idealism, in many respects determined their idea of \u200b\u200bthe world. As representatives of the then intelligentsia, Humanists were far from the people, and often openly hostile to him. But with all that the humanistic worldview, at the time of his heyday, a pronounced progressive character was carried out, was a banner of fighting feudal ideology, was imbued with a humane attitude towards people. On the basis of this new ideological flow in Western Europe, the free development of scientific knowledge was made possible by the dominance of theological thinking.

Revival is associated with the process of forming a secular culture, humanistic consciousness. The Renaissance philosophy determines:

Aspiration to man;

Belief in his great spiritual and physical potential;

Life-affirming and optimistic character.

In the second half of the XIV century. It was discovered and then more and more increased over the next two centuries (reaching the highest point especially in the XV century.) The tendency to give the study of humanistic literature great importance and consider the classic Latin and Greek antiquity by the only example and sample for everything that concerns spiritual and cultural activity.

The essence of humanism is not that he appealed to the past, but in the way it would know, in whom, in which it consists of this past: it is attributed to the culture of the past and to the past clearly determines the essence of humanism. Humanists open the classics because they are separated, without mixing, their own from Latin. It was the humanism that actually opened the antiquity, the same Vergilia or Aristotle, although they were known in the Middle Ages, because he returned Vergil to his time and to his world, and sought to explain Aristotle in the framework of problems and as part of the knowledge of Athens IV century BC. In the humanism, the opening of the ancient world and the opening of a person does not differ, because it's all one; Detect ancient world As such, it means to measure yourself with him, and separate, and establish a relationship with him. Determine the time and memory, and the direction of human creation, and earthly affairs, and responsibility. Not at all, the great humanists were mostly public, active, whose free creativity in public Life It was in demand by their time.

The literature of the British Revival developed in the close connection with the literature of the pan-European humanism. England later than other countries has become on the path of development of humanistic culture. British humanists studied from the humanists of continental. Especially significant was the influence of Italian humanism, ascending in their meetings to XIVI XVV. Italian literature, from Petrarki to Tasso, was essentially a school for British humanists, an inexhaustible source of advanced political, philosophical and scientific ideas, the richest treasury of artistic images, plots and forms, from where all the English Humanists from Thomas Mora, from Thomas Mora, from Thomas Mora. Acquaintance with Italy, its culture, art and literature was in England the Renaissance One of the first and the main principles of any formation at all. Many British went to Italy to personally touch the life of this advanced European country.

The first center of Humanistic culture in England was Oxford University. From here began to spread the light of the new science and the new worldview, which feared the whole english culture And they gave impetus to the development of humanistic literature. Here, at the university, a group of scientists appeared, which were struggled with the ideology of the Middle Ages. These were people who studied in Italy and who took the basics of new philosophy and science there. They were passionate fans of antiquity. Passing the school of humanism in Italy, Oxford scientists were not limited to the popularization of the achievements of their Italian counterparts. They grew up in independent scientists.

British humanists perceived Italians from their teachers a worship of the philosophy and poetry of the ancient world.

The activities of the first English humanists were in the advantage of a scientific and theoretical character. They developed common issues of religion, philosophy, public life and education. The most complete expression of the early English humanism of the beginning of the XVI century received in the works of Thomas Mora.

1.2. The emergence of humanism in Russia. The history of the development of humanism in Russian literature.

Already at the first significant Russian poets of the XVIII century - Lomonosov and Derzhavin - you can find nationalism, connected to humanism. No longer holy rus, but Great Rus inspires them; national Epos.The use of Russia's magnitude is fully related to the empirical existence of Russia outside of all historical and philosophical justification.

Derzhavin, the true "singer of Russian glory", protects the freedom and dignity of man. In verses written on the birth of the grandson of Catherine II (the future of Emperor Alexander I), he exclaims:

"Be the passions of your lord,

Be on the throne man. "

This motive of pure humanism is increasingly the crystallization core of the new ideology.

In the spiritual mobilization of the creative forces of Russia played a huge role of Russian Freemasonry XVIII and early XIX. centuries. On the one hand, it attracted people who were looking for a counterweight to the atheistic currents of the XVIIIV, and it was in this sense to express the religious demands of Russian people of this time. On the other hand, Freemasonry, fasciating with their idealism and noble humanistic dreams of serving humanity, itself was the phenomenon of extincing religiosity, free from all church authority. Capturing the significant layers of the Russian society, Freemasonry, undoubtedly raised creative movements in the shower, was a school of humanism, and at the same time awakened mental interests.

The basis of this humanism was the reaction against one-sided intellectualism of the era. The beloved formula was the idea here that "Enlightenment without a moral ideal carries a poison." In Russian humanism associated with Masonry, the motives are morally played a significant role.

It was also formed all the main features of the future "advanced" intelligentsia - and in the first place there was a consciousness of debt to serve society, in general practical idealism. It was the path of ideological life and effective ministry to the ideal.

2.1. Humanism in the works of "Utopia" Thomas Mora and "We" Evgenia Zamytina.

Thomas Mor in his work "Utopia" speaks of all-in-law equality. But is there any place in this equality?

What is utopia?

"Utopia - (from Greek. U - No and Topos - a place - that is, the place that is not; for another version, from EU - good and TOPOS - a place, that is, a blessed country), an ideal image public building, deprived of scientific justification; genre scientific fiction; Designation of all writings containing unrealistic plans of social transformations. " ("Explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language" V. Daly)

A similar term emerged thanks to Thomas Moro.

Speaking easier, utopia is a fictional picture of an ideal life device.

Thomas Mor lived at the beginning of the new time (1478-1535), when the wave of humanism and revival overwhelmed the whole of Europe. Most of the literary and political works of Mora have already historical interest. Only "Utopia" (published in 1516) retained its value for our time - not only as a talented novel, but also as a brilliant product of socialist thought in his way.

The book is written in a popular "Traveler's Story" genre. Allegedly a certain navigator Raphael Gitlodeh visited the unknown island of Utopia, the social structure of which he struck him so that he tells about him to others.

Well knowing the social and moral life of their homeland, English Humanist, Thomas Mor, penetrating sympathy to the disasters of its masses. These moods and got reflected in famous work With a long title in the spirit of the time - "Very useful, like an entertaining, truly gold book on the best device of the state and about the new island of Utopia ...". This work instantly gained great popularity in humanistic circles, which did not prevent Soviet researchers to call Mora almost the first communist.

The humanistic worldview of the author of "Utopia" led him to the conclusions of great social acute and significance, especially in the first part of this work. The insight of the author was not limited to the state of a terrible picture of social disasters, emphasizing at the very end of his work, that with the attentive observation of life not only in England, but also "all states", they do not represent "nothing but a certain conspiracy of the rich, under the pretext and under The name of the state thinking about their benefits. "

Already, these deep statements prompted Mora the main direction of projects and dreams in the second part of "Utopia". Numerous researchers of this work stated not only direct, but also indirect links to the texts and ideas of the Bible (primarily evangelical), especially the ancient and early Christian authors. Of all the works that have had the greatest impact on Mora, the "state" of Plato is allocated. Many humanists saw in the "Utopia" the long-awaited rival of this the greatest creation Political thought, works that existed by that time almost two millennia.

In line with humanistic search, creatively synthesized the ideological legacy of antiquity and Middle Ages and boldly rationalistically compared the political and ethnic theories with the social development of the then era, "Utopia" Mora arises, which reflected and originally comprehended the whole depth of socio-political conflicts of the era of the decomposition of feudalism and the initial capital accumulation of the Epoch.

After reading the book of Mora, I am very surprised at how much changed from the time of Mora's idea of \u200b\u200bwhat is good for a person, and what is bad. An ordinary resident of the XXI century, the Book of Mora, who placed the beginning of the "genre of utopia", does not seem already the model of the ideal state at all. Rather, even on the contrary. Living in the Society described by the sea, I would not like very much. Euthanasia for patients and patterns, forced labor service, in which you should, at least 2 years, work out for an agriculture, and after that you can send to fields during harvesting. "All men and women have one common occupation - Agriculture, from which no one is delivered. " But on the other hand, utopians work strictly 6 hours a day, and slaves perform all dirty, heavy and dangerous work. The mention of slavery makes you think, and is it utopian this work? Are there any ordinary people?

Ideas about universal equality are slightly exaggerated. However, slaves in the "utopia" work not for the benefit of Mr., but for the whole society as a whole (the same, by the way, it was under Stalin, when millions of prisoners worked for the benefit of the Motherland). To become a slave, you need to commit a grave crime (including treason or breaking). Slaves by the end of their days are engaged in severe physical workHowever, in the case of diligent labor, they can even be pardoned.

Utopia Mora is not even a state in the usual meaning of this word, but a human anthill. You will live in standard homes, and ten years later, you will change housing with other families in the lot. It is not even a house, but rather a hostel in which many families live - small primary cells local governmentsheaded by elected manager, siphogrants or philharchs. Naturally, the overall farming is conducted, eat together, all cases are solved together. There are tough restrictions on freedom of movement, in the case of repeated self-only ability, you will be punished - by making a slave.

Implemented in utopia and idea iron curtain: She lives in full isolation from the surrounding world.

Attitude towards TUneevs here is very strict - every citizen or works on Earth or should master some craft (and, with a useful craft). Only chosen, who identified special abilities, are exempt from physical work and can become scientists or philosophers. All wear the same, the most simple, clothes out of rude cloth, and, doing business, a person takes off his clothes, so as not to wear it, and puts on rough skins or skin. There are no excesses, everything is just the most necessary. Food all divide equally, and all surplus are given to others, and the best products are transferred to the hospitals. No money, and the wealth accumulated by the state is held in the form of debt obligations in other countries. The same reserves of gold and silver, which is in the utopia itself, are allowed for the manufacture of night pots, crazy laghas, as well as to create shameful chains and hoars that are hung on criminals in the form of punishment. All this, according to Mora, must destroy the citizens of craving for compliance.

As it seems to me, the island described by the sea is some kind of conjugate the concept of collective farms.

The prudence and practicality of the view of the author is striking. In many ways, it is suitable for social relations in the society invented by him as an engineer who creates the most efficient mechanism. For example, the fact that Utopians prefer not to fight, but bribe their opponents. Or, for example, a custom, when people who choose a couple of marriage are obliged to consider it or naked.

Any progress in the life of utopia does not make sense. In society there are no factors forcing science and technology to develop, change the attitude to some things. Life, what is, suits citizens and some deviation is simply not necessary.

Utopia society is limited from all sides. Freedom does not have almost anything. Power equal over equal is not equality. The state in which there is no power can not - otherwise it is anarchy. Well, once there is power, then equality can no longer. The person who has been managed by the lives of others is always in

privileged position.

Communism was literally built on the island: from everyone in abilities, everyone according to needs. Everyone is obliged to work, doing agriculture and craft. Family - the basic cell of society. Its work is controlled by the state, and the produced surrenders in the common piggy bank. The family is considered a public workshop, moreover, not necessarily based on blood relations. If children do not like the craft of their parents, they can go to another family. It is easy to submit to which unrest it will be in practice.

Utopians live boring and monotonous. All their lives from the very beginning is regulated. Dining, however, is allowed not only in the public dining room, but also in the family. Education is publicly available and based on a combination of theory with practical labor. That is, children give standard set Knowledge, and parallel to work.

Theoretician socialists especially praised Mora for the lack of private property on utopia. According to Mora, "everywhere, where there is private property, where everyone is measured by money, there is hardly ever possible that the state is ruled right or happily." And in general, "For public well-being there is a single way - to declare equality in all."

Utopians strongly condemn the war. But here this principle is not respected to the end. Naturally, Utopians are fighting when they protect their limits. But they are fighting

also in the case, "when some people oppressed, oppressed

tyranny. " In addition, "Utopians consider the most advanced

the cause of the war, when some people do not use their land, but owns it as if in vain. " After studying these causes of war, it can be concluded that the utopians should fight constantly until they are built by communism and "world around the world". For the reason always exists. Moreover, "Utopia", in fact, should be an eternal aggressor, because if rational, non-ideological states lead the war when it is beneficial to them, then the utopians are always, if there are reasons. After all, they cannot remain indifferent in ideological reasons.

All these facts are somehow pushed to the idea: was the utopia of utopia in the full sense of the word? Was she the ideal system to which I would like to strive?

On this note I want to turn to the work of E. Smyatina "We".

It should be noted that Evgeny Ivanovich Zamyatin (1884-1937) by nature and the Mirosania that was a rebel, was not a contemporary of Thomas Mora, and found the time of creating the USSR. The author is almost not known to a wide range of Russian readers, as works written by him in the 20s were printed only in the late 80s. The last years of life, the writer spent in France, where he died in 1937, but he had never considered an emigrant himself - he lived in Paris with a Soviet passport.

Creativity E. Zamytina is extremely diverse. It has been written a large number of stories and novels, among which the anti-nightopia "we" occupies a special place. Antiutopia is a genre that is also called negative utopia. This is an image of such a possible future that scars the writer, forces him to worry about the fate of mankind, for the soul of an individual, the future, in which the problem of humanism and freedom is acute.

The novel "We" was created shortly after the author's return from England revolutionary Russia In 1920 (according to some information, work on the text continued in 1921). In 1929, the novel was used for the massive criticism of E. Zamyatina, and the author was forced to defend themselves, justify, explain, as the novel was regarded as a political mistake and "manifestation of the wreath of the interests of Soviet literature." After another study at the next meeting of the writer E. Zamyatin declared his exit from the All-Russian Writers' Union. The discussion of the "case" of Zamyatina was a signal to tighten the policies of the party in the field of literature: It was 1929th year - the year of the great fracture, the onset of Stalinism. To work as a writer in Russia, the jams became meaningless and impossible and, with the permission of the government, he leaving abroad in 1931.

E. Zamyatin creates a novel "We" in the form diary records One of the "lucky". The city-state of the future is filled with the bright rays of the affectionate sun. Universal equality is repeatedly confirmed by the hero-storyteller himself. He takes the mathematical formula, proving himself and to us, readers that "freedom and crime are also inextricably linked, as a movement and speed ...". Happiness he sarcastically sees in restriction of freedom.

The story presents the record-abstract of the builder of the spacecraft (in our time it would be called the chief designer). He talks about the period of his life, which later will determine as a disease. Each entry (in the novel 40) has its own heading consisting of several offers. It is interesting to trace that usually the first sentences indicate the head of the chapter, and the latter gives an exit on its idea: "Bell. Mirror sea. I always burn "," Yellow. Two-dimensional shadow. The incurable soul "," author's duty. Ice swells. The most difficult love. "

What is acknowledged by the reader at once? - Not "I think," and "We think." A great scientist, a talented engineer, does not realize himself with a person, not thinking about what he has no own name And, like the rest of the residents of the Great State, he is "Numer" - D-503. "Nobody is" one ", but" one of ". Looking ahead, we can say that in the very bitter moment he will think about the mother: for her he would not have been the builder of the "integral", Numer of D-503, and would be "a simple human piece of her own."

The world of a single state, of course, is something strictly rationalized, geometrically ordered, mathematically verified, with the dominant aesthetics of cubism: rectangular glass boxes of houses where people live ("Divine parallelepipeds of transparent housing"), direct streets, squares ("Square Cuba. Sixty six powerful concentric circles: Tribunes. And sixty six rows: quiet lamps of persons ... "). People in this geometrized world are an integral part of it, they carry the stamp of this world: "Round, smooth balls of heads floated by - and turned around." Sterile pure planes of glass make the world of a single state even more lifeless, cold, irreal. The architecture is strictly functional, deprived of the slightest jewelry, "unnecessaries", and the parody of the aesthetic utopies of futurists of the beginning of the twentieth century are guessed in this, where the glass and concrete chased as new construction Materials Technical Future.

Residents of a single state are so devoid of individuality, which differ only in number-indexes. All life in a single state is based on mathematical, rational bases: addition, subtraction, division, multiplication. Everyone is a happy arithmetic, dismandable, deprived of individuality. The appearance of geniuses is impossible, creative inspiration is perceived as an unknown form of epilepsy.

One or another numer (a resident of a single state) does not have any value in the eyes of any value and easily infamous. Thus, it is indifferent to the death of several "godded" builders "integral" who died when testing the ship, the purpose of the construction of which is to "integrate" the universe.

Separate numbers that showed a tendency to independently thinking Great Operation Upon removal of fantasy, which kills the ability to think. A question mark is a certificate of doubt - does not exist in a single state, but in excess, of course, the exclamation mark.

Not only the state regards the crime of any personal manifestation, but also the number does not feel the need to be a person, human personality with his unique world.

The main hero of the novel D-503 leads a well-known person to each schoolchild in a single state the story of the "Three Scoles". This story about how three numerons, in the form of experience, was freed from work for a month. However, the unfortunate returned to their workplace and for the whole hours they did the movements that at a certain time were already the need of their body (sawed, planed air, etc.). For the tenth day, without causing, they took up their arms and entered the water under the sounds of the march, plunging deeper, while the water did not stop their torment. For Numers, he became the need of a welfare hand guide, complete submission of spyware control:

"It's so nice to feel someone's tempering eye, lovingly guarding from the slightest mistake, from the slightest incorrect step. Let it sound somewhat sentimentally, but it comes to mind again all the same analogy: the guardian angels that ancient dreamed about. How much of what they just dreamed of, in our life materialized ... "

On the one hand, the human personality is aware of themselves equal to the whole world, and on the other hand, powerful dehumanizing factors appear and strengthen and increase, primarily a technical civilization, which makes a mechanistic, hostile to man, since the means of the impact of technical civilization per person, the means of manipulation of his consciousness become Extraly powerful, global.

One of the most important issuesWho is trying to decide the author - the issue of freedom of choice and freedom at all.

And Mora, and Zamytina has an equality forced. People cannot differ from themselves like.

Modern researchers The main difference between theftopias from utopia is determined by the fact that "Utopists are looking for ways to create perfect Mirawhich will be based on the synthesis of the postulates of good, justice, happiness and prosperity, wealth and harmony. And the antiutopists seek to understand how the human person will feel in this exemplary atmosphere. "

Not only expressed not only equality of rights and opportunities, but also forced material equality. And all this is combined with total control and restriction of freedoms. This control is needed to maintain material equality: people do not give to stand out, do more, overlap themselves (becoming unequal in it). But this is a natural desire of everyone.

None in any social utopia says specific people. Everywhere we consider the masses, or separate social groups. Individual in these works Nothing. "Unit - zero, unit - nonsense!" The problem of utopian socialists is that they think about the people as a whole, and not about specific people. As a result, complete equality is being implemented, but this is the equality of unfortunate people.

operation: Man is forced to work all his life, but not on capitalist and not

on yourself, but on society. And this social operation is still worse, so

how a person has no way out. If, working on the capitalist, you can quit, then it is impossible to hide from society. Yes, and move somewhere

prohibited.

It is difficult to call at least one freedom that is observed on utopia. There is no freedom of movement, there is no freedom to choose how to live. A man hurt by society in an angle without the right to choose is deeply unhappy. He has no hope for change. He feels a slave locked in a cage. People cannot live in a cage, nor in material or socially. Stands claustrophobia, they want change. But it is impracticable. Utopian Society - Society Deeply Unfortunate, Depressed People. People with an depressed consciousness and lack of willpower.

Therefore, it should be recognized that the model of development of society proposed to us by Thomas Maorma seemed ideal only in the 16-17th centuries. In the future, with an increase in attention to person, she lost all the meaning of implementation, for if the society of the future is to build, then this should be a society of pronounced individuals, a society of strong personalities, and not mediocre.

Considering the novel "We", first of all, it is necessary to identify that it is closely related to the Soviet history, the history of Soviet literature. The ideas of streamlining life were characteristic of the entire literature of the first years of Soviet power. In our computerized, robotic era, when the "medium" man becomes an appendage to the car, can only press the buttons, ceasing to be a creator, thinker, the novel is becoming more and more relevant.

Cam E. Zamyatin celebrated his novel as a signal about the danger, a threatening person and humanity from the hypertrophied power of the vehicles and the government of the state, anyway.

In my opinion, by his novel E. Zamyatin argues the idea that the right of choice is always inseparable from man. The refraction of "I" in "We" can not be natural. If a person is influenced by the inhuman totalitarian system, he ceases to be a person. It is impossible to build a world only by reason, forgetting that a person has a soul. Machine world should not exist without peace, the world of humane.

Idean Devices of the Unified State of Zamyatin and Utopia Mora are very similar. In the work of Mora mechanisms, although there are no, but the rights and freedoms of people are also siled by the vice of certainty and prerequisites.

Conclusion

In his book, Thomas Mor tried to find the features that perfect society should have. Reflections on the best state strictly passed on the background brutal morals, inequalities and social contradictions of Europe 16-17 centuries.

Evgeny Zamyatyatin also wrote about the prerequisites of which saw his own eyes. At the same time, the thoughts of Mora and jamine for the most part are only hypotheses, a subjective vision of the world.

Mora's ideas were definitely progressive for their time, but they did not take into account one important detail, without which utopia is a society without a future. Socialists-utopians did not take into account the psychology of people. The fact is that any utopia, making people forcibly equal, denies the opportunity to make them happy. After all, a happy person is the feeling of itself in something better, in something superior to the rest. He may be richer, smarter, more beautiful, kinder. Utopists deny any opportunity for such a person to stand out. He must dress like everything, learn how to all have exactly so much property as everyone else. But a person in nature is striving for the better for himself. Socialists-utopians offered to punish any deviation from the norm given by the state, in parallel trying to change the person's mentality. Make it with a non-novibicious, obedient robot, a curtic system.

Zamytina's anti-nightopia, in turn, shows that it may be if this "ideal" of the society proposed by utopians is reached.

But completely isolating people from the outside world is impossible. There will always be those who, at least the edge of the eyes, know the joy of freedom. And it is impossible to drive such people in the framework of totalitarian suppression of individuality. And ultimately, exactly such people who have known joy to do what they want, wrap the entire system, the entire state system that we have happened in the early 90s.

What society with full right can be called perfect, given the achievements of modern sociological thought? Of course, this will be a society of complete equality. But equality in rights and opportunities. And it will be a society of complete freedom. Freedom of thought and words, actions and movements. The most close to the described ideal is modern Western society. He has many minuses, but it makes people happy.

If society is really perfect, as can not be freedom in it? ..

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Introduction

2.1 Humanism in the works of Thomas Mora "Utopia" and Yevgeny Zamyatina "We"

Conclusion

Applications

Introduction

Today, the whole world is experiencing difficult times. The new political and economic situation could not but affect culture. The relationship with the authorities changed dramatically. The overall rod of cultural life has disappeared - a centralized management system and a single cultural policy. The definition of further cultural development paths was the case of society itself and the subject of disagreements. The lack of a unifying sociocultural idea and the retreat of society from the ideas of humanism led to a deep crisis, in which the culture of all mankind was to the beginning of the XXI century.

Humanism is traditionally defined as a system of views that recognize the value of a person as a person, his right to freedom, happiness and development, and declaring the norm of relations between people the principles of equality and humanity. Among the values \u200b\u200bof traditional culture, the values \u200b\u200bof humanism (good, justice, incubation, finding truth) were the most important place, which was reflected in the classical literature of any country, including England.

Over the past 15 years, these values \u200b\u200bhave experienced a certain crisis. Humanism was opposed to the ideas of ownership and self-sufficiency (the cult of money). As an ideal, people were proposed "Self-Made Man" - a person who has made himself and does not need any external support. The ideas of justice and equality - the basis of humanism - lost its former attractiveness and now do not even be included in the program documents of most parties and governments of various states of the world. Our society gradually began to turn into a nuclear, when his individual members began to close within their home and their own family.

I would like to show my research that the problem of humanism, originated in the Renaissance Epoch, which was reflected both in the works of English and Russian writers, remains relevant to this day.

And for starters, I would like to return to the origins of humanism, considering his appearance in England.

1.1 The appearance of humanism in England. The history of the development of humanism in English literature

The birth of a new historical thought belongs to the late Middle Ages, when the process of decomposition of feudal relations was actively walking in the most advanced countries of Western Europe and a new capitalist method was born. This was a transitional period, when centralized states in the form of absolute monarchies in the scale of entire countries or individual territories were everywhere, there were prerequisites for the formation of bourgeois nations, there was an extreme extension of the social struggle. The bourgeoisie to emerge in the middle of the city top was then a new, progressive layer and performed in his ideological struggle with the dominant class of feudalists as a representative of all the lower layers of society.

New ideas are found their most vivid expression in the humanistic worldview, which has had a very significant impact on all areas of culture and scientific knowledge of this transition period. The new worldview was basically a secular, hostile purely theological interpretation of the world that dominated the Middle Ages. He was typical of his desire to explain all the phenomena in nature and society from the point of view of the mind (rationalism), reject the blind prestige of faith, so strongly embarrassed by the development of human thought. Humanists bowed to the human person, admired her as the highest creation of nature, the carrier of the mind, high feelings and virtues; The man-creator of humanists, as it were, opposed the blind strength of the divine fishery. The humanistic worldview was peculiar to individualism, which at the first stage of his history, essentially, performed as an instrument of ideological protest against the current-corporate building of a feudal society, who suppressed the human person, against the church ascetic morality, which served as one of the means of this suppression. At that time, the individualism of the humanistic worldview was still the active public interest of most of his figures, was far from selfishness peculiar to the later developed forms of bourgeois worldview.

Finally, a greedy interest in ancient culture in all its manifestations was characterized for the humanistic worldview. Humanists sought to "revive", i.e., to make a model for imitation, creativity of ancient writers, scientists, philosophers, artists, classical Latin, partly forgotten in the Middle Ages. And although already from the XII century. In medieval culture, an interest in the ancient heritage began to awaken, only during the occurrence of a humanistic worldview, in the so-called Renaissance (Renaissance) era, this trend became the dominant.

Revival is associated with the process of forming a secular culture, humanistic consciousness. The Renaissance philosophy determines:

Aspiration to man;

Belief in his great spiritual and physical potential;

Life-affirming and optimistic character.

In the second half of the XIV century. It was further revealed and then increasingly increased over the next centuries (reaching the highest point especially in the XV century.) The tendency to learn the humanistic literature is the most important and consider the classical Latin and Greek antiquity with the only example and model for everything related to spiritual and cultural activities. The essence of humanism is not that he appealed to the past, but in the way it would know, in whom, in which it consists of this past: it is attributed to the culture of the past and to the past clearly determines the essence of humanism. Humanists open the classics because they are separated, without mixing, their own from Latin. It was the humanism that actually opened the antiquity, the same Vergilia or Aristotle, although they were known in the Middle Ages, because he returned Vergil to his time and to his world, and sought to explain Aristotle in the framework of problems and as part of the knowledge of Athens IV century BC. In the humanism, the opening of the ancient world and the opening of a person does not differ, because it's all one; Detect an ancient world as such - it means to measure yourself with him, and separate, and establish a relationship with him. Determine the time and memory, and the direction of human creation, and earthly affairs, and responsibility. Not at all, the great humanists were mostly public, active, whose free creativity in public life was in demand by their time.

The literature of the British Revival developed in the close connection with the literature of the pan-European humanism. England later than other countries has become on the path of development of humanistic culture. British humanists studied from the humanists of continental. Especially significant was the effect of Italian humanism, ascending in their meetings to the XIV and XV centuries. Italian literature, from Petrarca to Tasso, was essentially a school for English humanists, an inexhaustible source of advanced political, philosophical and scientific ideas, the richest treasury of artistic images, plots and forms, from where their ideas were drawn by all English Humanists, from Thomas Mora to Becon and Shakespeare. Acquaintance with Italy, its culture, art and literature was in England the Renaissance One of the first and the main principles of any formation at all. Many British went to Italy to personally touch the life of this advanced European country.

The first center of Humanistic culture in England was Oxford University. From here, the light of the new science and the new worldview began to spread, which feared all the English culture and gave impetus to the development of humanistic literature. Here, at the university, a group of scientists appeared, which were struggled with the ideology of the Middle Ages. These were people who studied in Italy and who took the basics of new philosophy and science there. They were passionate fans of antiquity. Passing the school of humanism in Italy, Oxford scientists were not limited to the popularization of the achievements of their Italian counterparts. They grew up in independent scientists.

British humanists perceived Italians from their teachers a worship of the philosophy and poetry of the ancient world.

1.2 The appearance of humanism in Russia. The history of the development of humanism in Russian literature

Already at the first significant Russian poets of the XVIII century - Lomonosov and Derzhavin - you can find nationalism, connected to humanism. No longer holy rus, but the Great Rus inspires them; National Epos, the empowerment of Russia is common to the empirical Russia of Russia outside of all historical and philosophical substantiation.

"Be the passions of your lord,

Be on the throne man "

This motive of pure humanism is increasingly the crystallization core of the new ideology.

In the spiritual mobilization of the creative forces of Russia played a huge role of Russian Freemasonry of the XVIII and early XIX centuries. On the one hand, it attracted people who were looking for a counterweight to the atheistic currents of the XVIII century, and in this sense, the expression of the religious demands of Russian people of this time. On the other hand, Freemasonry, fasciating with their idealism and noble humanistic dreams of serving humanity, itself was the phenomenon of extincing religiosity, free from all church authority. Capturing the significant layers of the Russian society, Freemasonry, undoubtedly raised creative movements in the shower, was a school of humanism, and at the same time awakened mental interests.

The basis of this humanism was the reaction against one-sided intellectualism of the era. The beloved formula was the idea here that "the enlightenment without a moral ideal carries the poison." In Russian humanism associated with Masonry, the motives are morally played a significant role.

Also, all the main features of the future "advanced" intelligentsia were also formed - and in the first place there was a consciousness of the debt to serve society, in general practical idealism. It was the path of ideological life and effective ministry to the ideal.

2.1. Humanism in the works of "Utopia" Thomas Mora and "We" Eugene Zamyatina

Thomas Mor in his work "Utopia" speaks of all-in-law equality. But is there any place in this equality?

What is utopia?

"Utopia - (from Greek. U - No and Topos - a place - that is, the place that is not; for another version, from EU - good and Topos - a place, that is, a blessed country), an image of an ideal public building, deprived of scientific substantiation; genre of science fiction; Designation of all writings containing unrealistic plans of social transformations. " ("Explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language" V. Daly)

A similar term emerged thanks to Thomas Moro.

Speaking easier, utopia is a fictional picture of an ideal life device.

Well knowing the social and moral life of their homeland, English Humanist, Thomas Mor, penetrating sympathy to the disasters of its masses. These of his moods and were reflected in the famous work with a long title in the spirit of the time - "very useful, as well as an entertaining, truly gold book on the best device of the state and about the new island of Utopia ...". This work instantly gained great popularity in humanistic circles, which did not prevent Soviet researchers to call Mora almost the first communist.

The humanistic worldview of the author "Utopia" led him to the conclusions of great social acute and significance, especially in the first part of this work. The insight of the author was not limited to the state of a terrible picture of social disasters, emphasizing at the very end of his work that with the attentive observation of life not only in England, but also "all states", they do not represent "nothing but a certain conspiracy of rich, under the pretext and under The name of the state thinking about their benefits. "

Already these deep offathes have suggested Mora the main direction of projects and dreams in the second part of the "utopia". Numerous researchers of this work stated not only direct, but also indirect links to the texts and ideas of the Bible (primarily evangelical), especially the ancient and early Christian authors. Of all the works that have had the greatest impact on Mora, the "state" of Plato is allocated. Many humanists saw in the "utopias" to the long-awaited rival of this greatest creation of political thought, the work that existed by that time for almost two millennia.

In line with humanistic search, creatively synthesized the ideological legacy of antiquity and Middle Ages and boldly rationalistically compared political and ethnic theories with the social development of the then era, "Utopia" Mora arises, reflecting and originally comprehended the whole depth of socio-political conflicts of the era of the decomposition of feudalism and the initial capital accumulation.

After reading the book of Mora, I am very surprised at how much changed from the time of Mora's idea of \u200b\u200bwhat is good for a person, and what is bad. An ordinary resident of the XXI century, the Book of Mora, who placed the beginning of the "genre of utopia", does not seem already the model of the ideal state at all. Rather, even on the contrary. Living in the Society described by the sea, I would not like very much. Euthanasia for patients and patterns, forced labor service, in which you should, at least 2 years, work out for an agriculture, and after that you can send to fields during harvesting. "All men and women have one common occupation - agriculture, from which no one is delivered." But on the other hand, utopians work strictly 6 hours a day, and slaves perform all dirty, heavy and dangerous work. The mention of slavery makes you think, and is it utopian this work? Are there any ordinary people?

Ideas about universal equality are slightly exaggerated. However, slaves in the "utopia" work not for the benefit of Mr., but for the whole society as a whole (the same, by the way, it was under Stalin, when millions of prisoners worked for the benefit of the Motherland). To become a slave, you need to commit a grave crime (including treason or breaking). Slaves by the end of their days are engaged in severe physical work, however, in the case of diligent labor, even pardon can be.

Utopia Mora is not even a state in the usual meaning of this word, but a human anthill. You will live in standard homes, and ten years later, you will change housing with other families in the lot. It is not even a house, but rather a hostel in which many families live - small primary cells of local self-government, headed by elected manager, siphogrants or philharches. Naturally, the overall farming is conducted, eat together, all cases are solved together. There are tough restrictions on freedom of movement, in the case of repeated self-only ability, you will be punished - by making a slave.

Implemented in utopias and idea of \u200b\u200bthe iron curtain: she lives in full isolation from the surrounding world.

As it seems to me, the island described by the sea is some kind of conjugate the concept of collective farms.

The prudence and practicality of the view of the author is striking. In many ways, to social relations in the society invented by him, it is suitable as an engineer who creates the most effective mechanism. For example, the fact that Utopians prefer not to fight, but bribe their opponents. Or, for example, a custom, when people who choose a couple of marriage are obliged to consider it or naked.

Communism was literally built on the island: from everyone in abilities, everyone according to needs. All are obliged to work, engaged in agriculture and craft. Family - the basic cell of society. Its work is controlled by the state, and the produced surrenders in the common piggy bank. The family is considered a public workshop, moreover, not necessarily based on blood relations. If children do not like the craft of their parents, they can go to another family. It is easy to submit to which unrest it will be in practice.

Theoretician socialists especially praised Mora for the lack of private property on utopia. According to Mora, "everywhere, where there is private property, where everyone is measured by money, there is hardly ever possible that the state is ruled right or happily." And in general, "for public well-being there is a single way - to declare equality in all."

Utopians strongly condemn the war. But here this principle is not respected to the end. Naturally, Utopians are fighting when they protect their limits. But they are fighting also in the case, "when some people oppressed by tyranny". In addition, "Utopians consider the most definitely the cause of the war, when some people do not use their land, but owns it as if back and in vain ". After studying these causes of war, it can be concluded that the utopians should fight constantly until they are built by communism and "world around the world". For the reason always exists. Moreover, "Utopia", in fact, should be an eternal aggressor, because if rational, non-ideological states lead the war when it is beneficial to them, then the utopians are always, if there are reasons. After all, they cannot remain indifferent in ideological reasons.

All these facts, one way or another, are pushing to the idea: was the utopian utopia in the full sense of the word? Was she the ideal system to which I would like to strive?

On this note I want to turn to the work of E. Smyatina "We". Humanism Personality Ma Zamyatin

It should be noted that Yevgeny Ivanovich Zamyatin (1884--1937) by nature and the world of Buntar, was not a contemporary of Thomas Mora, and found the time of creating the USSR. The author is almost not known to a wide range of Russian readers, as works written by him in the 20s were printed only in the late 80s. The last years of life, the writer spent in France, where he died in 1937, but he had never considered an emigrant himself - he lived in Paris with a Soviet passport.

The novel "We" was created shortly after the author of the author from England to Revolutionary Russia in 1920 (according to some information, work on the text continued in 1921). In 1929, the novel was used for the massive criticism of E. Zamyatina, and the author was forced to defend themselves, justify, explain, as the novel was regarded as a political mistake and "manifestation of the wreath of the interests of Soviet literature." After another study at the next meeting of the writer E. Zamyatin declared his exit from the All-Russian Writers' Union. The discussion of the "case" of Zamyatina was a signal to tighten the policies of the party in the field of literature: It was 1929th year - the year of the great fracture, the onset of Stalinism. To work as a writer in Russia, the jams became meaningless and impossible and, with the permission of the government, he leaving abroad in 1931.

E. Zamyatin creates a novel "We" in the form of diary records of one of the "lucky". The city-state of the future is filled with the bright rays of the affectionate sun. Universal equality is repeatedly confirmed by the hero-storyteller himself. He takes the mathematical formula, proving himself and to us, readers that "freedom and crime are also inextricably linked, as a movement and speed ...". Happiness he sarcastically sees in restriction of freedom.

The story represents the record-abstract of the builder of the spacecraft (in our time it would be called the chief designer). He talks about the period of his life, which later will determine as a disease. Each entry (in the novel 40) has its own heading consisting of several offers. It is interesting to trace that usually the first sentences indicate the head of the chapter, and the latter gives an exit on its idea: "Bell. Mirror sea. I always burn "," Yellow. Two-dimensional shadow. The incurable soul "," author's duty. Ice swells. The most difficult love. "

What is acknowledged by the reader at once? - Not "I think," and "We think." The great scientist, a talented engineer, does not realize himself with a person, does not think about what he has no own behalf and, like the other residents of the Grand State, he is "Numer" - D-503. "Nobody is" one ", but" one of ". Looking ahead, we can say that in the very bitter moment he will think about the mother: for her he would not have been the builder of the "integral", Numer of D-503, and would be "a simple human piece of her own."

The world of a single state, of course, is something strictly rationalized, geometrically ordered, mathematically verified, with the dominant aesthetics of cubism: rectangular glass boxes of houses where people live ("Divine parallelepipeds of transparent housing"), direct streets, squares ("Square Cuba. Sixty six powerful concentric circles: Tribunes. And sixty six rows: quiet lamps of persons ... "). People in this geometrized world are an integral part of it, they carry the stamp of this world: "Round, smooth balls of heads floated by - and turned around." Sterile pure planes of glass make the world of a single state even more lifeless, cold, irreal. The architecture is strictly functional, deprived of the slightest decorations, "unnecessaries", and the parody of the aesthetic utopians of futurists of the beginning of the twentieth century are guessed, where the glass and concrete came achelled as new building materials of the technical future.

Separate numbers that showed a tendency to independently thinking, a great operation is carried out to remove a fantasy that kills the ability to think. A question mark is a certificate of doubt - does not exist in a single state, but in excess, of course, the exclamation mark.

Not only the state regards the crime of any personal manifestation, but also the number does not feel the need to be a person, human personality with its unique world.

One of the most important issues that the author is trying to decide is a matter of freedom of choice and freedom at all.

And Mora, and Zamytina has an equality forced. People cannot differ from themselves like.

Modern researchers The main difference between theftopias from Utopia determine what "Utopists are looking for ways to create an ideal world, which will be based on the synthesis of postulates of good, justice, happiness and prosperity, wealth and harmony. And the antiutopists seek to understand how the human person will feel in this exemplary atmosphere. "

None in any social utopia says specific people. Everywhere the masses are considered everywhere or individual social groups. Individual in these works Nothing. "Unit - zero, unit - nonsense!" The problem of utopian socialists is that they think about the people as a whole, and not about specific people. As a result, complete equality is being implemented, but this is the equality of unfortunate people.

Is it possible for the happiness of people with utopia? Happiness from what? From victories? So they are committed by everyone equally. It is involved in it all and, at the same time, no one. From the lack of operation? So during utopia, it is replaced by public operation: the person is forced to work all his life, but not on the capitalist and not on himself, but to society. Moreover, this social service is even more terrible, since the person has no way out. If, working on the capitalist, you can quit, then it is impossible to hide from society. Yes, and move it somewhere is prohibited.

Cam E. Zamyatin celebrated his novel as a signal about the danger, a threatening person and humanity from the hypertrophied power of the vehicles and the government of the state, anyway.

Conclusion

In his book, Thomas Mor tried to find the features that perfect society should have. Reflections on the best state strictly passed against the background of cruel morals, inequality and social contradictions of Europe 16-17 centuries.

Zamytina's anti-nightopia, in turn, shows that it may be if this "ideal" of the society proposed by utopians is reached. But completely isolating people from the outside world is impossible. There will always be those who, at least the edge of the eyes, know the joy of freedom. And it is impossible to drive such people in the framework of totalitarian suppression of individuality. And ultimately, exactly such people who have known joy to do what they want, wrap the entire system, the entire state system that we have happened in the early 90s.

List of used literature

1. http://humanism.ru.

2. Anthology of world political scientist. At 5 t. T.1. - M.: Thought, 1997.

3. Worldwide story in 10 volumes, T.4. M.: And-in socio-economic literature, 1958.

4. MAK T. Uopia. M., 1978.

5. Alekseev M.P. "Slavic sources of" Utopia "Thomas Mora", 1955

6. Warsaw A.S. "Ahead of time. Thomas Mor. Essay of life and activity, 1967.

7. Volodin A.I. "Utopia and History", 1976

8. Blank N.E. "Utopic Socialism", 1973

9. Kautsky K. "Thomas Mor and its utopia", 1924

10. Tak DP, E.A. Shklovsky, A.N., Arkhangelsky. "All the characters of the works of Russian literature." - M.: AST, 1997.-448 p.

11. Pavloviec M.G. "E.I. Zamyatin. "We"

12. Pavloviec T.V. "Text analysis. Main content. Works ".- M.: Drop, 2000.-123 s.

13. http://student.km.ru/

Posted on Allbest.ru.

Notes:

What place in the life of each of us is the moral qualities? What do they mean for us? It is about the significance of humanity and mercy reflects in his text V.P. Astafiev.

One of the challenges affected by the author is the problem of the need to develop humanism, mercy and humanity in each person and the meaning of the influence of these qualities on the moral analysis of their own actions, conducted by each of us, as well as manifestations of humanism in our lives.

A young man who shot his first prey on the hunt, does not feel joys because he killed a living being, although there was no need for the words "and there was something like that." The lyrical hero, reflecting, comes to the conclusion that this young man already has a feeling of humanity and mercy, which did not have himself lyrical hero at such a young age, what his replica "pain and repentance came to me already to be gray and echo young guy, almost another boy. "

In world literature there are a lot of examples of manifestation of humanism and humanity. For example, in the story of A.P. Platonova "Yushka" The main character deprived himself a lot to collect money for the receiving daughter, for which it can be called good and humane man. People who tear their anger and offended him, were evil and cruel, and repentance came to them only after the death of Yushka, that is, too late, as well as the hero of the text V.P. Astafieva, to which this painting has come to gray.

Speaking of humanity and humanity of people, it is impossible not to remember the heroine of Roman M.A. Bulgakova "Master and Margarita", who disinterestedly asks Woland to pardon the unfortunate Frido, and does not ask about the fate of the master, although only for this sacrifice.

Thus, the development of moral qualities helps a person to form as a person in which there is no place of cruelty and unjustified anger.

Reading the text Russian soviet writer V.P. Astafieva, I remembered the statement of the ancient Greek philosopher Pythagora Samossky, who once said: "As long as people are massively continuing to kill animals, they will kill each other. The one who sows the seeds of murder and pain will not get back joy and love. " It is about the meaning of murder of living beings and their influence on the psyche of a person, as well as the need moral education Humanity in each of us argues the author of the text.

Effective preparation for the exam (all objects) -

The XIX century is called a century of humanism in the literature. The directions that literature chose in their development reflected those community sentiments that were inherent in people in this time period.

What characterized the frontier of the XIX and XX centuries

First of all, it is due to a variety of historical eventswhich was full of this dulverting in the world history of the eyelids. But many writers who started their creativity in late XIX. century, revealed only at the beginning of the 20th century, and their works were inherent in the mood of the two centuries.

On the turn XIX. - XX centuries. A lot of ingenious, memorable Russian poets and writers emerged, and many of them continued the humanistic traditions of the last century, and many tried to convert them according to the fact that referred to the XX century.

Revolutions and civil wars have completely changed the consciousness of people, and naturally, it has significantly affected Russian culture. But the mentality and spirituality of the people cannot be changed by any cataclysms, so morality and humanistic traditions began to be disclosed in Russian literature on the other hand.

Writers were forced to raise theme of humanism In his works, as the number of violence that the Russian people experienced, was blatantly unfair, it was impossible to relate indifferent to this. The humanism of the new century has other ideological and moral aspects that were not and could not be raised by writers of past centuries.

New aspects of humanism in the literature of the XX century

Civil War, forced family members to fight against each other, was saturated as cruel and violent motives that the theme of humanism was tightly intertwined with the theme of violence. Humanistic traditions XIX century This is reflections on what is the place of a true person in the whirlpool of life events, which is more important: a person or society?

Tragedy with which people's self-awareness described writers XIX. century (Gogol, Tolstoy, Kurpur), is more internal than external. Humanism declares itself from the inside of the world of a person, and the sentiment of the 20th century is more connected with the war and the revolution, which changes the thinking of the Russian people in an instant.

The beginning of the 20th century is referred to as the "silver age" in Russian literature, this creative wave brought another artistic look at the world and man, and a certain implementation of aesthetic ideal in reality. Symbols reveal a thinner, spiritual nature of a person who is above the political coup, thirst for power or salvation, above those ideals that the literary presents us xIX process century.

The concept of "creativity of life" appears, this topic reveals many symbolists and futurists as Ahmatov, Tsvetaeva, Mayakovsky. Religion begins to play a completely different role in their work, its motives are revealed in a very deep and mystically, there are several other concepts of "male" and "female".

The meaning of the word humanism. Best examples of humanity from life

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What characterized the frontier of the XIX and XX centuries

New aspects of humanism in the literature of the XX century