The era of the Renaissance in European History. Revival in Western Europe

Revival era is called Renaissance. This is the period of development of science, culture, morality and enlightenment. Such a period of Middle Asia was experiencing in the IX - XII and XIV - XV centuries.

In the countries of Western Europe, the Renaissance Epoch is mainly at the XIV-XVII century. Scientists consider Renaissance to the era of the transition from medieval stagnation to the period of the new time. The era of the Renaissance in Western Europe did not arise in itself.

The Central Asian East Renaissance was directly affected by the development of world culture and scientific thought. Revival arose in Italy, since there peculiar to capitalist society features appeared earlier. The main distinguishing features of the Renaissance in Western Europe were:
- denial of ignorance, fanaticism, conservatism;
- approval of the humanistic worldview, faith in the limitless possibilities of a person, his will and mind;
- appeal to the cultural heritage of antiquity, as if "revival" of him, hence the name of the era;
- chanting in the literature and the art of beauty of earthly, and not afterlife;
- The struggle for freedom and dignity of man.

Renaissance era literature.

In the literature and the art of the Renaissance, outstanding talents were created.

One of the geniuses of literature of this era was William Shakespeare (1564 1616). He believed that "a person is the greatest miracle of nature!". Shakespeare was in love with the theater. He worked as an actor and playwright. The world around him seemed to him the stage, and people are actors. He deeply believed that the theater would be a school for people who would teach them to resist the blows of fate, would awaken the feeling of hatred for betrayal, duplex, lowness. V. Shakespeare left humanity such masterpieces as "Othello", "Hamlet", "King Lear", "Romeo and Juliet" and other works.

Miguel de Cervantes (1547 - 1616), Spanish writer, one of the largest representatives of the Renaissance. The main character of his famous novel "Don Quixote" The last of the noble wandering knights in the world of injustice. Don Quixote is fighting due to their opportunities with injustice. His actions - the reflection of his maiden: "For freedom, as for glory, you need to expose your life danger."

Art. Another prominent representative of the Renaissance is Leonardo da Vinci (1452 - 1519). He was both an artist and a poet, and the architect, and the sculptor, and a musician, and the inventor. Leonardo da Vinci called the painting of the "Princess of Arts".

The heroes of his picturesque works were not gods and not angels, but ordinary people. Such is his picture "Madonna with a baby", where mother gently presses to the breast of the baby. Hugging him, she looks with a gentle aluminum. The land reflects the endless maternal love for the child. The wall painting of Leonardo da Vinci "Mystery Evening" is famous.

Another great artist of this period Rafael Santi (1483 - 1520). He lived only 37 years. But during this short period managed to create masterpieces of world painting, one of which is the "Sicstinsky Madonna".

The artist's contemporaries evaluated this canvas "as the only one in its kind." On him, Bosya Holy Marius is not worth it on the clouds, and it fell on them towards his fate.
The look, still baby Jesus, is serious as an adult. As if he feels future suffering and inevitable death. In the look of the mother, too, sadness and anxiety. She knows everything in advance. Nevertheless, it goes towards people who will open the path of truth at the expense of her son's life.

The most famous work of the Dutch artist Rembrandt (1606 - 1669) is the picture "Return of the Prodigal Son." He created him in the most difficult years for him - after the death of his son. The biblical legend talks about how the Son has wandering the world for many years and, I spent all my wealth, returns to the father's house, where it is accepted back.
Rembrandt depicted in his work a minute of meeting of the Father and Son. Lost son stands on the knees at the threshold of the house. Oldwear and bald head testify to the challenges of life. The frozen movement of the hands of a blind father expresses the bright joy of the desperate man and his endless love.

Art history.

Brownie this period was considered a sculpture with the best view of fine art, like nothing else chanting man and its beauty.

The most famous among the creators of this period was Italian Michelangelo Buonarot (1475 - 1564).
With his immortal works, he left an indelible mark in history.

That's what he said about art in his three-hundred

"What life is that being
Before the eternity of art,
It will neither a sage will not be born
not time. "

He with the greatest force expressed deeply humane, full heroic pathos ideals of the Renaissance. The statue of David created by him approves the physical and spiritual beauty of a person, its limitless creative opportunities. This product of the Great Sculptor reflects the image of the biblical hero, the shepherd of David, who spliced \u200b\u200bwith the mythical Giant Goliath. According to legend, David kills in the martial art of Goliath and becomes the king subsequently. The greatness and beauty of this sculpture does not know equal.
St. Peter's Cathedral is the main Catholic temple of Rome and Europe. His construction completed Michelangelo. The temple was built over a hundred years.

Renaissance - term denoting the revival era

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Renaissance (Renaissance)

Revival, or Renaissance (Fr. Renaissance, Ital. Rinascimento) - the era in the history of the culture of Europe, who has replaced the culture of the Middle Ages and the previous culture of the new time. Exemplary chronological framework of the era - the XIV-XVI century.

A distinctive feature of the Renaissance - the secular nature of culture and its anthropocentrism (that is, interest, first of all, to the person and his activity). There is an interest in ancient culture, there is a "revival", as it were, the term appeared.

The term revival is found already from Italian humanists, for example, Georgio Vazari. In the current meaning, the term was introduced into use the French historian XIX century with Jules Mishal. Currently, the term revival has become a cultural heyday metaphor: for example, Caroling Revival of the IX century.

General Characteristics of the Renaissance

The new cultural paradigm arose due to the fundamental changes in public relations in Europe.

The growth of the city cities led to an increase in the influence of estates that did not participate in feudal relations: masters and artisans, merchants, bankers. All of them was alien to the hierarchical value system created by the medieval, largely church culture and its ascetic, humble spirit. This led to the emergence of humanism - the socio-philosophical movement, who considered man, his personality, his freedom, its active, creative activity as the highest value and criterion for assessing public institutions.

The cities began to occur secular centers of science and art, whose activities were outside the control of the church. The new worldview appealed to antiquity, seeing an example of humanistic, unequal relationships. The invention in the middle of the XV century of typography has played a huge role in the spread of ancient heritage and new views throughout Europe.

Revival emerged in Italy, where his first signs were noticeable in the XIII and XIV centuries (in the activities of the Pisano family, Jotto, Orkanya, etc.), but where it was firmly established only from the 20s of the XV century. In France, Germany and other countries, this movement began significantly later. By the end of the XV century, it reached its highest heyday. In the XVI century, the crisis of the ideas of rebirth is brewing, the result of which is the emergence of manherism and baroque.

The art of the Renaissance.

In the theocentrism and the asceticism of the medieval picture of the world, art in the Middle Ages served primarily religion, transmitting peace and man in their attitude towards God, in conditional forms, was concentrated in the temple space. Neither the visible world nor a person could not be self-concrete art objects. At 13th century In medieval culture, new trends are observed (the cheerful doctrine of St. Francis, the creativity of Dante, the preports of humanism). On the second half of the 13th century. There is an entry of a transitional era in the development of Italian art - PRATINESSAN (lasted before the 15th century), who prepared Renaissance. Creativity of some artists of this time (J. Fabriano, Chimabue, S.Martini, etc.), quite medieval on iconography, penetrates more cheerful and secular start, the figures acquire relative volume. In the sculpture, the gothic carelessness of the figures is overcome, gothic emotionality decreases (N.pizano). For the first time, a clearly gap with medieval traditions was manifested at the end of the 13th - the first third of the 14th century. In the frescoes of Jotto di Bondon, who put in painting a feeling of three-dimensional space, wrote the figures more voluminous, paying more attention to the situation and, most importantly, showed a special, alien to exalted gothic, realism in the image of human experiences.

On the soil, the Masters of the PRASTERESANSA, an Italian revival emerged in its evolution after several phases (early, high, later). Connected new, in fact, a secular worldview, expressed humanists, it loses the inseparable connection with religion, painting and statue apply beyond the temple. With the help of painting, the artist mastered the world and man, as they saw the eye, applying a new artistic method (the transfer of three-dimensional space with the perspective (linear, air, color), the creation of the illusion of plastic volume, compliance with the proportionality of the figures). Interest in personality, her individual features were combined with the idealization of a person, the search for "perfect beauty." The plots of the Holy History did not leave art, but from now on their image was inextricably linked with the task of mastering the world and the incarnation of the earth ideal (from here so similar Vakh and John the Baptist Leonardo, Venus and the Mother of Botticelli). Renaissance architecture loses the gothic aspiration towards the sky, acquires "classic" equilibrium and proportionality, proportionality to the human body. The antique order is reborn, but the elements of the order were not parts of the structure, but a decor, decorated with traditional (temple, the Palace of the authorities) and new types of buildings (city palace, country villa).

The Florentine painter Mazacho is considered the early revival of the early Renaissance, who grabbed the tradition of Jotto, who achieved an almost sculptural tangibility of figures, which used the principles of a linear perspective, who left the conventionality of the image of the situation. Further development of painting in the 15th century. In schools of Florence, Umbria, Padua, Venice (F. Lippi, D.Vetsiano, P. Francesco, A. Palliolo, A.Mentheny, Krvelily, S. Botticelli and many others). At 15 in. Renaissance sculpture is born and developing and developing, Donatello, Ya. Della Kverchar, L. Della Robbia, Verrocko, and others, Donatello first created an independently standing, non-architecture round statue, first depicted a naked body with an expression of sensuality) and architecture (F. Bruneland, L.B. Alberti, etc.). Masters 15 V. (First of all, L.B. Alberti, P. Della Francesco) created the theory of visual arts and architecture.

About 1500 in the works of Leonardo da Vinci, Rafael, Michelangelo, Georgeon, Titian Italian painting and sculpture reached their highest point, joining a high rebirth. The images created by them completely embodied human dignity, strength, wisdom, beauty. In painting, unprecedented plasticity and spatiality were achieved. The architecture has reached its vertices in the work of D.Bramante, Raphael, Michelangelo. Already in the 1520th in the art of central Italy, in the art of Venice in the 1530s, changes occur, which meant the onset of the late revival. The classic ideal of the high rebirth associated with humanism of the 15th century, quickly lost its meaning, without responding to a new historical setting (loss of italy of its independence) and spiritual climate (Italian humanism has become more sober, even tragic). Creativity Michelangelo, Titian acquires dramatic tensions, tragedy, sometimes gaining desperate, complexity of a formal expression. For later revival, P. Meronese, A.Palladio, I.Tineetto and others can be attributed to the reaction to the high revival crisis was the emergence of a new artistic flow - mannerism, with its aggravated subjectivity, manners (often reaching before personality and welcoming), gustful religious spirituality and cold allegorism (Pontoramic, Bronzino, Chelinka, Parmajanino, etc.).

The Northern Revival was prepared by the appearance in the 1420s - 1430th on the basis of late Gothic (not without mediated influence of the Jott tradition) of a new style in painting, the so-called "ARS NOVA" - "New Art" (term E. Panofsky). Its spiritual basis, according to researchers, it became primarily the so-called "new piety" of the northern mystics of 15 century, which had the proposed specific individualism and the pantheistic acceptance of the world. The origins of the new style stood the Netherlands painters Yang Wang Ayk, improving the same oil paints, and the master from Flemal, followed by the city of Van der Gus, R. Van der Wayden, D. Bootens, G. That Sint Yans, I. Bosch et al. (Ser. - Deven. Paul. 15th century). New Netherlands painting received a wide response in Europe: already in the 1430-1450 - the first samples of new painting in Germany appear (L. Merzer, Mr.Mulcher, especially K.Vitz), in France (Master of Annunciation from Exca and, of course, . Fouge). For a new style, special realism was characterized: the transfer of three-dimensional space through perspective (although, as a rule, approximately), the desire for volume. "New Art", deeply religious, was interested in individual experiences, the character of a person, redeeming it primarily humility, piety. His aesthetics is alien to the Italian pathos committed in man, passion for classical forms (the faces of the characters are not perfectly proportional to, gothic angular). With special love, detailed image of nature, life, carefully written things had, as a rule, a religious and symbolic meaning.

Actually the art of the Northern Renaissance is born at the turn of 15-16 centuries. As a result of the interaction of national artistic and spiritual traditions of Calpian countries with Renaissance art and the humanism of Italy, with the development of Northern Humanism. The first artist of the Renaissance type can be considered an outstanding German master of A. Dyurra, involuntarily, however, which retained gothic spirituality. A full gap with a gothic was carried out by G. Golbaine Junior with his "objectivity" of picturesque manner. Painting M. Grünevald, on the contrary, was imbued with religious exaltation. German Renaissance was the case of one generation of artists and depleted in the 1540th. In the Netherlands in the first third of the 16th century. The trends focused on high revival and manaryism of Italy (I.Gossart, I.Skorel, B. van Orley, etc.) began to be extended. The most interesting in the Netherlands painting is 16 in. - This is the development of the genres of the machine painting, domestic and landscaped (K. Masseis, Patinir, Luke Leiden). The most national-peculiar artist 1550-1560s was P. Breigel Senior, who owns the paintings of the household and landscape genre, as well as paintings-parables, usually associated with folklore and a bitterly ironic look at the life of the artist himself. Renaissance in the Netherlands exhausts itself in the 1560s. The French Renaissance, who wore a full court character (in the Netherlands and Germany, art was more connected with the Burgemi) was perhaps the most classic in the northern revival. New Renaissance art, gradually gaining strength under the influence of Italy, reaches maturity in the middle - the second half of the century in the work of architects P.Lazko, the creator of the Louvre, F.Formma, sculptors, and J.Pilon, painters F. Kluue, J. Kuzen Senior. Great influence on the above painters and sculptors was provided by the "School Fontainebleau", founded in France by the Italian artists of Rosso and Priamaticho, who worked in the style of mannerism, but the French masters did not become manaristi, who perceived the classic ideal under the mannerist chin. Renaissance in French art ends in the 1580s. In the second half of the 16th century. The art of the Renaissance of Italy and other European countries is gradually inferior to Mañerism and early Baroque.

Revival or Renaissance (ITAL. RINASCIMENTO, FR. RENAISSANCE) - Restoration, ancient education, revival of classical literature, art, philosophy, ideals of the ancient world, distorted or forgotten into the "Dark" and "backward" for Western Europe. It was the form that received from the middle of the XIV to the beginning of the XVI centuries., Cultural movement known as humanism (see about him a brief and articles). It is necessary to distinguish humanism from the Renaissance, which is only the most characteristic feature of humanism, who has been looking for support for his worldview in classical antiquity. The Renaiss Motherland is Italy, where an ancient classic (Greco-Roman) traditional (Greco-Roman) has never faded, who worn national character for Ital. In Italy, he never felt particularly much blowing the Middle Ages. The Italians called themselves "Latins" and considered themselves the descendants of the ancient Romans. Despite the fact that the initial impulse to revive partly came from Byzantium, the participation of the Byzantine Greeks in it was insignificant.

Renaissance. Video film

In France and Germany, the antique style was mixed with national elements, which in the first period of revival, early Renaissance, performed sharp than in subsequent era. Late Renaissance developed antique samples into more luxurious and strong forms, of which and produced gradually baroque. While in Italy, the Spirit of Renaissance almost evenly penetrated into all arts, in other countries, only architecture and sculpture experienced an influence of antique samples. National processing was also rebirthed also in the Netherlands, in England and Spain. After Renaissance was degenerated in rococoThe reaction has come, expressed in the strictest consequence of antique art, Greek and Roman samples in all their primitive purity. But this imitation (especially in Germany) finally led to excessive dryness, which in the early 60s of the XIX century. I tried to overcome the return to Renaissance. However, this new dominion of revival in architecture and art continued only until 1880. From the same time, baroque and rococo began to flourish next to him.

Introduction

Revival - a qualitatively new stage in the history of Western European culture. Its essence is the transition from the era of the medieval vision of the world to the culture of the new time. This transition was performed in all areas of the worldview and the worldview of a person - in science, religion, art.

Renaissance, Epoch in the history of European culture of the XIII-XIV centuries, marked by the onset of the new time. The revival was determined, first of all, in the field of artistic creativity. As the era of European history, it is noted by many significant landmarks - including the strengthening of the economic and social libations of cities, spiritual quest, resulting in the reformation and the peasant war in Germany, the formation of the absolutist monarchy (the most ambitious in France), the beginning of the era of the great geographical discoveries In the invention of the European typography, the opening of the heliocentric system in cosmology, etc. However, his first sign, as it seemed to contemporaries, was the "flowering of the arts" after the long centuries of the medieval "decline", the flourishing, "reviving" antique artistic wisdom, it is in this sense who first uses the word Rinascita (from which French Renaissance and all its European analogues occurs ) J. Vazari. Periodization of the Renaissance Development Stages in Italy and in countries north of the Alps, as a rule, does not coincide. The generally accepted, but conditional concept of "Northern Revival" is applied by analogy with Italian revival to the culture and art of Germany, the Netherlands, France. One of the main features of the artistic culture of these countries is its genetic connection with the art of late Gothic. The origins of the "Northern Renaiss" should be sought at the turn of the XIV and XV centuries. in Burgundy.

In the XV century The dominant place among the Northern European Art Schools occupied the Netherlands painting. The painting of the Northern Renaissance is interesting in the detailed description of the surfaces of objects, plasticity achieved due to precisely fitted and well-applied light effects and naturalness not visited from ancient times. Brighter than this "cultural revolution" was expressed in changing the goals and methods of creative activity. New methods of acquiring scientific knowledge and education, a new visual system in painting, new genres in literature, new forms of social behavior. The dialogue of antique philosophy and aesthetics, Christian worldview and realistic consciousness of the bourgeois society was arranged. In this dialog, the harmony of the real and perfect, material and natural and spiritual and divine was born, a new type of aesthetic consciousness was born.

It is well known even to the uninitudinal that the phenomenon of the Renaissance had previously arose, took shape and reached the unprecedented brilliance (brighter it was manifested) in Italy. Although it should be remembered that, according to the general recognition of the majority of modern researchers, the term "Renaissance Culture" is not identical, is not equivalent to the concept of "culture of the Renaissance", since the first of these concepts refers to new, actually renaissance phenomena. And the second is much wider, and includes (along with the culture of the Renaissance) and other cultural phenomena of their time (including those who continued to exist medieval, unnecessary cultural processes in their nature. We should not forget that the chronological framework of the Renaissance of unequal for different regions of Western Europe and even cultural spheres).

Italy is the birthplace of classic revival. The chronological framework of the Italian Renaissance - 30-40s. Xiv c. (or from the middle of the X1U century) - the end of the XVI century. (either the first decades of the XVII century). Renaissance in the rest of Western Europe - like French, German, Netherlands or, the so-called, Northern Renaissance (in foreign science under Northern Europe, traditionally imply countries and territories to north of the Alps, that is, north of Italy, - Netherlands, France, Germany, etc.). Hence the concept of "Northern Revival", applied to the culture and art of these countries and is not so much geographical as historical and artistic definition.

The purpose of this course work is to analyze the peculiarities of the Renaissance, most fully expressed in Italy XII-XVI centuries. In the course of the study, it is necessary to identify innovative features in the field of architecture, sculptures and painting the most vivid representatives.

explore the literature on the research topic;

describe the features of the Renaissance Age;

analyze the creativity of Filippo Brunneles, Donatello, Mazaccho, Yang Wang Eyka, Jerome Bosch, Peter Breygel, Albrecht Dürer.

Structure of work - term paper consists of introduction, 2 chapters, conclusions and applications. In the introduction, the main aspects of the entire study are briefly described, and objectives are also set. The I Chapter describes the general importance of the Renaissance, problems in the art of this era, also innovation entered into the art of artists. The II chapter examines the culture of the Northern Renaissance, "traditionalism" and "novelism" in the painting of the Netherlands, as well as the manifestation of the Renaissance in Germany and France.

1. Renaissance - a new image of the world in culture

.1 Common European Renaissance

In the European culture of that time, asceticism and dogmatism of the Middle Ages are replaced by the new sensations of the meaning of life, the wide possibilities of human mind and experience. The forms of the ancient world are first manifested in the architecture of Italian cities, in the interiors of buildings. The Wizard of the Italian Renaissance creates beautiful temples, theaters, palaces in Florence, Venice, Siena, Mantua and other Italian cities. Under the influence of local conditions, clearly distinguishable Italian, French, Netherlands, German, English and Spanish varieties of a new style are concluded.

The formal language of ancient art was put to the service of the ideals of the new era. A folding new architectural style was obtained, like ancient Roman, very eclectic, and its formal elements were clearly borrowed from the arsenal of the forms of Greco-Roman orders. Calm horizontal members of the forms of buildings of the new architecture are contrasted now as limped to the gothic lines. The roofs become flat; Instead of towers and spiers, dome, drums, sails, dual orders, etc. often appear.

The problem of the Renaissance is that the installation on the individuality, implemented so powerfully and superb in the field of art, was subsequently destructive to society's social and political life. The spontaneous self-affirmation of individuality was often very far from noble revival humanism. Here, the individuality turns into obviously pronounced individualism, the zoological statement of only its needs and desires, the gradual degradation of humanistic morality in various forms of situational ethics. Also, the problems of civil debt, high moral qualities, the feat, the image of the harmoniously developed, strong spirit and body of a Hero man who managed to rise above the level of everyday life were advanced. The art of High Renaissance is replete from minor details in the name of the general image, the desire for the harmony of the beautiful parties to life. Portrait painting develops and becomes one of the important achievements of the Renaissance.

A person has a reflection mirror only if the outer limit is carried out, the limit due to which the adherence force begins. The revived individual is, first of all, a natural, spontaneously self-expression creature.

It is not difficult to carry out a similar parallel with our modern society. The sublime ideal of a person who has not only a sense of patriotism, but also a debt, conscience, morality, so long brought up by the Soviet ideology, gave way to a person striving for material benefits, thirsting for light and fast profitable, carnal pleasures. Liberation and peculiarity, satiety and individualism (when everyone for himself) - Here is a far incomplete list of the features inherent in the modern man and the man of the Renaissance.

1.2 Innovative features in architecture, painting and sculpture of Italy

Revival originated in Italy and several stages passed, while having a huge impact on the art and culture of other Western European countries. In the history of art, we can talk about the development of visual art and sculpture as part of the direction of the early Renaissance in the XIV century. In the history of architecture, the situation is different. Due to the economic crisis of the XIV century, the Renaissance period in architecture began only with the beginning of the XV century and lasted until the beginning of the XVII century in Italy and longer beyond.

According to the abundance of talented masters, the wise art of artistic creativity Italy was ahead of all other European countries in the XV century. The ideas of Renaissance were not just a change of style directions and artistic tastes, but also led deep changes in all areas of the life of that society.

Filippo Bruneland. (1337-1446) - one of the greatest Italian architects XV century. He opens a new chapter in architecture history -

the formation of the style of revival. The innovative role of the master was marked by his contemporaries. When, in 1434, Leon Battist Alberti came to Florence, he was amazed by the appearance of artists who were not inferior to "to anyone from the ancient and glorified art craftsmen." The first among these artists he called Bruneland. According to the earliest biograph of the master Antonio Manetti, Bruneland "updated and introduced into appeal that the style of architecture, which is called Roman or Classic," whereas it was built only in the "German" or "modern" (that is Gothic) manner. A hundred years later, Vazari would argue that the Great Florentine architect appeared in the world, "to give a new form of architecture."

Given with the Gothic, Brunelands relied not so much on the ancient classic, how much to the architecture of the PRATINESSAN and the national tradition of Italian architecture, which preserved the elements of the classics throughout the Middle Ages. Creativity Bruneland stands at the turn of two eras: at the same time it completes the tradition of the PRATINESSAN and puts the beginning of the new way of development of architecture.

At the beginning of the 15th century, Florentine rulers, workshop organizations and merchant guilds paid great attention to the completion of the construction and decoration of the Florentine Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore. Basically, the building was already erected, but the huge dome conceived in the XIV century was not implemented. Since 1404, Brunelands participate in the preparation of dome projects. In the end, he received an order for the performance of work and becomes his leader. The main difficulty that stood before the master was caused by the giant size of the span of the Midrodesta (over 48 meters), which demanded special efforts to facilitate retire. By applying a witty design, Bruntelleski allowed the problem by creating, by expressing Leon, Alberta Battists, "the scene invention, which, truly, as incredibly in our time, however may be, it was unseen and not available to the ancient." The dome was started in 1420 and completed in 1436 without a flashlight, completed according to Bruneland drawings after the death of the wizard. This work of Florentine architecto laid the beginning of the construction of the Churches of the Italian Renaissance, right up to the Cathedral of St. Peter, who was crowned with Michelangelo dome.

One of the main works of Bruneland is the church of San Lorenzo rebuilt in Florence. He began her from the side of the side

capella, who was subsequently named the name of the old barn in it, he created the type of Renaissant central construction, square in terms of and blocked by a dome, resting on the sail. The church building itself is a three-day basilica.

The ideas of the dome facilities laid down in the old panic San Lorenzo received further development in one of the most famous and perfect creations of Bruneland - Chapel of Pazzi (1430-1443). It has the clarity of the spatial composition, the cleanliness of the lines, the grace of proportions and decorations. The centric character of the building, all the volumes of which are grouped around the bribing space, simplicity and clarity of architectural forms, harmonic equilibrium of parts make the Capel Pazzi focusing the new principles of the Renaissance architecture. Bruneland works - Oratorius of the Church of Santa Maria Deli Angeli, Church of San Spirito and some others - remained unfinished.

New trends in visual arts used to appear in sculpture. At the beginning of the 15th century, large orders for the decoration of the largest buildings of the city - the Cathedral, Baptistery, Church of the OR San Mekele, which came from the richest and most influential in the city of shops and merchant guilds, attract many young artists, from whose environment a number of outstanding masters will soon be put forward.

Donatello (1386-1466) - The Great Florentine Sculptor, who stood at the head of the masters, put the beginning of the Renaissance. In

he made a piece of time as an authentic innovator.

Based on a thorough study of nature and skillfully using an antique heritage, Donatello was the first of the Masters of Renaissance, it was able to solve the problem of sustainable formulation of the figure, convey the organic integrity of the body, his gravity, mass. His creativity strikes the variety of new beginnings. He revived the image of nudity in the statue plastic, laid the beginning of a sculpture portrait, cast the first bronze monument, created a new type of tombstone, tried to solve the problem of a free standing group. One of the first, he began to use the linear perspective theory in his works. The problems scheduled in the work of Dontello for a long time determined the development of European sculpture.

Already in 1406, Donatello fulfilled for the cathedral of Marble "David" (1408-1409. Florence, National Museum).

Refusing the traditional image of the king of David in the form of an elder with a lyrué or a sweat of Islam in his hands, Donatello presented David Junior at the time of the celebration above the defeated Goliath. The proud consciousness of his victory, David stands to occupy, trampled the enemy head chopped head. By creating this image of the biblical hero, Donatello sought to rely on the ancient traditions, the effect of antique prototypes in the face and hair interpretation was especially noticeably affected: the face of David in the frame of long hair, covered by the shepherd's caps, is almost not visible due to the easy head slope. There is in this statue - formulation of the figure, bending of the torsa, the movement of the hands - and the essay of Gothic. However, a bold impulse, movement, spirituality already allow you to feel the temperament of Donatello.

In his works, Donatello sought not only to the objective correctness of proportions and the construction of the figure, but always took into account the impression that will produce a statue set on the place intended.

Statue George is one of Donatello's vertices. Here he creates a deeply individual image and at the same time embodies that ideal of a strong person, a mighty and beautiful man who was highly consonant with an era and later found a reflection in many works of the Masters of the Italian Renaissance. This is a typical feature of the art of the early rebirth, due to the desire of the artist to free themselves from the medieval canon, leveled the human person.

In the middle of a century, the sculpture of Florence loses the monumental character and features of dramatic expression. Extra widespread use of secular and household motifs, the sculptural portrait occurs and quickly spreads.

Florence painting the first third of the XV century is rich in contrasts. As in the sculpture, it takes a decisive fracture from the marked influence of the Late Art of the Late Art of the Renaissance Art. The head of the new direction was Mazacho, whose activity falls on the third decade of the XV century. Its radical and bold innovations made a huge impression on artists, but were only partially perceived.

Mazacho (1401-1428) - a man who is obsessed with art, indifferent to everything that lay outside of him, careless and scattered, and for this scatleton, and called Mazacho, that translated from Italian means Mazila.

A huge impact on the young artist was the art of Jotto, as well as creative contact with the sculptor Donatello and the architect of Bruneland. Mazacho, together with Brunelles and Donatello, headed the realistic direction in the Florentine Renaissance art.

The earliest of the preserved work is considered "Madonna with a baby, St. Anna and Angels" (about 1420).

In 1426, Mazacho wrote a large altar polyptype for the Church of Del Carlin in Pisa. Written at about the same time (1426-1427) in the old Gothic Church of Santa Maria Novella in Florence the fresco "Trinity" reflects the new stage in the work of Mazacho. In the composition of the frescoes, the system of a linear perspective was used for the first time, brunalelles workers worked at that time. The first plans for her occupy a cross with a crucified Christ and the upcoming Maria and John, in the second plan at the top of Christ, the figure of the God of God is visible.

The novelty of the mazachcho fresco is due not only to the skillful application of the linear perspective and the majestic renaissance forms of the architecture written by it. The new ones were conciseness of the composition, and almost the sculptural reality of forms, and expressiveness of persons.

One of the most famous works of Mazacho in Chapel of Brakachchi is "Exile from Paradise". Against the background of Skapor's planned landscape, figures of the gates of Paradam Adam and Eve, over which the angel with a sword is wrapped over. For the first time in the history of painting, the Renaissance Mazacho managed to convincingly perform a naked body, give it natural proportions, firmly and steadily put on the ground. According to expression, this fresco has no analogies in the art of its time.

Mazacho's frescoes in Kapella Bracchchi are snewed with sober realism. Talking about miracles, mazacho deprives them the scenes of all scene of mysticism. His Christ, Peter and Apostles are earthly people, their faces are individualized and marked with the seal of human feelings, their actions are dictated by natural humaniments.

Mazacho does not pinch the figures in rows, as his predecessors did, and he grows them according to the intention of their narration and freely accommodates in the landscape. With the help of light and color, he confidently sculpts the shape of the objects. Moreover, the light, as in the "exile from Paradise," falls, respectively, the direction of natural lighting, the source of which are chapel windows located high to the right.

What has been created by him has become a turn in the history of Italian painting. For more than a century, after his death, Kapella Brakachchi was the place of pilgrimage and school of painters.

2. National originality of the culture of the Northern Renaissance

.1 "Traditionalism" and "Romanism" in the Netherlands Painting

A small country, which includes the territory of the current Belgium and Holland, was destined to become in the XV century the most bright Italy in the hearth of European art. Netherlands, although they were not politically independent, have long been rich and strengthened, leading extensive trading, and then developing manufactory of fabrics, carpets, glass. The major center of international trade was ancient Bruges, the poetic city of the channels; By the end of the 15th century, he rangy, lifting the championship of lively Antwerp.

Gothic architecture of the Netherlands - these are not only temples, but even more Town Hall, city walls and towers, coupe houses

And craft guilds, trading rows, warehouses and, finally, residential buildings of the characteristic long-standing type: with narrow facades and high triangular or stepped front.

Since the churches were erected more of the brick than from the stone, the church sculpture did not receive a large development. Claus Sleuer and his students remained brilliant exception in the culture of the Netherlands. Her main artistic force in the Middle Ages manifested itself in another - in miniature painting. In the XV century, miniature has reached a high degree of perfection, as can be seen according to the famous "Herzog Berry" part-class "illustrated by the Limburg brothers.

Love, diligent, poetic look at the world view was inherited from miniatures of a large painting of the XV century, started by Jan Eyk. Little pictures adorning manuscripts have grown into large paintings that decorate the flaps of the altars. At the same time, new artistic qualities arose. It appeared what the miniature could not be: the same gaze, a focused opinion on a person, on his face, in the depths of his eyes.

In the Hermitage there is a picture of a large Netherlands Master Rogyr Van der Vagen "St. Luka writes Madonna "(Luca's evangelist was considered an artist and a patron saint of the shopkeepers). In it, many typically for the compositions of the Netherlands: the panorama of the city and the canal, written so finely, gently and carefully, with two thoughtful human figures on the bridge. But the most remarkable is the face and arms of Luke, writing Madonna "from nature." He has a special expression - carefully and loosely inconsistent expression of a person who has passed in contemplation. So looked at the old Netherlands masters.

Let's go back to Jan Van Eyka. He started like a miniature, working with his elder brother Governor. Van Eyk brothers tradition attributed the invention of oil painting techniques; This is inaccurate - the method of using vegetable oils as a binder was known and before, but Van Eyki has improved him and gave the impetus to its spread. Soon the oil turned to the Teperu

Oil paints are darked over the years. Old pictures that we see in museums, with their appearance looked differently, much lighter and brighter. But Painting Wang Eykov has really unusual technical qualities: paints are not burying and centuries retain their freshness. They are almost glow, recalling the radiance of stained glass windows.

The most famous work of Wang Eykov is a large Genta altar - was started by the province, and after his death continued and in 1432 she was finished with Jan. The sash of the Grand Altar is painted in two tiers and inside and outside. On the outdoor sides - the Annunciation and the Crankshadeless figures of Donators (customers): the altar looked closed, on everyday days. On holidays, the sash swallowed, in the disclosed form of the altar became a guy more, and in front of parishioners arose, in all the radiantness of Wang Eikovsky paints, the spectacle, which should have established their scenes to embody the idea of \u200b\u200bthe atonement of human sins and the coming enlightenment. Upstairs in the center of Deesus - God-Father on the throne with Maria and John the Baptist on the sides. These figures are more human growth. Then naked Adam and Eve into human growth and groups of musitizing and singing angels. In the lower tier - a crowded Scene of worshiping Lamb, solved in a much smaller scale, very spatially, among the wide blooming landscape, and on the side sash - the scenes of the pilgrims. The plot of worship Lamb is taken from the "Revelation of John", which says that after the end of the sinful world, the Grad of God will fall on the ground, in which there will be no night, and there will be eternal light, and the river life "bright as crystal", and the tree of life, every month Giving fruits, and the city is "pure gold, like transparent glass." The lamb is a mystical symbol of apotheosis, awaiting righteous. And, apparently, the artists tried to invest all their love for the delights of the earth, to human persons, to herbs, trees, waters, to embody the Golden dreams about their eternity and adhesion in the pictures of the Gent's altar.

Jan Wang Ayke was an outstanding portrait. In his brush, a pair portrait of Arnolphin's spouses, an image of ordinary people dressed in the then pretty fashionable fashion, in an ordinary room with a chandelier, a canopy, a mirror and a room dog seems to be some wonderful sacrament. He seems to be worshiped and a candle light, and a brush of apples, and a convex mirror; He is in love with each trait of the pale long face of Arnolphin, who keeps his gentle wife as a hand, as if he performs a hidden ceremonial. And people and items - everything froze in a solemn upcoming, in awe; All things have a slapted meaning, hinting on the holiness of the marital hobby and a homely focus.

So the household painting of the Burgers began. This thin scrupulsiness, love for comfort, almost religious attachment to the world of things. But the farther, the more prose acted and retreating poetry. Subsequently, the Burgers life has never been drawn in such poetic tones of sacred and dignity.

The early Buregument of the Nordic countries also did not have such a "bourgeois-limited" as his late descendants. True, the scope and versatility of Italians are unusual, but also in a narrower scale of the world, the Bogerger is not alien to a special kind of modest greatness. After all, this is he, Burger, created the cities, he defended their freedom from the feudalists, and he still had to defend her from alien monarchs and the greedy Catholic Church. On the shoulders of the Burgertism lay great historical affairs, the characters of uncommon, who developed except for increased respect for material values \u200b\u200balso durability, corporate cohesion, loyalty to duty and the word, self-esteem. As Thomas Mann says, Burger was a "middle man in the highest sense of this concept."

For the Italians of Renaissance, such a definition does not fit: they did not feel themselves by Middle people, at least in a high sense. Arnolphin, depicted by Jan Van Eyk, was an Italian who lived in the Netherlands; If his compatriot wrote him, the portrait would probably be different in spirit. Deep interest in person, to her appearance and character - it brings together artists of Italian and the Northern Renaissance. But they are interested in it in different ways and see it all different. The Netherlands have no feeling of titanism and the omnipotence of the human person: they see its value in the Burger Okrug, in the qualities, among which, not the last place occupies humility and piety, the consciousness of their smallness in the face of the universe, although in this humility the dignity of personality does not disappear, but even as it is emphasized.

In the middle and in the second half of the 15th century, many beautiful painters worked in the Netherlands: already mentioned Rogyr Van der Vayden, Dirk Boauts, Gogo Van der Gus, Memling, Geertgen That Sint Jans. Their artistic individuals are quite clearly distinguishable, although not with the degree of severity of individual style, like the Italian quathertists. They preferably painted altars and wrote portraits, wrote and machine paintings on orders of rich citizens. They have a special delegation of compositions imbued with meek, contemplative mood. They loved the scenes of Christmas and worship the baby, these plots are solved with them subtle and simply. In the "worship of the shepherds" Gogo Van der Gus, the baby is skinny and miserable, like any newborn child surrounding him, helpless and coarse, with deep peaceful defendant, Madonna Tiha, like a monastery, does not raise the gaze, but it felt that it is full of modest Proud motherhood. And outside the nursery there is a landscape of the Netherlands, wide, hilly, with winding roads, rare trees, towers, bridges.

There is a lot of touching, but there is no sweetness: a gothic angularity of forms is noticeable, some of their rigidity. The persons of the shepherds in Van der Gus are characteristic of both ugly, as usual in the works of Gothic. Even angels - and those ugly.

Netherlands artists rarely depict people with beautiful, right faces and figures and are also different from Italian. A simple consideration that Italians, straight descendants of the Romans, were generally more beautiful than the pale and loose sons of the North, maybe, of course, be taken into account, but the main reason is still not in this, but in the difference in the general artistic concept. Italian humanism will penetrate Paphos of the Great in man and passion for classical forms, the Netherlands pointed the "middle man", they have little business to classical beauty and harmonious proportions.

Netherlands feed addiction to detail. They are for them carriers of secret meaning. Lily in a vase, towel, kettle, book - all the details are carried out except directly and hidden meaning. Things are depicted with love and seem spiritualized.

Respect for themselves, to their everyday life, to the world of things was refracted through religious worldview. This was the spirit of Protestanian reforms, under the sign of which the Netherlands Renaissance passes.

Less comparatively with Italians Anthropomorphism of perception, the predominance of pantheistic principle and direct continuity of gothic affects all components of the style of the Netherlands painting. In Italian quatripentists, any composition, no matter how saturated with the details, more or less strict tectonics. Groups are built like a bas-relief, that is, the main figures the artist usually tries to post on a relatively narrow front platform, in a clearly defined closed space; It is architectonically balanced by him, they are firm on their feet: we will find all these features already at Jotto. Netherlands compositions are less closed and less tectonic. Their depth and gave them, the feeling of space they have more, air than in Italian painting. In the figures there are more solarness and unscrews, their tectonics is broken by a fan-shaped diverging book, broken out the folds of the robes. The Netherlands love the game of lines, but the lines serve not to the sculptural tasks of building volume, but rather ornamental.

Netherlands have no clear emphasis on the composition of the composition, reinforced allocation of the main figures. The attention of the artist is scattered in a variety of motives, everything seems tempting to him, and the world is diverse and interesting. Some scene in the distant plan claims a separate storyline.

Finally also develops such a type of composition, where there is no center at all, and the space is filled with many equal groups and scenes. At the same time, the main actors sometimes turn out to be somewhere in the corner.

Such compositions are found at the end of the XV century in Jerome Bosch. Bosch (1450-1516) is a remarkable kind of artist. Purely Netherlands Tensile and observation are combined with an unusually productive fantasy and a very gloomy humor. One of his favorite stories is "the temptation of St. Anthony", where the hermit is precipitated by the devils. Bosch inhabited her paintings by legions of small crawling, prisoner. It becomes completely terribly when these monsters are noting human parts of the body. All this kunstkamera of ammunition demons is significantly different from medieval chimeras: they were greatest and far from so sinners. Apotheosis of the Bosshov Demonology - His "Music Hell", similar to the garden torture: Nude people, mixed with the monsters with the monsters with the monsters, are swinging in painful lust, they will be crucified on the strings of some giant musical instruments, stuffing and repaid in mysterious devices , fuse in the pit, swallowed.

Bosha's strange phantasmagoria born by philosophical minds of mind. He stood on the threshold of the XVI century, and it was an era, forcing painfully thinking. Bosch, apparently, overposting meditation about the survivability and the omniposta of the world evil, which, as a leech, is embroidered to the whole living, about the eternal cycle of life and death, about the incomprehensible wastefulness of nature, which everywhere sows the larvae and germs of life - and on earth, and Underground, and in the rotten there is a swamp. Bosch watched nature, maybe sharper and more, but no harmony, nor perfection in it. Why a person, the crown of nature, is doomed to death and Tlenu, why he is weak and pitiful, why does he torment himself and others, is continuously subjected to torment?

Already one thing is that Bosch is asked by such questions, speaks of awakened toastfulness - a phenomenon concomitiated by humanism. Humanism does not mean only the gloriousness of the human. He means and the desire to penetrate things into the essence of things, solve the mysteries of the universe. At Bosch, this desire was stained in a dark tone, but it was a symptom of that mental thirst, which encouraged Leonardo da Vinci to explore everything - beautiful and ugly. Mighty Intellect Leonardo perceived the world holistically, felt unity in it. In the consciousness of Bosch, the world was reflected in a fragmented, broken into thousands of fragments that entered into incomprehensible compounds.

But it is worth saying about romantic currents, that is, those who were influenced by Italian Ginkvuene, - they began to spread in the Netherlands in the XVI century. Their carelessness is very noticeable. The image of the "classic nudity", the beautiful of the Italians, the Netherlands was not resolutely and looked even somewhat comically like "Neptune and Amphitrite" Yana Goszart, with their lush bloated televisions. There was Netherlands and their provincial "mannerism."

We note the development of genres of household and landscape stalks made by the Dutch artists in the XVI century. Their development contributed to the fact that the wider circles, hating the papacy and the Catholic clergy, were increasingly disgusted with Catholicism and demanded church reforms. And the reforms of Luther and Calvin included an element of iconoclap; The interiors of Protestanian churches were to be completely simple, bare - nothing like rich and spectacular design in Catholic temples. Religious art was greatly reduced in volume, ceased to be cult.

Pure genre paintings began to appear with the image of traders in the shops, changed in offices, peasants in the market, players in the card. The household genre grew out of the portrait, and the landscape - from those landscape backgrounds that were so loved by the Netherlands masters. The backgrounds grow up, and remained only a step to a pure landscape.

However, everything takes place and in itself concentrates the colossal talent of Peter Breygel (1525-1569). He highly possessed what is called national peculiarity: all the wonderful features of his art are torn to the original Netherlands traditions. Like no one, Bruegel expressed the spirit of his time and his popular flavor. He is people in everything: being undoubtedly an artist-thinker, he thinks aphoristically and metaphorically. The philosophy of life concluded in his allegoryrs, bitter, ironic, but also courageous. The favorite type of the composition of Bregel is a large space, as if seen from the top, so people look small and sink in the valleys, however, everything is written in detail and clearly. The story is usually associated with folklore, Bruegel wrote paintings-parables.

The type of spatial-landscape composition common in the Netherlands without focusing the main persons and events Bruegel applies so that the whole life philosophy is revealed. It is especially interesting to "drop ICARA". The painting of Breygel depicts a peaceful landscape on the seashore: Pahar is walking behind a plow, shepherd leaves sheep, a fisherman is sitting with a fishing rod, and the court sails. Where is Icar and what to fall? It is necessary to carefully look at it to see in the right corner a pitiful naked legs sticking out of the water. Ikar fell from the sky, but no one noticed that. The usual life flows, as always. For a peasant his arable land, for the shepherd, his herd is much more important than someone's ups and downs. The meaning of extraordinary events is found not soon, the contemporaries do not notice it, immersed by everyday worries.

revival Art Painting Sculpture

2.2 Revival in German and French art

At the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. Germany was even more fragmented than in previous periods, which contributed to the survivability of feudal oblasts.

The development of German cities was lagged even in relation to the Netherlands, and the German Renaissance was formed in comparison with Italian for an entire century later. On the example of the creativity of many artists XV century. You can trace how the revival in Germany was formed: this is Konrad VIC, Mikhael Pacher, then Martin Shongauer. In their altar images, narrative elements appear, the desire to reveal human feelings on the religious plot (Altar of St. Wolfgang M. Pacher in the Church of St. Wolfgang in the town of the same name, 1481). But understanding space, introduction of gold backgrounds, fraction of drawing, restless rhythm of broken lines, as well as

scrupulous discharge of the main and private, - all this indicates about

the absence of a sequence in the artistic worldview of these masters and a close connection with a medieval tradition. The retirement for Germany begins with a powerful revolutionary movement of the peasantry, chivalry and burgherness against the prince of power and Roman Catholicism. The theses of the head of the German reformation of Martin Luther against the feudal church in 1517 "had a flammifying effect, similar to a lightning strike in a barrel of powder." The revolutionary movement in Germany was defeated by 1525, but the time of the peasant war was a period of high spiritual lifting and the flourishing of German humanism, secular sciences, German culture. This time coincides with the work of the largest artist of the German revival of Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528).

In the work of Durera, as it were, the search for many German masters would merge: observations of nature, man, the problems of the relationship of items in the space, the existence of a human figure in the landscape, in a spatial environment. According to versatility, along the scale of dating, the latitude of the perception of reality Durer is a typical high-revival artist. He was a painter, and engraver, and mathematician, an anatom, and a prospeativist, and an engineer. He traveled twice in Italy, once - in the Netherlands, traveled his native country. His legacy make up 80 machinery, more than two hundred engravings, more than 1000 drawings, sculptures, handwritten materials. Durer was the largest humanist humanist of the Renaissance, but his ideal of a person is different from Italian. Deep national images of Dieregor are full of strength, but also in doubt, sometimes grave

pondays, there is no clear harmony of Raphael or Leonardo.

The art language is complicated, allegic.

Even during the century of century, the process of addition of the French nation, the birth of the French national state began. The political association of the country was completed mainly under Louis XI. By the middle of the XV century. The beginning of the French Renaissance and the early stages are still closely associated with gothic art. Hiking of the French kings in Italy introduced French artists with Italian art, and from the end of XV

in. Starts a decisive gap with the Gothic tradition, Italian

art is rethought in connection with its own national tasks.

French Renaissance wore the character of court culture. (People's character most of all manifested itself in the French Renaissance literature, primarily in the work of Francois Rabol, with its full-blooded formation, typical Gallic wit and cheerfulness.) As in Dutch art, realistic trends are observed.

first of all, in miniature both theological and secular books. First

a large artist of French Renaissance - Jean Fuku (about 1420-1481), the court painter Karl VII and Louis Xi. And in portraits (portrait of Karl VII, about 1445), and in religious compositions (diptych from melen), the carefulness of the letter is combined with monumentality in the image interpretation. This monumentality is created by the chanceliness of forms, closure and solidity of silhouette, static poses, laconicomic color. In fact, in just two colors - bright red and blue - Madonna Mellensky diptych (a model for her served as a beloved Karl VII - a fact, an impossible in medieval art). The same compositional clarity and accuracy of the drawing, the colorfulness of the color is characteristic of numerous Fuce Miniatures (Bokcchcho. "Life of famous men and women", about 1458). The fields of manuscripts are filled with the image of the modern Fuce of the crowd, landscapes of the native turbo.

Conclusion

So, rebirth, or Renaissance - the epoch in the life of mankind, marked with a colossal attack of art and science.

The art of rebirth arising on the basis of humanism is the flow of public thought, proclaiming a person with the highest value of life. In art, the main theme was the beautiful, harmoniously developed person with unlimited spiritual and creative possibilities. Artists began to see the world otherwise: plane, as if disembodied images of medieval art gave way to three-dimensional, relief, convex space. They chased their creativity perfect personality, in which physical and spiritual beauty merge together in accordance with the requirements of ancient aesthetics. Many painters, poets, sculptors, architects abandoned the ideas of humanism, seeking to assimilate only the "Maneru" of the Great Renaissance figures. So, the features of the crisis of artistic ideals of Renaissance manifested themselves in Manherism (cordlessness, manniality), which developed on the degree of the Renaissance era - explicit imitate, the secondary style, hyperbolization of individual parts, sometimes even expressed in the name of the work ("Madonna with a long neck"), violation of proportions , disharmony, deformation, that in itself alien to the nature of the art of Italian revival.

The art of revival laid the foundations of the European culture of the new time, radically changed all major types of art. The architecture established creatively reworked principles of an ancient order system, new types of public buildings were established. Painting enriched in linear and air perspective, knowledge of anatomy and proportions of the human body. In the traditional religious theme of works of art penetrated the Earth content. Interest in ancient mythology, history, household scenes, landscape, portrait. Along with the monumental wall paintings, adorning architectural structures, a picture appeared, an oily painting appeared. In the first place in art, the creative individuality of the artist was usually a universally gifted personality.

In the art of revival, the ways of scientific and artistic comprehension of peace and man were closely intertwined. His cognitive meaning was inextricably linked with sublime poetic beauty, in his desire for naturalness it did not descend to small daily daily. Art has become universal spiritual need.

The topic of revival is rich and inexhaustible. This powerful movement determined the development of the entire European civilization for many years. We are only trying to enter the essence of the processes that happened. To understand, we need to restore the psychological attitude of the Human Renaissance in more detail, read the books of that time, visit art galleries. The ideas of humanism are the spiritual basis for the heyday of the Age of the Renaissance. The art of revival is imbued with ideals of humanism, it created an image of a beautiful, harmoniously developed person. The art of this era is infinitely for a long time to admire humanity, to strive with their vitality and the ability to conquer the minds and hearts. It was the time of titanism, which manifested itself in art and in life. Of course, the era of Renaissance is one of the most beautiful eras in the history of mankind.

Bibliography

1.Bitsilli P. . "Renaissance place in the history of culture." St. Petersburg: Mithril, 1996.

2.Bragin M., O.N. Varnash and others; The history of the culture of Western European countries in the Renaissance Epoch ": Textbook for universities, - M.: Higher School, 1999.

.Garen. E."The problems of the Italian Renaissance." M.: Progress, 1986.

5.Greenenko G.V. Readings on the history of world culture. - M., 1998

6.Dvorak M. "The history of Italian art in the Renaissance Epoch": at 2 t. M.: Art, 1978.

7."West and East. Traditions and modernity. " - M.: O-in "Knowledge" of the Russian Federation, 1993.

8.Ilina T.V. "The history of arts. Western European art. " - M.: Higher School, 1983.

9.Panofsky E. "Renaissance and Renaissans" in the art of the West. "Art, 1998.

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Revival, or Renaissance (from Fr. Renaître - Revive), is one of the most striking eras in the development of European culture, covering almost three centuries: from the middle of the XIV century. until the first decades of the XVII century. It was the era of large changes in the history of the peoples of Europe. In the conditions of a high level of urban civilization, the process of the origin of capitalist relations and the crisis of feudalism began, there was a formation of nations and the creation of large national states, a new form of political system appeared - an absolute monarchy (see the state), new public groups were formed - bourgeoisie and a hired workman. The spiritual world of man changed. Great geographical discoveries expanded the horizons of contemporaries. This was also facilitated by the great invention of Johann Gutenberg - a typography. In this complex, transitional era, a new type of culture arose, which put in the center of his own interests of a person and the world around. The new, Renaissance culture was widely relied on the heritage of antiquity, meaningful in other centuries, and in many respects and re-open (hence the concept of "revival"), but it also drew from the best achievements of medieval culture, especially secular - knightly, urban , folk. The Renaissance man was covered by the thirst for self-affirmation, great accomplishments, actively involved in public life, re-opened the world of nature, sought to deeply comprehend, admired her beauty. For the culture of the Renaissance, the secular perception and understanding of the world is characterized, the approval of the value of the Earth Being, the greatness of the mind and the creative abilities of a person, the dignity of the individual. Humanism (from Lat. Humanus - human) became the ideological basis of the culture of revival.

Giovanni Bokcchcho is one of the first representatives of the Humanistic Revival Literature.

Palazzo Pitty. Florence. 1440-1570.

Mazacho. Collection of petrol Scene from the life of St. Peter Fresco Capella Brankachchi. Florence. 1426-1427

Michelangelo Buonaroti. Moses. 1513-1516.

Rafael Santi. Sistine Madonna. 1515-1519. Canvas, oil. Picture gallery. Dresden.

Leonardo da Vinci. Madonna Litta. End of the 1470s - beginning of the 1490s. Tree, oil. State Hermitage. St. Petersburg.

Leonardo da Vinci. Self-portrait. OK. 1510-1513.

Albrecht Durer. Self-portrait. 1498

Peter Bruegel senior. Hunters in the snow. 1565 Tree, oil. Museum of Art History. Vein.

Humanists opposed the dictatorship of the Catholic Church in the spiritual life of society. They criticized the method of scholastic science, based on formal logic (dialectic), rejected her dogmatism and faith in authorities, thereby clearing the path for the free development of scientific thought. Humanists called for the study of ancient culture, which the Church denied as a pagan, perceiving from it only that did not contradict the Christian doctrine. However, the restoration of the ancient heritage (Humanists were looking for manuscripts of ancient authors, they cleared the texts from later layers and errors of the correspondence) was not an end for them, but served as the basis for solving topical problems of modernity, to build a new culture. The circle of humanitarian knowledge, in which the humanistic worldview was evolved, included ethics, history, pedagogy, poetics, rhetoric. Humanists made a valuable contribution to the development of all these sciences. Their search for a new scientific method, criticism of scholasticics, translations of scientific essays of antique authors contributed to the rise of natural philosophy and natural science in the XVI - early XVII century.

The formation of a culture of the Renaissance in different countries was not simultaneous and went into a different pace in various fields of culture itself. Previously, it has developed in Italy with its numerous cities that have reached the high level of civilization and political independence, with antique traditions, more durable than in other European countries. Already in the 2nd half of the XIV century. In Italy, significant shifts occurred in literature and humanitarian knowledge - philology, ethics, rhetoric, historiography, pedagogy. Then the withdrawal of the rapenance has become an art and architecture, later the new culture covered the sphere of philosophy, natural science, music, theater. For more than a century, Italy remained the only country of Renaissance culture; By the end of the XV century. Revival Beginning relatively quickly gain power in Germany, the Netherlands, France, in the XVI century. - In England, Spain, Central Europe. The second half of the XVI century. It became time not only the high achievements of the European Renaissance, but also the manifestations of the crisis of a new culture caused by the counteroffensiveness of the reactionary forces and the internal contradictions of the development of the Renaissance itself.

The emergence of renaissance literature in the 2nd half of the XIV century. associated with the names of Francesco Petrorski and Giovanni Boccaccio. They argued the humanistic ideas of the dignity of the individual, tieting him not with trickyness, but with the valiant acts of man, his freedom and right to enjoy the joy of earthly life. In the "Book of Songs" Petrarki reflected the finest shades of his love for the laure. In the "My Mystery" dialogue, a number of treatises, he developed ideas about the need to change the structure of knowledge - to put the human problem in the center, criticized Scholastov for their formal-logical method of knowledge, called for the study of ancient authors (Petrarca especially Cicero, Vergil, Sekuke), High raised the value of poetry in the knowledge of the man of the meaning of his earthly being. These thoughts also shared his friend Bokcchcho, the author of the book Namell "Decameron", a number of poetic and scientific essays. In the Decameron, the influence of the People's City Literature of the Middle Ages is traced. Here in artistic form they found the expression of humanistic ideas - the denial of ascetic morality, justification of human rights on the completeness of the manifestation of their feelings, of all natural needs, the idea of \u200b\u200bnobility as a generation of valiant affairs and high morality, and not the reason for the kind. The topic of nobility, in the decision of which the anti-speed representations of the advanced part of the Burgerty and the people were reflected, will be characteristic of many humanists. The humanists XV centuries contributed to the further development of literature in Italian and Latin language. - Writers and philologists, historians, philosophers, poets, government figures and speakers.

In Italian humanism, there were directions, in different ways, approaching ethical problems, and above all, to the question of the paths of a person, fortunately. So, in civilian humanism - the direction that pretended in Florence in the first half of the XV century. (The most prominent representatives - Leonardo Bruni and Matteo Palmier), - Ethics was based on the principle of serving the common good. Humanists argued the need to bring up a citizen man, a patriot that puts the interests of society and the state above personal. They argued the moral ideal of active civilian life in opposition to the church ideal of monastic hermit. Of particular value, they attached to such virtues as justice, generosity, prudence, courage, politeness, modesty. A person can reveal and develop these virtues only in active social communication, and not in escape from worldly life. The best form of the state device Humanists of this area was considered to be a republic, where all human abilities can be most fully manifested.

Another direction in the Humanism of the XV century. Creativity of writer, architect, theorist of the art of Leon Battista Alberti. Alberti believed that the law of harmony reigns in the world, and a person is subordinated to him. He must strive for knowledge, to comprehend the surrounding world and himself. People should build earthly life on reasonable grounds, on the basis of acquired knowledge, addressing them for their benefit, seeking harmony of feelings and mind, individual and society, man and nature. Knowledge and mandatory work for all members of society is such, according to Alberti, the path to a happy life.

Lorenzo Valla put forward a different ethical theory. Happiness he identified with pleasure: a person should enjoy all the joys of earthly existence. Asceticism contradicts the most human nature, feelings and mind is equal, their harmony should be achieved. With these positions, Valli made a decisive criticism of monasticism in the dialogue "On Monastic Valley".

At the end of the XV - late XVI century. It turned out the distribution of the direction associated with the activities of the Platonic Academy in Florence. The leading humanist philosophers of this area - Martilio Ficino and Giovanni Pico della Mirandol in his writings based on Plato's philosophy and neopotonikov, exhibited a human mind. For them, the characteristic heroization of the person was becoming. Fechino considered man the center of the world, the link in the world (this connection is carried out in knowledge) of a perfectly organized space. Pico saw in a man the only creature in the world, endowed with the ability to form himself, relying on knowledge - on ethics and sciences about nature. In the "speech about the dignity of a person", Pico defended the right to freedomity, believed that philosophy devoid of all dogmatism should become a lot of each, and not a handful of chosen. Italian neoplatonists approached from new, humanistic positions to solving a number of theological problems. The invasion of humanism into the scope of theology is one of the important features of the European Renaissance of the XVI century.

The new rise of the renaissance literature in Italy was celebrated by the XVI century: Ludochiko Ariosto became famous for the poem "Furass Roland", where reality and fantasy are intertwined, the glorification of earthly joys and that sad, then ironic understanding of Italian life; Baldassare Castiglion has created a book about the perfect person of his era ("Court"). This is the time of creativity of the outstanding poet Pietro Btembo and the author of satirical pamphlets Pietro Aretino; At the end of the XVI century. The grandiose heroic poem Torquato Tasso "liberated by Jerusalem" was written, which reflected not only the conquest of the secular Renaissance culture, but also the crisis of the humanistic worldview, associated with the strengthening of religiosity in the conditions of counter-reformation, with the loss of faith in the omnipotence of the person.

Brilliant success reached the art of Italian Renaissance, the beginning of which put Mazacho in painting, Donatello in sculpture, Bruneland in the architecture worked in Florence in the 1st half of the XV century. Their work is marked by a bright talent, a new understanding of a person, his place in nature and society. In the 2nd half of the XV century. In Italian painting, along with the Florentine school, there were a number of others - Umbral, Northholdialyan, Venetian. Each of them had its own characteristics, they were characterized and for the work of the largest masters - Piero della Franni, Adrea Manteny, Sandro Botticelli and others. All of them identified the specifics of renaissance art: the desire to the life of images based on the principle of "imitation of nature", a wide appeal to the motives of the ancient mythology and the secular interpretation of traditional religious plots, interest in the linear and air perspective, to plastic expressiveness of images, harmonicity of proportions etc. Completed genre of painting, graphics, medal art, sculptures became a portrait that was directly related to the statement of the humanistic ideal of man. The heroed ideal of a perfect person with a special fit was embodied in the Italian Art of High Renaissance in the first decades of the XVI century. This epoch put forward the brightest, multifaceted talents - Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo (see art). The type of a universal artist who combined the painter, sculptor, architect, poet and scientist in his work was developed. Artists of this era worked closely with humanists and showed great interest in natural sciences, primarily anatomy, optics, mathematics, seeking to use their achievements in their work. In the XVI century Special lifting experienced Venetian art. Georgeon, Titian, Veronese, Tintoretto created beautiful canvases, notable for the colorful wealth and realism of human images and the surrounding world. The XVI century - the time of active approval of the Renaissance style in architecture, especially secular purpose, for which there was a close relationship with the traditions of ancient architecture (order architecture). A new type of building was formed - the city palace (Palazzo) and the country residence (villa) - the majestic, but also a commensurate person, where the solemn simplicity of the facade is combined with spacious, richly decorated with interiors. Leon Battist Alberti, Juliano, Palladio, Palladio, contributed a huge contribution to the revival architecture. Many architects created the projects of the ideal city, based on new principles of urban planning and architecture that meet the needs of a person in a healthy, well-equipped and beautiful living space. Not only individual buildings were rebuilt, but also the whole old medieval cities: Rome, Florence, Ferrara, Venice, Mantua, Rimini.

Lukas senior cranes. Female portrait.

Hans Holbaine Jr. Portrait of the Netherlands Humanist Erasmus Rotterdam. 1523

Titian Veverie. Saint Sebastian. 1570. Canvas, oil. State Hermitage. St. Petersburg.

Illustration of Dore to Roman F. Rabl "Gargantua and Pantagruel".

Michel Monten - French philosopher and writer.

In the political and historical thought of Italian revival, the problem of perfect society and the state became one of the central. In those built on the study of documentary materials, the works of Bruni and especially Machiavelli on the history of Florence, in the compositions of Sabellico and Contarini on the history of Venice, the merits were revealed by the dignity of the republican device of these cities-states, and the historians of Milan and Naples, on the contrary, emphasized the positive centralizing role of the monarchy. Makiavelli and Guichchardini explained all the troubles of Italy, which became in the first decades of the XVI century. Arena ingenic invasions, its political decentralization and urged Italians to national consolidation. A common feature of Renaissance historiography was a desire to see in the people of the creators of their history, deeply analyze the experience of the past and use it in political practice. Wide distribution in the XVI - early XVII century. Received social utopia. In the teachings of Utopists Donon, Albergati, Zuccolo, the ideal society was associated with partial liquidation of private ownership, equality of citizens (but not all people), universal labor obligation, harmonious development of the individual. The most consistent expression of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe socialization of property and the equalia was found in the "City of Sun" Campellela.

New approaches to solving the traditional problem about the ratio of nature and God were nominated by Naturophilosophers Bernardino Television, Francesco Patrice, Jordan Bruno. In their works, dogma about the God-Creator, who guides the development of the universe, was inferior to Pantheism: God is not opposed to nature, but no matter how merging with it; Nature is seen as an existing forever and developing according to its own laws. The ideas of Renaissance natural philosophers met a sharp resistance from the Catholic Church. For their ideas about the eternity and infinity of the universe, consisting of a huge set of worlds, for the acute criticism of the Church, indulging ignorance and obscuration, Bruno was convicted as a heretic and devoted to fire in 1600.

Italian revival had a huge impact on the development of Renaissance culture in other European countries. This was facilitated in a considerable degree of typography. The major centers of the publishing were in the XVI century. Venice, where at the beginning of the century, the Typography of Alde Manuction became an important center of cultural life; Basel, where the Publishing houses of Johanne Froben and Johanna Amerbach were equally significant; Lyon with his glorified stamps, as well as Paris, Rome, Louven, London, Seville. A typography has become a powerful factor in the development of Renaissance culture in many European countries, opened the way to active interaction in the process of building a new culture of humanists, scientists, artists.

The largest figure of the Northern Renaissance was Erasmus Rotterdam, with the name of which is associated with the direction of "Christian humanism". He had like-minded people and allies in many countries of Europe (J. Kolts and Thomas Mor in England, the city of France, I. Reakhlin in Germany). Erasmus has widely understood the tasks of a new culture. In his opinion, this is not Only the resurrection of the ancient pagan heritage, but also the restoration of the early Christian teaching. He did not see the principal differences between them from the point of view of the Truth, to which the person should strive for. Like the Italian humanists, he connected the improvement of a person with education, creative activities, the disclosure of all laid in it Abilities. His humanistic pedagogy received an artistic expression in "conversations easily", and his extremistric work "praise stupidity" was directed against ignorance, dogmatism, feudal prejudices. The path to happiness of people Erasmus saw in a peaceful life and the approval of humanistic culture based on all values Historical experience of mankind.

In Germany, the culture of revival experienced a stormy takeoff at the end of the XV century. - 1st third of the XVI century. One of its features was the flourishing of satirical literature, the beginning of which marked the essay of Sebastian Brant "The ship of the Fools", in which they were exposed to the sharp criticism of the temper of time; The author led readers to the conclusion about the need for reforms of public life. The satirical line in German literature continued "letters of dark people" - anonymously published collective work of humanists, the main one among which was Ulrich von Gutten, - where the servants of the church were destroyed by destroying criticism. Gutten was the author of many pamphlets, dialogues, letters directed against the papacy, the Zasili Church in Germany, the fragmentation of the country; His creativity contributed to the awakening of the national identity of the German people.

The largest artists of the Renaissance in Germany were A. Durer, an outstanding painter and an unsurpassed master engraving, M. Nithardt (Grunevald) with his deep dramatic images, Portrait of Hans Holshein Jr., as well as Lukas Senior cranes, closely tied his art with the reformation.

In France, the culture of the Renaissance was and worried about flourishing in the XVI century. This was facilitated, in particular, the Italian wars 1494-1559. (They conducted between the kings of France, Spain and the German emperor for mastering Italian territories), who opened the French richness of the Renaissance culture of Italy. At the same time, the peculiarity of French revival was the interest in the traditions of folk culture, creatively mastered by the humanists along with the ancient heritage. Poetry K. Maro, the compositions of Humanist-philologists E. Shat and B. Detcher, part of the Margarita Circle of Navarre (sisters of the King of Francis I), were imbued with folk motifs, cheerful liberty. These trends were very brightly manifested in the satirical novel of the outstanding writer of the Renaissance of Francois Rabl "Gargantua and Pantagruel", where the plots, hoped from the old folk tales of merry giants, are combined with the creation of defects and ignorance of contemporaries, with the presentation of the humanistic education and education program in the spirit of the new Culture. The takeoff of the National French Poetry is associated with the activities of Pleiads - a mug of poets on the chapter with Ronsar and Du Belle. During the period of civil (Hugugen) wars (see Religious Wars in France), publicism received widespread development, expressing differences in the political position of the opposing forces of society. The largest political thinkers were F. Otman and Duplesi Morne, who opposed Tiragia, and J. Boden, who told the strengthening of a unified national state led by an absolute monarch. The ideas of humanism found a deep understanding in the "experiments" of Montita. Montae, Rabol, Bonavantur Depthir were bright representatives of secular freedomiff, who rejected the religious foundations of the worldview. They condemned scholasticism, a medieval system of upbringing and education, greeting, religious fanaticism. The main principle of ethics of Montenea is the free manifestation of human individuality, the liberation of the mind from submission to faith, the fullness of emotional life. Happiness he tied up with the implementation of the internal possibilities of the individual, which should serve secular education and education based on freedomity. In the art of the French Renaissance, the genre of portrait, outstanding masters of which became J. Fuki, F. Clue, P. and E. Dummy. In the sculpture was famous for J. Gouzon.

In the culture of the Netherlands of the Renaissance of the original phenomenon were rhetorical societies that united immigrants from different layers, including artisans and peasants. At meetings of societies, there were disputes on political and moral and religious topics, there were performances in folk traditions, there was a refined work on the word; Humanists accepted active participation in the activities of societies. Folk features were peculiar to the Netherlands art. The largest painter Peter Bruegel, nicknamed "Menzitsky", in his paintings of peasant life and landscapes with a special completeness expressed a feeling of the unity of nature and man.

). High rise reached the XVI century. The art of the theater, democratic in their orientation. There are household comedies, historical chronicles, heroic dramas in numerous public and private theaters. Pieces K. Marlo, in which majestic heroes challenge the medieval morality, B. Johnson, in which the gallery of tragicomic characters arises, prepared the emergence of the greatest playwright of the Renaissance of William Shakespeare. The perfect master of different genres is comedies, tragedies, historical chronicles, Shakespeare has created unique images of strong people, personalities, brightly embodied the features of a person of the Renaissance, a vivid, passionate, endowed with the mind and energy, but sometimes conflicting in their moral actions. The work of Shakespeare was exposed to the gap between the humanistic idealization of man and filled with sharp vital collisions with the real world in the epoch of the late revival. English scientist Francis Bacon enriched the Renaissance philosophy with new approaches to the knowledge of the world. Scholastic method he opposed the observation and experiment as a reliable tool of scientific knowledge. The path to building a perfect society Bacon saw in the development of science, above all physics.

In Spain, the Renaiss Culture was worried about the Golden Age in the 2nd half of the XVI century. - The first decades of the XVII century. Her higher achievements are associated with the creation of new Spanish literature and the National People's Theater, as well as with the work of an outstanding painter El Greco. The formation of a new Spanish literature, which grew up on the traditions of the Knight and Plutovsky novels, found a brilliant completion in the brilliant novel by Miguel de Cervantes "Chit Roman Hidalgo Don Quixote Laman." In the images of the knight, Don Quixote and the peasant Sancho Pansee reveals the main humanistic idea of \u200b\u200bthe novel: the greatness of man in his bold anti-evil in the name of justice. Roman Cervantes - and a peculiar parody of the last knightly romance, and the widest cloth of the People's Life of Spain XVI century. Cervantes was the author of a series of plays that made a great contribution to the creation of the National Theater. To an even greater extent, the rapid development of the Spanish Renaissance Theater is associated with the work of extremely fruitful playwright and poet Lope de Vega, the author of the lyric and heroic comedies of the raincoat and the swords imbued with the People's Spirit.

Andrei Rublev. Trinity. 1st quarter of the XV century.

At the end of the XV-XVI century. Renaissance culture was distributed in Hungary, where royal patronage played an important role in the flourishing of humanism; In the Czech Republic, where new trends contributed to the formation of national consciousness; In Poland, which became one of the centers of humanistic liberty. The influence of the Renaissance also affected the culture of Dubrovnitsky Republic, Lithuania, Belarus. Separate trends of it were manifested in Russian culture of the XV century. They were associated with increasing interest in the human person and her psychology. In art, it is primarily the work of Andrei Rublev and the artists of his circle, in the literature - "Tale of Peter and Fevronia Muromsky", telling about the love of the Murom Prince and the Peasant girl Fevronia, and the ebony of the epiphany woven with his workshop "weaving words." In the XVI century Restricted elements manifested themselves in Russian political journalism (Ivan Peresvetov, etc.).

In the XVI - the first decades of the XVII century. Significant shifts occurred in the development of science. The beginning of the new astronomy laid the Heliocentric theory of the Polish scientist N. Copernicus, who committed a coup in the ideas about the Universe. She received a further substantiation in the writings of German astronoma I. Kepler, as well as the Italian scientist Galilean. The astronomer and the physicist of Galilee constructed a pylon pipe, opening the mountain on the moon, the Phases of Venus, the satellites of Jupiter, etc. Opening of the Galilee, which confirmed Copernicus's doctrine on the rotation of the Earth around the Sun, gave an impetus to the faster spread of the heliocentric theory, which the Church recognized the heretical; She pursued her supporters (for example, the fate of D. Bruno, burned at the fire) and banned the compositions of Galileo. A lot of new appeared in the field of physics, mechanics, mathematics. Stephen were formulated the theorems of hydrostatics; Tartalia successfully studied the theory of ballistics; Cardano discovered the solution of the algebraic equations of the third degree. Kremer (Mercator) created more advanced geographical maps. There was oceanography. In Botanic E. Cord and L. Fuchs systematized a wide range of knowledge. K. Geesner enriched knowledge in the field of zoology with his "animal history." Knowledge of the anatomy was improved, which the work of Nezalya "On the structure of the human body" contributed. M. Gervet expressed the idea of \u200b\u200bthe presence of a pulmonary circulation. Outstanding Medic Paracels near medicine and chemistry, made important discoveries in pharmacology. G. Agrikola systematized knowledge in the field of mining and metallurgy. Leonardo Da Vinci put forward a number of engineering projects, far away the modern technical idea and anticipating some later discoveries (for example, an aircraft).