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Learn the basics of architectural drawing

The cornerstone in architectural education is knowledge of the basics of architectural drawing. Although I did not enroll in architecture this year, I did not give up the idea of ​​becoming an architect and will slowly but surely move towards my goal.

So, before me is the book "Drawing by Representation. From Geometry to Architecture". From today on, I will begin to study this book thoughtfully and diligently, practicing drawing every day. I undertake to spend 1.5-2 hours a day drawing from a book (exceptions: unforeseen circumstances, days off, trips and situations when I cannot use the tools and the textbook) and show my work to the community. I will not be in a hurry, and I will set the deadlines approximately, with a large margin. The deadline is March 6 next year.

Goal Accomplishment Criteria

The book has been studied: all tasks have been completed, photographs of the works have been posted on the site.

Personal resources

Time every day, paper, tools, book.

1. Part 1. Initial exercises

   Section 1, Drawing Straight Lines

   • Drawing straight lines
   • Drawing parallel straight lines
   • Point-to-point drawing of straight lines
   • Division of straight lines into equal segments
   • Division of angles into equal parts
   • Linear organ drawing

   Section 2. Drawing Curved Lines

   • Drawing curved lines
   • Drawing curved lines using anchor points
   • Ornament drawing based on a circle
   • Ellipse drawing
   • Drawing ellipses

2. Part 2. Perspective of a square and a circle

   • Perspective view diagram
   • Drawing a square in perspective
   • Drawing of a square circumscribed around a circle in perspective

3. Perspective of simple geometric solids

   Section 5. Perspective drawing of a cube and a tetrahedral prism

   • Perspective drawing of a cube
   • Drawing of nine cubes
   • Linear-structural drawing of a composition from cubes according to plan and facade in frontal and angular perspectives
   • Linear-constructive drawing of a composition from cubes in perspective
   • Linear-constructive drawing of a composition of cubes and tetrahedral prisms in perspective

   Section 6. Perspective of the pyramid and the hexagon

   • Linear constructive drawing of the pyramid
   • Linear structural drawing of a hexagonal prism

   Section 7. Perspective of Cylinder, Cone and Ball

   • Linear structural drawing of the cylinder
   • Linear-constructive drawing of a cone
   • Section of a cylinder and a cone with planes parallel to the bases
   • Section of a cone by parallel planes perpendicular to its base
   • Drawing of cylinders of different diameters, stacked on top of each other
   • Linear-constructive drawing of the ball
   • Section of a ball by parallel planes
   • Drawing of a ball standing on a cube
   • Drawing of a cube described inside a sphere

4. Part 4. Tonal drawing

   Section 8. Tone. Initial exercises

   • Shading tonal spots
   • Hatching plane shapes
   • Tonal scale made using the shading technique
   • Shading flat shapes
   • Wide stroke shading
   • Plane composition of polygons

   Section 9. Black and white drawing simple geometric bodies

   • Cube tonal drawing
   • Tonal drawing of a tetrahedral prism
   • Tonal pyramid
   • Cylinder tonal drawing
   • Tonal drawing of a cone
   • Tonal ball drawing
   • Stepped cone tonal pattern
   • Tonal pattern of illuminated surfaces
   • Tonal drawing of shadow surfaces
   • Tonal drawing of a composition of four cubes

5. Part 5. Injections of geometric bodies

   Section 10. Simple sidebars

   • Insert cube and tetrahedral prism
   • Inset cube and pyramid
   • Insert cube and hex prism
   • Insert cube and cylinder
   • Insert cube and cone
   • Inserting a ball and a cube according to specified orthogonal projections
   • Cube and ball with a common center
   • Insertion of a ball and a cube, when the secant planes of the cube do not pass through the center of the ball

   Section 11. Complex sidebars.

   • Oblique section of a hexagonal prism
   • Insert of two hexagonal prisms
   • Inclined section of the pyramid
   • Inset of pyramid and hexagonal prism
   • Oblique section of the cylinder
   • Insert cylinder and hex prism
   • Inset of the pyramid and cylinder
   • Inclined section of the cone
   • Insert cone and hexagon
   • Inset of the cone and pyramid
   • Inclined ball section
   • Insert Hex Prism and Ball

6. Composition of simple geometric bodies

   Section 12. Composition of simple geometric bodies on entrance exams at Moscow Architectural Institute

Choose one or two of the best sketches and frame them in proportions that correspond to the proportions of the future drawing. So, a sheet of format A-3 measuring 30 by 40 centimeters has a propori 3 to 4 (Fig. 172) In search of the most successful composition of the sheet, you may have to correct your point of view, and in some cases even make changes to the production itself.

When composing a leaf, you should also take into account the location of the illuminated and shadow surfaces, as well as the boundaries of the falling shadows. Remember that chiaroscuro can disrupt the compositional harmony of a line drawing.

Stage 1.

Figure 173 Starting a drawing on a large sheet, try to accurately transfer to it the arrangement of objects recorded in the best sketch. Mark the location of each geometric body with light lines. Recheck the size of the entire composition, as well as its correspondence to the size of the sheet. Make the necessary changes to the drawing and continue working, specifying the size of each geometric body in relation to other bodies and to the entire composition as a whole.

Stage 2.

Figure 174. Draw all geometric bodies in a linear fashion. In the course of work, pay special attention to the correspondence of the disclosure of squares and ellipses lying in the horizontal and vertical planes.

Stage 3.

Figure 175. At this stage, it is necessary to strengthen those lines that are closer to the viewer, thus, you will create the effect of depth of space already in the linear-constructive drawing. Draw lines of own and falling shadows and paint over all shadows with a light stroke.

Stage 4.

Figure 176. Continue working in the shadows, making them more intense towards the viewer and towards the light source, and the falling shadows also towards the object casting the shadow. Gradually move on to work in the light. Carefully model the shape using knowledge of the distribution of light and shadow on geometric bodies. Create smooth light and shadow transitions on round surfaces; on bodies formed by planes, they are sharp and clear.

Comparing the light and dark tones of plaster in nature, you need to strive to correctly convey their relationship in the drawing, but you also need to know about special techniques that help the draftsman create a sense of three-dimensional space on a flat sheet:

1. Dividing the tonal scale into light and shadow parts: in the drawing, the lightest place in the shadow should be darker than the darkest place in the light, in other words, the shadow should always be darker than the light. In nature, this is not always the case. For example, when there is a sufficiently well-lit surface next to the performance, the reflections from it on location can be as bright as the light. They need to be "dimmed" by making them darker, otherwise they will destroy the shape of the depicted objects in your drawing.

2. "Aerial perspective". This phenomenon, which we have already mentioned, in nature can be observed at large distances, when objects significantly distant from the viewer look less contrasting due to the thickness of the air environment, weakening the shadows and darkening the light. With small dimensions of the depicted setting, this effect cannot be observed. It is created artificially in the drawing: the geometric bodies in the foreground have a greater contrast between light and shadow than the bodies in the background, while in nature the difference in illumination of the near and far plans can be almost imperceptible.

the main task architectural drawing - not transferring the state of the object, but, if possible, ver
new image of the form, the creation of volume. That is why, when drawing, we do not copy nature, but try
to see, select and transfer into our work only certain features that help us to re-
sew this task.

Stage 5.

Figure 177. Summarize the figure. Once again, carefully observe the tonal solution of the illuminated and shadowed surfaces. At the final stage, the painter does not work with a separate subject, detail, part of the image, but with the whole sheet at the same time, achieving the integrity of the work, harmonious subordination ™ of its parts. To do this, if necessary, increase the tone of illuminated surfaces in the background and shadow surfaces in the foreground.

Chapter III.

Chapter III.

black-and-white pattern of simple geometric solids 73

Chapter III 74

Linear-constructive drawing of a composition from geometric bodies according to representation.

Make a sketch of the composition, observing the specified proportions of geometric bodies (Fig. 178). Determine the general nature of the future composition, the position of the horizon line, the direction of the horizontal edges, the main frames. Let us immediately warn you about a typical mistake that is often made by someone who works on his first composition on presentation. When placing geometric bodies on a sheet, a novice draftsman quite freely places round bodies (for example, a ball and a cone) or round bodies and bodies with inclined planes (for example, a ball and a hexagonal prism) side by side. Inserting such bodies into each other is very complicated. Given the limited time for completing the examination task, it would be more correct to use simple frames in the composition, when round bodies and bodies with inclined surfaces intersect with horizontal and vertical planes.

Do not overly carefully draw a sketch - on a small scale, you still cannot solve all compositional issues. Even a very detailed sketch cannot be accurately transferred to a large sheet. Minor and minor in size elements will inevitably undergo rather serious changes, and therefore you should not pay too much attention to them at the sketching stage. Enclose the sketch in a frame of appropriate proportions (3x4), make the necessary adjustments to the composition and start working on the large-format sheet, trying to preserve the main idea, basic patterns and movements of large masses defined in the sketch.

As you continue to work on the composition, refine the dimensions and proportions of the geometric bodies. Observe the correspondence of the disclosure of squares and circles lying in the horizontal and vertical planes, as well as the uniform convergence of parallel lines in perspective. Carefully frame the inset of geometric bodies, depicting the intersection lines of not only visible, but also invisible surfaces to the viewer. When working on individual elements, try to subordinate them to a general compositional idea, achieve integrity and harmony in your work.

The drawing should be made with clear, expressive lines and easily worked out with a conditional tone: determine the position of the light source and cover with several layers of strokes the surfaces in the shadow. Consider Figures 179,180,181,182,183 for examples of such compositions.

black-and-white pattern of simple geometric solids

black and white simple geometric solids 77

cut-off pattern of simple geometric solids 70

Chapter 80 IV

Chapter IV. Drawing of architectural details

Architectural details include architectural profiles (jib, heel, shaft, quarter shaft, fillet, scotia), geometric and floral ornaments, capitals, rosettes, vases, ionics, brackets, supporting and key stones of arches, entablatures. From all this variety, a vase, a capital and an ionic were chosen for the execution of educational drawings at the evening preparatory courses of the Moscow Architectural Institute.

When you start drawing an architectural detail, first define its geometric basis, imagine a complex shape as a combination of simple geometric bodies. Having depicted a simplified diagram in perspective on a sheet, gradually complicate it by saturating it with details and carefully studying individual elements in a linear-structural drawing. Schedule paired symmetrical volumes at the same time, under this condition it is easier to follow the perspective cuts. If you have some difficulty in depicting any part of an architectural detail, make small sketches of it in the margins of your drawing - perspective sketches from different points and orthographic projections. Completing the linear stage, enter into drawing light tone, having previously outlined the lines of its own and falling shadows: this will allow you to clarify the main masses and identify possible errors before starting tonal work.

Chiaroscuro on architectural details is also distributed according to the laws of drawing simple geometric bodies. On curved surfaces, the transitions from light to shadow are soft, gradual, on faceted surfaces, they are sharp, clear. The closer the light and shadow on the object to the painting and the light source, the stronger the cut-off contrast, and, conversely, the distant parts of the objects have a dimmer light and faded shadow. Falling shadows are more saturated in tone, their own ones are highlighted by reflexes, and therefore are more airy and transparent. And in the linear-constructive and in the cut-off drawing, try to work evenly throughout the sheet, constantly comparing individual parts of the image with the whole. In the final stage, refine the tonal solution and generalize the work, striving for a sense of completeness and harmony.

Drawing of a vase.

As an object for drawing, you are offered a plaster cast from a Greek vase (amphora) dating from the 4th century BC. The craftsmen of that time were distinguished by an amazing sense of proportions and constructive logic.

Start drawing a vase, like drawing any complex architectural detail, by analyzing its shape. Examine the vase (fig. 184). Divide it mentally into separate volumes and compare them with simple geometric bodies. The body of the vase has a complex drop-like shape, which can be conditionally represented as a combination of two balls and a cone, thus, the height of the body contour of the vase can be divided into three parts, each of which has its own curvature. The neck of the vase is similar to a cylinder, which has a noticeable thinning in the middle, and is bounded above and below by narrow shelves. The vase is crowned with a massive neck in the form of a quarter-shaft. The supporting part (base) of the vase consists of two cylinders of different diameters, connected by a jib-like profile. The handles of the vase have a complex three-part structure and thicken where they attach to the neck and body of the vase.

Continuing the study of nature, draw a drawing of the front projection of the vase. To do this, you will have to use not only the sighting method, but also a long strip of paper and even a ruler. The projection should be large enough, only then you will be able to reflect in it all the information you have received: the proportional ratio of the main masses, the dimensions of individual parts in height and width.

architectural drawing 81

rine, their relationship, subordination and functional validity. Try to accurately convey the proportions of the vase, note how many times its width fits in height, how many times the neck fits in the body of the vase horizontally and vertically, etc. (fig. 185).

Having depicted the facade of the vase, you will notice that in this projection the neck of the vase looks too thick, the body is more massive, the base is lighter and more graceful than in nature. Of all the ways of depicting, perspective is the closest to the real perception of the human eye. An orthogonal projection of an object is always different from its perception in nature. But it is precisely orthogonal projections, due to their accuracy and information content, that will help you now in the best way to study a complex architectural form, and in the future will become a convenient and natural means of your professional communication.

Let's get back to nature. As you have already noticed, the main volume of the vase is a symmetrical shape. All its horizontal sections are circles of different diameters with the center lying on the same vertical (the axis of the vase). In a perspective drawing, these circles are depicted as ellipses of different sizes and openings. The minor axes of these ellipses coincide with the axis of the vase, and the larger ones are perpendicular to it.

Changing your position relative to nature vertically (and, consequently, the level of the horizon line), follow the reduction in the vertical dimensions of individual elements and the entire vase, as well as how some parts of the vase overlap others.

Choose a point from which perspective vertical contractions will be negligible (for example, when the horizon line is slightly above the neck of a vase or below its base). The position where the horizon line passes through the body of the vase is not recommended due to some difficulties that a novice draftsman may have with determining the opening of ellipses. In addition, this position is the least successful for creating an expressive drawing.

Chapter 82

Stage 1.

Figure 186. Determine the dimensions of the vase on the sheet, mark its axis in the middle of the sheet. Break the total vertical dimension into segments corresponding to the large parts of the vase: neck, neck, body, base. Mark the width of these elements.

Stage 2.

Figure 187. Indicate the position and dimensions in the figure small parts vases.

Stage 3.

Figure 188. Sketch the outline of the vase in orthographic projection. Such a contour does not take into account future changes, but it is a clear constructive basis for further work.

Stage 4.

Figure 189. Draw ellipses on the horizontal axes, in the places of characteristic sections. Remember that the opening of the ellipse is the more, the further it is from the horizon line. Connect the ellipses with tangent arcs where one shape meets another. Outline the handles of the vase, generalizing them to a simple rectangular shape, and only after making sure that the basic relationships are correct, work out their details.

Stage 5.

Figure 190. The last stage is tonal development. Start as usual by defining your own and drop shadow lines. To do this, use the nature and already gained knowledge about the nature of chiaroscuro on simple geometric bodies. Own shadows on the neck of the vase, belts, base shelves, as well as handles are similar to the shadows on a cylinder; the shadow on the neck is like the shadow on a ball; The shadow on the body of the vase can be thought of as a complex combination of shadow on two balls and a cone. Take a close look at the falling shadows on the vase. Analyze the forms from which shadows fall on the neck of the vase, its body, base, handles. Sometimes it is convenient to do this with a pencil. If you slowly move the pencil point along the line of its own shadow on the vase, the shadow from the pencil point will also move along the falling shadow line, fixing at each moment of this movement a certain pair: a point and a shadow from it.

After determining the position of the lines of natural and falling shadows, continue the tonal drawing in the usual sequence. First, build up enough tone strength in the shadows, separating them from the light. Then you need to enhance your own shadows towards the viewer and the light source, and the falling shadows - also towards the source of the falling shadow. Continuing to work in the shadows, gradually go out into the sows, creating smooth light-and-shadow transitions on spherical and cylindrical surfaces. When completing the drawing, generalize the cut-off relationship, trying to harmoniously subordinate all the elements of the image to the general tonal concept.

The proposed staging of the work is not accidental: it contains important rule, compulsory for everyone, and especially for novice draftsmen: drawing from the general to the particular and from the particular to the general. Always start your drawing with the total mass and only then proceed with the details. But don't go through one of the details right away. Lead the drawing along the entire sheet, moving from one part to another, checking the parts with the general, constantly gazing at the whole. This rule is true for both the linear-constructive and the cut-off pattern.

Naturally, your desire is to see the final result as quickly as possible, to jump to the next stage without finishing the previous one. If you want - try to do it - and you will see how logical and calm work will turn into chaotic throwing from one detail to another in an effort to put together a drawing that is "crumbling" before your eyes.

Remember, too, that design is at the heart of any forms. Errors in construction cannot be hidden by the most virtuoso tonal elaboration. Therefore, errors in construction and proportions found during the work must be immediately corrected.

architectural drawing 83

Chapter 86

architectural drawing 87

Chapter 88

Doric capital drawing.

The capital is the upper part of the column, which, in turn, is part of the architecture of the nogo order. A warrant is a strictly verified artistic system that expresses the essence of the work of a post-and-beam structure. The name of the order comes from the Latin "ordo" - order, order. Classical orders - Doric and Ionic - were formed in ancient Greece. Somewhat later, in the architecture of Rome, they received their further development. The order consists of bearing and carrying elements, the load is transferred from the overlying elements to the ones below. From the entablature (carried part) to the column (bearing), the load is transmitted through the capital, which becomes one of the most important components of the entire order composition.

As an object for drawing, you are offered a capital of the Roman Doric order. Roman orders are somewhat drier in their forms than Greek ones, however, like all order systems, they are distinguished by a strict logic of shaping, correct proportions and simplicity. The Doric order is the most laconic, strict and courageous of all. A novice architect needs to learn to understand and feel the logic of the structure's work, expressed in an artistic form, which in architecture is called tectonics. Try to feel in the drawing of the capital, how the shape changes from the upper, square in plan parts, to the lower, round ones, as each of the profiles is designed to support the elements located above and to transfer pressure from top to bottom.

Start your drawing by analyzing the shape of the capital (Figure 191). The upper part of the capital is square in the abacus (abacus) plan - a plate with a heel and a shelf. Echin is a quarter of the shaft and mates with the column neck through three successively decreasing belts. Astragalus, consisting of a roller and a shelf, passes into the column shaft through a fillet. The column's trunk is decorated with twenty long semicircular grooves in the plan - flutes, which have semicircular ends.

Draw a frontal projection of the capital. The drawing should be large enough for the details to be clearly visible. In the picture, sign the names of all parts of the small caps. This will make it easier for you to remember them. Analyze the main proportions of the capital, choose the total height of the echinus and belts as a unit of measurement. Compare your drawing with drawing 192.

Fig. 191

As you continue to study the shape, walk around the small capital and examine it from different angles. You will notice that the main volume, which is a circular symmetrical shape, remains unchanged. Only the position of the square abacus changes. Choose a point of view for the drawing so that one side of the abacus is revealed more for you and the other less. The optimal ratio is 1 / 2-1 / 3. The horizon line should pass just below the capital, then its proportions will be close to orthogonal. Sketch, if necessary, to better define the composition of the sheet.

drawing of architectural details

Stage 1.

Figure 193. Place the future image on the sheet, defining its vertical and horizontal dimensions. Mark the corners of the abacus, the main axis, and also determine the dimensions corresponding to the main parts of the capital. It is very important at this stage of the line drawing to find the correct ratio of the opening of the upper echinus ellipse and the square of the abacus. Traditionally, draftsmen draw an abacus first and then have significant difficulty in fitting an ellipse into it. Do differently: having decided on the size and opening of the ellipse, draw it. Then draw a square around the ellipse, comparing the directions of its sides with nature. Stage 2.

Figure 194. Mark all parts of the capitals vertically and determine their horizontal dimensions. Draw the main masses, taking into account the perspective cuts. When depicting the ellipses of the belts, neck, astragalus and the lower cut of the column, correlate their openings with each other and with the already drawn upper echinus ellipse. Stage 3.

Figure 195. Draw flutes. The plan of the column trunk will help you to correctly depict them. If you are unable to place the plan on the drawing itself, then pin up an additional sheet of paper to your work. The points transferred from the plan to the perspective image will make the drawing accurate and convincing. At this stage, the drawing is mostly linear, but when clarifying the main elements, it is possible to use a tone that helps to graphically reveal the "movement" of the main surfaces. In this case, the tone should be very light, suggesting further constructive study of the form. Stage 4.

Figure 196. Reveal the shape of the capital using light and shade. A clear idea of ​​the relative position in space of the light source, the object and the painting, makes it possible to understand the geometry of proper and falling shadows, as well as to identify the basic tonal relationships. Determining the lines of your own and falling shadows, use the knowledge about the nature of chiaroscuro on simple Forms: mentally divide the capital into separate volumes and compare them with the geometric bodies already known to you.

Stage 5.

Figure 197 Work out in detail the shapes in the shadows and in the light, generalize the light-and-shadow relations

images, harmoniously subordinate them to each other, taking into account the aerial perspective.

Chapter 92 IV

architectural drawing 93

Chapter 94

drawing of architectural details 95

Ionic drawing.

Ionic is an architectural ornamental element consisting of an egg-shaped cut from above, framed by a "shell", a profiled roller, as well as pointed leaves facing downward. In architecture, Ionic is widely used on capitals and cornices of the Ionic and Corinthian orders. Ionic has two axes of symmetry, one of them runs in an ovoid shape, the other in the middle of a lancet leaf. Studying the form, make a plan, facade and side facade (Fig. 198). This will help you better understand the structure of the ionic, and will also greatly facilitate further work on the drawing.

Stage 1.

Figure 199. Mark the dimensions of the future image on the sheet. Draw a perspective view of the rectangular slab that is the basis for the ionic.

Stage 2.

Figure 200. Draw the diagonals of the ionic base plate and draw a vertical centerline - the main axis of symmetry. Imagine the generalized form of the ionic in the form of a solid quarter shaft with a beveled top, to which a small roller adjoins from below. Draw its plan on the upper surface of the ionic, separate the central egg-shaped volume from the lateral volumes, outline the axes of symmetry passing through the center of the lancet leaves, and specify the main axis. At this stage, pay special attention to the perspective reduction of equal length horizontal segments.

Stage 3.

Figure 201. Draw details - egg, shells, profiled roller, leaves. When depicting leaves, make them in the fields large view front (Fig. 202). This will help you draw the leaves correctly in perspective.

Stage 4.

Figure 203. Draw lines of own and falling shadows. Start as usual with shady areas and shade them several times, separating them from the light. Then it is necessary to enhance the falling shadows towards the object casting the shadow, the viewer and the light source. At the same time, enhance your own shadow lines, forming reflex zones. At this stage, do not get carried away with details, "sculpt" the general shape in accordance with the law of aerial perspective and the basic principles of the distribution of light and shade on simple geometric bodies.

Stage 5.

Figure 204. Continuing to work, go to the large riveting in the light and then to the details. Complete the drawing with a generalization of the form, harmonious subordination of all its parts.

Chapter 98

plaster head drawing 99

Drawing of a plaster head

The human head is the most complex natural structure. This is due to its complex function in the human body. You can start drawing a head only if you have a sufficiently developed spatial representation, a thorough knowledge of the general provisions of the drawing and good practice in depicting simpler forms.

The practical section "Drawing a plaster head" begins with a study of its external form in the "introductory drawing". This first experience will form the basis for further, more detailed analysis. In the drawing of the skull, the structure of the bone base of the head is analyzed. Houdon's ekorche drawing examines the location and function of the main muscles, as well as the cartilaginous tissue. For detailed consideration skull and muscles, it will be advisable to refer to the anatomical atlases and manuals. In the following drawings, special attention is paid to the main details of the head: nose, lips, eyes and ear. And, finally, returning to the drawing of a plaster head at a new level of understanding of its architectonics (i.e., the relationship between the internal structure and external form), you will be able to consolidate and gradually improve your skills in drawing plaster casts from antique sculptures: Caesar, Aphrodite, Dorifor, Diadumenos, Socrates, Antinous and Apoxyomenos, traditionally proposed for drawing at the entrance exams at the Moscow Architectural Institute.

Drawing "antiques" is a continuation of old academic traditions. The plastic perfection of classical sculpture, its static nature and extraordinary expressiveness will allow you to quickly understand the general volumetric-spatial structure of the head, to understand its details and basic proportions.

24. Introductory drawing. Dorifor's head.

The sculpture of Dorifor was created in the 5th century BC by the Greek sculptor Polycletus, a representative of the Peloponnesian school. Polycletus was not only a sculptor, but also an art theorist. He created a treatise "Canon", where he worked out in great detail perfect proportions human body... The figure of Dorifor - a young hoplite warrior (spearman) - was the embodiment of this canon. At the same time, she was supposed to become the personification of the ideal citizen of the Greek polis: a person like immortal gods, equally beautiful in body and spirit, a courageous defender of his native city. Dorifor's face is schematic, it is devoid of individual features and expression, which is why Dorifor's head is offered for the first "introductory" work, as a result of which you will get an initial, largely simplified idea of ​​the shape of the head.

The head has a cerebral and facial parts. Its external plastic is recognized using a number of anatomical points - nodes (anchor points or beacons) and lines. So, on the head are clearly visible: the chin tubercles, the line of the lower jaw, the corners of the mouth, the lines limiting the mouth area, the cut line of the lips, the filter, the base, the tip and wings of the nose, nose bridge, cheekbones, zygomatic arches, orbital edges, tears, eyebrow arches , lines limiting the eyebrow arches, frontal tubercles, temporal lines, crown, ears, auditory openings, mastoid processes of the temporal bones, parietal and occipital tubercles, nuchal line, border of the neck and chin, jugular fossa and protrusion of the seventh cervical vertebra. Find all these points and lines in Figures 205 and 206, and then on the plaster head.

Knowing the anatomical points - lighthouses and characteristic lines, you will never get confused in the details and will always be able to distinguish the main from the accident. For a better understanding of the external spatial relationships of the points of the head, a simplified diagram is often used, representing its structure in the form of an irregular polyhedron. However, one cannot abuse such schemes in the drawing. They are needed only as visual aids for a competent and convincing image of a person's head.

Chapter V

architectural drawing 101

Break through from the drawing by P.I. Churilin

from the tutorial "The structure of the human head"

Chapter 102

Break out from the drawing of Pichurilin

from the tutorial "The structure of the human head"

It is also customary to study the human head by analyzing its sections in three mutually perpendicular planes: sagittal, horizontal and frontal (Fig. 207).

The sagittal plane is the plane of symmetry of the body. Its name comes from the Latin "sagttta" - arrow. An incision in this plane gives us a midline, which is the basis of the professional line of the face and is very important for the drawing of the head.

The horizontal plane passes through the base of the occiput and the base of the nose.

Frontal plane perpendicular to the first two and "dissects" the head at its widest point. It passes through the vertex, parietal tubercles and the points of support of the skull on the spine. Studying these cuts, as well as the orthogonal projections of the head: front, back, side and top views will help to you better understand the external plastic of the head and more accurately convey it in your drawing.

plaster head drawing 103

The task of the "introductory" drawing - good composition on the sheet, the correctly transmitted total volume, as well as the exact location and size of each head detail.

Stage 1.

Figure 208. When starting work, determine the position of the horizon line and the perspective. To do this, mentally enclose your head in a cube. Find the general dimensions and place the future image on the sheet using short serifs. Remember that if you are drawing a head in front - the spaces on the left and right should be equal so that the image does not "fall over", if you are drawing a head in profile, in 3/4 or 7/8 - the space of the sheet in front of the head (from the side face) should be larger than from the back of the head. Draw the outline of the head with light lines (outline).

Stage 2.

Figure 209. Draw the main large parts: separate the mass of the head from the neck, outline the front part, its front plane, and easily draw the centerline profile. Refining the profile line, find the characteristic points lying on it: the point of the top of the forehead (on the hairline), the point between the eyebrows, the point of the base of the wings of the nose and the fracture point of the chin. These points determine the basic canonical proportional ratios of the parts of the head. According to the Greek classical canon, the distances between these points must be equal. Draw horizontal lines through these points (in the picture going to the vanishing point on the horizon) and mark on them, respectively, the width of the forehead, base of the nose and chin. To correctly select the directions of these lines, use the sighting method.

In accordance with the antique canon, the antique head is divided into two equal parts along the line of the eyes - from the crown to the line of the eyes and from the line of the eyes to the base of the chin. The segment from the brow arches (points between the eyebrows) to the base of the wings of the nose is divided into three equal parts - the line of the eyes runs along the upper division line, and the base and wings of the nose are separated along the lower line. The segment between the base point of the wings of the nose and the fracture of the chin is also divided into three equal parts. The middle line of the mouth runs along the upper division line, which is also called the lip incision line, the lower line divides the chin in half. The distance between the eyes is equal to the length of the eye, i.e. the eye line is also divided into three equal parts. The height of the ear is equal to the length of the nose.

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84

Rice. 90. Drawing of a composition of geometric bodies, given in orthogonal

projections

Topic 2. Drawing composition from geometric shapes by imagination

The applicant is invited to come up with a set of the simplest geometric bodiescomposition and depict it on the sheet. A set of 4-5 figures, their proportions and scale the ratios are given. The task program is highlighted at the beginning of the exam as drawing of two orthogonal projections of bodies, of which should be composed composition. It is allowed to cut one body into another, add and repeat 1- 2 tel.

The task is given 6 hours. The work is carried out on a sheet of A3 format (30x42cm), issued by the selection committee and supplied with a stamp. Surnamethe author is not written on the sheet, and works with the surname and any notes not evaluated.

PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT CRITERIA

The main goal of this task is to assess the level of development of the volumetric-spatialthe applicant's imagination, that is, the ability to represent complex volumes in variousforeshortening, under different lighting and transfer this on the plane of the sheet. Should focus not on the search for a particularly complex compositional idea, but on expressive and competent presentation of the idea in the form of a complete drawing.

When evaluating the work, the following is taken into account:

1. Correct compositional placement of the picture on the sheet.

2. Competent image of geometric bodies and their joints, taking into account
linear perspective.

3. Tonal transmission of proportions.

4. Tonal study - identifying with the help of well-constructed
shadows of the shape of objects, transmission by strengthening (weakening) contrasts
the degree of remoteness of objects from the viewer, general graphic culture.

5. The artistic quality of the composition, the integrity of the author's intention.
You need to understand that the drawing is evaluated as an artistic whole, and not

its individual components, and these criteria are used synthetically, complementing each other.

At the beginning of work on the same examination sheet where the finaldrawing, several search sketches are made. Desirable immediatelydetermine the place of the final large drawing and sketches, that is, think over the composition of the sheet as a whole,

In 2-4 small sketches, options for combining the given bodies are outlined.At the same time, it is important to understand that the composition is interesting not because of a complex intersectiontwo bodies. (for example, a cone and a cylinder) in case of accidental contiguity of other figures, and the organization of all elements is one whole. In sketches, there is a search for common expressive silhouette, possible compositional ideas are identified -the formation of a composition around the nucleus - one of their bodies, the development of a composition according toaxis - vertical or directed away from the viewer, intersection of twocomposition axes at right or other angles, etc. The composition can stand on an imaginary plane or "hang" in space. 86

P. Refinement of the composition

Having chosen the most interesting option, you need to present it from different angles andfind the most expressive point of view for him in such a way that with one the sides of the objects, without too much obscuring one another, were clearly read, their places incisions or abutments were clearly visible and emphasized the shape of objects, and with on the other hand, an interesting silhouette and rhythm of planes were preserved, expressing the main compositional idea. It is advisable to avoid accidental coincidencescontours of objects.

Having clarified, on this basis, your version and choosing the most convincing angle,you can go to the main picture.

///. Building the main picture (Fig. 92, 93)

First of all, you need to clarify the size of the future image. The drawing should not be too small, "lost" in the sheet, which creates the impression of randomness and uncertainty, and should not be too large, "overshadowing" the edges;the imaginary center of gravity of the depicted composition should fit approximately in the geometric center of the sheet. Outlining the extreme points with light lines general outline, proceed to drawing the details.

It is advisable to immediately clarify the ratio of milestones indicated in the task,to designate large articulations of the composition and the location of the main axes - this iswill save the further course of the drawing from strong corrections. To get it rightconvey the relative position of the figures, you need to represent not only the visible, but also invisible parts of objects - therefore, the image of invisible "lines and construction lines. It is important to know the laws of linear perspective - to represent the line horizon, vanishing points of parallel lines, picture plane. The figuresrotation, you need to outline the axes and carefully draw the ellipses, rememberingincreasing their "opening" with distance from the horizon line. Special attentionyou need to pay to the lines of incising figures, in order to correctly draw them, you should represent the forming planes and surfaces, and the laws of their intersection. With all the care of drawing visible and invisible lines, you cannot forget that we are not drawing lines, but volumes, and we need to constantly monitor and clarify the proportions of objects (for example, the edges of the cube should seem at least located in different angles, but the same squares; the plate shouldlook everywhere of the same thickness, etc.) and check the ratios of objects.To do this, you should, highlighting the visible lines, often move away and compare objects between themselves.

IV... Final study (fig. 94)

The main task of this stage is to achieve an integral and vivid perception of the drawing.First of all, you need to enhance the impression of volume and convey the degreeremoteness of objects from the viewer. Keeping the construction lines, you need to strengthenvisible lines so that their contrast is weakened by foreground To back.

The black-and-white study should be conditional and, obeying the author's intention, emphasize the main thing in the composition. Own boundaries

shadows will help to reveal the nature of the bodies of rotation, and the general light or shadow unitesparallel or perpendicular to the plane of rectangular shapes. Basedthis should be the direction of the light. The light can come from above, emphasizing the horizontal planes, or glide along the side surfaces of the composition, revealing all the protrusions. Drop shadows are not required and are made only if the drawing is not understandable without them.

The boundaries of own shadows should be built on spherical volumesit is desirable to present the invisible part of these boundaries. No need to strive forcomplex gradations of tone, tonal study should keep the conditionalcharacter, sustaining a large light-shadow relationship. The tone of the shadows should belight, intensifying only to the boundaries of chiaroscuro, emphasizing the edges of objects.

At the end of the work, you should deliberately place accents - check the overallimpression of the sheet and, if necessary, weaken the preliminary sketches by highlightingmain drawing; in the main drawing, it is clearer to indicate the distance of objects from the viewer, increasing the contrasts in the foreground.

"4H":.,. ■

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Rice. 91

68

Rice. 93

B. Construction of bodies with a regular hexagon at the base

Rice. 95

B. The composition is formed bytwo perpendicular axes - vertical and horizontal

D. The composition is formed by twohorizontal axes;intersecting at an angle of 45

Rice. 97. Examples of various compositional ideas

Rice. 101

Rice. 103

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Section III ... Drawing of a human head from a sculptural model.

The human head is a very interesting drawing object. One side,this is a plastically complex volumetric shape, and on the other hand, the portrait character of the model makes it easy to spot errors in similarity.

The shape of the head combines a volumetric design common to all models, due to a single anatomical structure of the skull and muscles, and portrait individuality. In the early stages of learning to draw a head, the focus is should be given the general scheme for constructing a symmetrical volume, the generalproportional to the structure, general anatomical laws (drawing of the skull,anatomical head, head sketches), and at the final stage of trainingthe emphasis is on identifying the individual characteristics of a particular head. Topic 1. Anatomical structure of the human head

In general, the head has a symmetrical ovoid shape, paired detailswhich (eyes, ears, cheekbones, etc.) can be mentally connected with spicyparallel lines. In foreshortening (viewed from above or below), these lines will go to a common vanishing point on the horizon line. If you mentally draw horizontal section lines, you get ellipses, the opening of which will also depend onforeshortening (fig. 106). ■

The head shape can be divided into a larger brain region andthe facial section (the so-called "mask") (Fig. 105). Skull that is the basehead, consists of six main bones: frontal, two parietal, two temporal andoccipital. In the places of their junction, the frontal and parietal tubercles protrude. The frontal bone forms top edge eye sockets, above which the brow ridges are locatedand eyebrows. The lower edge of the borders is formed by the auditory bones withgoing back to the ear openings, the auditory arches. At the base of the cranialthe box contains the horseshoe-shaped bone of the lower jaw. In the anatomical headyou should pay attention to the powerful chewing muscles coming from the cornersthe lower jaw under the auditory bones.

Analysis of the anatomical structure of the head, characteristic turns and protrusionsbones allows you to present a general design scheme with a front, twolateral (temporal), occipital, parietal and lower chin sides. Such a scheme should not replace the complex plastic of the head, but help to see directions of the main planes and subordinate them to the details (Fig. 107).

To understand the design of the head, you should draw a skull and an anatomical head, as well as their generalized models (chopping), where the planes forminghead, accented (Fig. 109-110).

In order not to fall into gross errors, you need to know the general proportionalhead structure and averaged canonical proportions. The ratio of cerebral andthe facial divisions determines the position of the bridge of the nose. Horizontal linepassing through the bridge of the nose usually divides the head into two equal-height parts.The face is divided into three equal parts: the first - from the hairline to the projections of the brow,the second - from the brow to the base of the root of the nose, the third - from the base of the nose to the bottom chin. In this case, you need to focus on the skeleton, since the eyebrows can be thick, drooping or raised, and the tip of the nose may be higher or lower grounds. One third of the distance from the brow to the base of the nose is the line of the eyes, 102

and a third of the distance from the base of the nose to the chin is the line of the incision of the mouth.The distance between the eyes is equal to the length of the eye. Between the ear and the corner of the eye, you can place almost two ears wide. The ear lies horizontally withnose and approximately equal to it in height. Knowing the proportional system, it is easy to outline the divisions of the head, and comparing with canonical proportions- the proportions of a particular head being drawn, it is easier to see its individual features (Fig. 108).

MBOUDO Irkutsk CDT

Toolkit

Drawing of geometric bodies

Additional education teacher

Kuznetsova Larisa Ivanovna

Irkutsk 2016

Explanatory note

This manual "Drawing of geometric bodies" is intended for teachers working with children school age... 7 to 17 years old. It can be used both when working in additional education and in a drawing course at school. The manual is compiled on the basis of the author's textbook "Drawing of geometric bodies" intended for first-year students of the specialty Arts and Crafts and Folk Crafts and Design (unpublished).

Drawing of geometric bodies is an introductory material for teaching drawing. The introduction reveals the terms and concepts used in the drawing, the concepts of perspective, the procedure for performing work on the drawing. Using the material presented, you can study the required material to teach children, analyze their practical work. Illustrations can be used both for your own deeper understanding of the topic, and in the lesson as visual material.

The purpose of teaching drawing from life is to instill in children the basics of visual literacy, teaching realistic depiction of nature, that is, understanding and depicting a three-dimensional shape on the plane of the sheet. The main form of training is drawing from a motionless nature. He teaches how to correctly convey visible objects, their features, properties, gives children the necessary theoretical knowledge and practical skills.

Tasks of learning to draw from life:

To instill the skills of consistent work on a drawing according to the principle: from general to specific

To acquaint with the basics of the observational, i.e., visual perspective, the concept of cut-off relations

Develop technical drawing skills.

In drawing classes, work is carried out on the education of a complex of qualities necessary for an artist:

- "setting the eye"

Development of "firmness of the hand"

Ability to "see with integrity"

Ability to observe and remember what he saw

The sharpness and accuracy of the eye, etc.

This manual examines in detail one of the first topics of drawing from life - "Drawing of geometric bodies", allowing you to study in detail the shape, proportions, constructive structure, spatial relations, perspective reduction of geometric bodies and the transfer of their volume using cut-off relations. Learning tasks are considered - layout on a sheet of paper; building objects, conveying proportions; from through drawing, to the transfer of volume, the shape of objects, revealing light, partial shade, shadow, reflex, glare, full tonal solution.

Introduction

Drawing from nature

Drawing is not only an independent type of fine art, but also the basis for painting, engraving, posters, arts and crafts and other arts. With the help of a drawing, the first thought of the future work is fixed.

The laws and rules of drawing are learned as a result of a conscious attitude to work from nature. Each touch of a pencil to paper should be thought out and justified by a feeling and understanding of the real form.

The educational drawing should give, perhaps, a more complete picture of nature, its shape, plasticity, proportions and structure. It should be considered, first of all, as a cognitive moment in learning. In addition, knowledge of the peculiarities of our visual perception is necessary. Without this, it is impossible to understand why the objects around us in many cases do not appear to us as they really are: parallel straight lines seem to converge, right angles are perceived as sharp or obtuse, a circle sometimes looks like an ellipse; the pencil is larger than the house, and so on.

Perspective not only explains the aforementioned optical phenomena, but also equips the painter with techniques spatial image objects in all turns, positions, as well as in various degrees distance from it.

Three-dimensionality, volume, shape

Every object is determined by three dimensions: length, width and height. Its volume should be understood as its three-dimensional size, limited by surfaces; under the form - the external view, the external outlines of the object.

Fine art mainly deals with volumetric form. Therefore, in drawing, one should be guided by the volumetric form, feel it, subordinate it to all the ways and techniques of drawing. Already when depicting the simplest bodies, it is necessary to develop this sense of form in children. For example, when drawing a cube, you cannot depict only its visible sides, without taking into account the sides hidden from the eyes. Without imagining them, it is impossible to build or draw a given cube. Without a sense of the whole shape as a whole, the depicted objects will appear flat.

For a better understanding of the form, before proceeding with the drawing, it is necessary to consider the nature from various angles. It is recommended for the painter to observe the shape from different points, but draw from one point. Having mastered the main rules of drawing on the simplest objects - geometric bodies - in the future it will be possible to move on to drawing from nature, which is more complex in design.

The design, or structure, of an object means the mutual arrangement and connection of its parts. The concept of "construction" is applicable to all objects created by nature and by human hands, from the simplest household items to complex forms... A person who draws needs to be able to find patterns in the structure of objects, to understand their shape.

This ability develops gradually in the process of drawing from life. The study of geometric bodies and objects that are close to them in their form, and then of objects that are more complex in their structure, obliges those who draw to consciously relate to drawing, to reveal the nature of the structure of the depicted nature. So, the jar, as it were, consists of a spherical and cylindrical neck, a funnel is a truncated cone, etc.

Line

The line, or line, drawn on the surface of the sheet, is one of the main elements of the picture. Depending on the purpose, it can have a different character.

It can be flat, monotonous. In this form, it mainly has an auxiliary purpose (this is placing a drawing on a sheet, a sketch of the general outline of a nature, designating proportions, etc.).

The line can also have a spatial character, which the painter masters as he studies the form in light and environmental conditions. The essence and meaning of the spatial line is easiest to understand by observing the master's pencil in the process of his work: the line either strengthens, then weakens, or completely disappears, merging with the environment; then it reappears and sounds with the full force of a pencil.

Novice draftsmen, not realizing that the line in the drawing is the result of complex work on the form, usually resort to a flat and monotonous line. Such a line, with the same indifference, outlining the edges of figures, stones and trees, does not convey either form, or light, or space. Absolutely not understanding the issues of spatial drawing, such draftsmen pay attention, first of all, to the external outlines of the object, trying to copy it mechanically in order to then fill the contour with random spots of light and shadow.

But the plane line in art has its own purpose. It is used in decorative and painting works, in wall paintings, mosaics, stained glass windows, easel and book graphics, poster - all works of a plane nature, where the image is linked to a certain plane of the wall, glass, ceiling, paper, etc. Here this line makes it possible to convey the image in general.

The deep difference between planar and spatial lines must be learned from the very beginning, so that in the future you do not get a mixture of these different elements of the drawing.

Novice draftsmen have another characteristic of drawing lines. They put too much pressure on the pencil. When the teacher shows with his hand the techniques of drawing with light lines, they outline the lines with increased pressure. It is necessary from the very first days to wean from this bad habit... The requirement to draw with light, "airy" lines can be explained by the fact that at the beginning of the drawing we inevitably change something, move it. And by erasing the lines drawn with strong pressure, we spoil the paper. And, more often than not, a noticeable trace remains. The drawing looks untidy.

If at first you draw with light lines, in the process of further work it is possible to give them a spatial character, then strengthening, then weakening.

Proportions

A sense of proportion is one of the main elements in the drawing process. Observance of proportions is important not only in drawing from life, but also in decorative drawing, for example, for ornament, applique, etc.

Observance of proportions means the ability to subordinate the sizes of all elements of the picture or parts of the depicted object in relation to each other. Violation of proportions is unacceptable. Much importance is attached to the study of proportions. It is necessary to help the painter to understand the mistake he made or to warn against it.

A person drawing from nature should keep in mind that horizontal lines appear longer than vertical lines at the same size. One of the elementary mistakes of novice artists is the desire to stretch objects horizontally.

If you divide the sheet into two equal halves, then the lower part will always appear smaller. Due to this property of our vision, both halves of the Latin S seem to us to be equal only because the lower part of it is made larger in the typographic type. This is the case with number 8. This phenomenon is well known to architects, it is also necessary in the work of an artist.

Since ancient times, great importance has been attached to educating the artist's sense of proportions and the ability to accurately measure the value by eye. Leonardo da Vinci paid a lot of attention to this issue. He recommended the games and entertainments he had invented: for example, he advised sticking a cane into the ground and, at a given distance, try to determine how many times the size of the cane fits within this distance.

Perspective

The Renaissance era was the first to create a mathematically rigorous teaching about the ways of transferring space. Linear perspective(from lat. Rers Ri beholdr e "I see through","I penetrate with a glance") is an exact science that teaches us to depict objects of the surrounding reality on a plane in such a way that an impression is created as in nature. All construction lines are directed to the central vanishing point corresponding to the location of the viewer. The shortening of the lines is determined depending on the distance. This discovery made it possible to build complex compositions in three-dimensional space. True, the retina human eye is concave and straight lines do not appear to be ruled. Italian artists did not know this, so sometimes their work resembles a drawing.

Square perspective

a - frontal position, b - at a random angle. P is the center vanishing point.

Lines moving deeper into the picture appear to converge at the vanishing point. The vanishing points are on the horizon. Lines moving away perpendicular to the horizon line converge at center vanishing point... Horizontal lines receding at an angle to the horizon line converge at lateral vanishing points

Circle perspective

The upper oval is above the horizon. For the circles below the horizon, we see their upper surface. The lower the circle, the wider it seems to us.

Already in the first tasks of drawing geometric bodies, children have to build a perspective of rectangular objects and bodies of revolution - cylinders, cones.

F 1 and F 2 - lateral vanishing points, lying on the horizon.

Perspective of a cube and parallelepiped.

P is the vanishing point on the horizon.

Chiaroscuro. Tone. Tonal relationships

The visible shape of an object is determined by its illumination, which is a necessary factor not only for the perception of an object, but also for reproducing it in a drawing. Light, spreading in shape, depending on the nature of its relief, has various shades- from lightest to darkest.

This is how the concept of chiaroscuro arises.

Chiaroscuro assumes a specific light source and predominantly the same light color of the illuminated object.

Considering the illuminated cube, we notice that its plane facing the light source will be the lightest, called in the figure light; opposite plane - shadow; semitone planes should be called that are at different angles to the light source and, therefore, do not fully reflect it; reflex- reflected light falling on the shadow sides; flare- a small part of the surface in light, fully reflecting the strength of the light source (observed mainly on curved surfaces), and finally falling shadow.

In order of decreasing light intensity, you can arrange all light shades conditionally in the following sequence, starting with the lightest: flare, light, semitone, reflex, own shadow falling shadow.

The light reveals the shape of the object. Each form has its own character. It is limited to straight or curved surfaces, or a combination of both.

An example of chiaroscuro on faceted surfaces.

If the shape has a faceted character, then even with a minimal difference in the luminosity of the surfaces, their boundaries will be definite (see the cube illustration).

An example of chiaroscuro on curved surfaces.

If the shape is round or spherical (cylinder, ball), then light and shadow have gradual transitions.

So far we have talked about chiaroscuro of similarly colored objects. The means of this chiaroscuro were limited until the second half of the 19th century when transferring illuminated plaster casts and nude models.

At the end XIX and early XX centuries, during the development of a deeper understanding of color, and the requirements of a pictorial nature began to be presented to the drawing.

Indeed, all the colorful variety of nature, especially festive elegant costumes, diffused lighting, excluding clear chiaroscuro, rendering of the environment - all this puts forward a number of tasks for the draftsman, as it were, of a picturesque nature, the solution of which is impossible with the help of chiaroscuro.

Therefore, the painterly term entered into drawing - "tone".

If we take, for example, yellow and blue, then being in the same lighting conditions, they will appear one light, the other dark. Pink seems lighter than burgundy, brown is darker than blue, etc.

It is impossible to convey the brightness of the flame and deep shadows on black velvet in the drawing, since the tonal differences between pencil and paper are much smaller. But the artist must convey all the various tonal relationships by modest means of drawing. For this, the darkest in the depicted object or still life is taken at full strength of a pencil, and the lightest remains paper. All other shadow gradations he puts in tonal relationships between these extremes.

Draftsmen need to practice in developing the ability to subtly distinguish the gradations of lightness in full-scale productions. You have to learn to pick up on small tonal differences. Having determined where one or two of the lightest and one or two darkest places will be, it is necessary to take into account the visual capabilities of the materials.

When performing educational tasks, it is necessary to observe the proportional relationship between the luminosity of several places in nature and the corresponding several parts of the figure. It should be remembered that tonal comparison of only one place of nature with its image is the wrong method of work. All attention should be given to the method of working in relationships. In the process of drawing, you need to compare 2 - 3 areas in terms of lightness in kind with the corresponding places in the image. After applying the desired tones, it is recommended to check.

Drawing sequence

The modern drawing technique provides for the 3 most general stages of working on a drawing: 1) compositional placement of the image on the plane of a sheet of paper and determining the general nature of the form; 2) plastic modeling of the form with chiaroscuro and detailed characterization of nature; 3) summing up. In addition, each drawing, depending on the tasks and duration, may have more or less general stages and also each stage can include smaller stages of drawing.

Let's take a closer look at these stages of working on a drawing.

1). The work begins with the compositional placement of the image on a sheet of paper. It is necessary to examine the nature from all sides and determine from which point of view it is more effective to place the image on the plane. The drawer must familiarize himself with nature, mark it characteristics, understand its structure. The image is outlined with light strokes.

Starting a drawing, first of all, they determine the ratio of the height and width of the nature, after which they proceed to establishing the dimensions of all its parts. During work, you cannot change the point of view, since in this case the whole perspective construction of the drawing will be violated.

The scale of the objects depicted in the drawing is also determined in advance, and is not developed in the process of work. When drawing in parts, in most cases, the nature does not fit on the sheet, it turns out to be shifted up or down.

It is necessary to avoid premature loading of the sheet with lines and spots. The form is drawn in a very generalized and schematic manner. The main, generalized nature of the large form is revealed. If this is a group of objects, you need to equate them with a single figure - to generalize.

After completing the compositional placement of the image on a sheet of paper, set the basic proportions. In order not to be mistaken in the proportions, you should first determine the ratio of large values, and then select the smallest ones. The task of the teacher is to teach to separate the main from the secondary. So that the details do not distract the beginner's attention from the main character of the form, you need to squint your eyes so that the form looks like a silhouette, like a common spot, and the details disappear.

2). The second stage is plastic modeling of the form in tone and detailed elaboration of the drawing. This is the main and longest stage of work. Here knowledge from the field of perspective, the rules of cut-off modeling is applied.

When drawing, it is necessary to clearly imagine the spatial arrangement of objects and the three-dimensionality of their constructive construction, since otherwise the image will be flat.

When working on the perspective construction of a drawing, it is recommended to regularly check, comparing the reductions of surfaces of volumetric forms, comparing them with verticals and horizontals, which are mentally drawn through characteristic points.

After choosing a point of view, the horizon line is outlined in the drawing, which is at the level of the painter's eyes. You can outline the horizon line at any sheet height. It depends on the inclusion in the composition of objects or their parts that are above or below the eyes of the painter. For objects below the horizon, their upper sides are depicted in the figure, and for those placed above the horizon, their lower surfaces are visible.

When you need to draw a cube or other object with horizontal edges, which is visible at an angle, standing on a horizontal plane, then both vanishing points of its edges are on the sides of the central vanishing point. If the sides of the cube are visible in the same perspective cuts, then their upper and lower edges are directed outside the picture to the side vanishing points. With the frontal position of the cube, which is at the level of the horizon, only one side of it is visible, which looks like a square. Then the ribs receding in depth are directed to the central vanishing point.

When we see 2 sides of a horizontally lying square in the frontal position, then the other 2 are directed to the central vanishing point. The drawing of the square in this case has the form of a trapezoid. When a horizontal square is depicted at an angle to the horizon, its sides are directed to the side vanishing points.

In perspective contractions, the circles appear as ellipses. This is how bodies of revolution are depicted - a cylinder, a cone. The higher or lower the horizontal circle is from the horizon, the more the ellipse approaches the circle. The closer the depicted circle is to the horizon line, the narrower the ellipse becomes - the smaller axes become shorter as they approach the horizon.

On the horizon, both squares and circles look like one line.

The lines in the figure depict the shape of the object. The tone in the drawing conveys light and shadow. Chiaroscuro helps to reveal the volume of the subject. By building an image, for example a cube, according to the rules of perspective, the painter thereby prepares the borders for light and shadows.

When drawing objects with rounded surfaces, children often experience difficulties that they cannot cope with without the help of a teacher.

Why is this happening? The shape of the cylinder and ball remains unchanged when turning. It complicates analytical work novice draftsman. Instead of the volume of a ball, for example, he draws a flat circle, which then fades away from the contour line. Black-and-white ratios are given as random spots - and the ball appears to be just a blurred circle.

On the cylinder and the ball, light and shadow have gradual transitions, and the deepest shadow will not be on the edge of the shadow side carrying the reflex, but slightly moved away in the direction of the illuminated part. Despite the apparent brightness, the reflex should always obey the shadow and be weaker than the half-tone, which is part of the light, that is, it should be lighter than the shadow and darker than the half-tone. For example, the reflex on the ball should be darker than a mid-tone in the light.

When drawing a group setting from geometric bodies located at different distances from a light source incident from the side, it should be borne in mind that as the distance from it the illuminated surfaces of the bodies lose their luminosity.

According to the laws of physics, the intensity of light is inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the object from the light source. Taking into account this law when placing light and shadow, one should not forget the fact that near the source of illumination the contrasts of light and shadow increase, with distance - weaken.

When all the details are drawn and the drawing is modeled in tone, the generalization process begins.

3). The third stage is summing up. This is the last and most important stage of work on the drawing. At this stage, we summarize the work done: we check the general condition of the drawing, subordinating the details to the whole, refines the drawing in tone. It is necessary to subordinate the lights and shadows, glare, reflexes and semitones to the general tone - you need to strive to bring the tasks that were set at the very beginning of the work to the real sound and completion. Clarity and integrity, freshness of the first perception should already act in a new quality, as a result of long and hard work. On final stage work, it is advisable to return again to a fresh, original perception.

Thus, at the beginning of work, when a draftsman quickly outlines a general view of nature on a sheet of paper, he follows the path of synthesis - generalization. Further, when a careful analysis of the form is carried out in a generalized form, the draftsman enters the path of analysis. At the very end of the work, when the artist begins to subordinate the details to the whole, he again returns to the path of synthesis.

The work of generalizing the form for a novice draftsman presents quite big difficulties, because the details of the form rivet his attention too much. The individual, insignificant details of the object observed by the draftsman often obscure the holistic image of nature, do not make it possible to understand its structure, and, therefore, interfere with correctly depicting nature.

So, consistent work on the drawing develops from the definition of generalized parts of the subject through a detailed study of complex details to the figurative expression of the essence of the depicted nature.

Note: this tutorial describes an image quite complex for junior schoolchildren compositions from frames of geometric bodies. It is recommended to first draw the frame of one cube, one parallelepiped or a cone. Later - a composition of two geometric bodies of a simple form. If the training program is designed for several years, it is better to postpone the image of a composition of several geometric bodies for subsequent years.

3 stages of work on a drawing: 1) compositional placement of the image on the plane of a sheet of paper and determination of the general nature of the form; 2) construction of skeletons of geometric bodies; 3) creating the effect of depth of space using different line thicknesses.

1). The first stage is the compositional placement of the image on the plane of the sheet of paper and the determination of the general nature of the form. Starting the drawing, the ratio of the height and width of the overall composition of all geometric bodies as a whole is determined. After that, they move on to establishing the dimensions of individual geometric bodies.

During work, you cannot change the point of view, since in this case the whole perspective construction of the drawing will be violated. The scale of the objects depicted in the drawing is also determined in advance, and not in the process of work. When drawing in parts, in most cases, the nature either does not fit on the sheet, or turns out to be shifted up, down or to the side.

At the beginning of drawing, the form is drawn in a very generalized and schematic manner. The main, generalized nature of the large form is revealed. A group of objects must be equated to a single figure - to generalize.

2). The second stage is the construction of wireframes of geometric bodies. It is necessary to clearly imagine the spatial arrangement of objects, their three-dimensionality, how the horizontal plane is located on which geometric bodies stand relative to the level of the painter's eyes. The lower it is, the wider it appears. In accordance with this, all horizontal faces of geometric bodies and circles of bodies of revolution look more or less wide for the painter.

The composition consists of prisms and bodies of revolution - a cylinder, a cone, a ball. For prisms, it is necessary to find out how they are located relative to the painter - frontally or at an angle? The frontal body has 1 vanishing point - in the center of the object. But more often, geometric bodies are located at a random angle relative to the painter. Horizontal lines receding at an angle to the horizon line converge atlateral vanishing points located on the horizon.

A random perspective of a box.

Constructing a body of revolution - a cone.

This is how all geometric bodies are constructed.

3) Third, final stage- creating the effect of depth of space using different line thicknesses. The drawer sums up the work done: he checks the proportions of geometric bodies, compares their sizes, checks the general condition of the drawing, subordinating the details to the whole.

Topic 2. Drawing of plaster geometric bodies:

cube, ball (black and white modeling).

Note: This tutorial describes the image of a plaster cube and a ball on one sheet. You can draw on two sheets. For tasks on black and white modeling, illumination with a closely located lamp, soffit, etc. is very desirable. on one side (usually from the window side).

Cube

1). The first stage is the compositional placement of the image on the plane of the sheet of paper. The plaster cube and ball are drawn sequentially. Both are backlit with directional light. The upper half of a sheet of paper (A3 format) is reserved for the cube, the lower half for the ball.

The image of the cube is arranged along with the falling shadow in the center of the upper half of the sheet. The scale is chosen so that the image is neither too large nor too small.

2). The second stage is building a cube.

It is necessary to determine the location of the horizontal plane on which the cube stands and the horizontal edges relative to eye level, their width. How is the cube positioned - frontally or at an angle? If frontally, the cube has 1 vanishing point at the level of the artist's eyes - in the center of the cube. But more often the edges are located at a random angle relative to the painter. Horizontal lines receding at an angle to the horizon line converge atlateral vanishing points located on the horizon.

Building a cube

The painter must find out which of the side faces of the cube seems wider for him - at this face, the horizontal lines are directed to the vanishing point more gently, and the vanishing point itself is farther from the depicted object.

Having built the cube, according to the rules of perspective, we thereby prepared the boundaries for the light and shadow. Considering the illuminated cube, we notice that its plane facing the light source will be the lightest, called light; the opposite plane is a shadow; halftones are planes that are at angles to the light source and, therefore, do not fully reflect it; reflex - reflected light falling on the shadow sides. The drop shadow, the outline of which is drawn according to the rules of perspective, is darker than all the surfaces of the cube.

Black and white cube modeling

White can leave the surface of a cube or a sheet of paper on which it stands, illuminated by a straight line, bright light... The rest of the surfaces need to be hatched with light, transparent shading, gradually strengthening it on the lines of the light section (the edges of the cube, where the illuminated and shadow edges meet). In order of decreasing light intensity, all light shades can be nominally arranged in the following sequence, starting with the lightest: flare, light, halftone, reflex, own shadow, falling shadow.

Summing up, we check the general condition of the drawing, clarifying the drawing in tone. It is necessary to subordinate light and shadow, glare, reflexes and halftones to the general tone, trying to return to the clarity, integrity and freshness of the first perception.

Ball

1). The first stage is the compositional placement of the image of the ball along with the falling shadow in the center of the lower half of the sheet of paper. The scale is chosen so that the image is neither too large nor too small.

Building a ball

2). The black and white modeling of the ball is more complex than that of the cube. Light and shadow have gradual transitions, and the deepest shadow will not be on the edge of the shadow side, which carries the reflex, but slightly moved away in the direction of the illuminated part. Despite the apparent brightness, the reflex should always obey the shadow and be weaker than the half-tone, which is part of the light, that is, it should be lighter than the shadow and darker than the half-tone. For example, the reflex on the ball should be darker than a mid-tone in the light. Near the source of illumination, the contrasts of light and shadow intensify, with distance, they weaken.

Black and white ball modeling

3). When all the details are drawn and the drawing is carefully modeled in tone, the generalization process begins: we check the general condition of the drawing, clarifying the drawing in tone. Trying again to return to the clarity, integrity and freshness of the first perception.

Topic 3. Drawing of a still life from plaster

geometric bodies (cut-off modeling).

Note: This tutorial describes the image of a complex composition of plaster geometric bodies. If the training program is designed for several years, it is better to postpone the image of such a composition for subsequent years. It is recommended to first depict a composition of two simple geometric bodies. Later you can move on to a more complex composition. For a task on black-and-white modeling, illumination with a closely located lamp, soffit, etc. is very desirable. on one side (usually from the window side).

3 stages of work on a drawing: 1) compositional placement of the image on the plane of a sheet of paper and determination of the general nature of the form; 2) construction of geometric bodies; 3) modeling of forms in tone.

1). The first stage is the compositional placement of images of geometric bodies on the plane of a sheet of A3 paper. Starting the drawing, the ratio of the height and width of the overall composition of all geometric bodies as a whole is determined. After that, they move on to establishing the dimensions of individual geometric bodies.

The scale of the objects depicted in the drawing is determined in advance. It is necessary to avoid premature loading of the sheet with lines and spots. Initially, the shape of geometric bodies is drawn in a very generalized and schematic manner.

After completing the compositional placement of the image on a sheet of paper, set the basic proportions. In order not to be mistaken in the proportions, first the ratio of large values ​​should be determined, and then all smaller ones.

2). The second stage is the construction of geometric bodies. It is necessary to clearly imagine the spatial arrangement of objects, how the horizontal plane is located on which geometric bodies stand relative to the level of the painter's eyes. The lower it is, the wider it appears. In accordance with this, all horizontal faces of geometric bodies and circles of bodies of revolution look more or less wide for the painter.

The composition consists of prisms, pyramids and bodies of revolution - a cylinder, a cone, a ball. For prisms, it is necessary to find out how they are located relative to the painter - frontally or at an angle? The frontal body has 1 vanishing point - in the center of the object. But more often, geometric bodies are located at a random angle relative to the painter. Horizontal lines receding at an angle to the horizon line, converge at lateral pointsdescent located on the horizon. In the bodies of revolution, horizontal and vertical axial lines are drawn, distances equal to the radius of the depicted circle are laid on them.

Geometric bodies can not only stand or lie on the horizontal plane of the table, but also be in relation to it at a random angle. In this case, the direction of inclination of the geometric body and the plane of the base of the geometric body perpendicular to it are found. If a geometric body rests on a horizontal plane with 1 edge (a prism or a pyramid), then all horizontal lines converge at the vanishing point, which lies on the horizon line. This geometric body will have 2 more vanishing points that do not lie on the horizon line: one on the line of inclination of the body, the other on a line perpendicular to it, belonging to the plane of the base of this geometric body.

3). The third stage is modeling the shape in tone. This is the longest stage of work. Here the knowledge of the rules of cut-off modeling is applied. By constructing geometric bodies according to the rules of perspective, the student thereby prepared the boundaries for light and shadow. The planes of bodies facing the light source will be the lightest, called light; opposite planes are shadowed; halftones are planes that are at angles to the light source and, therefore, do not fully reflect it; reflex - reflected light falling on the shadow sides; and, finally, a falling shadow, the outline of which is constructed according to the rules of perspective.

You can leave white surfaces of prisms, pyramids, or the sheet of paper on which they stand, illuminated by direct, bright light. The rest of the surfaces need to be hatched with light, transparent shading, gradually strengthening it on the lines of the light section (edges of geometric bodies where the illuminated and shadow edges meet). In order of decreasing light intensity, all light shades can be nominally arranged in the following sequence, starting with the lightest: flare, light, halftone, reflex, own shadow, falling shadow.

At the ball, light and shadow have gradual transitions, and the deepest shadow will not be on the edge of the shadow side, which carries the reflex, but slightly moved away in the direction of the illuminated part. Despite the apparent brightness, the reflex should always obey the shadow and be weaker than the half-tone, which is part of the light, that is, it should be lighter than the shadow and darker than the half-tone. For example, the reflex on the ball should be darker than a mid-tone in the light. Close to the source of illumination, the contrasts of light and shadow increase, with distance, they weaken.

White leaves only a glare on the ball. The rest of the surfaces are covered with light and transparent shading, overlaying strokes in the shape of the ball and the horizontal surface on which it lies. The tone is gaining gradually.

As you move away from the light source, the illuminated surfaces of bodies lose their luminosity. Near the source of illumination, the contrasts of light and shadow intensify, with distance, they weaken.

4). When all the details are drawn and the drawing is modeled in tone, the generalization process begins: we check the general condition of the drawing, clarifying the drawing in tone.

It is necessary to subordinate light and shadow, glare, reflexes and halftones to the general tone, trying to return to the clarity, integrity and freshness of the first perception.

Literature

Main:

Rostovtsev N. N. "Academic drawing" M. 1984

"School of Fine Arts" v. 2, M. "Art" 1968

Trouble G. V. "Fundamentals of graphic literacy" M. "Enlightenment" 1988

"School of Fine Arts" 1-2-3, "Fine Arts" 1986

Drawing Basics, Concise vocabulary artistic terms"- M." Education "," Title ", 1996

Additional:

Vinogradova G. "Drawing lessons from nature" - M., "Enlightenment", 1980

Library " Young artist»Drawing, advice for beginners. Issue 1-2 - "Young Guard" 1993

Kirtser Yu. M. “Drawing and painting. Textbook "- M., 2000

Kilpe T. L. "Drawing and Painting" - M., Publishing House "Oreol" 1997

Avsisyan O. A. "Nature and drawing by presentation" - M., 19885

Odnoralov N. V. "Materials and tools, equipment in the fine arts" - M., "Enlightenment" 1988

Applications

Topic 1. Construction of wireframes of geometric bodies

Topic 2. Drawing of plaster geometric bodies: cube, ball

Topic 3. Drawing of a still life from plaster geometric bodies

Explanatory note ____________________________________ 2

Introduction ________________________________________________ 3

Topic 1. Construction of skeletons of geometric bodies _____________ 12

Topic 2. Drawing of plaster geometric bodies: cube, ball (cut-off modeling) _________________________________________ 14

Topic 3. Drawing of a still life from plaster geometric bodies (black and white modeling) _________________________________________ 17

Appendices ____________________________________________ 21

In fig. 6.1 depicts simple geometric bodies of which the examination composition should consist. In addition to the bodies already familiar to you, dies and sticks are presented here. Plates are additional flat square, round and hexagonal elements, the height of which is equal to one eighth of the edge of the cube. Sticks are linear elements of the composition, the length of which is equal to the edge of the cube. In addition, bodies of the same proportions can be used in the composition, but different sizes... These are the so-called compositions with scaling (since in this case the same bodies are present on the sheet, but, as it were, taken at different scales). Consider the compositions performed by applicants in last years(fig. 6.2-6.20).

The form of the examination composition, its size, placement on the sheet, the degree and nature of the interaction of geometric bodies have long been formed. All these positions are reflected to one degree or another in the examination task. Of course, you should immediately make a reservation that we will talk about the examination task that exists today - it may be changed at the time when you read this section of the manual. However, let's hope that the essence of the task will be saved, and you can use our tips and tricks.

First of all, let's list the criteria by which your compositions will be judged:

Compliance of the completed drawing with the task;

Compositional idea as a whole, harmony compositional solution and the complexity of the composition;

Leaf composition;

Competent depiction of individual elements of the composition, correct perspective and frame;

In your work, choose a topic that is close to you. It can be massive stability or light, directed into a certain conditional distance or upward movement. The movement can be looped back or canceled, stopped. The mass can be dense or thin. The composition can be based on metric, uniform patterns, or, conversely, on a simple or complex rhythm. It may have a uniform spread of mass or sharp, highlighted accents. The listed properties can be combined (except those, of course, which exclude each other in one work). It should be remembered that the feeling of the complexity of the composition arises from the perception of the complex harmony of some non-trivial idea, and not only from the complexity of the sidebars and certainly not from the heap of many bodies.

Correct is a prerequisite for a good composition. You've probably already noticed that when your composition consists of only a few geometric bodies, it is quite difficult to maintain the correct perspective on the sheet. Even if the basis of the work is almost perfectly built, the addition of each new body leads to a gradual increase in distortion.

It is quite difficult to track and correct them, especially in the first compositions, when experience and practical skills are still small. That is why, in order to correctly determine the disclosure of all faces and the direction of all lines on the sheet, they use various methods of ordering all these interconnected positions, bringing them into a single system. One of these systems is described in detail in the next task. This is the so-called mesh - a spatial structure that determines the opening of the faces of geometric bodies and the direction of the lines in perspective throughout the sheet.

In the process of preparing for the exam, the "grid" will help you to put together all the variety of tasks associated with the process of building a composition, and at once, easily solve them. Of course, the "grid" is a useful thing, but it, of course, has its pluses and minuses.

On the one hand, depicting compositions based on the "grid", of course, you spend some (sometimes quite significant) time on the preparatory stage (of the "grid" itself), thereby reducing the time spent working on the composition itself.

On the other hand, the "grid" can significantly reduce the time for solving purely technical problems associated with determining the directions of horizontal lines and the disclosure of various surfaces. Of course, a certain skill will allow you to minimize the time spent on the "grid", but if a mistake is made in the "grid" (which is quite likely under stressful conditions of the exam), then you can notice this mistake only by drawing the first geometric body.

What to do in this case - fix the grid or abandon it altogether in order to make up for lost time? The only obvious thing is that you should start working on the exam composition from the "grid" only if by the exam you have learned to make the "grid" quickly and efficiently, bringing this process almost to automatism, and easily build a composition on its basis.

Another question that often worries the applicant is the question of sidebars: which sidebars should be done, how difficult should they be, and is it even worth doing them at all? Let's start with the fact that inserts in the examination composition can be omitted - in the examination task the use of inserts is only recommended and is not a prerequisite, however, it should be understood that composition without inserts is significantly inferior in complexity and artistic expressiveness. Do not forget that your composition will be evaluated among others, and therefore, making a composition without sidebars, you knowingly reduce the competitiveness of your own (worries. examination paper more expressive and interesting. However, their implementation requires additional time, which is limited in the conditions of the exam. In this situation, it all depends on your experience - if you have been diligently preparing for the composition exam, you most likely already have your favorite sidebars, which can be quite difficult, but, sketched many times, they are portrayed easily and therefore quickly. But do not get carried away with complex frames, overcomplicate the work - remember that even a composition made using simple frames can be quite complex and expressive. It is also important to say about how much geometric bodies should bump into each other. Sometimes in compositions, geometric bodies are cut so insignificantly that it seems as if they are not cut into each other, but only barely touching. Such compositions tend to give rise to a sense of instability, instability and incompleteness. The viewer has an irresistible desire to make such a composition denser, to embed geometric bodies deeper into each other. Analyzing such work, it is difficult to talk about it as a composition - a group of harmoniously subordinate volumes. In other compositions, the bodies are so deeply embedded in each other that it is no longer clear what kind of bodies they are? Such a composition, as a rule, looks like a complex mass with parts of geometric bodies sticking out of it and does not create a sense of harmony in the viewer. The bodies in it cease to exist as independent objects, turning into a geometric mixture. If you do not consider such extreme cases (when geometric bodies almost do not cut into each other or when they turn into a single dense mass), to create a composition medium density the following rule should be adhered to: a geometric body should cut into another (or other) geometric bodies by no more than half, preferably by one third. In addition, it is desirable that the viewer can always determine the basic dimensions of a geometric body from its visible part. In other words, if it crashes into any body, its top, a significant part of the lateral surface and the base circumference should remain visible in the drawing. If it crashes into any body, then parts of the lateral surface of the cylinder and the circumferences of its bases should remain visible. Special mention should be made of the inset of cubes and tetrahedrons - in the composition, these geometric bodies constitute a background or, in a way, a frame for the location and insertion of other, more complex geometric bodies. Therefore, inserts are allowed when the visible parts of cubes and tetrahedrons make up less than half of their volumes.