As you know, the borrowed words existing in the dictionary formation can be classified: by the source of borrowing, by the fact that the word aspect is borrowed and, according to the degree of assimilation.

Smirnitsky A.I. In its work, there is a classification of borrowing in the dictionary composition of English by the source and era (see Appendix 1):

• 1. Celtic borrowing.
• 2. Latin borrowing of the first centuries of our era, i.e., who fell even before the arrival of Angles and Saksov on the British Islands (the so-called 1st layer of Latin borrowing).
• 3. Latin borrowing of the VI-VII centuries., I.e., the epochs of the introduction of Christianity in England (the so-called 2nd layer of Latin borrowing).
• 4. Scandinavian borrowings of the era of Scandinavian raids (VIII-IX centuries) and especially the Scandinavian conquest (X century).
• 5. Old French borrowing (XII-XV centuries), due to the Norman conquest.
• 6. Latin borrowing of the XV-XVI centuries., I.e., related to the Renaissance (the 3rd layer of Latin borrowing).
• 7. New French borrowing after the XVI century.
• 8. Borrowings from the Greek, Italian, Dutch, Spanish, Russian, German and other languages \u200b\u200bcaused by economic, political, cultural, etc. connections with relevant peoples.
• 9. Sovietizm, i.e. borrowing from the Russian language of the post-Betyabrian period, reflecting the impact of the advanced social system and the advanced ideology of our country.

The classification by the source of borrowing is designed most fully, but is not, as already indicated, the only possible. Borrowing can also be classified according to which aspect of the word is new for the receiving language. According to this principle, borrowing is divided into phonetic, trance-loans (see Appendix 16), semantic and borrowing of word formation elements (see Appendix 2).

The first of the named types, i.e. Phonetic borrowings make up the main and most numerous group. They are characterized by the fact that the overall sound complex is provided for the borrowing language new, although each of the components of their sounds, with rare exceptions, is replaced by the sound of the language in which they fall. The Sport, Labour, Travel, People, Castle, Fortress, considered above Sport, Labour, Fortress, etc. are fountain borrowers.

Calcas are called borrowing in the form of a literal translation of a foreign word or expression, that is, the exact reproduction of its means of the receiving language with the preservation of the morphological structure and motivation.

These traps are, for example, many international borrowing from the language of the Indians: Pale-Face - Pillician, Pipe of Peace - Peace Tube. Many horsesome horseships: Palace of Culture, House of Rest.

Under the semantic borrowing means borrowing a new meaning, often portable, to the word existing in the language. The words Pioneer and Brigade existed in English to the penetration of constructions in English, but the meanings: a member of the Children's Communist Organization and the Labor team, they were influenced by the Russian language of the post-Betymer period.

Semantic borrowings occur particularly easy in closely related languages. A number of examples can be found among the Scandinavian borrowings. So, for example, the ancient English verb dwellan "wander", "honey", under the influence of the Vidnavannavian DVELJawun, developed in modern English in Dwell "live". Thus, in sound, Dwell goes back to English, and in the semantic to the Scandinavian verb.

Cases of semantic borrowing among nouns more than among verbs. The noun Gift in ancientangalian meant not a gift, but a repurchase for his wife and then, as a result of the association on adjacency - Wedding. The Scandinavian word Gift meant a gift, a gift, and this affected the meaning of the original word. From Scandinavian received their current meaning of the word: Bread (in the ancient English "Slice of Bread"), Dream (in the ancient English "Joy"), Holm (in the Old Town "Ocean, Sea"), PLOUGH (in the Old Antigalian "Mera Earth").

Not only the word can be borrowed, but also individual meaning words. Morphemes are borrowed, of course, not isolated, but in words: if any foreign-speaking morphemes are included in a large number of borrowed words, the morphological structure of these words is beginning to be realized, and the morphemes themselves are included in the number of word-forming means of the receiving language. Many Greek and Latin words have become international prefixes. For example, Anti-, Counter-, Inter-, Sub-, Ultra-, etc.

In all languages, Greek suffixes are widely used: -IST, -ISM, -ISK.

Not all borrowed words are assimilated as fully as the Travel and Sport discussed above.

Therefore, according to the degree of their assimilation (see Appendix 16), borrowing can be divided into (see Appendix 3):

• 1. Fully assimilated, i.e., corresponding to all morphological, phonetic and spelling standards of the borrowed language and perceived by speaking as English, not foreign words. Some of them can be attributed to the main Water Fund: Travel, Street; Others to other parts of the vocabulary: Operate, Trail.
• 2. Partially assimilated, i.e., the remaining foreign on their pronunciation, writing or grammatical forms: Analysis, pL. Analyses, Bacillus, pL. Bacilli, Formula, pL. Formulas & Formulae, Bacterium, pL. Bacteria, Boulevard ["Bu: Liwa:], Canal, Travail, Restaurant [" REST? R?:?], Corps. These words are often distinguished by the pronunciation instability: the last syllable in the word Restaurant is pronounced in different ways.
• 3. Partially assimilated and denoting concepts associated with other countries and not having an English equivalent. For example, from Russian: Rouble, VERST; From Spanish: Duenna, Matador, Real (coin).

To this group of words include the names of the concepts associated with a foreign national culture, such as the names of various national clothes, dwellings, musical instruments, titles, professions, utensils, etc., and with alien nature, i.e., the names of animals, plants .

Thus, borrowing in languages \u200b\u200bare the same language means that appeared in the language due to different reasons: historical and geographical, political and economic contacts with other languages, the growth of cross-cultural communication between native speakers.

And therefore, assimilated in the language, are semantic synonymic diversity.

Ministry of Higher and Vocational Education of the Russian Federation

Perm State Technical University

Department of Foreign Languages \u200b\u200band Psychology

Borrowing in English

Performed:

Art. c. PFF98-6

Vityukhovskaya Yana.

Checked:

Solovyova O. V.

Perm 2000.

Introduction 2

I. Etymological structure of the dictionary composition of English 3

II. The role of borrowing in the development of the dictionary of the dictionary of English 6

III Classification of borrowing 9.

IV Source of borrowing 12.

V. The problem of assimilation of borrowed words 17

Conclusion 21

Bibliography 22.

Introduction

The topic of this course work refers to the field of lexicology. As you know, the vocabulary is the most dynamic side of the tongue in any period of time. It is the smallest degree of abstractions in the language, since the word is always subject to one oriented; It can borrow, to form, to form re-or from the elements available in the language. I consider borrowing in my work as one of the main ways of word formation in English.

The work is built according to the goals that the author puts the author:

1) consider the most important sources and ways to penetrate borrowing in English

2) determine their role and place in the dictionary structure of the English language

3) consider the features of the borrowing of words based on etymological analysis

the tasks of the course work also learn how to determine the origins of forms and phenomena reflected in any modern word. To do this, I reviewed in detail the history of Britain, the history of the language, and also conducted the analysis of words (which is a practical part of the work). I also made an attempt to systematize and classify borrowing, based on studies of specialists in the field of linguistics.

The work consists of five chapters and conclusion. Theoretical provisions were developed on the basis of achievements in the field of borrowing and etymology of the English language. The practical part is in the etymological analysis of words.

I. The etymological structure of the dictionary of the English language.

The modern language is a product of long historical development, in the course of which the language is subjected to versatile changes due to various reasons. Changes affect all parties (levels, tiers, aspects) of the language structure, but they act in different ways. The historical development of each level depends on the specific causes and conditions stimulating the shifts in the lexical composition of the language, in its phonetic (phonological) organization, in its grammatical strict.

The development of the language is characteristic of growth and decay processes. Thus, in English, analytical forms are developing, a complex system of verbidal formation, but the system of declining and personal endings of the verb fall out of the words from the vocabulary, newly appear by borrowing or neoplasms.

The history of the language reveals all the processes that occurred in the language at different stages of its existence, the causes (factors) of the changes that are laid in the very language are called linguistic (or interledinguistic), and the factors associated with the history of the people with the general development of human society, extralyline . These 2 concepts and 2 sides of the history history are constantly in contact.

The accumulation of knowledge about the history of the development of various sides of the language should result in this level of final training when with the help of an etymological dictionary, and largely without it, it is possible to explain the origins of forms and phenomena reflected in any modern word.

Table 1. Etymological structure of the English dictionary. Language.

This table requires explanation. First, you should pay attention to the fact that the second column contains not only more groups, but also concludes large quantity words. This is due to a high percentage of borrowed words in English (75%) who have come as a result of numerous historical events and international relations.

From the point of view of the vocabulary, it is necessary to classify English as a language of international origin, or at least as one of the romance (as French and Latin words dominate). But considering the relative frequency of the spread of words, it is clear that the Anglo-Saxon heritage takes his own. The local element in English contains a huge number of frequent words, such as articles, prepositions, unions, auxiliary verbs, as well as words denoting objects everyday life (baby, water, come, good, bad, etc.)

In addition, the grammatical structure, essentially German, remained untouched by foreign influence.

It should also be noted that at different times, Purists tried to clear English from foreign words, replacing them by Anglo-Saxon. One linguistic nationalist wrote: "Avoid Latin derivatives; Use brief expressive Anglo Saxon single words. " (AvoidlatinderIVatives; Use Brief, Terseanglo-SaxonMonosyllable) The irony is that the only Anglo-Saxon word in this slogan is "Anglo-Saxon".

And now we will return to the first column of the table, which represents the local element, the basis of the English vocabulary. The column consists of three groups and only the third dated. The words of this group appeared in English in the V century or later. That is, after the German tribes migrated to the British Islands. As for the Indo-European and German groups, they are so old that they cannot be dated.

Under the Indo-European element is the words common to all or for more languages \u200b\u200bof the Indo-European Group. The English words of this group indicate elementary concepts, without which human communication is impossible. They can be combined into the following groups:

1. FAMILY: Father, Mother, Brother, Son, Daughter

2. Camera: Foot, Nose, Lip, Heart

3. Very: COW, SWINE, GOOSE.

4. Speech: Tree, Birch, Corn

5. For the day: Day, Night.

6. Employed: Sun, Moon, Star

7. AGENT: RED, NEW, GLAD, SAD

8. (1 to 100

9. Personal and index pronouns (except they)

10. The large number of verbs: be, Stand, Sit, Eat, Know

The German element represents words common to all or most languages \u200b\u200bof Germanic origin. Some major groups of German words are similar to the groups of the Indo-European element:

1. Captive: Head, Hand, Arm, Finger, Bone

2. Life: Bear, Fox, Calf

3. Speakers: Oak, FIR, GRASS

4rd phenomena: Rain, Frost

5. Remirence: Winter, Spring, Summer

6.Taxifts: SEA, Land

7. Self-coherent housing and furniture: Hous, Room, Banch

8.Moreads: Boat, Ship

9. AGENT: GREEN, BLUE, GREY, WHITE, SMALL, THIK, HIGHT, OLD, GOOD

10.Glabs: See, Hear, Tell, Say, Answer, Make, Give, Drink

it should be noted that the English element itself, in a certain relation, is opposed to the first two groups. It is not only approximately dated, but these words have another feature: they are definitely English and do not have a common origin with the words of other languages, whereas in Indo-Union and German words you can find a general root.

II. The role of borrowing in the development of the dictionary composition of the English language

The role of borrowing (Borrowings, Loan-Words) in various languages \u200b\u200bis not the same and depends on the specific historical conditions for the development of each language. In English, the percentage of borrowing is significantly higher than in many other languages, since, because of historical reasons, he turned out to be, as opposed to, for example, Icelandic, very permeable. English is more than any other language have the opportunity to borrow foreign words in the conditions of direct direct contact: first in the Middle Ages from each other in the British Islands of foreign invaders, and later in the conditions of trade expansion and the colonization activity of the British themselves. It is estimated that the number of orthonal words in the English dictionary is only about 30%.

It would be vulgarization to believe that the role of the word in the language is determined whether it is borrowed or original. Nevertheless, all the most common prepositions, alliances, adventures of time and place, all auxiliary and modal verbs, almost all strong verbs and almost all pronouns, adjectives with the support of the degrees of comparison, are all numeral, with the exception of Second, Million, Billion and finally Many nouns denoting the most common and constantly participating in the certificate of communication are in modern English by original words.

The general law on the unevenness of changes in the elements of the language in applied to the problem of borrowing is formulated as follows: the most permeable are the most movable elements of the language included in the dictionary vocabulary, less permeable - defined elements of the Fund, and is almost not subjected to a grammatical system of language.

English is considered one of the richest languages \u200b\u200bof the world. It contains about 200 thousand words of active vocabulary. Few languages \u200b\u200bcan be compared with it in the richness of the vocabulary stock. The reason for this is the word-forming abilities of the English language, as well as its ability to borrow words from other languages. Everyone knows that the vocabulary of the English language has absorbed a really huge number of words from different languages \u200b\u200bof the world, in connection with this, we would really like to know from which languages \u200b\u200ba vocabulary borrowed and, finally, from which language of the world was borrowed more than all words.

When the word is borrowed from one language to another, it is very difficult to predict what fate it expects. A word can develop a new system for it and enter into new relationships in combination with other words of the vocabulary composition of the borrowing language, move away from its original state and therefore stop felt as a foreign element in the language. So, for example, it happened to the Stomach noun, which, continuing to remain an anatomical term, has gained widespread use and included in the phraseological turnover of type to Have No Stomach for Something (not to have taste or desire for something), Haughty Stomach (Humor) and DR . Such a process is observed in other languages. The influence of one language to another does not pass without a trace. This process is observed in all languages \u200b\u200bof the world, so this topic is relevant for all nations and nationalities. Of course, the language continues to expand due to borrowing and borrowing contribute to the enrichment of the dictionary composition of the language.

We believe that the topic of this research work is relevant for our time, since borrowing are an integral part of our modern life.

From our point of view, the main centers of attraction for new borrowing are

1. Daily life in its household and cultural and domestic aspects:

SUSHI, GEISHA, TENAKI-SUSHI - Japanese;

Mashine - French;

Harem - Arabic;

Hamburger - German;

Pizza, Spaghetti, Macaroni - Italian.

2. Social and political life:

Glasnost, Perestroika, Nomenclatura - Russian;

Viking - Scandinavian;

Hara-Kiri, Samurai - Japanese;

Bank, Balcony, Umbrella - Italian.

3. Sphere of culture (literature, cinema, theater, music, painting and d. P.):

Ballet - French;

Karaoke, Ikebana - Japanese;

Piano, Opera, Sonata - Italian.

4. Scientific and technical sphere:

Mechatronics - French;

Tenaki - Japanese.

5. World of Sports:

Kimono, Aiki-Jitsu, Aikido - Japanese.

Summing up the above, it is necessary to emphasize that without this layer it is impossible to imagine the entire corps of the new vocabulary of the English language. And, of course, foreign language borrowing played a huge role in the development of English.

3. Research methods

Collection, processing, interpretation of material, as well as an analysis of international words and surveying students in the knowledge of the value of international words, allowed us to study this topic deeper and solve the task of research.

4. Objectives and objectives of research

The goal is to explore the process of interpenetration of words in English when it interacts with other languages. Identify sources, motivation, borrowing, expand the horizons and vocabulary.

The tasks are to:

1) to identify, from where and why the borrowed word came to English;

2) determine which changes caused its appearance in the dictionary structure of the English language;

3) to identify international words in English and indicate some discrepancies in Russian and English;

4) establish basic methods of borrowing;

5) Find out why English has a great opportunity to borrow foreign words than any other language.

General characteristic of English borrowing

2. 1. The role and conditions of borrowing in vocabulary

The role of borrowing (Borrowings) in various languages \u200b\u200bis not the same and depends on the specific historical conditions for the development of each language. In English, the percentage of borrowing is significantly higher than in many other languages, since, due to historical reasons, it turned out to be, as opposed to many languages, very permeable. English is greater than any other language has the opportunity to borrow foreign words in the conditions of direct direct contact with other languages: first in the Middle Ages from each other in the British Islands of foreign invaders, and later in the conditions of trade expansion and the colonization activity of the British themselves.

Borrowings are one of the important ways to enrich the vocabulary, but not the only and not even most important.

We are interested in where and why the borrowed word came and how it got into a language, as has changed its meaning and what changes caused its appearance in the vocabulary composition of his tongue.

The largest Russian linguist of the XIX century - A. A. Rememge to the creative element in the borrowing process. "Borrow," he said - it means to take in order to, maybe make a more in the treasury of human culture more than you get. "

The borrowed word usually assumes one or more meanings of the words closest to it that exist in the language. In this case, some secondary value can be central or vice versa. It may also happen, and often happens, displacing words closely coinciding with a new word. This happens because long-term existence in the language of absolute or almost absolute synonyms is always liquidated either by swaying their values \u200b\u200bor withdrawing from the language of unnecessary words.

It should be emphasized that consolidating in the language of the borrowed word does not necessarily lead to the displacement of the corresponding original. Changes caused by them in the vocabulary can be expressed in a stylistic grouping or in the swaying of values. So, for example, the borrowed word from the French language PEOPLE pushed the original word Folk. The word Folk has obtained an additional value. It is used when they talk about their own: about family, fellow villagers, countrymen, compatriots. The word is common in folk spoken speech and in folk creativity and no wonder the term Folklore.

These or another influence of one language on another is always due to historical reasons: wars, conquest, travel, trade, etc., which lead to more or less close interaction of various languages. The intensity of the influx of new borrowed words in different periods is quite different. Depending on the specific historical conditions, it increases, then falls.

Borrowing of vocabulary can occur oral and written. In the event of borrowing, orally, the words are fully coming up in the language. Words borrowed in writing longer maintain their phonetic, spelling and grammatical features.

2. 2. Basic Borrowing Methods

The main methods of borrowing vocabulary are a phonetic method, transliteration and calculation.

The phonetic method is such a borrowing of the words at which its sound form is preserved. In this way, football (football), trailer, jeans (jeans) and others are borrowed from English. In English borrowed, for example, from French regime, ballet, bouquet and others.

Transliteration is another way of borrowing, in which the writing of a foreign speech is borrowed: the letters of a foreign word are replaced by the letters of their native language. This method from the English language in Russian borrowed the words cruise (eng. Cruise), Motel (Eng. Motel), club (English Club). Translisted when borrowing from English also many names are their own: Washington (English. Washington), Texas (English Texas ["Teksəs]), London (English London). In English, many words of Greek, Latin and French origin who have retained His graphic features, although read by the rules of English.

Calcation is a method of borrowing, in which associative importance and structural model of the word or phrase are borrowed. When calculating, the components of the borrowed word or phrase are translated separately and are connected by a sample of a foreign word or phrase. For example, the German noun Vaterland translated in parts gave the British Fatherland track; Russian noun suicide -Calka Latin Suicide (Sui Himself, Cide - Murder); The English noun Self-Service, borrowed in Russian, has the form of self-service. These methods were borrowed by the following phrases: Vicious Circle -Pall circle; Masterpiece - masterpiece; Pate - pseudonym; Blue stocking blue stocking, scientist woman and others.

2. 3. Borrowing sources

1. French borrowing

The influence of French into English was particularly strong during the period of French domination in the country (XI-XV centuries), when the national English has not yet developed. The invasion of the French in England in 1066 was the beginning of the so-called period of Norman conquest. French has been the state language of England for a long time, and bilinguals existed in the country.

During this period, words associated with feudal relations were borrowed (Feudal, Baron, Vassal); Almost all titles (Peer, Prince, Count) and Sir and Madam circulation; Words associated with the dominant management and in general by the state (State, People, Nation, Government, Power, Authority, Etc.); Words associated with cash relations (Money, Property); Words denoting family relationships (Parent, Cousin, Uncle, Aunt, etc.); A large number of military terms (Army, Battle, Victory, War, etc.); Words denoting pleasures, entertainment (Feast, Pleasure, Delight, Comfort, etc.); Legal terms (Accuse, Court, Crime, Etc.), etc.

Novoangali language adds to the era of the Renaissance. Scientific works of this period are written in English, but since before that, during the Middle Ages, the language of science was Latin and since the Renaissance is characterized by an interest in the monuments of ancient culture, the use of style, rhetorical techniques for building Greek and Roman authors, then Naturally, the recharge of the dictionary and the creation of a new scientific terminology was largely due to borrowing from Latin, as well as from Greek languages. So it was created, for example, the terminology of philosophy, rights, medicine, etc.

In addition to the French language, another number of European languages \u200b\u200bhave more or less participated in enrichment of the vocabulary of English, for example, Latin, Dutch, Italian, Spanish.

2. Latin borrowing

A considerable amount of words was borrowed from Latin language to English. Here are the most common ones: Street is a paved (road); Port - port; Wall - shaft; Vacuum - Vacuum; Wine - Wine; Inertia - inertia; Mile - a thousand steps.

All these words were borrowed by orally and entered into the main vocabulary of the English language.

The greatest number of words borrowed by English from the Latin language represent the so-called book borrowing. These are words that penetrate into the language is not as a result of the immediate, living communication between nations, but through written documents, books, and so on. Most Latin book borrowings that were not previously witnessed in English, accounted for by the period of the Renaissance in England. The list of these words is impossible to give within this work, for this you need to make a special dictionary.

3. Dutch borrowing

Even in the era of the Middle Ages between England and the Netherlands there were pretty close trade and industrial connections. England attracted a fairly significant number of Dutch and Flemish masters of various specialties, mainly shipbuilders and weavers to work in workshops. Especially many words of Dutch origin in shipbuilding and navigation terminology. Such, for example: Cruise - Craise, Dock - Dock, Geef - Reef (Sailing Hole for Rope), Skipper - Skipper, Yacht - Yacht, etc. Weavskaya Terms of Dutch Descent, included in English in Central English and earlier Novanyangali period . Such as: to Gloss - to give glitter fabric, Rock - spire, spool - bobbing, stripe - flap fabric.

And also a special group of Dutch borrowing in English is art historical terms that have come to the vocabulary of English. For example, Landscape - Landscape, Maulstick - Turkish, and others.

4. Italian and Spanish borrowing

A significant contribution to the dictionary of the English language and Italian, starting approximately from the XVI century. In the era of the Renaissance, Italian culture, especially in the field of music, painting, architecture, literature had a great influence on the culture of England; This affected, in particular, and in borrowing the set of words belonging to the listed areas, is already directly from the Italian language and in most cases conservation of their primordial form. These are musical terms Allegro, Aria, Legato, Libretto, Opera, Sonata, Soprano, Tempo, TRIO; Terms from the field of fine arts, for example, Fresco, Studio, Terra Cotta, etc. The words as Grotto, Granite, Fasco, Incognito, Soda, Umbrella entered into widespread use. Including the words in the perception of the British-tourists, the characteristic details of Italian life, for example, Macaroni, Speaghetti, etc. In connection with the development of trade relations of England with Italy, such Italian words came to Bank - Bank, Lombard - Lombardsky (from the name of the Italian region of Lombardy, from where many Roshovists came out in the Middle Ages), Traffic - trade and others.

Spanish introduced into the vocabulary of the English language a number of its words, and also served as the transmitter of many words from various languages \u200b\u200bof the indigenous population of America.

In English vocabulary, you can count several dozen Spanish words borrowed directly from Spanish. For example, these words like: Armada - Military fleet, Banana - Banana, Barbecue - Lattice, Bonanza - Casting Rude Rude, Booby - Ferrian, Bravado - Board, Canyon - Gorge, Canoe - Kayak, Chilli - Red Pepper, Chocolate - Chocolate, Cigar - Cigar, Negro - Negro, Potato - Potatoes, Tobacco - Tobacco, Tomato - Tomato, Tornado - Vikhrie, Vanilla - Vanilla.

5. German borrowing

In modern English vocabulary there is also a number of borrowed German words. Most often the influence of the German language is manifested in the form of phrases, such as: Bolt from the Blue - Thunder among the clear sky, Chain-Smoker is an avid smoker, homesickness - Motherland, Masterpiece - Masterpiece, Place in the Sun - place under the sun, Song Without Words - Songs without words, Storm and Stress - Storm and Natisk, SWAN Song - Swan Song, One-Sided - One-Sided, Time-Spirit - Spirit, Superman - Superman, WORLD-FAMOUS - world famous. Especially many words and expressions came from the terminology of the classical German philosophy, for example, the World-Outlook -Moving.

6. Russian borrowing

The history of Russian borrowing in English reflects the history of trade and political relations between Russia and England. The Russian language began to influence English significantly later than other European languages, such as Latin, French, German, Italian, Spanish.

Historical borrowings include a group of words of the pre-revolutionary, revolutionary and Soviet periods: Arsheen, Tzar (King), Desyatin (Tithina), Kulak (Kulak), Okhrana (security), Bolshevik (Bolshevik), Politbureau (Politburo), Sovnarhoz (Sovnarhoz) and others.

Household vocabulary demonstrates the originality of the text of Russian life: Babushka (grandmother), Blin (damn), Kovsh (bucket), Zakuska (snack), Kasha (porridge), Samovar (samovar), vodka (vodka), etc. words of this group There are found in the description of Russian life.

Biogeographic vocabulary is made up of words denoting plants, animals, natural phenomena and zones: Badiaga (Badgya), Zuble (Zub), Tur (Tour), Sable (Sable), Suslik (Suslik), Beluga (Beluga), Buran (Buran) , Purga (Purga), Steppe (steppe), etc.

Public and political vocabulary is represented by the words denoting the Russian socio-political structure at the present stage: Perestroika (Perestroika), Glasnost (publicity), Intelligentsia (Intelligentsia), Russianness (Russian Spirit), Duma (Duma), Apparat (apparatus), Chinovnik ( Officer), Starosta (Streth), etc.

The vocabulary associated with art includes the words of the original Russian meaning: Balalaika (Balalaika), Bylina (epics), Gusli (Gusli), Prisiadka (Pryadka).

Army vocabulary is represented by such famous words like Kalashnikov (Kalashnikov), Katyusha (Katyusha), Stavka (rate), Feldsher (Feldsher).

In conclusion, it should be noted that Russian borrowings also played a large role in improving modern philosophical and political terminology of all languages, including English.

By examining all sources of borrowing in English and analyzing statistical data from the Internet (see Appendices page 19), we can confidently declare that the percentage of borrowing from other languages \u200b\u200bis very high.

2. 4. International Words

The special group constitute international words. It often happens that denoting an important new concept, the word is not borrowed not in one language, but in many languages. Thus, an international lexicid fund is being created, which includes international terminology of various areas of human activity: politicians, philosophy, science, technology, art, as well as many abstract words.

International, or international words borrowed from one source have graphic and sound similarities and, coinciding to some extent within a meaning, as it were, as it were, the general property of a number of languages \u200b\u200bdue to the vocabulary of the ancients, i.e. Latin and Greek (Democracy, Proletarian, Philosophy , Atom, Modern, Program, System).

The other part of them comes from modern languages: Soviet, Kolkhoz, Sputnik - from Russian Revolution, Bourgeois, Telegraph - from French Football, Telephone, Cruise, Motel, Club, Analysis, Army, Communism, Culture, Nation, Function, Instruction, International, Geometry, Geography, Mathematics, Physics, Philosophy. Also here refers to a large number of terms of physics, chemistry, biology, physiology, etc.

From the above examples, we see that very many terms belong to international vocabulary, i.e. are the property of not only English, but also a number of other languages.

Practical part

As a result of borrowing, English has been replenished with international words, under which the words found in many languages \u200b\u200bof the world, but having minor phonetic differences related to the peculiarities of the pronunciation of each language. For example: Address, Telegraph, Socialism.

We conducted survey among students of our lyceum, in order to show discrepancies of some values \u200b\u200bin Russian and English.

40 students were supposed to write, which means this or that word in Russian and what significance it has in English.

We have chosen several such intermenimal words: Control, Family, General, Magazine, Original, Atom.

These are the results we received, after analyzing the answers to the tasks.

The first word was Control

All 40 students (100%) know the initial value of this word 'control'. 10 students (25%) know that this word is multigid and can take values \u200b\u200b- 'Governance', 'Guide', 'Power'.

The second was the word - Family

All 40 students (100%) know that in English Family means only 'family' or 'Rod', and never has the meaning 'surname' in English.

We took the third word - GENERAL

All 40 students (100%) responded that Generalal coincides with the Russian word 'General'. 30 people (75%) replied that more often this word general acts as an adjective with the value 'Main', 'General', 'Normal'.

The fourth word we took was Magazine

All students (40 people - 100%) responded that the word Magazine does not correspond to the Russian 'Store', but has the meaning of the 'magazine'. And two (5%) translated this word also as a 'warehouse of military supplies'.

The fifth word was - Original

All students (40 people - 100%) responded that the noun in Russian and English coincides with their meaning, but as an adjective 'initial', 'genuine', are known to 35 students (87.5%).

And the last word was atom

An international word was proposed that coincides in the literal value, but disassembled in the possibilities of portable use.

All 40 people (100%) transferred this word as 'atom' but, no student knows the portable meaning of the word - 'Baby', 'baby', as it sometimes takes place in English. Speaking about a small field, Dickens calls him 'The Atom', this metaphor can be translated into Russian in one word - 'baby'.

Based on the foregoing, you can draw conclusions:

1. Many international words have a distinction not only in external form, but also in value.

About 19% of students do not know the main importance of international words in English.

2. Questioning and subsequent conversation with students made it possible to replenish their vocabulary, deepen the knowledge of students on the origin and the importance of many international words.

Consequently, this research work is of practical importance and is of great interest for students.

Conclusion

After reading the works of scientists, in the history of the English language, dealing with the problems of language contacts and borrowing, we revealed such an interesting fact that borrowing in English is affected not only by their number, but also a variety of languages \u200b\u200bfrom which they are borrowed.

In the process of historical development, English borrowed a huge number of vocabulary from other languages. The most active donor languages \u200b\u200bcan be French (Mechatronics, Prince, People, Money, Parent, Army, Comfort, Coach, Etc.); Japanese (Hara-Kiri, Sushi, Karaoke, Ikebana, Samurai, Geisha, Kimono), at the moment Japanese is one of the leading donor languages; Latin (Street, Port, Wine, Mile, etc.); Dutch (Dock, Reef, Yacht, Rock, Spool, Landscape, etc.); Italian (Sonata, Umbrella, Balcony, Bank, Macaroni, Speaghetti, etc.); Spanish (Banana, Barbecue, Bravado, Canyon, Chili, Chocolate, Potato, Tomato, etc.); German (Superman, Homesickness, Hamburger, Delicatesen etc.); Russian (Tzar, SpetSnaz, Limitchiki, Glasnost, Perestroika, etc.).

The vocabulary of English is also replenished from other languages: Happy, Low, Ill, Ugly, Weak, Viking (Skand.); Haiduk, Hussar (Wenger.); Polka, Mazurka (Polish.); Algebra, Harem (Arab.); Psychology, Alphabet, Sympathy (Greek).

After reaching a thorough analysis of borrowed words in English, you can draw the following conclusions.

First, foreign language borrowings are one of the types of enrichment of the dictionary composition of the English language.

Secondly, the vocabulary of the English language has absorbed a really huge number of words from various languages \u200b\u200bof the world, and the cause of such a huge amount of borrowing and diversity of languages, of which they are borrowed, lies in the specifics of the historical development of England. This specificity lies in the fact that the English people were constantly in direct contact with many foreign language peoples, first as a defeated people, subsequently due to the transformation of England into a colonial power as the people - the colonizer. In addition, in a certain historical period, in England, they operated on the situation of the functional languages \u200b\u200bof different spheres of social activities Latin and French. Although English has come out the winner of the fight against the languages \u200b\u200bof the conquerors, although he is forcibly planted in colonial countries, nevertheless, he could not but absorb in his vocabulary a lot of words from languages \u200b\u200bwith whom came into contact. It is these historical circumstances that explain such an abundance of borrowing in the language.

Thirdly, under the influence of borrowing, many initial words came out of eating or changed their meaning. For example, Bar's noun in French has the meaning 'bar', 'goal', and in English this word is translated as 'Bar', 'restaurant', which values \u200b\u200bin French did not buy.

Borrowing is also interesting because they are able to display changes in the cultural and historical life of the country.

We live in very unstable time, time of change. These changes affect primarily the social and political sphere of vital activity. Therefore, it can be assumed that most of this group will be borrowed to a greater extent. It remains to hope that these words will be with a positive color.

And in conclusion, I would like to note that in our time the leading positions among European donor languages \u200b\u200bretains French.

English speakers and language itself entered into contacts with other languages \u200b\u200bduring its historical development. As a result of these contacts (trade, military), numerous lexical units were borrowed. The greatest number of borrowed words came from Latin, Scandinavian and French languages. It should also be noted that a significant number of words are borrowed from Celtic, Dutch, Italian, Spanish, oriental languages. Borrowing are of great interest to study the history of the English language and the English people, the British contacts with other nations and peoples.

I. Latin borrowing. In the process of historical development, the English people experienced a significant impact of Roman civilization. Latin language in England for a long time was the language of learning, science, religion. Despite the fact that this is a dead language, it continues to be used to date for the thermal technology in the language of science. Latin borrowing is made to divide for three periods, or three layers:

1) to the first, most ancient borrowing layer include:

a) so-called continental borrowingswhich were carried out through direct contacts Anglo-Saxon tribes with ancient Romans before migration to the British Islands. Through trading contacts with the Romans, whose level of civilization was quite high, the Anglo-Saxon tribes learned about new and useful things for them and borrowed Latin words typical of trade of the time: Market (L. Mercatus), Cheap (L. Caupo), Pound (L. Pondo), Inch (L. Uncia), Mile (L.Milia); Product Names: Cheese (L. Caseus), Butter (L. Butyrum), Oil (L. Oleum); Fruits and vegetables: Cherry, Pear, Plum, Beet, Pea, Pepper; Words Plant, Lily, Cat, Dish, Cup, Kitchen, Cook, Sack, Chalk, Copper, Mill, Port, etc. Also the first component of the word Satur.day.

b) indirect Borrowing, through the Celtic tribes, which lived in the British Islands before the resettlement of Anglo-Saxons from the continent. Ancient Roman emperor Julius Caesar with his legionnaires periodically made raids on the British Islands in 55 and 54 years BC, and in 43 our era of Romans occupied Britain, which they left in 407. During this period, the tribes who lived on Islands - Britons and Celts borrowed Wall words (L.Vallum), Street (L. Strata), Camp (L. Campus). Also, the Latin Castra Camp component is preserved in some geographic names: Lancaster, Dorchester, Manchester, etc.

2) to the second layer of Latin borrowing belongs religious words. In 5 - 6th centuries, a major role in the life of society in Britain began to play the church. Christianity spread in the north of England from Ireland. Pope in 597 sent one of his representatives (St. Augustine) to England to turn the British in Christianity. England adopted Christianity in the 7th century. Latin as the official language of the church was greatly distributed. As a result, the English has been borrowed by the words denoting the realities associated with the Church, Religion: Abbot, Altar, Angel, Anthem, Bishop, Candle, Cross, Creed, Cleric, Devil, Mass, Minister, Monk, Nun, Pope, Priest, Temple , TUNIC. However, the word god is anonya-English, and Church - Greek origin. At churches in England, schools were formed, the first teachers were priests and monks, so the words School (L. Schola< Gk. skhole), scholar, master, grammar, verse, meter, etc. - латинские заимствования.

3) By the 3rd layer of Latin borrowing include borrowings that took place in the Renaissance Epoch of 14 - 16 centuries.The era of the Renaissance is characterized by increased interest in the ancient culture of ancient Rome and Greece, flowering of sciences, culture. Latin at that time played a big role in many countries in Europe, including England. It was the language of education, religion, they wrote scientific works and many literary works. Many Latin borrowing came to English through French, so it is not always possible to determine how the borrowing process was. So, the word of Latin origin Doubt, borrowed through French< Fr. doute > , And in his writing, Latin influence has been preserved: L. Dubitare.

Since the Latin language was the language of intellectual communication, the borrowing of this period includes scientific, literary terms, abstract words. Nouns: Act, Action, Admission, Animal, Certificate, Collision, Conflict, Conduct, Content, Contract, Datum, Formula, Forum, Fracture, Genius, Literature, Nucleus, Picture, Promise, Progress, etc. Concrete names: Chalk, Marble, Silk, Linen, etc. Verbs: Add, Admit, Abbreviate, Accept, Act, AFFECT, Assimilate, Assume, Attract, Complete, Constitute, Construct, Correct, Direct, Dismiss, Distribute, Exhibit, Express, Divide, Include, Interrup, Prevent, Produce, Reject, Separate , Subdivide, Subscribe, Transport, Violete, etc. Adjectives: Absolute, Acute, Artificial, Convenient, Delicate, Desperate, Equal, Fabulous, Finite, Frequent, Fortunate, Infantile, Inferior, Intelligent, Junior, Major, Maternal, Mental, Minor, Moderate, Paternal, Polite, Private, Senior, Superior , etc.

Latin borrowings are so numerous that of course to submit their full list here is impossible. At the same time, synonyms groups appear, where one word isponed, and the other is Latin borrowing:

fatherly - Paternal "Father's"

motherly - Maternal "Maternal"

childish - Infantile "Children's"

sunny - Solar "Sunny"

The first of these couples is the original, the second is the Latin borrowing, which has a more formal terminological character. Wedway: Sunny Day and Solar Orbit, Motherly Feelings and Maternal Duties. Latin borrowings are mostly consisting of two or more syllables with prefixes and suffixes: AB-, AD-, COM-, DIS-, EX-, IN- / IL-, IL-, IR, SUB-, -ATE, -AL , -OR, -Ant, etc.

In the era of revival, words from Greek were also borrowed: Atom, Cycle, Bible, Myth, Philosophy.

II. Scandinavian borrowings(from Staronorvezhsky and Danish).

The British and the Scandinavian peoples had close contacts throughout the history of England. Especially close contacts between them were in the 9th - 11th centuries, when the Scandinavian Vikings captured the North and East of England and partly Scotland and Ireland. In 878, a peace treaty was signed, known as Danelaw (DaneLagu) "Danish Law". From here, the word law was borrowed. Scandinavian words unlike Latin borrowed orally.

Since English and Scandinavian languages \u200b\u200bare close by origin and structure, these words that could not be borrowed from genetically related languages \u200b\u200bwere borrowed from the Scandinavian. For example, the pronounty they, their, them, who crowded the ancient English Hie "They", the pronoun same, prepositions, unions, adverbs: Both, Till, Though, Fro (from To and Fr).

Nouns: Fellow, Husband, Sister (Oe Sweostor), Law, Window, Cake, Egg, Steak, Bag, Link, Bank, Root, Wing, Bark (Of a Tree), Dirt, Anger, Leg, etc. Words starting with letters "SK-, SC-: Scale, Score, Ski, Skin, Skirt, Ski, SkiLL, but Skeptic, Skeleton - from Greek, Square - from French. Verbs: Cast, Die, Gaze, Crawl, Hit, Ransack, Seem, Take, Want, Call, etc. The words get and give - the original English, but the pronunciation of the initial [g] appeared under the influence of Scandinavian languages, otherwise these words would read with sound [J]. Adjectives: Bleak, Weak, Ill, Sly, Odd, Loose, Low, Happy, Ugly, Wrong.

III. Borrowing from french.

Historically, the borrowing from French went to English from two dialects: Norman and Parisian.

In the 11th century, after the battle of Hastings, in 1066, Normania was won by Britain (Normandy - Nordic Province of France). Norman conquest lasted in England from the middle of the 11th century until the end of the 14th century. Normans at this time were at a higher level of development, their British borrowed new concepts of a more progressive public system - developed feudalism. During the Norman conquest in England, there were two languages \u200b\u200bin England - the language of conquerors - the Norman Dialect of French - the language of the ruling classes, official documents, schooling - and the language of the defeated - English.

Words borrowed during the Norman conquest include both everyday words and vocabulary, reflecting the social order and lifestyle of conquerors. The following main groups are allocated:

a) Words that were used to describe the country's conquered: Country, Coast, River, Valley, Lake, Mountain, Village, Border, Frontier, etc.;

b) Family relations: Parent, Cousin, Aunt, Uncle, Niece, Nephew;

c) Units of Time: Hour, Minute, Second; Season - Autumn;

d) words that relate to the organization of feudal society, the management of a country, life at the courtyard: Feudal, State, Government, Parliament, Crown, Court, Office, Duke, Duchess, Baron, Vassal, Noble, Prince, Count, Gentle, People, Peasant, Rule, Serve, Command, Obey, Authority, Liberty, Power, Glory, Danger, Nation, Property, Sir, Madame, Chivalry, Police, Palace, Castle, etc.;

e) Legal terms: Justice, Judge, Privilege, Crime, Accuse, Jail, Prison, Client, Defendant, Process, Attorney, etc.;

e) Military Terminology: War, Peace, Army, Navy, Soldier, Chief, Captain, Battle, Enemy, Victory, Defense, Resistance, Destroy, etc.;

g) words related to person, his lifestyle, emotional state: Ease, Joy, Delight, Pleasure, Leisure, Comfort, Enjoy, Disease, Honour, Reason, Grief, Despair, Desire, Passion, Courage, Envy, ETC.;

h) Names of Professions: Barber, Carpenter, Butcher, Broker, Merchant, Painter, Tailor, Surgeon, etc.

i) clothing, household items: coat, cloak, frock, garment, gown, robe, boot, fur, ornanent, jewel, button, mirror, carpet, curtain, blanket, table, chair, pencil, pencil, fashion, etc.

k) Products, cooking: Boil, Broil, Fry, Roast, Mince, Dine, Dinner, Supper, Flour, Sugar, Beef, Pork, Mutton, Veal, Salad, Juice, Cabbage, Onion, Cucumber, Biscuit, etc.

Many other words that belong to the most different groups are borrowed by English from French at that time. Nouns: Age, Affair, Action, Air, Baggage, Beauty, Branch, Cage, Cattle, Chance, Company, Consent, Coward, Cry, Damage, Difference, Error, Example, Exercise, Experience, Face, Favor, Honour, Labour, MARRIAGE, LANGUAGE, QUESTION, ETC. Adjectives: Able, Ancient, Brief, Certain, Clear, Considerable, Cruel, Different, DiffiCult, Easy, Familiar, Famous, Favoorable, Fine, Famous, Poor, Sure, etc. Glages: Achieve, Approve, Arrive, Attend, Blame, Catch, Carry, Consider, Count, Cover, Demand, Deny, DeServe, Finish, Enter, Examine, Excuse, Increase, Fail, Form, Marry, Refuse, Suffer, Paint, Perform, Travel, etc.

French remained the most important source of lexical borrowing and in subsequent historical periods. During and after the Renaissance, in addition to Latin and Greek, the French borrowings were played a major role. They walked from the Paris dialect.

Among the borrowings from Paris French, you can allocate political vocabulary, especially after the French bourgeois revolution of the 17th century (1650): Society, Aristocracy, Democracy, Republic, Regime, Bourgeois, Tyranny, Ideology, etc.; Words associated with trade and industry: Commerce, Manufacture, Economy, Economic. Cultural connections with France have been reflected in borrowing type: Artist, Ballet, Baroque, Vase, Memoir, Essay, Cartoon, Praiscis, Brochure, Envelope, etc. French cuisine and fashion continued to be interested in the British, which is confirmed by subsequent borrowings: Cuisine, Pastry, Champagne, Cutlet, Picnic, Canteen, Menu, Restaurant, Caf, Blouse, Vogue, etc. Military terms continued to enter the Military Terms: Troops, Battalion, Brigade, Platoon, Cadet, Cannon, Bayonet, Rocket, Barricade, Barracks, Parole, Campaign, etc. Various words borrowed at 18-20 centuries: Comrade, Pilot, Entrance, Attitude, Detail, Zero, Apartment, Bureau, Development, Fiance, Garage, Chauffeur, Interview, Detach, Embarass, etc.

There are some features of spelling and pronunciations, which are characteristic of French borrowing: CHAUFFEUR, Echelon, CHFEUR, CHFEUR; (s) Qua Square, Quaint; Que Question, Picturesque; Ou Route; g prestige, garage; Digraph Oi Point, Joint; Writing V and J at the beginning of the word: Vase, VEAL, JUST, JOURNAL; Some words have preserved French letters and and fiances, communiquies, fazade.

IV. Borrowing from other languages.

From other languages \u200b\u200bthat contributed to the replenishment of English vocabulary should be noted as follows:

1. Celtic. Celtic borrowing along with Latin belong to the oldest. They are relatively few and preserved in geographic names: Kent, Avon (river), EXE / ESK (River), Thames, London (Llyn "River" + Dūn "Hill, Fortress") and some words: D.A. Dūn, Sovr. DOWN, DUNN - grayish brown, Sovr. Dun, Assa - Sovr. Ass 'Donkey', binn 'nursery, feeder' - Sovr. Bin 'Zazrom'.

2. Dutch Language. At the 14th - 17th centuries. Thanks to intensive trading with Holland, Flanders were borrowed by Words related to Waving: Dock, Deck, Yacht, Cruise, Freight, etc. and Trade: Bale, Pack, Spool, Brandy, Booze, etc. CLOVA related to painting: Sketch, Easel, Landscape borrowed during the flourishing period of the Flemish school of painting.

3. Italian language. Most borrowing belong to the field of arts, architecture, especially music: Cupola, Balcony, Loggia, Opera, Sonata, Aria, Solo, Concert, Soprano, Piano. Also, various words related to the FIRM FIRM FIRM, Bank "Bank" Bank (via Fr.Yyyaz) "reflecting Italian traditions, realities: Carnival, Gondola, Macaroni, Pizza, Umbrella, Influenza, Malaria, Propaganda, Bandit.

4. Spanish language. Direct borrowings from Spanish include (from the 16th century): Embargo, Cargo, Armada, Flotilla, Breeze, Junta, Renegade, Guerilla, Negro, Mullatto, Caste, Sherry, Cigar, Cockroach, etc. Through Spanish conquistadors from Spanish, words from Latin American countries were borrowed: Tomato, Cocoa, Potato, Barbecue, Canoe, Maize, Hurricane, Cannibal, Tobacco, etc.

5. German: zinc, Cobalt, Quartz, Nickel, Paraffin, Vitamin, KohlRaby, Sauerkraut, Schnitzel, Schnaps, Plunder, Iceberg, Waltz, Kindergarten, Leitmotif, Zeitgeist, Rucksack, Blitz, Blitzkrieg, Ablaut, etc.

6. Russian language. Borrowing from the Russian language are divided into 2 groups: a) Pre-revolutionary: Samovar, Tsar, Steppe, Vodka, Kvass, Borsch, Troika, Astrakhan, Sable, Sterlet, Sevruga, Babushka; b) post-revolutionary: Soviet, Bolshevik, Sputnik, Perestroika.

You can call borrowings from languages \u200b\u200bthat were the colonies of Great Britain, for example, words that came from the Indian subcontinent (17 c): Jungle, Loot, Jute, Pyjamas, Khaki, Yoga, Verandah, etc.

From Eastern languages: Malaysco-Polynesian Gong, Taboo, Boomerang, Arabic Coffee, Sofa, Sash, Hashish, Sheikh, Chinese Tea, Silk, from Turkish Pasha, Bazaar, Caftan, Jackal, from Japanese Geisha, Kimono, Harakiri from Tatar Horde, KouMiss. Through the American version, their languages \u200b\u200bof North American Indians were borrowed: Opossum, Skunk, Mocassin, Tomahawk, Wigwam, etc. As can be seen, many of the borrowings of this kind are limited in use, most of them are used to designate items related to the culture of various peoples.

"Guests from other languages", or borrowed words, permeate all English. In the course of English history, thousands and thousands of words moved from one language to another, mainly through the constant invasion of the invaders.

How happened that the country whose original inhabitants were Celts, lost to the old language that is now known to us as English? It happened due to the fact that the British islands were subjected to multiple raids. Each people who invaded external lands brought their tongue, dialects and customs into the country.

As the invaders settled on the territory, they had an impact on the written and oral speech of local residents, who, in turn, adapted to the new situation, taking into their lexicon borrowed words.

Otto Espersen in his book "Development and Structure of English" notes that English is a "borrowing chain", which has become the result of the conquest of Britain with numerous invaders. Inomers brought their tongue into the country, but could not completely impose his British.

Instead, foreign languages \u200b\u200bwere mixed, as in one boiler, with an original speech. Thus, those or other groups influenced the development of written and oral English as we know it today.

The first were the Romans - with them, part of the inhabitants of Britain collided with Latin. During the time the Celts coexisted with the Romans and continental Germans, only a couple of hundreds of Latin words penetrated the ancient English language, which, according to Esperse, was quite self-sufficient.

After the German invasion in 450 N. e. Celtic language was displaced in the foggy limits of the island of Ireland. But Britain residents needed to communicate with new neighbors, and began the process of borrowing words.

The country's Christianization in the 6th century made a much larger number of inhabitants to take Latin words and phrases. Nevertheless, Latin borrowings were used mainly by the highest layers of society.

In those days, "every educated Englishman spoke and wrote on Latin as easily as in his native language," as James Bradstrite Gryna and George Layman Kittredzh in his book "Words and their story in English speech." Educated people could use borrowed words both in a conversation and in writing.

When the German tribes of the Angles, Saksov and Yuts invaded Britain and crowded the Celts, the language began to develop simultaneously with the resettlement of new peoples. Celtic influence decreased sharply, and more "strong" borrowed words began to be strengthened in the language.

Initially, the tribes spoke on their German languages, but as they mixed with indigenous people, their languages \u200b\u200bbegan to lose their former appearance and also merge with each other.

Of course, the language of that period will be barely recognizable for the majority, if not all modern readers (except these professionals). And yet, although the Angles, Saksa and Utah gave us the basis of the English language, his German foundation was exposed to strong French influence.

The history of the English language and its borrowing stands on three conquests: Germanic, Scandinavian (Vikings) and the most important - Norman region, which was held under the leadership of the Duke of Normandy in 1066.

The German and Scandinavian invasion significantly influenced the indigenous language, but it was Frank-speaking Normans under the leadership of Wilhelm's conqueror introduced into English, as Esperse writes, the widest and firmly strengthened spectrum of borrowed words.

Norman occupation lasted much longer than North, and, unlike Scandinavians, who coexisted with the conquered by the people, Normans suppressed British. The British status quo was violated when Normans transformed all the structures of England, from the legislative system to religion, becoming full rulers of the island.

Normans also, in some way, imposed the British language class struggle. When someone else's language is imposed on the residents of conquered lands, it can be assumed that it will spread on top of all the segments of the population. The "loser" language will thus disappear.

However, after arrival, Normans did not happen. The aristocracy accepted the French model, but the peasants retained the German language, which caused a class and linguistic separation, which was maintained until the languages \u200b\u200band borrowing were merged into a single Medium-English language.

But the entry of French words and phrases to English was not just concession defeated. Writers, for example, Choseer, diplomats, members of the royal family, the highest military ranks and major merchants familiar with the French culture (which contributed to the proximity of the borders), readily accepted and adapted words from French. Often it was dictated by the simple need to communicate.

Norman conquest transformed all directions of the British, influenced legislation, religion, medicine and art. Since those who spoke in French and Latin were a bonding force, the British had to borrow words at least in order to understand the new rulers, "eliminated" part of the local lexicon.

Some new words were able to oust an English counterparts that existed several centuries and consolidate thanks to the source relationships. The Anglo-Saxon Words King (King) and Queen (Queen) avoided French influence, but with Normans came such titles like Duke (Duke) and Duchess (Duchess). The British had to find out the meaning of these words and accept them if not in everyday, then in frequent use.

According to Esperesen, many British borrowed French words not only from the need, but also because it was considered "fashionable" to imitate the ruling layers.

The fact that the British borrowed words that were absent in their native language, such as Majesty (Majesty) and Mayor (mayor), are quite understandable. However, it may seem mysterious why they replaced the indigenous Swin (Pig) French Porc ...

To understand this, you need to think about how British farmers and French aristocrats dealt with domestic cattle. From these two words, the German Swin was more landed, while French Porc was considered sophisticated.

Swin developed into a modern Swine - what bred the English peasants, and Porc or Pork is what French aristocrats ate. It created the opposition of animal and food and, again, raised the social status of the British, who used the French word.

Sometimes, as illustrated Greeno and Kittredzh, a foreign word, for example, Divide (divided), has become more popular than the original Cleave. Also, one word could oust another, and the original was discarded at all, as happened with the word EY (egg), to replace the Scandinavian Egg.

The influence of French has contributed to other concepts that the British could consider more abstract definitions of their original words. Examples can serve as English Child (child) against French infant or English Freedom (freedom) compared to French Liberty.

Amazing in the transformation and evolution of the English language is how susceptible residents of the country were external languages, especially French and Latin. The invaders seemed to sowed the seeds of the tongue, and the British were seeded.

But unlike the French, who were content with one language "plant", the British (perhaps because of love for gardening), tried to grow as much synonyms as possible. Continuing all the same horticultural analogy, Espersen notes that in many cases "English soil turned out to be more fertile than French" for the nagging words.

Why be content with one original word, like the French, when you can take a lot of borrowed and create synonyms, how do the British do? Or, as Professor at the University of Minnesota and the author of the book "The origin of the words and what we know about them," Dr. Anatoly Lieberman, asks in his lecture: "What is better - two nostrils or one?"

Having in stock many similar words, the British, apparently, took the theory of "two nostrils", sometimes on a par using both the original, and the borrowed word.

Borrowing influenced English dictionaries. The impressive dictionaries of English, compared with French, German or Dutch, are obliged to their volume of borrowed words. It would be possible to say that borrowing gave a new meaning of the phrase "size is important" if the British worried this question regarding their language.

Although, first of all, we considered the Norman conquest of 1066 and the seismic shift, which it produced in the language world, there were other languages \u200b\u200bthat could affect borrowing in English if their meeting occurred on time.

Among them is Spanish and Italian, but, as Gryna and Kittredzh are noted, "Although their influence on English literature was great, these languages \u200b\u200bdid not have a significant effect on the vocabulary." The fact is that Normans reached the goal first, and the British by the time they borrowed all the words and phrases that they needed.

The growth of England as a superpower led in some sense, and to expand language boundaries. The emergence of the colonies acquainted people with what they had never seen before and for what they needed new words. The British could only borrow them, as the original words lacked to describe what they met.

In England, there was no kangaroo or boomerangs, so when the British were encountered with them, instead of inventing new words, they borrowed Australian. Elephants, leopards, Panthers were also not found in England, and again the British accepted their local names. Even tomatoes that were unknown in the country before they were taken from the new world, it was necessary to give a name. The British decided to take advantage of the Spanish Tomate.

Although these words were new to the British and diversified their vocabulary, they did not affect the structure of their speech. They became "simply accepted by names for specific things," according to Greeno and Kittredge.

The era of Renaissance brought many classical words, in particular, French and Italian, increasing the Latin influence into English. But Italy, like Spain, did not have many borrowing, because English by that time almost completely formed.

New words and phrases have enriched the tongue of the British, but Esperse believes that it has a side effect. Due to numerous invasions, the British began with the time to "leave the conscious creation of new words from the primary material". This idea again returns us to the "physical mobility and mental laziness" aspect of borrowing.

Many sometime unusual words now easily fly from the English-speaking language. Everyone knows what Kindergarten means (kindergarten) who came from German. Most familiar French Baguette (Baguette) or Croissant (Croissant). And, staying in the topic of baking, Bagel, who came from Yiddish (originally Beygl), also familiar to many English-speaking, especially in New York residents.

But are all foreign and exotic words easily be borrowing and introducing into English? In the "Lexicograph" dilemma, Jack Lynch mentions the Arabic word "jihad" and asks a question, to consider it by the English word. Until September 11, 2001, many have hardly heard about him, but in one day it became the same as clear as the word "bread."

Lieberman in one of his lectures brought such examples of borrowed words as Sputnik and Perestroika. At various periods of time, they thundered around the world. However, it is unlikely that the current English schoolboy knows what Sputnik is, and presents how quickly this word entered into English.

The same fate waited and "restructuring". In the mid-80s, this word flooded the pages of world newspapers. But at least some mention of the initiative of Gorbachev is found in a modern English-language newspaper.

If we consider the borrowed words as "the result of contacting languages \u200b\u200bin a particular place at a specific time," as Lieberman writes in the "origin of words", these two Russian words are perfectly suitable for this definition. But they could not entrenched, first of all, because they did not formed connections with other words. As many borrowed words from the past who could not resist for a long time, may soon disappear from English soon.

So, the borrowing of words illustrates that when two languages \u200b\u200bcompete in the domination on each other, adaptability and susceptibility play a key role. Celts did not understand this, and their language was ousted. We read on:

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