Culture of the Kiev principality during the period of feudal fragmentation. Agriculture and the position of the peasants
The development of culture occurred in difficult conditions for the fragmentation of Russian lands. However, despite the permanent crossbursions and threats from neighboring states and tribes, in the ancient Russian culture of this period were achievements and successes. Oka has become more democratic: new territories, cities, new layers of society were actively involved in cultural life. For example, customers of cult facilities, monumental paintings and precious jewelry were not only princes and boyars, and also prosperous representatives of the urban population that had their views, tastes, ideas.
There were changes in the ancient Russian architecture. Russian architects began to move away from traditional Byzantine architectural canons and forms and under the influence of local conditions began to look for new solutions. In the specific principalities, architectural schools arose, which differed in their peculiarities. Kyiv, Chernihiv and Pereyaslav architectural schools, who were united by a single stylist are known. In Russia began to build smaller temples of the simplified design. The internal and exterior decoration of the temples has changed. A more characteristic has become a new scenery of facades: they began to decorate with pilasters, semi-column, arcate belts and the so-called grease.
The growth and strengthening of cities - the political and cultural centers of individual principalities - was accompanied by the construction of a large number of religious and civil buildings in Kiev, Chernigov, Galich, Pereyaslav and many other cities. Some tons are preserved to this day.
The most famous of them are: Church of the Virgin Farming (1132) in Kiev on Podol, Borisoglebsky and the Assumption Cathedral of the Yeletsky Monastery in Chernigov, and others.
The interior of the ancient Russian palaces and temples, as before, decorated with mosaic, frescoes, mosaic floors and a variety of applied art products. The latter were used not only as decorations, but they often performed the role of amulets-faiths and were called upon to protect their owners from the evil forces of nature. The role of the orders was performed and magic ornaments, which were decorated with many of their products of the master jewelers and artisans, creating objects of life. In the period of fragmentation, writing the chronicles continued. New chronicle centers appeared in Chernigov, Pereyaslav, Hill, Vladimir-Volyn. Under some monasteries there were whole libraries that consisted exclusively from the chronicles. These chronicles used the following generations of chroniclers who created whole chronicles, depicting the events of past years with different points vision, and trying to give these events as an objective assessment.
There were new original forms of historical works; Family and generic princely chronicles, the lives of princes and others. Unfortunately, most of these works have not been preserved.
A masterpiece of ancient Russian, fiction is "the word about the regiment of Igor". This work was written in a difficult time for Russia, when she suffered from Poland raids, and tells about the unsuccessful campaign of Novgorod-Seversk Prince Igor Svyatoslavich against Polovtsy in 1185. The word permeated the idea of \u200b\u200buniting all the forces of Russia to fight enemies. On the example of the defeat of Prince Igor, the author "Words" sought to show what the disputes and hostility of the princes could lead to.
The Galician-Volyn land became the center of the cultural life of the Ukrainian principalities of the period of fragmentation. So, like everywhere at the time, important role Church played in the development of culture. The monasteries created the chronicle. The most famous Galico-Volyn chronicle, in which the events of Galician and Volyn lands are illuminated from 1201 to 1292. A feature of this chronicle is its secular character. The author of the chronicle figuratively tells about the time of the reign of the novel and Danil, about the life of the princes and boyars, about the military campaigns of Russian teams, about their fight against the Tatars, Hungarians, Poles and other conquerors.
A vivid evidence of the high level of culture was the architecture of the edge. There were built mainly from the tree, for a long time, temples remained with stone buildings, in some cases of the chamber.
Temples were built mainly of white stone using carved
ornaments. Archaeologists found that in the girlfriend in the XII century there were about 30
monumental stone buildings, but only small part of them
Studied today. Interesting architectural monuments
Galician land is the Princely Palace and Panteleimon Church in Galich.
Galitsky I. Volyn Prince, at the turn of the XII and XIII centuries. Flashing into the Unified Galico-Volyn Principality, in the second half of the XII century. And in the XIII century, at the time of the decline of the Kiev Principality, they achieve significant political power and cultural heyday. The reign of Yaroslav Osmomysl, Roman Mstislavich, his sons of Daniel and Vasilka Romanovichi and the grandson of Vladimir Vasilkovich are connected with the most glorious pages of Galician-Volyn history. But from the beginning of the XIV century. Galico-Volyn land politically weak and in half the same century it is part of the Polish-Lithuanian state.
Galico-Volyn book, developed on the basis of the Kiev Literary Tradition, if not quantitatively, it was high-quality at a considerable height. We have reached a number of lists of the evangelical text, including Galician four-day 1144, Dobrilovo Gospel of 1164 and others, the lives of Nifonta and Fedor Studit in the Vyglaksinsky Collection of the XII-XIII centuries of Antioch Pandeks 1307 and other handwritten books XII - XIII explosive Prince Vladimir Vasilkovich Chronicler characterizes as a "great scribe" and a philosopher, which was not on the whole earth. " In one of the monasteries, he sacrificed the gospel, rewritten by his hand, as well as the "Cattle", who belonged to his father. Several churches he sent the liturgical books, including in the Chernihiv aproaled gospel, written by gold and richly decorated. On his initiative, the complete lives of Dmitry Solunsky, the feeding book, and probably the conversations of Grigory Dvoyeslov. He had employees as well as he, the book-workers engaged in the replication of the liturgical and nonsense books. Among the Galico-Volyn figures of this pore must be mentioned Metropolitan Peter.
In the second half of the XIII century. In the Galician-Volyn land was, apparently, a collection was drawn up (used in the so-called Archive collection of the XV century. and in the Vilenian manuscript), which included an intelligent apocalypse, a chronograph that made biblical books, Chronicles George Amartol and John Malala, Alexandria and the history of the Joseph of Joseph Flavia; Next - under the title "Russian Chronicler" - the tale of time years and the collection of the type of evidence of Svyatoslav 1073
Thus, the Galico-Volyn land in the XII-XIII centuries. owned the best works of translation and Russian historical literature Kiev period.
Book activities in the Galician-Volyn Earth continued, although not so intense and after the loss of political independence.
There can be no doubt that many monuments of literature died in that restless historical setting, which fell to the share of the Galician-Volyn Principality.
The chroniclel in Galicia began visible in the XI century. Judging by individual stories, which are undoubtedly, from the Galician Chronicle in the "Tale of Bygone Years" and in the Kiev Chronicle (description of the blinding of Prince Vasilka and the following events of 1098-1100., Outlined under 1097). Preserved precisely in Russian lists based on sources included in the Russian ObikOd Galico-Volyn chronicle of the XIII century. Supported the tradition of the budget poetry in the northeastern Russia, the highest achievement of which at the end of the XII century. there was a word about the regiment of Igor
Art of the Galico-Volyn Land of the XII-XIII centuries. It is impossible to divide the Mongolian conquest for two halves. Higher military training of Galician armed forces, strong defensive walls of urban centers made it difficult for the speed of Tatar conquest, and the subsequent international policy of Daniel Galitsky softened the Tatar yoke and ensured almost normal flow public Life, and with it and the development of art. Here, as in Novgorod, who avoided the immediate defeat of the earth by Mongolian hordes, the fatal 1238-1240. did not interrupted cultural development.
With its origins, the art of Galico-Volyn Rusi is associated with a treasury of artistic culture with the art of the Kiev land for everyone from the old Russian principalities. We can judge the Galician-Volyn art only on architecture monuments, which are also poorly studied and are presented with almost exclusively archaeologically opened ruins of temples.
In Kiev architecture of the XI-XII centuries. It was necessary to start the decision of a number of new tasks - the urban cathedral of the specific capital, the palace princely temple and the ensemble by Princely or in general the feudal residence in general; They were given in the Cathedral of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, in the Savior Church in Berestov - the countryside of Monomakh, and then repeatedly repeatedly with various modifications, both in the construction of Kiev itself and other feudal centers of the XII century; Galich and Vladimir-Volynsky were among them.
It is very significant to note the features of originality that distinguish the architecture of Volyn and Galicia. Monuments of Vladimir-Volynsky - Mstislavov Assumption Cathedral (1157-1160) and the "Old Catedra" the ruins of the temple relating, apparently, seem to be exceptional proximity to the Kiev-Chernihiv monuments.
Volyn in art, as in the literature, was the direct heiress of the Kiev land and rather zealously followed its traditions.
The art of Galich went somewhat different and more critical perceived artistic heritage and canonical samples. The peculiarity of Galician architecture contributed itself international Regulations Galich, facilitating direct connection with Western Europe and direct impact of Western artistic culture. The abundance of natural construction stone made it possible to replace them with ordinary brick and enriched the possibilities of decorative processing of buildings - threads, the game of various tones of facing stone, etc. (in the middle of the XII c) in Galich, a complex architectural ensemble of the Prince of Palace was created in Galich. The story of the chronicle about the circumstances of the death of Prince Vladimir Galitsky draws us this construction in the form of a set of a number of buildings: the residential part of the Palace, "Seine" and the palace temple, combined between the transition system; At the heart of this composition lies with significant development here (a system of rich wooden housing - "chorus", which established in the conditions of life of the princely-friendly tops of Kievan Rus. Open excavations The foundations of the Belocamena Palace Church of the Savior give a typical example of buildings of this kind. Galician palace discovers a lot of common Damn with the composition of the Bogolyubovsky Castle of the XII century.
Built at the turn of the XII-XIII centuries. Panteleimon's church in Galich with its portals and a romanese carving shows how the Kiev heritage is re-registered in Galitsky architecture, romance traits fall on the communional Kiev-Byzantine base, creating a peculiar appearance of architecture.
Especially magnificent development it receives from the 40s of the XIII century. This fact cannot be not associated with the circumstance noted above that the Galician-Volyn land was the corner of the Russian land, where in the first years of the Mongolian rule the cultural development continued, where social life did not cut off. Here, undoubtedly, all the avoy of captivity and the death of cultural forces were rushed; Chronicle, telling about the building of the hill, draws a colorful picture of the settlement of the new princely city; At the call of the prince "Holidays of German and Russia, the day and unomatics and masters of all of the Beigeh_is Tatars, the saddelnians and the Lieuners and Tulnya and the forge of the Iron and Copper and the Srebra, and Be Life, and the filfilled courtyards of Grad, Field and Village "
It is in connection with this story about the many of the masters flowing into the Galician land of various professions and reports the Galico-Volyn chronicle about the beautiful buildings created in the 40s-50s of Prince Daniel in the hill, which caused genuine delight and surprise of contemporaries.
Special attention and admiration for the chronicler deserved Church of Ivan: Her arches relied on carved quadrilateral capitals with the image of human heads. "The Roman glasses are cut from some kind of saintraz", i.e., color stained glass windows on the windows of the temple, created a bizarre lighting of its internal space; In the altar above the throne, he rummaged on two columns from a whole stone. Beautiful Seng and Kyiviy decorated in azure background with foster stars; The floor was merged from copper and tin and glistened like a mirror.
Another building of the hill - the Church of Mary (1260) was not inferior, according to the chronicler, with its beauty and the size of other temples. For this church, a wonderful water boss made of red marble was made, at the edges she was decorated with snake heads. The bowl was delivered to the main church doors, as was done in the temples of that time in the West.
These characteristics dedicated to the chronicler of the Kholmsky buildings disclose our exceptionally complex and peculiar elements in the composition of the composition. The appearance of holm temples allows you to see a kind of weave the features born in the process of the development of the ancient Russian architecture of the XII century, with clearly borrowed receptions-Romanesque art. The same features are characterized by the second half of the XII century. in the Vladimir Principality; Moreover, the individual details of the decoration and design of the buildings of the Bogolyubovsky Castle (1158-1165) are so strikingly repeated with centuries later in the hill, which arises the idea of \u200b\u200bthe possibility of direct work from Prince Daniel Vladimir architects and cutters who fled from Tatar captors, and, together with other masters , Built and decorated the holm temples.
For Galico-Volyn culture, the absence of a sharply pronounced and irreconcilable religious and national disgust from the "Latin" world is characterized, and this feature has also contributed to the enrichment of art with acquaintance with the West. Appeal to Romanesque art was quite understandable for Vladimir XII century. And for the Galician Rus XIII century, as this art is more fully, than the Byzantine, expressed ideas and tastes of the feudal world, the best representatives of which in Russia in the XII century. There were Vladimir "Samovlasttsy", and in the XIII century. - Galico-Volyn "King" Daniel.
On the other hand, appeal to western culture It was a kind of form of approval of their own ways of artistic and in general cultural development and waste from traditions.
This also explains that a significant fact that in the Galician-Volyn art, in contrast to other principalities, was given a significant development of the art of brewing, which was denied by the Orthodox Byzantine Church in applied to religious plots. It was expressed here not only in the decorative plastic of the Kholmian temples, but developed into an independent branch of art, which is even secular in nature. The chronicle tells about the interesting sculpture, delivered by Prince Daniel outside the city of the hill, probably on the way to him.
The same effect of Romanesque art is felt in the Galician-Volyn painting, which can be judged only by several miniatures.
They trace the techniques of romance-gothic painting, both in relation to the colorful gamma, and in the construction of a picturesque image.
So, Galico-Volyn art of the XIII century. It is one of the most vibrant and large pages of the history of the Old Russian art. Starting his way along with the literature from the whole for all the ancient Russia of the source - Kiev-Byzantine artistic culture, it enriched with communication with the art of Western neighbors. These introductions were organically mastered by Galician masters, creating quite peculiar and high-quality monuments of the art of Galician-Volyn Rus.
The Principality became the heiress K. Rusi, fought for the reunification of the consolidation of land, contributed to the development of the economy, cities, crafts, trade, culture; contributed to the protection of the population of the South-Western land from the physical destruction of Mongol-Tatars; Raised the authority of Ukrainian lands in the international arena, especially in feudal fragmentation.
The Galico-Volyn Principality after the decline of Kiev continued on the whole century the existence of public education in the Slavic lands and became the main political center of the future of Ukraine.
The word "Ukrainian" is first used in the "preaching" of the Thewor's Gregory still in the middle of the XI century. The term "Ukraine" is mentioned in the Kiev chronicle in 1187 as the synonym for the concept of "crash", that is, the edge, native land (for comparison: Serbia. According to Serbo-Croatski - Serbsk Krash). From 1335, the concept of "Mala Rus" was used for Galicia, the concept of "Malorusia" became used for Greeks. However, in different periods, it indicated various regions of Ukraine.
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The Old Russian state was adjusted in the process of feudalization on a number of individual, to a certain extent independent, principalities and lands. Feudal fragmentation, which was a natural stage historical Development Russia was a consequence of the economic separation of individual principalities. The growth of large ownership and distribution of food rent has created more favorable conditions during this period for the further development of the economy. At the same time, the consequence of the fragmentation was the strengthening of the princely gravity. In the conditions of permanent internecine wars, the foreign policy situation of Russia deteriorated, and in the end, as a result of the Tatar-Mongolian invasion, she lost its independence.
Agriculture and the position of the peasants
During the period of feudal fragmentation, significant shifts occurred in the country's productive forces, the technique of agriculture was improved. For example, on the territory located in the course of the Dniester, as shown by the excavation materials, the population was used to be reserved (by a plug-in knife installed in front of the lemhery) when plowing with a plow of virgin lands, a lemene for processing old-headed lands and small lemshoes for pre-sowing soil processing. Water mill was used for grinding grain. In the central regions of Russia, along with the subference and the flog, the three-field agriculture system was distributed, the Russian people were mastered by the extensive spaces of new lands, especially in the northeast of the country (in the Volga region, in the Northern Dvina basin, etc.). New field, garden and garden crops appeared. Grew livestock livestock.
In the position of the peasants during the period of feudal fragmentation there were changes. The number of peasant-observers dependent on the feudals has increased. In the Novgorod and Suzdal Lands, for example, there were bars and bowlors. Salnisters were called deaths, obliged to give feudal as a lifestyle share of the harvest; Borrowers - peasants who left the former landowner and entered into dependence (in the "mortgage") from the other. In the Smolensk Earth, traversaries were known - peasants dependent on church feudal feudalists who took part with them (honey and "kunami" - money) and had the right to judge them.
The peasant, obliged to make the owner of the feudal rent of products, received greater economic independence and has great opportunities for the manifestation of his own work initiative than the reservoir. Therefore, with the development (along with the barbecue) rent products increased the productivity of the peasant. He got the opportunity to produce some surplus products that could be transformed into the goods market. The desires of the property bundle of the peasantry appeared.
The expansion of the ties of the peasant economy with the market contributed to the growth of cities, the development of crafts and trade in them, the development of commodity production. In turn, the feudalists, selling products received in the account of natural occasions, were acquired in cities expensive weapons, fabrics, overseas wines and other luxury items. The desire to increase its wealth pushing the feudalists to increase the occlect, to strengthen the operation of the peasantry.
The peasants were the estate of the incomplete category of the population. In the chronicles, when describing the "exploits" of the feudal, captive peasants and the slaves were mentioned along with livestock. The church consecrated this order, regarding the murder of Mr. "Chelyadin Full" (i.e., the Hall) is not as "skewering", but only as "sin before God." If the boat ran, the chase dressed him, and the one who gave him bread and pointed the way, was supposed to pay a fine. But the one who detained the Hall received a reward for "permit." True, the property rights of the holsters expanded somewhat. In the contract of 1229, Smolensk with German cities speaks of the right of the horses to transfer their property by inheritance.
Growth of feudal land tenure
The period of feudal fragmentation in Russia is characterized by a rapid growth of large land tenure and the struggle of the feudal of land and for the peasants. Princely possessions included cities and villages. For example, the Galician-Volyn Prince Daniel Romanovich belonged to the city of Hill, Danilov, Thiek, Lviv, Vsevit, etc. Also grew also boyars and church land tenure. Special wealth was distinguished by Novgorod, Galitsky, as well as Vladimir-Suzdal Boyars.
New monasteries appeared in different parts of the country. Vladimir Bishop Simon (XIII century) was boasting the wealth of its bishopia - lands and incomes from the population ("tithing"). Over all of Russia, a faithful economy has significantly expanded, which remained natural. Boyarian yards have grown. The Boyarskaya Chelyer's wase (part of which broke the barbecue) turned into yard people.
The growth of feudal ownership was accompanied by the strengthening of the political power of the landowners who had the right of court over their peasants and responded to the state for the fulfillment of state-owned duties, first of all submitted. Gradually, a large landeader became the "state-owned" itself in his possessions, sometimes dangerous for the princely power.
Fighting inside the dominant class
Among the land owners were the feudal of various ranks, who had different political rights. Great Princes - in Galich, in Vladimir and even in a relatively small Ryazan - were considered the heads of their principalities, but in fact they had to share power with other feudals. Grand permanent power, striving to carry out unifying policies, came across with a boyars, and with church. In this struggle, local grand princes found support from small and medium-sized feudal feudalists - nobles and children of Boyar. Servants free, children boyars, nobles are usually the younger members of the princely and boyars, who made the most numerous group of the prevailing class. They owned land, some conditionally, while they served, and were supporting the Grand Duke, delivering to him the army, which consisted of dependent values \u200b\u200b- Peshts (Infantrymen). The princely authorities expanded the rows of the nobles, attracting them to itself the distribution of lands. The nobles were part of the military prey.
About the sharpness of the struggle inside the class of feudalists can be judged by the works of socio-political thought. Defender of the strong princely power, the expressive of the views of the then nobility of Daniel Charpener sharply drew a secular and spiritual to know: "There's a fat horse as a enemy snoring on his Mr.; So strong, rich boyar is delighted evil on his prince. " "It would be better for me," says Daniel Prince, "to serve in your house in your house than in Safyan's boots in the Boyar court." Daniel Sharpener expressed the idea of \u200b\u200bthe need to participate the nobles in the management: of them, and not from the "lords crazy" should consist "Dummers of Prince".
Although the trend towards the centralization of the country and received the development in Russia at this time, but it could not end with a strong victory of the grand permanent power. Not once, the "young" boyars and the "nobility", rich, fell out the place of "old" and, facing feudal wars with individual princes, overthrow their attempts to unite significant territories. The economic conditions for the victory of the tendency towards unity has not yet been matured. The struggle for land among the dominant class led to constant clashes. Often, the princes so devastated the Earth of their opponents, which did not leave the Chelyadin or Cattle in them. Princely detachments became walking in the villages and took all the economic reserves.
City
A very important factor in the economic and political history of the period of developed feudalism in Russia was a city. He was a craft and commercial and administrative center for surrounding lands, as well as a paragraph for collecting their military forces. Describing the important role of large cities, the chronicler reports that residents of suburbs came here to the elder meetings, for whom were mandatory solutions of the "oldest cities".
The number of cities (large and small) has grown from the XI century. More than three and by the XIII century, only on incomplete these chronicles, reached almost three hundred. The flourishing of the city craft continued until the Mongolian invasion. Archaeological material allows you to talk about existence to 60 different craft specialties. Even in small urban centers, there were complex shipping blade for cooking, there were several pottery systems and so on. Chronicles unanimously draw cities as large craftsmen, where significant stone construction is carried out. The wonderful Princely Palace in Bogolyubov, magnificent temples, decorated with stone carvings, in Vladimir, Novgorod, Galich, Chernigov and other cities, water pipes and bridges, part of the preserved to our days and discovered by Soviet archaeologists, characterize the achievements of the Old Russian masters.
Russian artisans performed a wide variety of work. So, for example, in Vladimir-on-Klyazma, one local artisans Lily Tolly, the other wings of the roofs, the third were thinled with lime walls. In Galico-Volyn Rus, in the city of Hill, the bells were cast and a cast was cast from copper and tin for the local church. No wonder the images characterizing handicraft work were widely used in the then literature: "As tin, often overpaid, dies and a person cares from a lot of trouble"; "Weaving iron, and you will not teach an evil wife," writing Daniel Sharpener.
Along with the craft, trade developed. The distribution area of \u200b\u200bthe products of rustic artisans was still insignificant, the sales of urban masters who worked to order for boyars and warriors reached 50-100 km. Many urban masters (Kiev, Novgorod, Smolensk) worked on the market. Some, though few, products diverged over hundreds of kilometers, and individual works of artisans walked abroad (in Bulgaria, Poland, Czech, Sweden).
Developed trade within the principalities. The merchants traveled around Russian lands, held merchant caravans, numbered several hundred people. Galician merchants brought salt to Kiev, Suzdal merchants delivered bread in Novgorod, etc.
Princes received a variety of income from commerce: Living Dan. - From merchants (guests), Carchmites - duties with a bike; Myta - duties for the right to transport goods; Transport - for transporting across the river and other princes increasingly included in the contracts with each other about the fact that merchants have the right to free pass through customs observations. But in the face of the domination of feudal fragmentation and frequent wars, these trade relations were often broken. The farm as a whole continued to remain natural.
Significant scope at this time reached foreign trade. So, in Vladimir-on-Klyazma, "guests" came from Byzantium and other countries. Large cities - Novgorod, Smolensk, Vitebsk, Polotsk concluded trade agreements with German cities (agreements 1189, 1229. and others). Russian merchant associations have gained more and more sustainable positions in neighboring lands. In Constantinople, Riga, Bulgaria had "Russian streets".
The political importance of the city trading and craft population has greatly increased. Craftsmen of the largest cities united in the "Streets", "Rows" and "hundreds", had their churches, built in honor of a "saint" - the patron saint of the craft, and their treasury. Craftsmen were going to discuss their affairs, elected Starost. There were organizations and merchants.
Guide as merchant associations (such as buckwheels, who conducted trade with Byzantium, Chudins, who were trading with the Baltic States, who were trading with the peoples of the North, and others), and craft corporations were in the hands of a trade and crafting top, closely connected with Boyar vest . Large merchants and realmists abruptly opposed the urban handicraft to less people.
Feudals during permanent internecine wars robbed and ruined cities. Under these conditions, the citizens sought to free their city from under the power of the boyars and small princes and enter the agreement with any major prince. Thus, cities received well-known guarantees in the case of feudal wars and sought at the same time from the local grand princes recognition of their privileges who guarded the right of wealthy citizens first. Cities that contributed at the early stage of the development of feudalism to establish political fragmentation in the country, gradually turned into force, which, along with the nobility, everything became energetically promoted by the union of more significant areas into the Grand Duchy.
Class struggle
No matter how difficult and contradictory were relations between the individual groups of the dominant class, the whole class as a whole opposed the peasantry, which continued to fight with his oppressors. The forms of the peasant struggle with feudalles were diverse: shoots, damage to the Lord's inventory, the extermination of cattle, arson of estates, the murder of representatives of the Prince administration, finally open uprisings.
Rebellion was repeatedly broken in cities. Fighting the landowner to know, the internal differentiation of the urban population, the growth of the debt challenge of artisans, frequent wars, etc., all this worsening the already serious position of the urban poor and led to the uprisings. In these uprisings, the urban poor and the peasantry was often accepted at the same time. So, a large uprising of the peasantry and the urban poor broke out in 1136 in Novgorod, when Novgorod, together with Pskov and Ladgetan, expelled the prince of Vsevolod, who hesitated to death. But the fruit of the uprising was awarded the boyars who had established the feudal republic in Novgorod, independent of the Kiev Great Princes.
A rebellion in Kiev in 1146. Miniature from Radzivilovskoye chronicle. XV century
In 1207, a new major uprising occurred in Novgorod. It was aimed primarily against Planting Dmitra, who originated from the family of rich boyars Miroshichy, who brutally oppressed the city and rural poor and engaged in usury operations. Movement starting in the city, got a wide response in the village. The rebels defeated the courtyards and villages of Miroshichini, captured debt receipts, taken by them from challenging "black people", and divided the boyar property among themselves.
The reason for the folk movement 1174-1175. In Vladimir-Suzdal Earth, there was a performance of a part of rich warriors who entered into an alliance with the boyars and changing the prince Andrei Yurevich Bogolyubsky. The prince was killed, his castle was looted. Power captured the boyars. At that time, the uprising of the peasants broke out. The peasants began to destroy representatives by the Prince of Administration, mainly consisting of nobles. It made the feudalists again look for a strong prince. Local cities led by Vladimir, fearing the self-balance of Boyar, also stood for a strong princely power. Ultimately, the people's uprising was suppressed.
"Russian truth" on the synoidal list (l. 1). 1282
In 1146, after the death of Chernigov Prince Vsevolod, Olgovich, who captured Kiev, the local trade and craft population rose and dealt with the princely administration. The Kiev residents led the struggle for urban liberations, protesting against the transition of Kiev by inheritance to Princes Chernigov.
In Galico-Volyn Rus, the people's movements occurred in the 40s of the XII century. Galitsky Prince Vladimirko Volodarevich, who was coming against the Kiev prince because of Volyn, failed and lost some cities. This affected the attitude of the other cities to him, which began to support the Kiev Prince. When the troops of the latter was besieged to Zvenigorod, the townspeople collected the vessel and opposed Vladimirk. But the princely governor suppressed the movement of citizens. He captured three husbandswho headed the evening, ordered them to bore them and throw in fortress. Raised the uprising against Prince Vladimirk and the citizens of Galic. After the Galicians, forced by the military force to surrender, opened the prince of the gate, he interrupted many people, and many executed the "execution of evil". The major movement of the peasants occurred in the Galician land in the 40s of the XIII century.
Political system and state apparatus
With the dismemberment of the ancient Russian state in different Russian lands during the XII-XIII centuries. The political significance of the landowner nobility grew and at the same time was the struggle with her grand-road power, which resulted in unequal results. Such strong princes, such as Vladimir-Suzdal, after the decline of Kiev managed to curb the local boyars during the time. In some lands, for example, in Novgorod, landowner to know victory over the princes. Finally, in the Galician-Volyn Earth, the fierce struggle between strong afternoon and princes was with varying success. In the rest of the principles, how much scarce sources allow, the events developed in one of these directions.
As individual lands are released from under the domination of the Kiev Great Princes, the power of the latter has ever more declined. The communional importance of the Kiev Grand Duty power decreased, although it did not disappear completely. The grandnya Kiev table turned into an apple of conclusion between the strongest rulers of other principalities. The real state power was in the hands of feudalists who headed individual principalities, while the rulers of the largest of them began to appear for the association of the country, declaring themselves the great princes of all of Russia.
In all Russian lands, at this time there was a further development and strengthening of the Office of Management, which defended the interests of the feudalists. Chronicles and legal monuments mention a large number of different military, administrative, financial and other state and palace authorities. Russian True, the main guide for the court was replenished with new legal norms and acted in all lands of Russia. The place of detention was served by prisons: Forep, cellar, dungeons - deep dark pits, tightly sealed by a tree, where, according to the testimony of sources, prisoners hurt themselves.
An important place in the state apparatus belonged to the army, in which feudal squads and urban shelves were great importance. They were among them and served by the prince of the boyars with their yards. The main part of the troops was still hiking folk militia, the number of which was reached in separate principles of 50-60 thousand people. The separation of the principalities, the princes sprayed and weakened the country's military forces. At the same time, weapon technique did not stand in place. The defensive structures were improved, urban fortifications, stone towers, etc. were erected. More widely began to be applied during defense and siege of cities siege and throwing tools (patrants, tarana).
Legal norms that regulate the relations of Russian principalities with foreign states, as can be seen, for example, from Novgorod's treaties with Livonian Order, Sweden and Norway, Galico-Volyn Rus - with Hungary, Poland, Lithuania and the Teutonic Order.
Vladimir-Suzdal Earth
As a result of the dismemberment of the ancient Russian state in Russia in the XI-XII centuries. Over a dozen large principalities - Vladimir-Suzdal, Polotsk-Minsk, Turovo-Pinskoye, Smolenskoye, Galico-Volynskoe, Kiev, Pereyaslav, Chernihiv, Tmutarakan, Muromskoye and Ryazan, as well as the feudal republics - Novgorod and Pskovskaya. The greatest value Rostov-Suzdalskiy (later Vladimir-Suzdalski) was obtained from the addicted lands - the main part of the future Velikorsia. In the Rostov-Suzdal Earth, the prerequisite for strengthening the princely authority was the presence of early prevailing princely possessions and cities that have arisen on the basis of local crafts and related to trade, which was carried out with the East along the Volga and Western Europe on the system of rivers, which combined Rostov-Suzdal Earth with the Baltic Sea.
Rostov-Suzdal Land came out from under the power of Kiev in the 1930s of the XII century, when the son of Monomaha Yury Vladimirovich was contacted in it (1125-1157), nicknamed Dolgoruky. He was the first of the Suzdal princes to seek the prevalence in Russia. With it, the influence of the Rostov-Suzdal Earth spread to Novgorod, Murom and Ryazan and, in addition, a solid alliance was established with Galician land. Wanting to merge the power in his hands in Russia, Yuri sought to strengthen in Kiev. Suzdal troops mastered this utensile city. However, after the death of Yuri, the Kiev citizens hurried to break their dependence on the Suzdal Princes, by overpracting the courtyards of Yuri, his supporters and merchants throughout Kievan land.
Rostov-Suzdal Rus in the middle of the XII century. Survived a significant economic rise. Agricultural culture has developed here. New cities were built - Vladimir-on-Klyazemma, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Yuriev-Polsky, Zvenigorod, Dmitrov, and others. It was founded by Moscow (for the first time it was mentioned in the annals under 1147), which later became the center of the unification of feudal-fragmented Rus to Single state.
The successor of Yuri, Prince Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky (1157-1174), who was observed by the pause and supported by the citizens of Rostov, Suzdal and residents of other cities, strongly fought with a recalcitable boyarism. He made his capital Vladimir, where there was a strong trade and craft dress, assigned his title of the Grand Prince all of Russia and sought to spread his power to Kiev and Novgorod. Continuing to compete with the Volyn Princes, Andrei Bogolyubsky organized in 1169. The campaign of the United Suzdal, Chernigov, Smolensk, Polotsky-Minsk and other regiments on Kiev was captured and took it with many wealth to his land, having passed the ancient capital into managing one of his stories. It trust the decline of Kiev. Novgorod was forced to take on the prince of individuals, pleasing Andrew. But the unifying policy of Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky was unexpectedly interrupted. He was killed, as already mentioned above, conspirators from the boyar and rejected warriors. His successor Vsevolod Yuryevich is a large nest (1177-1212) suppressed the resistance of feudal nobility and executed a number of boyars. The author of "Words about the regiment of Igor", emphasizing the strength and power of his regiments, wrote that they could spill a Volga west, and don to the shellami to pull out. "
Chernihiv and Smolensk princes, ruled in Kiev, considered Vsevolod their "Mr.". Vsevolod has thought about accession to his possessions and Galician land. Vladimir's princes and posites were Vladimir Princes, and even the local archbishop was actually appointed in Vsevolod. By this time, Vladimir Princes broke down "reconciliation" and Ryazan princes. According to the status of the author "Word about the regiment of Igor", Vsevolod could shoot them as "live arrows." Vladimir-Suzdal Princes sought to consolidate their power in the Volga basin, Kama (where Mordva and Marie lived) and Northern Dvina, where Russian colonization was sent. Such cities are founded as Ustyug and Nizhny Novgorod (1221). The peoples of the Caucasus were trading in the Volga. Claims, in addition, there were political ties.
HOUSH PSKOVSKAYA EART
Novgorod land bordered by Vladimir-Suzdal Earth in the south-east, with Smolensk - in the south and with Polotsk - in the south-west. Novgorod possessions extended far to the East and North, right up to the Urals and the Arctic Ocean. Glad the fortresses guarded the approaches to Novgorod. On Volkhov, Ladoga was located, defending the trading path to the Baltic Sea. The largest Novgorod suburb was Pskov.
Owning the banks of the Neva and the Finnish Gulf, Novgorod was closely connected with Estonian, Latvian and Karelian lands, in which Novgorod boyars collected a tribute from the population. The tribute was also charged with Emi Earth (Finnov) and from the north of it, right up to the borders of Norway, the land of Saamov (Loparis). Finally, in Novgorod possessions in the north along the Thai shore White Sea And in the challenge (what was called extensive lands to the east of the Whitezer, populated by various nations) were also sent from Novgorod to Dani collectors accompanied by armed groups.
The main occupation of the Novgorod peasantry was agriculture, whose technique has reached a significant level for that time. However, the development of agriculture did not favor soil and climatic conditions, and it could not satisfy the needs of the population. Along with agriculture, various crafts were developed: hunting for fur and marine beast, fishing, salt mining. The mining of iron played a major role in the exercise of the rural population. Novgorod was one of the largest craft and shopping centers of Europe.
After the uprising of 1136 in Novgorod Russia, the boyar republic was formed, in which large feudalles dominated. Such a public organization also developed in the Pskov Earth. Formally the supreme power belonged to one. However, in reality, the boyars were in their hands, although they had to be reckoned with his opinion, especially if the everlast decision was supported by armed performances of urban "black people." The archbishop played the largest role in the political life of Novgorod. Under his chairmanship was gathered by the Boyar Council. From the number of Boyar was approved at the vessel vessel and the thousands, which were carried out in the city executive.
In their fight against the boyars, the handicraft population of the city dismissed well-known rights. The coincisions of the conquers (residents of urban areas - the ends of pottery, carpenter, etc.), streets (residents of the streets) and merchant frachines were aligned. Each end had its own elected self-government and possessed some power over a certain territory of the Novgorod region. But these authorities remained under the control of Boyar. Princely power preserved in Novgorod. But the princes were invited to the veche and their rights were very limited, although they received well-known income from management, trial and trade.
The first 100 years (1136-1236) of the existence of the Novgorod Boyar Republic, up to the Mongolian invasion, were characterized by an acute class struggle, which more than once poured into open uprisings of the urban poor and peasants. At the same time, the role of merchants intensified, part of which spoke on the side of the strong Vladimir-Suzdal princes.
Vladimir-Suzdal Princes strengthened their position in Novgorod. They captured land here, assigned the rights of the court and collecting the filings. The resistance of Novgorod politics of Vladimir-Suzdal princes led to repeated clashes, the consequences of which were severely reflected in the situation of the masses. It was especially difficult to the Novgorod men, when breaks were taken to bring the Volga bread. When in 1230, a cruel hunger, the Vladimir Prince closed the trading paths in Novgorod Earth, and the merchants and merchants began to speculate bread. Before despair, the poor began to set fire to the houses of the rich people who kept rye, and capture these reserves.
Galico-Volyn land
Galician land occupied the northeastern slopes of the Carpathian Mountains. In the north, she bordered by the territory of Volyn, in the north-west - with Poland, in the south-west of the "Mountain Ugor" (Carpathians) separated it from Hungary. In the mountains, and for them was Karpatskaya Rus, in a large part captured by Hungarian feudalities in the XI century. Part of the Carpathian Rus (with the cities of Brasov, Barduev, and others) remained for the Galicon of the Earth. In the south-east, the lands of the Galician principality entered the land, staging from the southern Bug to the Danube (on the territory of modern Moldova and Northern Bukovina).
Galitskaya Earth, the ancient center of which was moving, alone alone at the beginning of the XII century. In a separate principality under the rule of the great-grandfather Yaroslav Wise. Condemned here, strong boyars was looking for in his straight with princes of help from the Hungarian and Polish feudalists and for a long time prevented the political consolidation of the country. Volyn land, called from the ancient city of Volyn on the Huft River, occupied an extensive territory in the Western Bug basin and the upper current of Pripyat with her tributaries. Volyn and Galicina since a long time were especially closely connected with each other.
It has long been known to be arable agriculture. In Galician Earth, there were rich salt developments and salt was the subject of export. High-level in Galician-Volyn Earth has reached the development of iron, jewelry, pottery and leather crafts. In this edge, there were over 80 cities. Being at the intersection of numerous water and land roads, the Galico-Volyn land played a prominent role in European trade. In the XII century Galinka and Volyn Principles experienced a significant rise. Already Vladimirko Volodarevich (1141-1153) connected under his authority all Galician lands, including the Dongyan cities (Berlad, etc.). At about the same time, it came out of the power of Kiev and Volyn.
The time of the reign of Yaroslav Vladimirovich Osmomysl (1153-1187), one of the largest politicians of Russia XII century, was marked by the further approach of the Galician land and, in particular, the wide construction of new cities. Yaroslav Otmomysl with the help of Volyn princes broke the troops of the Kiev Prince and forced him to abandon the attempt to establish himself in the Sudenai lands. Yaroslav established the world with Byzantium, and the Union with Hungary brought his daughter to his daughter with King Stefan (Istvan III). At the end of the XII century. Galician and Volyn Earth connected under the rule of the Volyn Prince Roman Mstislavich (1199-1205). To achieve strengthening the princely power, he relied on an agreement with cities and, above all, with the top of the urban population, "impoverished her husbands", which provided a number of privileges. The novel weakened Galitsky boyars, he destroyed him, and some boyars fled to Hungary. The Boyar lands were captured by the prince and were used by him for distributing a friend. Overcoming the resistance of the Suzdal Prince Vsevolod, Yurevich, the troops of the novel took Kiev (1203), after which he proclaimed himself a great prince.
Roman Kuria was looking for a "Union" with Prince Roman, but he rejected the proposal of Pope Innokentia III. Having supported the struggle of Gogenstaufnes with Welfs, the novel in 1205, he made a large campaign against the ally of Venels - Krakow Prince Leszko, putting the goal of moving into Saxony. However, the death of the novel in the campaign prevented the implementation of these broad intentions and facilitated the destruction of the unity of Galician and Volyn principalities that had arisen with him.
A long and ruinage feudal war began (1205-1245), in which the boyars, acting with the help of Hungarian and Polish feudalists, captured power in the Galician land. According to the contract in Spesh (1214), the Hungarian and Polish feudal fodals with the sanction of papal currics were attempted to divide Galico-Volyn Rus. However, the masses threw these calculations. As a result, the Hungarian garrison was expelled by the country of the national uprising.
The princes of Daniel and Vasilko Romanovichi were established on Volyn, with the support of servil, Boyar and Gorozha, the princes of Daniel and Vasilko Romanovichi, with the battle of the Polish feudal motions from the limits of the Russian Earth (1229). Daniel's troops in active assistance of citizens caused a number of lesions to Hungarian feudalities and Galitsky Boyars. The captured boyar lands Prince Daniel distributed to the warriors-nobles. He supported friendly relations with Lithuania and Mazovia, as well as with the Austrian Duke Friedrich II, hostile Hungary. The struggle for the independence of Galician Russia was bloody and stretched for many years. Only in 1238, Daniel finally mastered the Galitsky principality, and then Kiev, connecting the extensive lands of South-Western Russia under its authority.
Polotsk-Minsk Earth
Polotsk-Minsk Land occupied the territory of the rivers of Western Dvin and Berezin, the border with the Novgorod, Smolensk and Turov and Pin Lands. In the north-west, the ownership of Polotsk princes spread to the lower flow of Western Dvina, where they stood the cities of Ersic and Koknes. A part of the population of Lithuanian and Latvian lands recognized the power of Polotsky Prince and paid them to tribute.
The main occupation of the inhabitants of the Polotsk-Minsk region was agriculture, although the soil conditions conducive little to this. Polotsk constantly needed bridal bread. Much spread here got hunting for fur beast, fisheries, Bortnovnia. Fur was the subject of export abroad (on the island of Gotland and in Lubeck). In Polotsk-Minsk Earth, a feudal relationship has been developed early and a number of cities arose - Izyaslavl, Vitebsk, ruin, Orsha, Kopys, and others.
Polotsk-Minsk Earth short-time was subordinate to the Kiev princes. Already under Vladimir Svyatoslavich, she moved into possession of his son Bryachchul. The successor of the latter, Vseslav Bryachlivich (1044-1101), leaning on a squad and taking advantage of the help of cities, kept power in his hands over the entire divine-Minsk land. The time of the prince of All-Veslav, according to the "Word about the regiment of Igor", was the time of "Glory" for this part of Russia. But then the feudal fragmentation intensified. In the XII century, a number of victims of the principalities are formed; The most significant of them were Polotsk and Minsk. Domestic wars weakened by the Polotsk-Minsk Earth, which gradually lost its former influence in Eastern Baltic States. Despite the stubborn resistance, Polochan could not repel the invasion of the German crusaders. Polotsk Prince under an agreement with Riga (1212) lost their rights to the tribute of the plots, he lost and lands in Southwestern Latgale. The cities of Erosik and Koknes were captured by German knights. At the beginning of the XIII century. Polotsk and Vitebsk's foreign policy has already controlled Smolensky Prince, concluding contracts from their name with German cities.
Rus and neighboring peoples
Rus was surrounded by many non-Slavic peoples. Its influence applied to the peoples of the Baltic States (Lithuanians, Latvians and Estonians), Finland and Karelia, some nations of the North (Nenets, Komi, Yugru), Volga region (Mordva, Marie, part of Bulgaria, Chuvash and Udmurts), North Caucasus (Ossetian and Circass) , as well as on the peoples of the Northern Black Sea region (Turkic nomadic tribal unions of Polovtsy, Ozov and Torkov) and Moldova. Rus supported links with conquer (by the population of Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan) and Central Asia.
The level of social development of these peoples was different: some of them had another primitive community system, and others had an already established feudal method of production.
The peoples of the Baltic States in the XI-XII centuries. experienced the time of the formation of feudal relations. They had no states. The peasants lived with rural communities, the significant groups of which were semi-feudal-semi-patriory associations led by representatives of the landowner nobility - "the best", the "oldest" people. Such associations were in Lithuania (aukshtaia, hemitetia, deltow, etc.), in Latvia (Latgal, Zemgalia, Corus, etc.), in Estonia (Läaineaa, Harjumaa, Sakkal, etc.).
The population of the Baltic was engaged in agriculture, cattle breeding and craft, led trade with neighbors. In the Baltic States, trade and craft settlements were made - embryos of future cities (Lindanisa, in the place of which Tallinn, Mienets and others grew). The population adhered to pre-Christian beliefs. Wonderful monuments of culture of this time are the Estonian Epos KaleviPeag, Lithuanian and Latvian historical songs And fairy tales.
The ancient relations of the Baltic lands with Rusy were interrupted at the beginning of the XIII century. invasion of German and Danish feudalists. Using contradictions among the rulers, the Crusaders captured Estonian and Latvian lands. Otherwise, the history of Lithuania has developed. Here, on the basis of a higher economic development, it was at first the Union of Princes of different lands (1219), and then the early refortel state was developed with the Grand Duke at the head. The first Lithuanian prince was Mindovg (1230-1264). The Grand Principality of Lithuanian with the help of Russia managed to defend his independence by beating the offensive of German feudal.
In Karelian land, which was part of the possessions of Novgorod Russia, the agriculture was dominated by the presence of developed fishers (hunting and fisheries), crafts and trade. With the development of feudal relations in the 70s of the XIII century. Karelian land was highlighted in an independent administrative region of the Novgorod Republic. Among Karel, Christianity began to spread widely. The culture and life of the Karelian people received a vivid reflection in the outstanding monument of the People's Karelian-Finnish epic - "Kalelav". From the middle of the XII century. Swedish feudal feudal began to attack Karelia in order to capture it and enslave. Karelias together with the Russians beat off the onslaught of the Swedish invaders and caused them heavy response strikes.
The Novgorod Republic was suspended by the people of Komi, who lived on a dialing. Komi were engaged in hunting and fisheries, but also knew agriculture and craft. They began the decomposition of a patriarchal-communal system, a community appeared to know - elders.
In the conditions of the generic system lived on the shores of the White Sea, Nenets ("Samoyed"), and on the slopes Northern Urals - Ugra. A prominent role in the history of the peoples of the Volga region, Kamamye and Priyurya belonged to the early refortion state of Volzhsky Bulgaria. They had developed agriculture, and in large cities - Bulgarian, Suwar and Bilyar there were a variety of handsellates. Russian artisans lived in Bulgaria. Muses from Russia, Central Asia, Transcaucasia, Iran and other countries came to this city. Bulgarian merchants traded bread from Vladimir-Suzdal Earth.
Among the peoples of the Volga region, subject to the Vladimbro-Suzdal principality, the beginning of the formation of class relations was observed only at the Morder, which was engaged in agriculture and Borutrvit. There were "princes" of individual regions. Other peoples - Marie, Chuvash, Udmurts still dominated the primitive purchase system. Bashkirs - Nomads of the Urals only began to unite in the unions of the tribes, at the head of which the elders were standing (Aksakala). More popular meetings played a big role.
The agricultural and cattle peoples of the North Caucasus - Alans (Ossetians) and Adygetsev, there were fragile tribal unions. Separate breeding leaders were entrusted with each other. In the pasture-cattle societies of Dagestan, there were patriarchal-feudal associations, headed by local rulers: nusals (in the accident), shamhalas (in Kumukia), Utvyia. (in kaitag). Some of them were depending on Georgia.
The population of the Crimea, who consisted of Alanov, Greeks, Armenians and Russians, continued to support political, trade and cultural connections with Russia, despite the claim of Byzantium to dominate seaside cities - Chersonese (Corsun), Sudak (Surge) and Kerch (Korchev). The relations of the peoples of the North Caucasus and the Crimea with Rusy were weakened by the invasion of the Northern Blackstone Polovtsev (the middle of the XI century).
On the territory of Moldova, subject to Galician-Volyn princes, the Slavs lived and the novel population, which later established in the Moldovan nationality. There were cities: Small Galich, chasself, tech, etc.
A number of peoples that were part of the ancient Russian state continued to develop within the framework of Russian feudal principalities and regions. Lithuanian, Latvian, Estonian and Karelian nationalities were formed in the context of close communication with the Russian people.
The subjects of Russia, non-Slavic lands carried the burden of exploitation. Russian princes and boyars were enriched at the expense of oppressed peoples, getting tribute to them - silver, fur, wax and other values. But at the same time, non-Slavic peoples developed in the conditions of economic, political and cultural interaction with Ruso. On the lands of these peoples cities were built, the Russian peasants and artisans settled, merchants appeared. The local population climbed up with Russian labor people and assimilated a higher culture from him, pulled into market ties and acquainted with urban diet and writing.
In Central Asia, the Kyrgyz tribal united, covered by the Earth from the Altai Mountains to Baikal and the Sayan Range, as well as the land of Tuvinsky and Minusinsky. Kyrgyz was engaged in cattle breeding, but they knew agriculture and crafts and led trading with China. By the middle of the XII century. Kyrgyz has also been dependent on Kara-Kitaev (thorough), which from North China advanced to Altai and mastered the Yeniseem and South Semilla. The domination of Kara Kitaev was severe for the local population was undermined by the performance at the end of the XII century. Mongol-speaking tribes Nimanov, who have come from Altai to Irtysh and Eastern Turkestan. Most of Nimanov subsequently gradually dissolved in the environment of various tribes and nationalities (Kyrgyz, Altai, Turkic-speaking tribes of the current Kazakhstan), fully losing their language. Later, all these lands fell under the power of Mongolian Khanov.
Some people of the Far East, in particular the population of the Ussuri Territory, where the ancestors of Nanaysev (Goldov), the Hoi River Basin (the tribe of Udeagai - Later, Udaegei), Low Eve Amur (Gilyaki - Nivhi), were predominantly hunting and lived in a primitive-communal basis. In the middle of the XII century. They fell under the power of the unification of the Zhurzheny tribes, who occupied the ownership of the thieves and created the state of Jin. It consisted of most of the Manchuria, North China and Mongolia. It existed this state before the start of Mongolian conquests.
Some nations of Northeast Siberia and the Far East were at the level of the culture of the Stone Age, settled in the semi-flow housing, were engaged in fishing, hunting and, where the conditions were allowed, the fishery of the marine beast. From domestic animals, they only bred dogs. That was the lifestyle of the ancestors of Ainov and Gilyakov (Nivkhov) on Sakhalin, Itelmen and Koryakov - on Kamchatka, Yukagirov - on Kolyma, in the lower reaches of Lena and Khatanga. In particular harsh natural conditions, the lives of the inhabitants of the Arctic (ancestors of the Eskimo and Primorsky Chukchi) took place. Hunting and fisheries existed the Obian tribes - Mansi (Vogulu) and Khanty (Ostiaria), and in the north Western Siberia. - Nenets. East of Yenisei in the East Siberian Taiga, the hunting and fishing tribes of reindeer herders - Evenkov were inhabited. In the Baikal, the ancestors of Yakuts lived; They bred cattle and horses. The socio-economic system of these peoples remained more or less unchanged until the time when they were under the influence of Russian culture.
International Position of Russia
During the feudal fragmentation of Russia, remaining a large European country, did not have a unified state power, which would be carried out by the whole country to foreign policy. In the middle of the XII century. Russian princes entered into union relations with states that were in mutually hostile coalitions.
Nevertheless, the largest Russian principalities have had a significant impact on the fate of neighboring countries. Back in 1091, when Byzantium was looking for everywhere in assistance against Turuli-Seljuk and Pechenegs, she received military support from Prince Galician Vasilko. In general, Russian princes occupied in relation to the church center of Orthodoxy - Byzantium a much more independent position than other European states in relation to the center of Catholicism of Rome.
Papal Kuria sought to involve Russia into the orbit of his policy, but the most far-sighted papal emissars have already seen the intact of these hopes. So, at the request of one of the ideologues of militant Catholicism - Bernard Clervossky on the possibility of introducing in Russia Catholicism Krakow Bishop Matvey in the middle of the XII century. I wrote that "the Russian people, with their numerous stars, does not want to communicate with the Latin, nor with the Greek Church."
Russian princes actively intervened in international relations of their time. Vladimir-Suzdal and the Allied Galician Princes supported diplomatic relations with Byzantia, and their opponents - Volyn Princes - with Hungary. The army of Galician princes contributed to the strengthening of the second Bulgarian kingdom and helped at the beginning of the XIII century. Bulgarian king Ivan Ashenia II return the throne. Russian princes contributed to strengthening the position of Mazovian princes in Poland. Later, Mazovian princes were in vassal dependence on Russia.
Separate principalities of Russia have had significant armed forces who managed to repel, and partly and subjugate the Polovtsy. The rules of Byzantium, Hungary, Poland, Germany and other countries sought to dynastic relations with Russian princes, especially with the strongest of them - Vladimir-Suzdal and Galico-Volynski. Rumors about the treasures of Russia were hit by the imagination of medieval chronicles of France, Germany and England.
Russian travelers visited different countries. So, Novgorod boyar Dobrynya Yudreykovich visited at the beginning of the XIII century. Byzantium. He left an interesting description of the attractions of the country. Chernihiv Igumen Daniel visited Palestine and also described his journey, committed shortly after the first cross campaign. Chronicles and other monuments show good awareness of Russian people about a number of Europe and Asia.
Nevertheless, the international position of Russia in the period of feudal fragmentation deteriorated significantly. This was noted contemporaries-journalists. In the "Word about the death of the Russian Earth", created in the first half of the XIII century, describes the beauty and wealth of Russia and at the same time, alarmer speaks about weakening it international importance. There were those times when the sovereigns of neighboring countries trembled from one name of Rus, when the Byzantine emperor, fearing the Kiev Grand Duke, " great gifts She sent to him, "when the German knights rejoiced that they were far behind the blue sea.
The weakening of the foreign policy situation of Russia, the reduction of its territory was promoted by the feudal distribution of princes, which did not stop even when the enemies invaded the country. Nomads-Polovtsy, taking the Northern Black Sea region, made devastating raids to the southern Russian lands, took captive and sold into slavery russian population. They undermined the trade and political connections of Russia with the Black Sea and the countries of the East. This led to the loss of Russia's rules in the North Caucasus, as well as to the loss of the Taman Peninsula and the part of the Crimea captured by Byzantium. In the West, Hungarian feudal police captured Carpathian Rus. In the Baltic States, the Latvian and Estonians fell under the strike of German and Danish feudalists, and the lands of Finns and Karel - under the Swedish strike. In the XIII century. Mongol invasion led to conquest, ruin and dismemberment of Russia itself.
Russian culture in the XII - XIII centuries.
Invasion of invaders and natural disasters led to the death of many precious works of architecture, painting, applied art and literature. Almost the names of ordinary people who created for secular and spiritual feudal feudalists "targeted by the cunning" masterpieces of wall painting and stone threads, the finest silver chasing and monumental architecture are almost preserved. Only a few of the Russian masters are mentioned in the chronicles that have reached us. These are "stone builders" - Polochanin Ivan, Novgorod, Peter and Kow Yakovlevich, Peter Milong; Oleksa, who worked on Volyn for the construction of cities; Volyn "Hutrech" Avedea - Master Stone Thread. He survived the news of the Kiev artist of Alimpia, which was playing Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. The names of the Novgorod Masters-Chekcakers of the Kosta and Bratyls, who left the beautiful chased silver vessels, as well as the Latter of Abrahamia, whose sculptural self portrait is preserved to our time. It is the work of peasants and artisans was the basis for the further development of Russia.
Russian language and culture enriched as a result of interaction with the culture of a number of peoples. Such interaction was reflected in Suzdal architecture (in which relations with Georgian and Armenian architecture are traced), in Novgorod painting (in which there are common motives with Armenian fresco painting), in folklore and literature where there are numerous references to other peoples, about their culture and life.
"Golden Gate" in Vladimir-on-Klyazma. XII century
Despite the domination of theology, as the experience gained, accumulated in the production and development of enlightenment (although it has elaborated only a minor part of society), the origin of knowledge in the field of studying nature and history has spread. Literacy among feudal nobility, nobility and citizens grew noticeably. In handwritten monuments, the praise of the "Book Teachings" were increasingly met, and the "mind without books" was likened to the wrong bird: how not to take off and the person did not achieve "perfect reason without books." In training the main benefits were the Psalrty, chast police, the apostle. Normal B. medieval Europe The biblical idea of \u200b\u200bthe world was stamped in the "Shestronee", which gave the theological scholastic description of nature, in the composition of the goat Indicoplov "Topography" and in other works translated on Russia. Greek chronicles George Amartol, John Malali and others acquainted Russian readers with ancient history.
Along with the signs and "Divine Healers", doctors appeared - Lechy. In Kiev, for example, the famous ledge Agapit lived, who knew how the potion is healing which diseases. " Knowledge in the field of mathematics, which also has been applied in agriculture and, when calculating taxes and, in the preparation of chronological calculations in the chronicles.
The development of historical knowledge gained a bright reflection in the chronicle. In all major cities, from Novgorod to a hill, from Novgorod to Ryazan, the historical chronicles of chronicles were conducted and chronicle arresters were compiled (holistic historical works that were the processing of chronicle entries). Up to our time, only the chronicles of Vladimir-Suzdal, Volyn and Novgorodsky were partially preserved. Most of them are imbued with the idea of \u200b\u200ba strong princely power. The close connection of letters with the activities of the Prince of Prince, led to the inclusion of business documents in the chronicles - diplomatic, administrative, military.
In Russia, as well as in other countries, there was a close relationship between the development of crafts, applied folk art and architecture. Since the religious ideology was dominated in society, the best samples of architecture were associated with the church that was also a rich customer. With the transition to feudal fragmentation for architectural monuments, the reduced sizes of the temples are characterized, the simplistic of their internal decoration and gradually replacing the mosaic of the fresco. The dominant type of church architecture was the "cubic" temple with a severe chapter. These changes were connected with the rapid spread of stone architecture.
The construction of temples and monasteries continued in the Kiev land (Church of the Savior on Berestov, Kirillovskaya Church), but the permanent transition of Kiev from some princes to others created unfavorable conditions for the development of art here. A number of outstanding works of art originated in Vladimir-Suzdal Earth, in particular in Vladimir-on-Klyazma with its "golden gates", white-named architecture and stone carvings. The magnificent temples were erected here - the Assumption Cathedral, the masterpiece of the world architecture, Dmitrievsky Cathedral with stone carved reliefs, four-painted temple of Pokrov-on-Nerley with a decorative sculpture and the Bogolyubovsky Princely Palace, which included the Cathedral of its buildings.
The construction was carried out in Rostov, Suzdal, Nizhny Novgorod and other cities of Northeast Russia. As an example, the St. George Cathedral (30s of the XIII B) in Yuryev-Polsky, whose vest was decorated with a stone thread.
In the Novgorod land, the time of the Boyar Republic, instead of major cathedrals, which were built by princes, there were more modest, but outstanding forms and artistic paintings of the temples. Among them, the world famous Church of Savior Savior (End of XII B) was highlighted in Novgorod ( Barbarian destroyed by the German fascists during World War II.). Of great interest, as a monument of art, represents the Pskov Church of the Savior in Mozoan Monastery (the middle of the XII century), painted with frescoes.
The architecture of Galico-Volyn Rus was not less wonderful. The Assumption Cathedral is known here in Vladimir Volynsky, the complex of princely palace buildings in Galich, the Church of St. Pantheliaman, etc. Architecture The hill was not preserved, but from the chronicles it is known that Prince Daniel ordered to build here three temples, decorated with carved Galitsky white and holm green stone and columns "from a whole stone". On the way to the city snapped "Pillars" with a huge sculpture of an eagle. Architecture developed in Chernigov, Smolensk, Polotsk, city (Grodno) and other cities. There were also a variety of civil buildings - palace princely ensembles in Vladimir, Galich and other cities that used the traditions of the ancient Russian "choromous structure".
In the visual art, a stylistic diversity has increased, and local folk creativity has often encouraged against the dominant church ideology. For Novgorod painting (the painting of the Sofia Cathedral, Nikolo-Dvorchensk and Annunciation Churches) is characterized by bright, juicy color. Especially remarkable was the painting of the Savior-Nellis - his walls, arch, pillars and arches. Novgorod iconography is characterized by the same features as monumental painting, and its roots goes to folk art.
The art of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus was peculiar. Local temples were filled with "multi-solid icons and dragim stone without a number." But a little preserved from this wealth: the remnants of the mural of the Assumption and Dmitrievsky Cathedrals, the icon of Dmitry Solunsky. Even less reached artistic monuments of other areas of Russia.
Applied art and sculpture, less than painting associated with church canons, often reflected folk games and dances in their plots, scenes of struggle, etc. Significant lifting reached the art of chasing coins, seals and stone thread (the decoration of cathedrals, stone icons, etc. P.). The motives of folk art were rich reflected in the embroidery, as well as in the decorations of books - screensavers, endings, capital letters, etc., where, along with herbal and color ornaments, the scenes of popular life and labor are often presented.
The influence of folk art is felt in one of the preserved drawings on the fields of the Pskov manuscript of the XII century., Where the rest peasant is depicted, and the shovel is drawn and there is an inscription: "Detergery, work."
In the monuments of literature of the feudal fragmentation period, the ideas of the dominant class were carried out. In her best creations called for princes to the world and the protection of independence of the Motherland, the aspirations of the wide masses are also reflected.
Church preaching literature, the ideological orientation of which was consisted of the population to obedience to the authorities of Heaven and Earth, was represented by the works of the Smolyatich's Clement, Kirill Tourovsky and others. These writers were widely educated and used in their works a heritage of antique literature was used in their works. The famous scribe Clement Smolatych (mid XII century) willingly refer to Omir (Homer), Aristotle and Plato, exposed to attacks from representatives of orthodox theology.
The ideology of the church and partly secular nobility found a bright reflection in the wonderful monument of literature of the 20s of the XIII century. - "Catema" of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. The imbuilt thought about the superiority of spiritual power over secular, he included 20 outlining stories about the life of this largest church feudal corporation.
The extensive circle of ideas is contained in an outstanding monument of early noble journalism, which has been preserved in two editions of the XII-XIII centuries. - "Word", or "Millennium", Daniel Sharpener. The brilliantly formed Daniel skillfully used the treasures of the folklore for praising the strong princely power and chosen of harmful to Russia of self-balance of secular and church nobles.
In the composition of the chronicles, a story was preserved about the princes (about Andrei Bogolyubsky, Iaslav Mstislavich Volynsky, etc.), about major historical events - about the capture of Constantinople's crusaders, etc. In these stakes, there are many details indicating an increase in interest in human personality, to the actions and experiences of individuals.
The greatest monument of Russian culture XII century. It is the "word about the regiment of Igor", dedicated to the description of the unsuccessful campaign to the Polovtsy (in 1185) of the North-Send Prince Igor Svyatoslavich. The author is a supporter of the unity of the country, the unity of her strongest princes, the unity of the people. The Russian Earth for him is all Russia, from the Taman Peninsula to the Baltic States, from the Danube to the Suzdal Earth. At the time when, as a result of the princely gravity and Polovtsy raids, "Russian Earth rarely paharey was smoked, but often the crows of the Greyali, the corpses between their own", the author praises peaceful work. Describing one of the bloody intercourse battles on Nemigi and opposing the world war, he enjoys the images drawing the work of the peasant pahaper. "The Black Earth," the author writes, "under the hooves, the bones were sown, the blood of the polita: they rose in Russian land."
"The word" is imbued with deep patriotism. The image of the Russian land is central in this work. The author calls the princes to defend the Motherland and condemns those of them who are engaged in stripping ("Kuyut Kramol" and "sow on the ground of the arrows"). The author draws images of strong and powerful princes (Vsevolod a large nest, Yaroslav Orel, etc.), which spread their power to a large territory glorified in neighboring countries.
In the "Word about the regiment of Igor", images of folk poetry were generously used. It is felt in the description of nature, in the words of grief about the troubles, comprehended Russia, in those comparisons inherent in folk creativity, to which the author resorted, describing war and battle. Unforgettable brightness of lyrical female images, sneezing in the "Word" (Prince's wife Igor Evphrosinya Yaroslavna and "Red" Glebovna). The Russian people of the authors of the author "Word" expressed his appeal to unity in the name of labor and the world, in the name of the protection of the motherland.
Development of Russian culture in the XII-XIII centuries. There was a close connection with the further development of Russian nationalities.
In Russian land and in the period of feudal fragmentation, a common language was maintained (in the presence of various dialects) and there were general civil and church legal norms. The people were alien to the feudal strip and kept the memory of the unity of Russia. It was reflected first of all in the eponym.
Features of the formation of ancient Russian culture
1. Oriental Slavs received from the primitive era of the national, based on their pagan, culture, the art of crumplers, rich folklore - epics, fairy tales, ritual and lyrical songs.
2. The culture of Kievan Rus was formed in the era of the formation of a single Old Russian nationality and folding a single Russian literary language. It was created on the basis of the Vine Slavonic Culture. It reflected the cultural traditions of individual Slavic tribes - Polyan, Vyatichi, Novgorod residents, etc., as well as neighboring tribes - Morning Finns, Balts, Scythians, Iranians. Various cultural influences and traditions merged and melted under the influence of general political and socio-economic relations. The culture of Kievan Rus reflects the life and life of Slavic peoples, it was associated with the flourishing of trade and crafts, the development of interstate relations and trade relations.
3. A huge impact on the culture as a whole - on literature, architecture, painting - Hispanic. At the same time, the boring spiritual traditions continued in the culture of medieval Russia for a long time in the culture of medieval Russia. The harsh canons of church Byzantine art in Russia have changed, the images of the saints became more worldly, humane.
Writing, school education. Chronicles. Literature
1. For a long time, it existed that the letter on Rus came along with Christianity. However, the facts irrefutably indicate that Slavic writing existed even at the beginning of H .:
\u003e Clay Smolensky Vessel with the inscription in Slavic (End IX century);
\u003e Agreement (911) Prince Oleg with Byzantia is one of the first monuments of Slavic writing;
\u003e Cyril and Methodius created their own alphabet based on the Slavic letter.
2. After the adoption of Christianity in the XI century. In Russia, literacy among princes, boyars, merchants, rich citizens begins to spread. In the countryside, the population was illiterate. Yaroslav Wise, his children knew several languages. Artisans put inscription-stamps on their products. There were translations of Greek, Bulgarian books, historical writings - the famous "Academy" - a book about Alexander Macedon's campaigns, books in natural science and geography. The books were expensive, made from parchment. He was written from the hands of goose or swan feathers, decorated with colored miniatures. Of the 130 preserved books of the XI-XII centuries. More than 80 are liturgical.
3. The first schools were opened at churches, monasteries, in cities. Yaroslav Wise created a school in Novgorod for children of spiritual persons. Sister Monoma staged a school in Kiev for girls. Posal people (citizens - artisans, merchants), as a rule, were literate, they knew how to count well. This is said to be found in Novgorod and Pskov, birchy diplomas - letters, economic documents, court decisions, petitions, as well as graffiti - inscriptions on the walls of churches (complaints, prayers); Monomakh's inscription preserved: "Oh, hard to me." Slavs had rather extensive knowledge of geography obtained from books and as a result of traveling. They were well known four actions of arithmetic, fractions, start geometry, astronomy.
4. The chroniclery is the most important monument of Old Russian culture - the weather presentation of historical events. Chronicles, as a rule, literate, literary gifted monks who knew the translation literature, legends, epics, described events and facts related mainly to the life of the princes, the affairs of monasteries and occasionally uneasy. The first chronicle appeared at the end of the city. She talked about the history of Rurikovich before the introduction of Christianity. The chronicle has not survived. The second chronicle was compiled under Yaroslav wise. The third and fourth were created by Metropolitan Illarion at Prince Svyatoslav.
5. Many of the traditions entered the chronicle of the "Tale of Bygone Years", which became the main labor on the history of Russia. It was written by the monk Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor in 1113. A highly educated person for his time, a talented writer and a deep historian, he puts the question of the origin of the Russian state and its development: "How much went from the Russian land, who in Kiev began the first princes, And where the Russian land came from. " Nestor not only reports facts, but also makes philosophical and religious generalizations, shows the history of Russia and the princely authority of the Kiev state against the background of world history. He describes the boyars, landing, warriors, monks, speaks of military campaigns, uprisings, princely gravestics, the life of a simple people. Nestor condemns the murder, betrayal, praises honesty and courage. All events of the chronicler assesses from the standpoint of religious morality and statehood. Nestor also left two other outstanding works: "Tale of Boris and Glebe" and "Feodosia's Life". In 1118, during Monomakh, Igumen Sylvester wrote a new arch, where the acts of Vladimir Monomakh were particularly described. As Rus is collapsed, local chronicles in Smolensk, Pskov, Galich, Vladimir, Suzdal and other cities appear. Local chronicles wrote on the order of the prince approximate boyars or warriors. They told about the life of the prince and his family, his relationship with boyars, other princes, etc. Local chronicles were distinguished by the subject of narration, stylistics. In Kiev, there was a library of chronicle arches.
6. In addition to historical writings in Kievan Rus, works and other genres are created. In 1049, Metropolitan Illarion wrote a "word about the law and grace" - the famous work, which testified to the deep penetration of the ideology of Christianity into the consciousness of the Russian fathers of the church. In it, Illarion places new ideas and the concepts of Christianity, as well as Russia, the Russian people, the "old" and "glorious" princes of the Russian land, emphasizes the right of the Russian Church on independence. At the end of the XI century. Written works: "Memory and praise Vladimir" Monk James, "Tale of the initial distribution of Christianity in Russia." The greatest fame received the "teaching of children" Vladimir Monomakh, the main objective which is the need to combat princely internecuts. Monomah draws an image of an ideal prince taking care of the power of Russian land. In the work of the "Boot of Hegumen Daniel to the East" describes a long, difficult path to the coffin of the Lord in Palestine. Two works are distinguished: "Word" and "prayer". As scientists believe, they are written - one in the XII century, another in the XIII century. - Two authors that weathered the name Daniel and called themselves sharpeners. Both of imprisonment turn to their princes, both taller for strong princely power. The great monument of the ancient Russian literature is the word about the regiment of Igor. The only manuscript reached the new time "Words ..." died in a fire of Moscow during the invasion of Napoleon in 1812. The prince of Prince Igor Svyatoslavovich in 1185 was told in the work. The first battle ended with the victory of Russian troops. In the second battle, the Russian army was defeated, and Igor was captured. Polovtsy devastated the left bank of the Dnieper. An unknown author of "Words ..." overcame the narrowness of the interests of his principality and spoke from the standpoint of community interests, he advocates for the unity of all Russian princes in the fight against nomads and condemns those of them who did not come to help Igor. This is a poetic story about the courage of Russian people and crying for the dead.
Architecture
1. Archaeological excavations show that up to x in. In Russia, built exclusively from the tree. Wooden buildings of pagan Russia are not survived, but architectural style - Turks, Terem, Taruses, transitions, carving - switched to the stone architecture of Christian time. Stone temples on the Byzantine model began to build on Rusi: the squares formed the architectural cross. The earliest building of Kiev is the Church of the Virgin Town (the end of the X.), Named because there was a church tithing for its content. At Yaroslav, the Kiev Sophia Cathedral was built, in whose architecture of which the Slavic and Byzantine traditions are organically combined: 13 domes are based on the cross-domed church.
2. The Sophia Cathedral has become a symbol of the power of Kiev Rus. The walls of the cathedral are composed of pink bricks - a dlinge, alternating with a thick layer of white lime. The central dome was surrounded by 4 medium domes, followed by 8 small. There was an open gallery around the temple. Inside the wall and ceiling were decorated with frescoes and mosaic. The fresco is painting with water colors for raw plaster. Many frescoes were devoted not only to religious, but also by household plots: they depict the family of Yaroslav Wise, scenery, fist fight, hunting, etc. Mosaic had 130 shades. There was a lot of icons in the cathedral. Cathedrals in honor of St. Sophia were also built in Novgorod, Polotsk; In Chernigov - Savior Transfiguration Cathedral (multicoral temples).
3. In the XII century. Single-oiled temples were built: Dmitrovsky and Uspensky in Vladimir-on-Klyazma, the Church of Pokrov-on-Nerley. New fortresses, stone palaces, chambers of rich people in Chernigov, Galina, Pskov, Suzdal were laid out. Stone, as a rule, was decorated with carvings. Temples put on high hills, they combined with a natural landscape. The city of Vladimir was surrounded by a stone wall with gold-plated golden gates.
Art, music, oral folk creativity
1. Distributed and iconography. Icon is an image on specially processed boards revered by the Church of Saints. In Russia, the strict Byzantine technique of icon painting experienced the influence of ancient Russian culture, which brought softness, depth, lyrics to ascetic Byzantine canons. The oldest idea of \u200b\u200bthe monument of icon painting is the icon of "Vladimir Mother". She was named so after transferring the icons by Andrei Bogolyubsky from Kiev to Vladimir. One of the oldest preserved monuments of the Vladimir-Suzdal art of icon painting is the main "Deesus", written in the late XII century. ("Deesus" means "prayer"). To the same school icon painting also includes icon "Oranta". Novgorod Icons reached us: "Angel Golden Vlasus", "saved the delicious", "The Assumption of the Virgin" (all - XII century), which depicts the passions of Divine and Human. Dmitrovsky Cathedral in Vladimir decorated the frescoes of the "Scary Court".
2. High levels reached the art of a car thread, stone, she decorated the palaces of princes and housing Boyar. Russian jewelers using a complex technique - scan, mobile, grains, filigree, created gold and silver jewelry, which were masterpieces of world art. Magnificent chasenka and elegant artistic decoration of weapons put Russian masters-Zlatokuznets in one row with Western European. The risk of Turkey Rogov from the Black Grave in Chernigov is known. Many products were exported to the Czech Republic, Poland; And the bone thread in Byzantium was called "Russian Threads".
3. The folk art is reflected in Russian folklore: conspiracies, spells, proverbs, riddles that were associated with agriculture and life of Slavs, wedding songs and funeral extensions. A special place occupies such an epic genre as "antiquities" - epics, especially the Kiev heroic cycle. Their heroes - Kiev, Dnipro, Princes Vladimir Red Sun and Monomakh, Russian Bogati Dobrynya Nikitich, Alyosha Popovich, Ilya Muromets - Folk heroes, Defenders of the Motherland. Their exploits are fabulous and heroic. Gradually, oral folk art acquires social painting: they will be influenced by the rich, boyars.
4. The oldest genre of Russian music is ritual and labor songs, "antiquities". Musical instruments - tambourines, hussli, pipes, horns. In the squares performed the squirrels - singers, dancers, acrobats, was people's Theater. dolls. Bayans were greatly respected - narrator and singers "Starin".
Life and morals of ancient Russia
1. The culture of the people is inextricably linked with its life, in the nearest. People lived in cities (20-30 thousand people), villages (≈50 people), villages (25 - 40 people). The main type of Slavic dwelling was a manor, a house - a log cabin, often two-story. Kiev was a big and rich city: palaces, cathedrals, a boyars, rich merchants, clergy. In the palaces, people were often held, women sat on a par with men, they sang a gueklyrah, there was a distribution of food, money on behalf of the owner. Favorite fun rich - falcon, hawk, psovy hunting. For simple people, races, fist fights, playing, were arranged. Bath was very popular.
2. Clothes sewed from a homework canvas or cloth. The basis of the costume was a shirt, the pants in men refuel into boots, a female shirt - to the floor, with embroidery and long sleeves. Headgear: Prince - a hat framed by bright matter, women head covered with a handkerchief (a towel - married), decorated with pendants, peasants and townspeople were fur or wicker caps. Outerwear -Clap-Wrap from thick linen fabric. The princes were carried on the neck of the barma - chains of silver or gold medallions with enamel ornaments.
3. Food used bread, meat, fish, vegetables. Saw kvass, honey, wine. In the chronicle, the Kyivan's addiction to Winopy is noted.
4. The newborn gave names for the church calendar. For the most part, they have Jewish or Greek origin. In Russian, they changed their sound: Jacob - Yakov, Joseph - Osip, Abram, John - Ivan. Princely names became calendar - Vladimir, Boris, Gleb, Oleg. At ordinary people, the name often became a nickname - silence, Oladia, a fool.
5. Russian culture on the eve of the Mongolian invasion was at a very high level of development, not inferior to the culture of the advanced European countries and actively interacting with it.
Culture of Russia feudal fragmentation period. The culture of the Galico-Volyn Principality.
The development of culture occurred in difficult conditions for the fragmentation of Russian lands. At the same time, despite the permanent crossbursions and threats on the part of the SOS, the states and tribes, in the ancient Russian culture of this period were achievements and successes. Oka has become more democratic: new territories, cities, new layers of society were actively involved in cultural life. For example, customers of religious structures, monumental paintings and precious jewelry were not only princes and boyars, and the wealthy representatives of the urban population that had their views, tastes, ideas.
There were changes in the ancient Russian architecture. Russian architects began to move away from traditional Byzantine architectural canons and forms and under the influence of local conditions began to look for new solutions. In the specific principalities, architectural schools arose, which differed in their peculiarities. Kyiv, Chernihiv and Pereyaslav architectural schools, which were combined with a single style. In Russia began to build smaller temples of the simplified design. The internal and exterior decoration of the temples has changed. A more characteristic has become a new scenery of facades: they began to decorate with pilasters, semi-column, arcate belts and the so-called grease.
The growth and strengthening of cities - the political and cultural centers of individual principalities - was accompanied by the construction of a large number of religious and civil buildings in Kiev, Chernigov, Galich, Pereyaslav and many other cities. Some tons are preserved to this day.
The most famous of them are: Church of the Virgin Farming (1132) in Kiev on Podol, Borisoglebsky and the Assumption Cathedral of the Yeletsky Monastery in Chernigov, and others.
The interior of the ancient Russian palaces and temples, as before, decorated with mosaic, frescoes, mosaic floors and a variety of applied art products. The latter were used not only as decorations, but they often performed the role of amulets-faiths and were called upon to protect their owners from the evil forces of nature. The role of the orders was performed and magic ornaments, which were decorated with many of their products of the master jewelers and artisans, creating objects of life. In the period of fragmentation, writing the chronicles continued. New chronicle centers appeared in Chernigov, Pereyaslav, Hill, Vladimir-Volyn. Under some monasteries there were whole libraries that consisted exclusively from the chronicles. These annals used the next generations of chroniclers who created whole chronicles, depicting the events of past years from different points of view, and trying to give these events as an objective assessment.
There were new original forms of historical works; Family and generic princely chronicles, lives of princes, etc.
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Unfortunately, most of these works have not been preserved.
The masterpiece of ancient Russian, fiction is''slovo about the regiment of Igor'''''''''''. This work was written in a difficult time for Russia, when she suffered from Poland raids, and tells about the unsuccessful campaign of Novgorod-Seversk Prince Igor Svyatoslavich against Polovtsy in 1185. The word is permeated by the idea of \u200b\u200bcombining Alp Rus for the fight against enemies. On the example of the defeat of the prince of Igor, the author ''slova''' sought to show what the disputes and hostility of the princes can lead to.
The Galician-Volyn land became the center of the cultural life of the Ukrainian principalities of the period of fragmentation. So, as everywhere, the church was playing an important role in the development of culture. The monasteries created the chronicle. The most famous Galico-Volyn chronicle, in which the events of Galician and Volyn lands are illuminated from 1201 to 1292. A feature of this chronicle is its secular character.
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The author of the chronicle figuratively tells about the time of the reign of the novel and Danil, about the life of the princes and boyars, about the military campaigns of Russian teams, about their fight against the Tatars, Hungarians, Poles and other conquerors.
A vivid evidence of the high level of culture was the architecture of the edge. There were built mainly from the tree, for a long time, temples remained with stone buildings, in some cases of the chamber.
The temples were built mainly from white stone using carved ornaments. Archaeologists found that there were about 30 monumental stone structures in the XII century, but only a small part of them was studied today. Interesting architectural monuments of the Galician land is the Princely Palace and Church of Panel Oyamon in Galich.
Galitsky and Volyn Principality, at the turn of the XII and XIII centuries. Slow into the Unified Galician-Volyn Principality, in the second half of the XII century. And in the XIII century, at the time of the decline of the Kiev Principality, they achieve significant political power and cultural heyday. The reign of Yaroslav Osmomysl, Roman Mstislavich, his sons of Daniel and Vasilka Romanovichi and the grandson of Vladimir Vasilkovich are connected with the most glorious pages of Galician-Volyn history. But from the beginning of the XIV century. Galico-Volyn Land politically weakens and in half the same century it is part of the Polish-Lithuanian state.
Galico-Volyn Book, developed on the basis of the Kiev Literary Tradition, if not quantitatively, it was high quality at considerable height. We reached us a number of lists of the Gospel Text, incl. Galitsky four-day 1144 ᴦ., Dobrilovo Gospel 1164 ᴦ. et al., Life is nifiona and Fedor Studit in the Vyglacxinsky Collection of the XII-XIII centuries Antioch Pandeks 1307 ᴦ. and other handwritten books of the XII-XIII centuries. Prince Vladimir Vasilkovich Chronicler characterizes as''Veliky Bistributor''''s and philosopher, which was not on the Earth. In one of the monasteries, he sacrificed the gospel, rewritten by his hand, as well as the'Sobornik Great''', who belonged to his father. Several churches he sent the liturgical books, incl. In the Chernihiv, aproatine gospel, written by gold and richly decorated. On his initiative, the complete lives of Dmitry Solunsky, the feeding book, and probably the conversations of Grigory Dvoyeslov. He had employees in the same way as he, the book-workers engaged in the replication of the liturgical and nonsense of book. Among the Galico-Volyn activity of that pore should be mentioned Metropolitan Peter.
In the second half of the XIII century. In the Galician-Volyn land was, apparently, a collection was drawn up (used in the so-called Archive collection of the XV century. and in the Vilenian manuscript), which included an intelligent apocalypse, a chronograph that made biblical books, Chronicles George Amartol and John Malala, Alexandria and the history of the Joseph of Joseph Flavia; Further - under the title''Rus chronicler'''r - the tale of temporary years and the collection of type of evidence of Svyatoslav 1073 ᴦ.
ᴀᴋᴎᴍᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϭᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, Galico-Volyn land in the XII-XIII centuries. Hold the best works of the translation and Russian historical literature of the Kiev period.
Book activities in the Galician-Volyn Earth continued, although not so intense and after the loss of political independence.
There should be no doubt that many monuments of literature died in that restless historical setting, which fell to the share of the Galician-Volyn Principality.
The chroniclel in Galicia began visible in the XI century. Judging by the individual stories, which are undoubtedly, from the Galician Chronicle to '' Pretty Day''''' and to Kiev Chronicle (description of the blinding of Prince Vasilka and followed events of 1098-1100 Gᴦ., Outlined under 1097 ᴦ.). Preserved precisely in Russian lists based on sources included in the Russian ObikOd Galico-Volyn chronicle of the XIII century. Supported the tradition of the budget poetry in the northeastern Russia, the highest achievement of which at the end of the XII century. there was a word about the regiment of Igor
Art of the Galico-Volyn Land of the XII-XIII centuries. It is impossible to divide the Mongolian conquest for two halves. Higher military training of Galician armed forces, strong defensive walls of urban centers made it difficult for the speed of Tatar conquest, and the subsequent international policy of Daniel Galitsky softened the Tatar yoke and ensured the almost normal course of social life, and together with it, the development of art. Here, as in Novgorod, who avoided the immediate defeat of the earth by Mongolian hordes, the fatal 1238-1240. did not interrupted cultural development.
With its origins, the art of Galico-Volyn Rus is associated with the Treasury of Artistic Culture, the art of the Kiev land for all over the old Russian principalities. We can judge the Galician-Volyn art only on architecture monuments, which are also poorly studied and are presented with almost exclusively archaeologically opened ruins of temples.
In Kiev architecture of the XI-XII centuries. It was necessary to start the decision of a number of new tasks - the urban cathedral of the specific capital, the palace princely temple and the ensemble by Princely or in general the feudal residence in general; They were given in the Cathedral of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, in the Savior Church in Berestov - the countryside of Monomakh, and then repeatedly repeatedly with various modifications, both in the construction of Kiev itself and other feudal centers of the XII century; Galich and Vladimir-Volynsky were among them.
It is very significant to note the features of originality that distinguish the architecture of Volyn and Galicia. Monuments of Vladimir-Volynsky - Mstislavov Assumption Cathedral (1157-1160) and in the tract,'staray Catedra'' 'ruins of the temple belonging, apparently, besides, represent the exceptional proximity to the Kiev-Chernihiv monuments.
Volyn in art, as in the literature, was the direct heiress of the Kiev land and rather zealously followed its traditions.
The art of Galich was somewhat different and more critical perceived the artistic legacy and canonical samples. The very international situation of Galich, who facilitated direct connection with Western Europe and the direct impact of Western artistic culture contributed to the peculiarity of Galician architecture. The abundance of natural building stone made it possible to replace them with ordinary brick and enriched the possibilities of decorative processing of buildings - threads, the game of various tones of the facing stone, etc. (even in the middle of the XII c) in Galich, a complex architectural ensemble of the Prince of Palace was created in Galich. The story of the chronicle about the circumstances of the death of Prince Vladimir Galitsky paints us this construction in the form of a set of a number of buildings: the residential part of the palace,'ñsen''''''''''s and the palace temple, combined between the transition system; In the base of this composition, there is a significant development (a system of rich wooden housing -''horom'''''''', who was still in the conditions of life of the princely-friendly tops of Kievan Rus. Open excavations The foundations of the White Palace Church of Savor give a typical example of the buildings of this kind. The Galician Palace discovers a lot of general features with The composition of the Bogolyubovsky Castle of the XII century.
Built at the turn of the XII-XIII centuries. The church of the Pantel Oyimon in Galich with its portals and carving of a romanesque nature shows how Kiev heritage is reissued in Galician architecture, romantic traits fall on the communional Kiev-Byzantine base, creating a peculiar appearance of architecture.
Especially magnificent development it receives from the 40s of the XIII century. This fact cannot be not associated with the circumstance noted above that the Galician-Volyn land was the corner of the Russian land, where in the first years of the Mongolian rule the cultural development continued, where social life did not cut off. This was undoubtedly rushed by all the prevalence of captivity and the death of cultural powers; The chronicle, telling about the building of the hill, draws a colorful picture of the population of the new princely city; At the call of Prince''Prichoja Nemtsa and Russia, the Initiates and Lyakhy Days Day and the day and unomatics and masters of all of the Beigehi_is Tatars, the saddelniani and the Lieuners and Tulnya and the forge of Zavoise and Copper and Srebra, and the life, and the filfilled courtyards of Grad, the field and Sela'''''''''
It is in connection with this story about the many of the masters flowing into the Galician land of various professions and reports the Galico-Volyn chronicle about the beautiful buildings created in the 40s-50s of Prince Daniel in the hill, which caused genuine delight and surprise of contemporaries.
Special attention and admiration for the chronicler deserved Church of Ivan: Her arches relied on carved quadrilateral capitals with the image of human heads. 'I'isvyanny from a certain Hytrets'''''''rim glass''', that is, color stained glass windows on the windows of the temple, created a bizarre lighting of its internal space; In the altar above the throne, he rummaged on two columns from a whole stone. Beautiful Seng and Kyiviy decorated in azure background with foster stars; The floor was merged from copper and tin and glistened like a mirror.
Another building of the hill - the Church of Mary (1260) was not inferior, according to the chronicler, with its beauty and the size of other temples. For this church, a wonderful water boss made of red marble was made, at the edges she was decorated with snake heads. The bowl was delivered to the main church doors, as was done in the temples of that time in the West.
These characteristics dedicated to the chronicler of the Kholmsky buildings disclose our exceptionally complex and peculiar elements in the composition of the composition. The appearance of holm temples allows you to see a kind of weave the features born in the process of the development of the ancient Russian architecture of the XII century, with clearly borrowed receptions-Romanesque art. The same features are characterized by the second half of the XII century. in the Vladimir Principality; Moreover, the individual details of the decoration and design of the buildings of the Bogolyubovsky Castle (1158-1165) are so strikingly repeated with centuries later in the hill, which arises the idea of \u200b\u200bthe possibility of direct work from Prince Daniel Vladimir architects and cutters who fled from Tatar captors, and, together with other masters , Built and decorated the holm temples.
For Galician-Volyn culture, the absence of a sharply pronounced and irreconcilable religious and national disgust from the'Latinsky''''' Mira, and this feature has also contributed to the enrichment of art acquaintance with the West. Appeal to Romanesque art was quite understandable for Vladimir XII century. And for the Galician Rus XIII century, as this art is more fully, than the Byzantine, expressed ideas and tastes of the feudal world, the best representatives of which in Russia in the XII century. There were Vladimir''samlasttsi'''''', and in the XIII century. - Galico-Volynsky 'Korol'''' Daniel.
On the other hand, the appeal to Western culture was a kind of form of approval of their own ways of artistic and in general cultural development and waste from traditions.
This also explains that a significant fact that in the Galician-Volyn art, in contrast to other principalities, was given a significant development of the art of brewing, which was denied by the Orthodox Byzantine Church in applied to religious plots. It was expressed here not only in the decorative plastic of the Kholmian temples, but developed into an independent branch of art, which is even secular in nature.
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The chronicle tells about the interesting sculpture, delivered by Prince Daniel outside the city of the hill, probably on the way to him.
The same effect of Romanesque art is felt in the Galician-Volyn painting, which can be judged only by several miniatures.
They trace the techniques of romance-gothic painting, both in relation to the colorful gamma, and in the construction of a picturesque image.
So, Galico-Volyn art of the XIII century. It is one of the most vibrant and large pages of the history of the Old Russian art. Starting his way along with the literature from the whole of the ancient Russia of the source - the Kiev-Byzantine artistic culture, it enriched with the art of Western Soshy. These introductions were organically mastered by Galician masters, creating quite peculiar and high-quality monuments of the art of Galician-Volyn Rus.
The Principality became the heiress K. Rusi, fought for the reunification of the consolidation of land, contributed to the development of the economy, cities, crafts, trade, culture; contributed to the protection of the population of the southwestern land from the physical destruction of Mongol-Tatars; Raised the authority of Ukrainian lands in the international arena, especially in feudal fragmentation.
The Galico-Volyn Principality after the decline of Kiev continued on the whole century the existence of public education in the Slavic lands and became the main political center of the future of Ukraine.
The word''Ukrainsky''' 'is first used in''Propecius''''''or Grigory still the middle of the XI century. The term''UKRAIN'' 'mentioned in the Kiev chronicles in 1187 ᴦ. As the synonym for the concept of''Krash''''''''''''''i is the edge, the native land (for comparison: Serbia. According to Serbo-Croatski - Serbsk Krash). From 1335, the concept of the Greeks became used for Galicia. At the same time, in different periods, it indicated various regions of Ukraine.
Culture of Russia feudal fragmentation period. The culture of the Galico-Volyn Principality. - Concept and species. Classification and features of the category "Culture of Russia of the period of feudal fragmentation. The culture of the Galician-Volyn Principality." 2017, 2018.
Culture of Russia's feudal fragmentation period
Introduction
I was chosen the topic "Culture of Russia of a feudal fragmentation period", because, despite the common opinion about the backwardness of Russia from other countries at this time, about its cultural underdevelopment, I want to prove the opposite. Rus of the period XI-XIII V.V. I experienced a big splash of culture, she was spiritually sublit. By the beginning of the invasion, Tatar-Mongol Rus was spiritually rich in spiritually, by this time she had already managed to produce many monuments of architecture, literature, painting. At the end of the XIII century, Russia developed very much. In most cities, architecture was mastered and developed, the chronicle, the icon. I also want to show that Russia took a lot from Byzantium (religion, the chronicle, the sacred church books, the icon, the structure of churches and temples), but at the same time, she presented it in his own way, in all that created the people of Rusi felt her spirit, Mood feelings. The Russian people could contribute to everything that they were created by a part of themselves, such a unique, and native to us. Also, I want to show that the culture of the people is part of its history. This is all what was created by the mind, talent, needlework of the people and what is still transmitted from generation to generation, everything that expresses his spiritual essence. A look at the world, nature, human relations and relationship between man and God.
Russian medieval culture X-XIII V.V. Deserved a high assessment of both contemporaries and descendants. Eastern geographers indicated ways to Russian cities, admired the art of Russian gunsmiths who were preparing special steel (Biruni). Western chronicles called Kiev decoration of the East and the opponent of Constantinople (Adam Pregnant). The scientist presbyter, theophile from Paderbore, in its technical encyclopedia of the XI century admired the products of Russian Zlatokuznets - the finest enamels on gold and a black on silver. In the list of countries, whose masters glorified their lands in one type of art, theophile put Rus at the honorable place - it is only Greece ahead, and behind Italy, Arabia, Germany and other countries. Samples of Russian products admired the venels of the German emperors and then when they were in Kiev as ambassadors, and when the Kiev Prince fled from the rebel people, showed Russian things to the emperor.
The culture of that time helps us understand the formation of the state, the worldview of people, their mind and feelings, and, most importantly, the culture of the time and is now present in our lives, and interest in it does not fill, this is "the word about the regiment Igor", this Cathedrals and temples built at the time, and living still, these are frescoes and icons drawn by the iconographic painters of the Domongolian Rus, these are fairy tales, epics, proverbs, sayings, which today are relevant to their teachings and morality, is a religion that It holds most of the Russian people. All this passed through a veil of time and continues to exist, to surprise and live their lives even in our time.
I believe that the Russian people made an invaluable contribution to world culture, creating currently the works of culture for hundreds of years ago. So, in this control, I want to show all the wealth of the Russian soul, which formed the basis of the monuments of the culture of the time.
General conditions for the development of culture
Already in the XI century, in the life of the Old Russian principalities, one tendency is increasingly distinguished: the strengthening of the princely strip and civil workers who prevented the formation of Russia and threatened its independence. This was facilitated by the growth of victorious land tenure and the development of cities. Cities sufficiently strengthened so as not to obey Kiev, who could no longer provide effective protection if necessary, the local princes who received support for their markers and citizens were better than this task. All this along with the desire of princes to independence led to the separation of principality from Kiev. The struggle for Kiev himself, however, did not stop, because he remained the most prestigious table and the largest city of Russia.
The fragmentation caused by socially political reasons was, however, the inevitable stage in Russia's history - almost all countries of medieval Europe passed through it.
The crossbursts between the principles of the share of a considerable bandwind in the defense of Rus borders, besides, many princes did not happen to call for help in the fight against the neighboring principles of Polovtsy. Those, in turn, were strongly dispersed, and the princes soon lost all control over them, and the Russian earth moaning under the onslais of raids from the outskirts. The abundant principalities, cities and villages were burned, robbed, many were taken captured, as actively intervened in Russian cases Poland and Hungary.
The largest lands of the era of feudal fragmentation, who played a leading role in the fate of Russia, were Vladimir-Suzdal and Galico - Volyn Principalities and the Novgorod feudal republic.
Vladimir-Suzdal Land: Vladimir-Suzdal Land occupied the Okey and Volga interfluid. The most ancient residents of this wooded edge were Slavs and Finno-Ugric tribes. The favorable effect on the economic growth of this zalessky land was rendered with the XI century. The colonization influx of the Slavic population, especially, from the south of Russia, under the influence of a Polovtsian threat. The most important occupation of the population of this part of Russia was agriculture, which was conducted on the blessed exits of the chernozem among forests (so-called oplation). Crafts played a prominent role in the lives of the region and associated with Volzhsky trading. Ancient cities The principalitys were Rostov, Suzdal and Murom, from the middle of the XII century. Vladimir-on-Klyazma became the capital of the principality.
The beginning of the establishment of independence of the Rostov-Suzdal Earth occurred on the board of one of the younger sons of Vladimir Monomakh - Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgorukov, who made Suzdal with his capital. Conducting an active policy in the interests of his principality, the prince sought to rely on local boyars, urban and church circles. Under Yuri, the Dolgoruk was founded by a number of new cities, including for the first time under 1147 Moscow is mentioned in the chronicles. Owning Rostov-Suzdal Earth, Yuri Dolgoruky constantly tried to capture the Kiev throne in his hands. At the end of his life he managed to master Kiev, but he did not use the support of the local population. Yuri died under strange circumstances in 1157 (most likely was poisoned by Kiev boyars). The eldest son of Yuriy Dolgoruky Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky (1157-1174) was born and grew up in the north and his main support was considered his native land. Having received from Yuri Dolgoruky Management in Vyshgorod (near Kiev), while the father of Father Andrei Bogolyubsky left him and went to Rostov with his surroundings. According to legend, together with him, an unknown by the Byzantine Master of the XII century was included in the Rostov-Suzdal Earth. The icon of Our Lady, subsequently becoming one of the most revered Icons of Russia ("Virgin Vladimir"). After approved after the death of the father on the throne, Andrei Bogolyubsky suffered his capital from Rostov in Vladimir-on-Klyazemma. To strengthen and decorate its capital, he did not regret funds. In an effort to keep Kiev, Andrei Bogolyubsky preferred to be in Vladimir, from where he conducted an energetic policy to strengthen the strong princely power. Brutal and powerful politician, Andrei Bogolyubsky relied on the "younger squad" (serviced people), the city's population, especially the new capital of Vladimir, and in part on church circles. Cool and often the self-abilities of the prince caused discontent in the circle of large landowners-boyars. As a result of a conspiracy, the name and representatives of the nearest environment of the prince arose, and in 1174 Andrei Yuryevich was killed in his residence Bogolyubov (near Vladimir). After the death of Andrei Bogolyubsky, his younger brother turned out to be in the throne - Vsevolod Yuryevich, who finally secured Vladimir-on-Klyazma Status the main prince of the capital. The rule of Vsevolod is a large nest (1176-1212) was a period of the highest political power of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality. Under the control of Vsevolod, Yuryevich was Novgorod the Great, in constant dependence on the Vladimir Prince turned out to be Muromo-Ryazan land. Vsevolod, a large nest significantly influenced the state of affairs in the southern Russian lands and at the end of the XII - early XIII centuries. Was the strongest Russian prince. However, after the death of Vsevolod, a large nest between his many sons broke out the struggle for power, the expression of the development of the process of feudal fragmentation, already within the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality itself.
Galico-Volyn Land: The territory of the Galico-Volyn Land extended from the Carpathians to Polesia, capturing the flows of the rivers of the Dniester, Prut, Western and South Bug, Pripyat. Natural conditions The principalities favored the development of agriculture in river valleys, in the foothills of the Carpathians - the extraction of salt and the mining. An important place in the life of the region was played by trading with other countries, which were of great importance in which the cities of Galich, Mozlyl, Vladimir-Volynsky.
A vigorous local boyars played an active role in the life of the principality, in constant struggle with which the princely power tried to establish control over the state of affairs in their lands. The constant impact on the processes occurring in the Galician-Volyn Earth, provided the policies of Poland's neighboring states and Hungary, where for help or in order to find shelters turned both princes and representatives of the Boyar groupings. The elevation of the Galician principality began in the second half of the XII century. With Prince Yaroslava Orel (1152-1187). After the troubles started with his death, the Volyn Prince Roman Mustlavich, which, in 1199, united the Galic land and most of the Volyn Earth as part of one principality. Leading a fierce fighting with local boyars, Roman Mstislavich tried to subordinate other lands of South Rus. After death in 1205, the eldest son Daniel (1205-1264), who was then only four years later, became his heir. A long period of civilians began, during which, to divide Galicia and Volyn to Poland and Hungary. Only in 1238, shortly before the invasion of Batya, Daniel Romanovich managed to establish himself in Galich.
Novgorod Land: From the very beginning of the history of Russia, I played a special role in it. The most important feature of this land was that the traditional exercise for the Slavs agriculture, with the exception of the cultivation of flax and cannabis, did not give much income here. The main source of enrichment of the largest land owners of Novgorod - Boyar was a profit from the sale of products of fisheries - Bortfish, hunting on the fur and marine beast. Along with ancient times, representatives of the Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes were part of the population of the Novgorod Land here. In the XI-XII centuries. Novgorod residents mastered south coast Finnish bay and kept in their hands to enter the Baltic Sea, from the beginning of the XIII century. The Novgorod border in the West went through the lines of the miracle and Pskov lakes. Important for Novgorod had to join the extensive territory of Pomerania from the Kola Peninsula to the Urals. Novgorod sea and forest fishery brought huge wealth. Novgorod's trade connections with neighbors, especially with the Baltic Basin Countries, was growing from the middle of the XII century. To the West from Novgorod, fur, firing bone, fat, flax, etc. Items of importation on Russia were closed, weapons, metals, etc. Economic growth of Novgorod prepared the necessary conditions for its political separation into an independent feudal boyar republic in 1136 for princes In Novgorod, only service functions remained. The princes performed in Novgorod as military leaders, their actions were under the constant control of the Novgorod authorities. The right of princes on the court was limited, the purchase of land in Novgorod is prohibited, the revenues received by them from certain possessions are strictly fixed. From the middle of the XII century. Novgorod prince formally considered grand Duke Vladimir, but until the middle of the XV century. He did not have the opportunity to really influence the state of affairs in Novgorod. The supreme governing body of Novgorod was the veche, the real power was focused in the hands of Novgorod boyarism. Three or four dozen Novgorod boyar surnames kept in their hands more than half of the private owner of the republic, and, skillfully using the patriarchacial-democratic traditions of Novgorod Starne in their own interests, did not produce power from their control over the richest land of Russian Middle Ages.
For the socio-political history of Novgorod, private urban uprisings are characterized (1136, 1207, 1228-29, 1270). However, these movements, as a rule, did not lead to fundamental changes in the system of republic. In most cases, social tension in Novgorod skillfully used in their struggle for the authorities representatives of rival boyars, which the people of the people were painted with their political opponents.
So we see that Kievan Rus I finally broke up, other major Russian principalities and cities appeared, because of what it was not calm in Russia, civil workers, raids from the outskirts, all this was disturbed by the hearts and minds of the people. There was no calm time, even though it was historically predictable. But at the same time, due to the fact that Russia shared on the many principalities in each feudal state began to develop art, which, in general, as a result, as a result of such a surge of culture in all areas of Russia.
Monuments of literature
russian medieval culture
The most important monument in Russia is the chronicle is the historical genre of the Old Russian literature, which is a weather, more or less detailed record of historical events. Chronicles, as a rule, literate, literary gifted monks who knew the translation literature, legends, epics, described events and facts related mainly to the life of the princes, the affairs of monasteries and occasionally uneasy.
The geographical horizon of the chronicler is very wide - he knows both Britain in the West of the Old World, noting some ethnographic remnants of the British, and China in the East of the Old World, where people live on the edge of the land . Using Russian archives, folk tales and foreign literatureChronicles created a wide and interesting picture of the historical development of the Russian state. The era of feudal fragmentation affected the fact that regional literary forces appeared, in each new princely the center were their chronicles, who paid the main attention to local events, but did not cease to be interested in and community affairs. Literature Rosla Sshir. The annals in Novgorod, Vladimir, Polotsk, Galich, Smolensk, Novgorod-Seversky, Pskov, Pereyaslavl and other cities appeared. It is important to note that while the ancient Russia came close to Byzantium, a lot of work began on translation and correspondence of books. Russian scribes were known literature in Staroslavyansky, Greek, Jewish, Latin, but at the same time they continued to use their tongue, which distinguished him from most countries of the East and West. The Russian language was used everywhere - in office work, diplomatic correspondence, private letters, in art and scientific literature. The unity of the people's and state language was a large cultural advantage of Russia in front of the Slavic and German countries in which the Latin state language dominated. It was impossible to be so wide literacy, since Latin meant competent. For the Russian landing people, it was enough to know the alphabet in order to immediately express their thoughts in writing; This explains the wide application of writing in Russia and on boards (obviously hurned). With all the patriotism of Russian literature, we will not find in it and a trace of the preaching of aggressive actions. The struggle with the Polovtsy is considered only as the defense of the Russian people from unexpected robbing raids. Characteristic feature Is the lack of chauvinism, humane attitude towards people of various nationalities: Miluja is not Tokmo his faith, but also Chusyiye ..., it is then a bude of Zhidovin, or Saracin, or Bulgarian, or heretic, or a Latinian, or from all the rebounds - all sorts of merry and from trouble to get rid (Message of Feodosia Pechersky to Prince Izyaslav, XI century). In the next century, Russian literature had a great influence on the culture of South Slavic countries who did not know Latin as official. Russian literature XI-XIII V.V., as it was not sad, it came to us not completely. The medieval church, aggressively tuned to the remnants of paganism in the state of Ryano destroyed everything, with him connected, the literature did not bypass, so many writings mentioned the pagan gods were destroyed. In an example, you can give the "Word about the regiment of Igor", where the church is said in passing, and the whole poem is full of Russian pagan deities. Until the XVIII century. Only one list of "Words ..." came, although it is known that he was read in different Russian cities, individual quotes in the preserved manuscripts, hints for the abundance of books and individual works - all this convinces us that in the fire of civil wars, the persecution of the Orthodox Church , Polovtsy and Tatar raids could perish a lot of treasures of ancient Russian literature. But the surviving part is very valuable and interesting. The largest works of Russian literature created at that time, but many centuries who continued their literary lives were: "The word about the law and grace" of Metropolitan Illarion, the "teaching" of Vladimir Monomakh, "The Word about the regiment of Igor", "Milia" Mikhail Sharpener, "Kiev-Pechersk Catema" and, of course, among them a prominent place occupies a "tale of the timeless years" of Nestor. For most of them, a wide, community view of events and phenomena, pride for their state, consciousness of the need for a constant joint struggle against nomadic troops, the desire to stop the ruins of Russian princes among themselves. The pearl of Russian literature of the House'golsky time is the "word about the regiment of Igor" (~ 1187) standing in the first row of masterpieces of world poetry. "The Word ..." is one of the greatest monuments of the ancient Russian literature. About eight centuries ago, approximately in 1187, one of the most brilliant works of the Old Russian literature was created. "The word ..." is a multiyful oak, oak mighty and spread. Its branches are connected to the crowns of other luxurious trees of the Great Garden of Russian Poetry of the XIX and XX centuries, and its roots deeply go to Russian soil. Russian literature has already been distinguished by high patriotism, interest in the themes of public and state construction, invariably developing communications with folk creativity. She puts himself in the center of his distortion of man, she serves him, he sympathizes him, he was depicting him, it reflects the national traits, it is looking for ideals. In Russian literature of the XI-XVI centuries. There were no poetry, lyrics as separate genres, and therefore all literature is imbued with special lyricism. This lyricism penetrates the chronicles, in historical stories, in oratory. It is characteristic that Lurism has civil forms in ancient Russian literature. The author grieves and tells not about his personal misfortunes, he thinks about his homeland, it takes the benefit of his personal feelings. This is a liking of a personal character, although the person's identity in it is expressed by calls to the salvation of the Motherland, to overcoming the turmoil in the public life of the country, the acute expression of grief about defeats or civilian princes. This typical feature found one of the brightest expressions in the "Word about the regiment of Igor". "The Word ..." is devoted to the topic of protection of the Motherland, it is lyric, performed by longing and grief, angry perturbation and passionate call. It is epic and lyrically simultaneously. The author constantly interferes with the course of events that tells. He interrupts himself with exclamations of longing and grief, as if he wants to stop the alarming course of events, compares the past with the present, calls for the princes-contemporaries to active actions against the enemies of the Motherland. "The word ..." is imbued with great human feeling - Warm, gentle, strong sense of love for his homeland. This love is felt in every row of the work: both in spiritual excitement, with which the author talks about the defeat of the troops of Igor: "For the third day, Igor's twigs fell on the third day! Here, brothers on the shore of the fast Kaivey were separated; there is a bloody wine lacking; here the Day finished the brave Rusichi: shatov drank and they themselves were elegted for the land of Russian. Nick grass from pity, and the tree with longing to the ground was abandoned. " And in how he conveys words of crying Russian wives for killed warriors: "Russian wines ignored, saying: "We are already our cute way nor in thoughts to think neither think about neither eyes do not see and gold and silver and the forest in the hands do not hold! "" and in a wide picture of Russian nature and in joys about the return of Igor: "The sun glows in the sky, - and Igor Prince in Russian Earth. Igor rides Borichev to the Holy Mother of Farming. The villages are glad, hare fun. Singers of the old princes, then the young sing: "Glory Igor Svyatoslavich, Buy Tour Vsevolod, Vladimir Igorevich! " The poem inspired real events of the history of that time. "The word ..." was created after Igor's events of the campaign and written under fresh impressions from these events. This work is assembled from hints, reminders, deaf instructions on what was still in the memory of every person. It served as a call to stop the princely gravity, to unification in the face of terrible external danger. The author's merit is that he managed to become higher than the private interests of individual princes, understood the need to unite the Russian Earth and expressed this thought in bright and lively images and paintings. "The word ..." with genius force and inspirational reflected the disaster of that time - the lack of political unity of Russia, the enmity of the princes among themselves and, as a result, the weakness of her defense from the strengthened and frequent piping of the raids of nomadic peoples and the eastern neighbors of Russia. "The word about the regiment of Igor" not only tells about the events of the campaign of Igor Svyatoslavich - it gives an assessment and represents a passionate and excited speech of the Patriot, then the living modernity of gray-haired events, then recalling the case of gray-making old days. This speech is that angry, then sad and mournful, but always complete faith in their homeland, full pride, confidence in her future. "Word ..." and today remains relevant to the work of literature. Despite the fact that it happened about 825 years ago, it remains a great monument of Russian culture and interest in him and interest to it does not fade, but even the opposite increases. It shows all the love of a Russian person to his homeland, his people and his excitement for the future of their country. The literature of that time does not fade in spite of the past century. Thanks to her, we learn a lot that happened at the time, the teachings of the authors of those times are life and now. In the example of the chronicles, the "Tale of Bygone Years", the "Word about the regiment of Igor" and other works of that period we can see that the Russian people were spiritually high, educated and elevated. He was interested in what was happening in the state and beyond, moreover, he knew how to properly make an assessment of what was happening without taking the reader and blacks of that time. These were really educated people who contributed a particle to the literature of the Domongolian Rus. Particle of Russian heritage, feelings, mood. Folklore
all also important and vital in our time remains folklore ancient Russia. Despite the fact that proverbs, sayings, fairy tales, epics and songs began to be recorded only from the XVII century, they appeared during the period of the Domongolian Rus. All of them are filled with meaning, teachings and ridicule of poor qualities of people. They show us the unity of a person with nature, God, his spiritual power. With the X century There was the biggest splash of the appearance of epic. Favorite epic heroes Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich, Mikula Silanovich, Volga. Russian Epos XI - XII V.V. Enriched with plots dedicated to the fight against Polovtsy. By mid XII - XIII V.V. The emergence of the Novgorod epic about Guest Sadko, rich in the merchant, originating from the ancient noble family, as well as the cycle of legends about Prince Roman, whose prototype is Roman Mstislavovich Galitsky. Sayings of that time ridiculed false, cowardice, human weakness, they praised work, kindness, complicity, again, unity. They passed a person to be strong spirit and body, read the elders, love their homeland. There are a lot of sayings that appeared in ancient Russia, reached our days. People continue to use them, because the meaningful load of sayings and proverbs remained the same. Fairy tales, which appeared at that time, also partially reached our time, they were transferred to mouth to mouth, from generation to generation. In most fairy tales and tales lie pagan roots. The pagan gods and Godheads, who were driven by the Orthodox Church, found their asylum and shelter in fairy tales and still live there. In fairy tales, we see the forestry, lesors, water, mermaids, houses and other deities of pagan culture. This is a lovik in the "princess - frog", water tan (sea king in folk fairy tales and epics), also in them finds their own trend and fetishism (tablecloth - self-primary, boots - swords, magic tangle). In fairy tales, we can also observe the presentation of the people about the afterlime world, about the eternal world of ancestors, the relationships of it with the world of living on Earth. We can observe in fairy tales a vision of death, the afterlime world, about the soul, as a transition to another form of existence. Mostly reflected this faith, they found in magical fairy tales, especially associated with the image of the Yaga women, which carried out an adapter into another world. Fairy tales make it possible to understand the presentation of the pagans about death accomplices, paths leading to the otherworldly peace, the verge between the Earth and the "eternal world", about the ways to overcome it and assistants in a debt and difficult path to "that light". But we will not forget that in fairy tales also rose the topic of honesty, courage, truth, she wrapped evil, lies, laziness, betrayal. The main villains were always punished by gravity of their guilt. Thus, folklore shows us the presentation of people of that time, its moral qualities, rationality and faith in good good feelings of that generation. Architecture and painting
A serious contribution to the history of world culture is Russian medieval architecture. We have already experienced the construction of fortresses, towers, palaces, wooden pagan temples, Russian architects with astounding speed have mastered the new Byzantine technique of brick construction and decorated the largest Russian cities with magnificent monumental structures. In some cases, the architecture very sensitively reflected the country's political history: the short-term rivalry of Chernigov and Kiev affected the simultaneous construction of monumental cathedrals (Chernigov 1036, Kiev 1037). Novgorod uprising 1136g. Suspended the princely construction in Novgorod and opened the Boyarsky road. Previously, the separation of Polotsk Principality affected the construction there its Sophia Cathedral with an unusual layout. The full-blooded development of cities, rival with Kiev, led to the flourishing of architecture and the creation of local architectural schools in Galich, Smolensk, Novgorod, Chernigov, Vladimir-on-Klyazemma. With all that Russian architecture XII - XIII V.V. It is a well-known unity. It cannot be said that the Russian architecture of this time be under any influence or impact, although Russia had wide connections with East, West and Byzantia. Having learned at the turn of the X - XI V.V. Byzantine form, Russian architects very quickly modified it, made their own features and created their communional style, varied by regions. Appearance in XIIV. Tower-shaped, striving up, slender buildings (Chernihiv, Smolensk, Polotsk, Pskov) especially vividly testified to the development of a Russian national style, born as a result of the impact of wooden construction. Unstable borders of feudal states were not obstacles for mutual cultural communication. A striking example of such a common style saying that art is not so much geographical as chronological, is a white-named architecture of Vladimir - Suzdal land with its amazing proportions and a thin decorative thread. The White Temples of Vladimir with their generous carved ornamenty researchers with full right are compared in common harmony and wealth of plots with the "word about the regiment of Igor", where the folk, pagan also flashes the Christian. A thorough study of the proportions of the ancient Russian buildings made it possible to reveal peculiar geometric techniques of Russian architects XI - XII V.V., who helped them create buildings, amazing on the proportionality of parts. Recent finds in the old Ryazan and Tmutarakani geometric drawings from the system inscribed squares and rectangles, allowed to reveal another method of mathematical calculations, a method that is ascending to the Babylonian architecture and in Russia through the mediation of Transcaucasia and Tmutarakani. A diverse and rich Russian architecture for a long time retained the power of artistic impact. The same can be said about the painting of ancient Russia. Russian painting and drawing reached us in the form of frescoes, icons, book miniatures. The high level of artistic expressiveness achieved by ancient Russian painting is partly due to the fact that the perception of Byzantine skill was prepared by the development of Slavic folk art in the pagan period. Colorful combination of patterns on fabrics, complex ornamental compositions from flowers, trees, birds and animals are made of deep antiquity when people have turned the elements of nature and everything that this nature creates: animals, birds, fish, trees, grass, stones. The bulk of painting and sculpture, the bulk of painting and sculpture, is unfortunately, only to one category - to church art. Light art is known to us only partially. Each church building was not only a beautiful architectural structure, but also a whole gallery of fresco painting, subordinate to a single complex intent. In several tiers there were sacred images that were supposed to inspire a superstitious fear and a sense of subordination to the God of Heaven and the princes of the Earth. From church frescoes looked at the pictures of the Christian saints at the bottom of ordinary people in the clothes of the bishops, kings, warriors of the warriors, monks. The class essence of the feudal church in its entirety has revealed against the art that the church tried to monopolize, so that through its attractive force to influence the minds of Russian people. Russian medieval cathedrals, like the Cathedrals of Western European countries, were samples of very skillful and subtle use of all types of art in order to approve the ideas of the feudal church. Kiev resident or Novgorod, entering the church, fell into a special world of images separated from the noisy city bargaining. The huge head of Jesus Christ, as it were, Paris in the sky, over the tightened smoke of Ladan, the space of the dome. The harsh "Fathers of the Church" continuously opposed the altar, ready to teach and punish. The Christian Virgin reminded the Slavic of the ancient pagan goddess of the earth and fertility (Ryzhanitsa, Makosh) and thereby united the old one in his mind new cults. When, frightened and depressed by the magnitude of the temple shown on the walls, Slavitic left him, then the picture of the "terrible court" was drawn over his impression. He returned from the Church to his world, and the church rushes his images of terrible torment, waiting for those who dare to disobey church laws. The development of class struggle and anti-church movements, "Yeresya", led to the spread of certain plots in art, for example, "Miracle Mikhail Archangel in Honakh", where Mikhail, the "heavenly forces of the Governor", punishes the peasants who tried to raise the uprising. The plot "Assure Foma" is directed against skeptics who doubted Christian legends. In this way, we can conclude that, despite the fact that a lot in architecture and painting appeared with the arrival of Christianity from Byzantium in Russia, they were adopted from him not much. In all manifestations of art, their own with anyone is incomparable, the Russian soul of man. Yes, she changed a little, thanks to the new flows of culture and religion in Russia, his own story of art, the originary and prosperous in pagan Rus, still continued to be present in everything. Also, in spite of the feudal fragmentation of the state and the cross-consumables between the princes, the still cultural and language community of all principalities. It can even be said that the feudal split of the state has a positive effect on the development of architecture and painting in different principalities, and not in some one. This once again shows how powerful and the state of ancient Russia remained in the spiritual plan. Religion
It is known that baptism in Russia occurred in 988, but at the same time the Russian land was still baptism for a long time. The people did not want to part with many years of life, even joining the Christian faith. In 990, Rostov was baptized, but, residents of Rostov, first taking baptism, then kicked out one after another three bishops. Only the fourth bishop with the help of military force was able to destroy the pagan sanctuary in Rostov and to force people to adopt Christianity. In 992, Polotsk was baptized, a few years later, tours. Smolensk land took Christianity for quite a long time, and the bishoprosis in Smolensk was approved only in 1137. No information was preserved about the appeal to the new faith of the population of Ryazan and Murom regions. It seems that the Christianization of these areas began not earlier than the XII century. Eastern Slavs very painfully responded to the requirement to abandon the faith of ancestors. Resistant adherents of paganism fled from cities. In 1024, the uprising began in Suzdal under the leadership of pagan priests. Prince Yaroslav brutally suppressed the movement of the priests. However, less than half a century, in 1071, the priests again raised the troubles on the Rostov land and in Novgorod, but she was repaid again. Nevertheless, if the princes could be forcibly baptized, it was unable to believe that it was impossible forcibly. The result of the religious reform of Prince Vladimir became a two-story reormity that dominated Russia since the X-XI V.V. Christianity was slowly mixed with pagan beliefs, creating a completely new type of worldview, in which the dogmas and the values \u200b\u200bof the old and new religion were peacefully. The rural population, in the main mass, remained correct to the paganism, with whom all folk culture was associated. Moreover, the cities of Christianity fixed only outwardly. This is true for both ordinary citizens and a princely boyars. With this reality I had to put up and the church, forced to make concessions, to instill at least the main thing in the teachings. The church herself tried to get closer to the people and sometimes she was laughed in tricks. It is known, for example, that in Novgorod the Church of St. Vasily stood on a hairpiece, and the Saint in it is depicted on the icon surrounded by livestock, that is, very often the churches were tuned on the site of the former pagan sanctoes. Also, the church tried to make closer and clearer the temple of God for a man in that they resembled pagan worships: this worship of icons and statues (in the example of the goddan idols of the gods), the separation between the pantheon of canonized saints, for each of them was fixed certain strength and They were patrons of one definite orientation (as an example of the separation of forces between the gods in paganism), and even the fact that the candle was put to the right holy, resembled a rite when a fire was lit in front of the desired idol. This applies to the burials, in the XIII century. In the princely burials at the temples put decoration and weapons, as the pagan rite required. But despite all the prairies, the church, with the arrival of Christianity on Rus made a lot, she opened a qualitatively new page in history and culture. New religion raised on new step. Literature, architecture, thanks to her there appeared an icon. But, as in the other branching of culture, we see that Russia did not just take a new faith, putting up to the step above, but she, as always, brought his origins to church, making it a similar to other religions. Conclusions
Starting with the X century. Rus reached high heights in culture. For the most part, the appearance of Christianity was benevolent new faith And a new round in the history of Russia. She laid great hopes, and as it turned out, not in vain. She helped to preserve the language and cultural unity in the state, glued at that time on many small fragments - feudal principalities, but most importantly, people did not adopt everything from other countries, completely copying the already established paintings, they were not introduced into culture, Literature, in architecture, painting, religion a piece of themselves, they rebuilt all that they handed over the same Byzantium, to his temper, leaving, not small, at that time a pagan culture and adapting it to the new-reached. Later in the XVIII - XIX V.V. The culture will become even more secular and will lose its Christian and pagan influence, but now, which is very nice, people begin to return to their origins. Russia XI-XIII V.V. It was very high in spiritual and morally. She was able, no matter what, to convey to our time all that they thought they were bothering, what they dreamed about and what they lived. Now we will not be able to imagine life without a "word ...", without cathedrals, temples, without that oral literature, which appeared at that time, but continues to raise us from childhood, to instruct us. This is a religion, which since the merger of paganism and Christianity has not changed almost. This is a folklore that has been with us from the very childhood, the epics about mighty warriors who personify all the mighty husbands of the Domongolian Rus. All this is present in our lives from a small age with the first fairy tale for the night, with the first candle set to the icon, in the temple, with the first stories about the houses, mermaids, ledgers, with the first familiarization already at school with "Word ...", "Tale temporary years. And when you begin to think about how many centuries have passed on the affair, before you read, I heard and saw, it was really joyful for our people, for our past. This shows how wrong is the wrong opinion that Rus, in the period of feudal fragmentation, was culturally full. I believe that she really made an invaluable contribution to world culture as a whole and in the culture of today's Russia in particular. It was a truly culturally rich state, despite all the distribution and turmoil, which at that moment happened in it. Bibliography
1.B.A. Rybakov "Culture of Ancient Russia" Moscow 1956 .D.S. Likhachev "Word about the regiment of Igor" and the culture of his time "Leningrad 1985. ."Word about the regiment of Igor" Moscow: Enlightenment, 1984 .B.A. Fishermen "Ancient Rus: legends. Epics. Chronicles »Moscow 1963