Genre signs of sentimental story. What is sentimentalism

Sentimentalism as a literary direction

SENTIMENTALISM. Under sentimentalism, they understand the direction of literature, which developed at the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the XIX-th, which was distinguished by the cult of human heart, feelings, simplicity, naturalness, special attention to the inner world, living love for nature. In contrast to the classicism, which worshiped the mind, and only reason, and which, as a result, built everything in its aesthetics on a strictly logical basis, on a thoroughly illuminated system (the theory of poetry buoy), sentimentalism provides the artist freedom of feelings, imagination and expression and does not require His impeccable correctness in the architectonics of literary creation. Sentimentalism - protest against dry rationality, which characterized the Epoch of Enlightenment; He appreciates in a person not what culture gave him, but what he brought with him in the depths of his nature. And if classicism (or, as it, in Russia, in Russia, is more often called false-classicism) was interested exclusively by representatives of higher social circles, royal leaders, a sphere of the courtyard and a whole aristocracy, then sentimentalism is much more democratic and, recognizing the fundamental equivalence of all people, descends In the valley of everyday life, - in the environment of the meshan, bourgeoisie, middle class, which at the time has been nominated in a purely economic relation, became especially in England - to play an outstanding role on the historical scene. For sentimentalist, everyone is interesting for, because in any kind, the intimate life is laminated and warms; And it does not need special events, stormy and vivid effectiveness, in order to make a way to get into the literature: No, it turns out to be hospitable and in relation to the most ordinary inhabitants, to the most ineffect biography, it will paint the slowing passage of ordinary days, peaceful family raising, quiet Rouges of everyday worries.

Sentimentalism "Poor Lisa": eternal and universal in the story

The story poor Lisa was written by Karamzin in 1792. In many respects, it corresponds to European samples, which caused shock in Russia and turned Karamzin in the most popular writer.

In the center of this story - the love of peasant and nobleman, and the description of the peasant is almost revolutionary. Prior to that, there were two stereotypical descriptions of the peasants in Russian literature: either this unfortunate oppressive slaves, or comical, coarse and stupid creatures, who do not call people. But Karamzin approached the description of the peasants in a completely different way. Lisa does not need to sympathize, she has no landowner, and no one oppresses it. There is also nothing comic. But there is a famous phrase and peasants to love, turning over the consciousness of people of the time, because They finally understood that the peasants are also people who have their feelings.

Fits of sentimentalism in "poor Lisa"

In fact, the typical peasant in this story is very little. Lisa's images and her mother do not correspond to reality (the peasant, even the state, could not deal with only the fact that to sell flowers in the city), the names of the heroes are also not taken from the peasant realities of Russia, but from the traditions of European sentimentalism (Lisa is derived from Eloise names or Louise typical of European novels).

The basis of the story is a universal idea: everyone wants happiness to each person. Therefore, the main character of the story can even be called Erast, and not Lisa, because he is in love, dreams of ideal relationships and does not even think about something carnal and lowland, wanting to live with Lisa, like a brother with sister. However, Karamzin believes that such pure platonic love cannot survive in the real world. Therefore, the culmination of the story is the loss of innocence loss. After that, Erast ceases to love her as purely, since she is no longer ideal, she became the same as other women in his life. He begins to deceive it, the relationship is rushing. As a result, Erast marries a rich woman, while pursuing only selfish goals, not being in love with her.

When Lisa finds out about it, having arrived in the city, it turns out to be out of heaven. Considering that she no longer need to live, because Love is destroyed, the unfortunate girl rushes into the pond. This stroke emphasizes that the story is written in the traditions of sentimentalism, because Liza is moving exclusively feelings, and Karamzin makes a strong emphasis on the description of the feelings of the heroes "poor Lisa". From the point of view of the mind, nothing critical with her did not happen - she is not pregnant, not disgraced in front of society ... Logically, there is no need to dry. But Lisa thinks in the heart, not a reason.

One of the tasks of Karamzin was to make the reader believe that the heroes actually existed that the story is real. He repeats several times that he writes not a story, but sad. Clearly indicate time and place of action. And Karamzin has achieved: people believed. The pond, in which Lisa was allegedly drowned, became the place of mass suicides of girls who were disappointed in love. The pond even had to push, because of what an interesting epigram arose:

Here I rushed into the pond of Erastov Bride,

Tweet, girls, in the pond is quite a place!

Characteristics of heroes.

Lisa is a poor peasant girl. She lives with her mother ("sensitive, good old") in the village. To earn money on bread, Lisa is taken for any job. In Moscow, selling flowers, the heroine gets acquainted with a young noble entrant and falls in love with him: "I breathe absolutely, I just lived and breathed." But Erast bets the girl and marries the sake of money to another. Having learned about it, Lisa is to the pond. The main feature in the character of the heroine is sensitivity, the ability to devoteally love. The girl lives not mind, but feelings ("delicate passions"). Lisa good, very naive and inexperienced. She sees only the best in people. Mother warns her: "You still do not know how evil people can hurt a poor girl." Evil people Mother Lisa connects with the city: "I always have a heart not in place when you go to the city ..." Karamzin shows bad changes in thoughts and acts of Lisa under the influence of the corrupted ("urban") Erast. The girl hides from the mother who previously told everything, his love for a young nobleman. Later, Lisa, along with the news of his death, sends the oldest money that Erast gave her. "Lysina his mother heard his daughter's terrible death, and ... - forever closed the eyes." After the death of the heroine, the battle of pilgrims began on her grave. To the place of lysine death came to cry and sorrow the same unfortunate girls in love, which was and she herself.

Feature ERAST.

Sentimentalism is one of the most significant literary directions of the XVIII century in Russia, the brightest representative

which became N.M. Karamzin. Writers - Sentimentalists showed interest in the image of ordinary people and ordinary human feelings.

By the expression of Karamzin himself, the story "Poor Lisa" - "a fairy tale is not very intricate." Plot story simple. This is a story of love poor peasant girl Lisa and a rich young nobleman Erast.

Erast is a secular young man "with a fairious mind and a good heart, kind of nature, but weak and windy." Social life and secular

his pleasure is tired. He constantly missed and "complained of his fate." EAST "read idyll novels" and dreamed of

that is a happy time when people who are not burdened with conventions and rules civilizations lived carelessly

on the lap of nature. Thinking only about his pleasure, he "sought him in the fun."

With the advent of love in his life, everything changes. Erast falls in love with the pure "daughter of nature" - the peasant of Lisa. He decided that "found in Lisa that his heart was looking for a long time."

Sensuality is the highest value of sentimentalism

Pushes the heroes in his arms to each other, gives them a moment of happiness. Picture

pure first love is drawn in the story very touching. Erast admires his "shepherd". "All brilliant fun of great light seemed to be insignificant in comparison with the pleasures that the passionate friendship of the innocent soul fell his heart." But when Lisa is given to him, an adjacent young man begins to cool in his feelings to her.

In vain Lisa hopes to return lost happiness. ERAST goes to a military campaign, loses all his cards

the state and, in the end, marries rich widow.

And the deceived in the best hopes and feelings of Lisa forgets his soul "- rushes into a pond about si ... Nova Monastery. ERAST

also, he was punished for his decision to leave Lisa: he will always edit Himself for her death. "He could not comfort himself and read himself

murderer. " Their meeting, "reconciliation" is possible only in heaven.

Of course, the abyss between the rich nobleman and poor settlement

very large, but Lisa in the story is least similar to the peasant, rather on the cute secular young lady, brought up on

sentimental novels.

There were many works like this story. For example: "Peak Lady", "Stationery", "Baryshnya - Peasantka". This works A.S. Pushkin; "Sunday" L.T. Tolstoy. But it is in this story that a decent psychologist of Russian artistic prose is born around the world.

The role of the landscape in the story of N. M. Karamzin "Poor Lisa"

The story "Poor Lisa" is the best work of N. M. Karamzin and one of the most perfect samples of Russian sentimental literature. There are many beautiful episodes that describe subtle spiritual experiences.

In the work there are beautiful pictures of nature, which harmoniously complement the narration. At first glance, they can be considered random episodes, which are just a beautiful background for the main action, but in fact everything is much more complicated. Landscapes in "Poor Lisa" is one of the main means of disclosing the spiritual experiences of the heroes.

At the very beginning, the author describes Moscow and the "terrible commander of the houses", and immediately after that, it begins to draw a completely different picture: "At the bottom ... on the yellow sands, a light river flows, worn by light oars of fishing boats ... on the other side of the river Oak Grove is visible, the numerous herds graze; There are young shepherds, sitting under the shadow of the tree, sing simple, sad songs ... "

Karamzin immediately falls on the position of all beautiful and natural. He is unpleasant city, he pulls him to "Nature". Here, the description of nature is used to express the author's position.

Next, most of the descriptions of nature are aimed at transmitting the mental state and the experience of the main character, because it is she, Lisa, is the embodiment of everything natural and beautiful. "Even before the ascent of Sun Lisa, I got up to the shore of the Moscow river, sat down on the grass and, stumbled, looked at the white fogs ... Silence reigned everywhere, but soon the ascending day did the day awakened everything. Put, flowers raised their heads to have a lively ray of light. "

Nature in this moment is beautiful, but Lisa is sad, because a new one is born in her soul, they have a feeling that has not been tested.

Despite the fact that the heroine is sad, her feeling is beautiful and natural, as a landscape around.

A few minutes later, an explanation between Liza and Erast. They love each other, and her sensations immediately change: "What a beautiful morning! How fun in the field! Never wound so well so well, never the sun was so light shone, never flowers never smelled! "

Her experiences dissolve in the surrounding landscape, they are also beautiful and clean.

A beautiful novel begins between Eraste and Liza, their ratio of chaste, their embraces "clean and immaculate". The surrounding landscape is as clean and impossible. "After this ERAST and Lisa, afraid of keeping the words of his words, everyone saw each evening ... just more often under the tension of the centenary oaks ... - Oaks, barking deep, pure pond, in ancient times, focusing. There is often a quiet moon, through the green branches, graved the rays with his bright lysine hair that the marshmallows and a hand of a cute friend played. "

It is time for an innocent relationship, Lisa and Erast become close, she feels a sinner, a criminal, and in nature the same changes occur as in the lysine soul: "... None of the starfing was shining in the sky ... Meanwhile, lightning flashed And thundered ... "This picture not only reveals the mental state of Lisa, but also foreshadows the tragic finale of this story.

The heroes of the work break up, but Lisa still does not know that it is forever. She is unhappy, her heart is broken, but weak hope is still growing. Morning dawn, which, as the "Scarlet Sea", blooms "on the Eastern Sky", transfers pain, anxiety and confusion of the heroine and testifies to the unkind finale.

Lisa, having learned about the treason of Erast, committed to his unhappy life. She rushed into the same pond, near which once was so happy, she was buried under the "gloomy oak", which is a witness to the happiest minutes of her life.

The examples of the examples are quite enough to show how important the description of nature paintings in the artistic work, as they deeply help to penetrate the heroes and their experiences. To consider the story "Poor Lisa" and not take into account the landscape sketches is simply unacceptable, because it is they who help the reader understand the depth of the thoughts of the author, his ideological intent.

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The Russian sentimentalism was part of the pan-European literary movement and, at the same time, a natural continuation of national traditions that were in the era of classicism. The works of the largest European writers associated with the sentimental area ("New Eloise" Rousseau, "the suffering of a young vertery" Goethe, "Sentimental Journey" and "Life and Opinions of the Tristram Shender" Stern, "Nights" Jung, etc.) very soon after their appearance Homeland become well known in Russia; They are read, translated, quoted; The names of the main characters are acquired by popularity, they become kinda identifiable signs: the Russian intellectual of the end of the 18th century could not help but know who Verter and Charlotte, Saint-Prev and Julia, Jorich and Tristram Shender.

At the same time, in the second half of the 18th century, Russian translations of numerous minor and even third-track authors appear. Some writings who left the not very noticeable trace in the history of their domestic literature were perceived sometimes with great interest in Russia, if problems were affected by the problems, relevant to the Russian reader, and were rethought in accordance with the submissions already established on the basis of national traditions. Thus, the period of formation and the heyday of Russian sentimentalism was distinguished by the extreme creative activity of the perception of European culture. At the same time, Russian translators preferential attention began to pay modern literature, today's literature

From the history of the term:

Sentimentalism received his name after entering the light of the unfinished novel "Sentimental Journey to France and Italy" (1768) of the English writer L. Stern. At this time, the new meaning of the word "Sentimental" in English was fixed. If earlier (the first use of this word, the Large Oxford Dictionary refers to 1749) it meant: 1) "Highboring", "Customative"; 2) "Reasonable", "sensible", - then by the 1760th, the shade associated with the area of \u200b\u200bfeelings is captured in it.

Stern, thus, finally fixes the meaning of "sensitive", "capable of experiencing thin emotions"

Chronological framework:

Sentimental works for the first time arise in England in the late 1720s - early 1730s (as a reaction to the revolution of 1688-1689, exit to the arena of the third estate and turning it into influential political and public strength). This works of J. Thomson "Seasons" (1726-1730), Greek "Elegy, written in a rural cemetery" (1751), S. Richardson "Pamela" (1740), "Clarissa" (1747-1748), " The story of Sir Charles Grandison "(1754).

As an independent literary direction, sentimentalism is issued in the 1760-1770s in England, France and Germany. From 1764 to 1774, works were published here, which created the aesthetic basis of the method and determined its poetics; They can be considered and peculiar aesthetic treatises of sentimental direction

The chronological framework of Russian sentimentalism is determined more or less approximately. P.A. Eorlov, for example, highlights 4 stages:

1760 - the date of the emergence of the magazine "Useful Miscellaneous", which blinked around himself a whole group of young poets led by M. Horaskov. The continuation of "useful fun" was the magazines "Free Watch" (1763) and "Good Intention" (1764), in which the same authors were mainly cooperating.

In poetry, preferential attention was paid to love, friendly and family issues. Genres have so far be borrowed from previous classic literature (anacreontic Oda, Idilly), ready-made European samples were also used.

The prose is represented by novels F. Emina "Letters of Ernest and Doravra" and V.A. Levshina "Matinees in love".

Dramaturgy - "tear plays" M. Kharaskova.

It should be noted that it is from Heraskov that the history of Russian sentimentalism begins. It is characterized by a new attitude to the genre hierarchy: high and low not only equal, but, moreover, preference is given to low genres (for example, a song). The term "Low Genre" becomes unacceptable: Heraskov in this case opposes the "loud" poetry - "quiet", "pleasant". Poet and playwright, he focuses on a separate, private person. In this regard, chamber genres begin to attract special attractiveness. Singing and dancing cowgirl for Heraskova "Miley of the Choir".

Representatives of the first stage, the criterion of public and spiritual values \u200b\u200bis already recognized as nature and as one of its manifestations - sensitivity.

A large role in the social thought of this time is playingfreemasonry (N.I. Novikov, A.M.Kutuzov, I.P.Turgenev, A.A.Petrov et al.). In this number of serious attention, it is primarily the creative activity of A.M. Kutuzov. Analysis of its poetic works, private correspondence, translations indicates a negative attitude of the artist to the rationalistic art of classicists, attention to the European procubulant movement, preferably orientation on the tradition of English and German literature and ignoring French, interest in the inner world and psychologism. A.M. Kutuzov wrote: "Not an outdoor of the inhabitants, not kaftans and Reading them, not the houses in which they live, not the language they say, not the mountains, not the sea, not the ascending or the setting sun of our attention, but Man and its properties ... "

In the mid-70s. There is also a flourishing of giving M.N. Muravyev. In the lyrics, it gradually becomes determining the autobiographical principle. Addresses of works are friends and close, the main genre - the message. Hero Muravyov - a man with a "sensitive soul", his ideal is a modest, but an active life that benefits society and satisfaction to itself. Muravyov draws attention to the need to penetrate into the inner world of man. The poet must comprehend "hearty sacraments", "Soul Life" with its contradictions and transitions from one state to another. In the consciousness of the poet, the category of time is also presented. Every moment is unique, and the task of the artist is to catch and capture it. New artistic tasks predetermined the new attitude of the poet to the language. G. Bukovsky noted: "Words begin to sound not so much with their usual vocabulary as their overtones, aesthetic-emotional associations and haloes." Epitts characteristic and for later lyrics of sentimentalism appear in the poetry of Muravyov: "Sweet Current conversation", "sweetheart", "sweet peace", "meek beam", "Shameful Moon", "Cute Dream"; The epithet "quiet" (previously antonym to the epithet "loud") acquires new nuances - "pleasant", "gentle", "serene" ("Silent Sleep", "Quiet thrill", "quiet lightness").

An important fact of this period was the exit in 1776 by the comic opera N. N. N. Rosana and Love. According to P. Orlova, it is in this genre that the social beginning of Russian sentimentalism is further developed: the conflict of such plays is the facts of landlord arbitrariness over the virtuous, "sensitive" peasants who first serve as the main characters superior to the spiritual development of their offenders.

Third stage

This is the most bright and fruitful period in the history of Russian sentimentalism. At this time, the best works of N. Karamzin were created. The period as a whole is characterized by the predominance of prosaic works: novel, story, sentimental journey, epistolar genres (samples of almost all known sentimentalism of prose genres are proposed by Karamzin); From the poetic genres, the preference is given to the song (Dmitriev, Kopnis, Nejninsky-molec, Lviv), a satirical fairy tale and Basna (Dmitriev).

Since 1791, the best sentimental periodic magazines - "Moscow Journal", "Enjoyable and Useful Transportation of Time" appear. They discusses questions about the extrallinary value of human, the laws of nature and state construction.

The period of crisis of Russian sentimentalism. Only N. Karamzin supports the former fame of the direction, but he gradually leaves artistic creativity and tries himself as a researcher of the history of Russia.

Philosophical foundations

The philosophical basis of sentimentalism - sensualism.Its founder English philosopher J. Lok (1632-1704), the main work is "the experience of the human mind" (1690). According to the philosopher, the external world is given to man in his physiological sensations - vision, hearing, smell, tanging; General ideas arise on the basis of the emotional experience of these sensations and analytical activities of the mind, which compares, combines and abstracts the properties of things that are susceptible.

The ideas of the student of Locke A.E.K.Sheftsbury (1671-1713) were very popular among sentimentalists. In the center of his attention - moral categories. Schaftsbury argued that the moral beginning was laid in the very nature of man and is not connected with the mind, but with a special moral sense, which one may indicate the path to happiness. It is morally a person prompts not awareness of debt, but the bearer of the heart. Happiness, therefore, lies not in a pull to sensual pleasures, but in a pull to virtue. Thus, the "naturalness" of nature is interpreted by Scheftbury, and after him, the sentimentalists, not as its "scandalivity", but as the need and the possibility of virtuous behavior, and the heart becomes a special individual authority of the senses connecting a particular person with a common harmonious and moral -Pravened device of the universe.

On the question of the essence of sentimentalism as an artistic direction

It is primarily necessary to note that not all researchers consider sentimentalism by an independent scientific direction. The English-speaking scientists still remain in the go mainly such concepts as "sentimental novel". "Sentimental Drama", "Sentimental Poetry". French and German critics are rapidly "sentimentality" rather than a special category, in one way or another inherent in artworks of various eras and directions.

Only in Russia, since the late 19th century, attempts are made to comprehend sentimentalism as a holistic historical and cultural phenomenon. For him, the following features are characteristic:

1) the cult of feelings (or hearts), which in this system of views becomes "Meril of Good and Evil";

3) in the aesthetics "sublime", the beginning is replaced by the category "touching";

4) Created its type of hero: "Sensitive man," embodying a humanistic ideal of an era living in a complex inner life, wonderful non-military exploits or state affairs, but with his mental qualities, the ability to "feel". Personality of personality is found in the new sphere of feelings.

System of Sentimentalism genres

First of all it is necessary to keep in mind the following:

1) preferential attention is paid to prosaic genres;

2) Genres can be mixed.

In the field of prose in the first place - the novel with the following varieties: Roman in letters (Richardson, Rousseau, Emin), associated with the novel in letters genre of private correspondence (Swift, Voltaire, Didro, Kutuzov, Petrov, Dmitriev, Karamzin); Roman-journey (Stern, Karamzin); Roman of upbringing (Viland, Goethe, Karamzin); Then the story is philosophical in the West and the loving psychological, story-tale, a story-miniature, a philosophical-psychological essay - in Russia (samples of all types of negotia are presented in the works of Karamzin).

In the field of drama - "tear drama" (Didro, Heraskov), a comic opera (Nikolev).

In the field of lyrics - in the West - Philosophical and didactic poem, an elegy, ballad; In Russia - Anacreontic Odi, Idyll, Elegy, Song, Romance, Little Stir, Satirical Tale and Basnie.

Art conquest and discovery

New types of narration (psychological landscape sketches, lyrical meditations, elegances in prose) are open to Sentimentalist writers; Receptions of the inner world of the hero (lyrical deviations, author's analysis of psychology, internal monologue) were developed; Significantly complicated syntax (periprase, lexical and syntactic repeats, techniques of musical and rhythmic construction, sounding); New trails (psychological epithets) have been introduced.

An outstanding theorist and practice of Russian sentimentalism is considered to be N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826)

The main pathos of aesthetics of Karamzin expresses the article "What is the author necessary?" (1793). Karamzin announces a sense of the main engine of the creative process; It states that only the "good, gentle heart", inspired by the "desire of the universal good", sympathize with the "everything incessant, to all the oppressed, all-in-depth," gives the right to the writer to take on the pen. After remembering that in any product, the writer writes outly or unwittingly "portrait of the soul and his heart", he must first ask himself, "alone, without witnesses, sincerely: What is me?" "A bad person can not be a good author."

From ordinary people, the writer is distinguished by the ability to reincarnate. The software in this sense is the poem of Karamzin "Protoney, or disagreement of a poem".

You want the poet always thinking one thing

Always one sang one: a crazy man!

Tell me who are the images of protevo calculled?

Such is the pet muses and there will be input.

Sensitive soul is not akin to change?

It is soft, like wax, as a mirror is clear,

And all the nature in it with shades is visible.

It is impossible for her to seem to you

In the diversity of natural miracles. "

Karamzin puts the idea of \u200b\u200bthe idea that it was ordinary, endowed with all the weaknesses, forced to deal with disadvantages and there is a person in the true sense of the word. Human weaknesses are more attractive than inhuman virtues.

Cultural progress and moral perfection consist not in the creation of an ideal person, but in the growth of tolerance, compatibility with other people (positive properties of a person: tolerance, tolerance, lack of fanaticism). A variety of characters is the law of human nature. The writer must demonstrate a variety of mental properties, bends of characters. The writer is a "heart-stitcher by profession."

Even at the end of the 18th century, a new course came to replace the dominant direction of classicism, which received the name of sentimentalism, which occurred from the French word Sens, meaning a feeling. Sentimentalism as an artistic flow generated by the process of combating absolutism appeared in the second half of the XVIII century in a number of Western European countries, primarily in England (Poetry D. Thomson, Prose L. Stern and Richardson), then in France (Creativity J.-zh. Rousseau) and Germany (Early creativity I. V. Goethe, F. Schiller). The sentimentalism based on new socio-economic relations based on new socio-economic relations was alien to the glove of statehood and class limitations inherent in classicism.

As opposed to the latter, he put forward questions of personal life, a cult of sincere pure feelings and nature. Empty secular life, the depraved nrules of the highest society, sentimentalists opposed the idyll of rustic life, disinterested friendship, touching love in a family hearth, on the lap of nature. These feelings were reflected in numerous "travels", which were engaged in the fashion after the novel Stern "sentimental journey", giving the name to this literary direction.

In Russia, one of the first works of this kind was the famous "Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow" A. N. Radishcheva (1790). I gave tribute to this fashion and Karamzin, who published in 1798 "Letters of the Russian Traveler", followed by "Journey through Crimea and Bessarabia" P. Sumarokov (1800), "Journey to the midday". Izmailov and "Other Journey to Malorossy" Shalikova (1804). The popularity of this genre was explained by the fact that the author could freely present the thoughts here, which gave rise to new cities, meetings, landscapes. Reflections these differed mostly increased sensitivity and moralism. But, besides such a "lyrical" orientation, sentimentalism possessed and a certain social order.

Arriving in the Epoch of Enlightenment, with its interest in her personality and the spiritual world of man, and the ordinary, "small" man, sentimentalism took some features of the ideology of the "third class", especially since representatives of this class appear in Russian literature - Writers-disorders.

So, sentimentalism brings a new idea of \u200b\u200bhonor to Russian literature, this is no more antiquity of the genus, but the high moral advantages of a person. In one of the posts "The village" notes that a kind name can only be in a person with a clean conscience. "For a" small "person, both the hero and the Writer-Merchant, who came to the literature, the problem of honor becomes of particular importance; It is not easy for him to defend his dignity in society, where the estate prejudices are so strong. "

Characteristic for sentimentalism and the approval of the spiritual equality of people, regardless of their position in society. N. S. Smirnov, a former faded fortress, then a soldier, the author of the sentimental story "Zara" predicted her epigraph from the Bible: "And I have a heart, you have, you have."

Along with the description of the "Heart Life" writers, Sentimentalists paid great attention to the issues of enlightenment. At the same time, the "teacher" educational function of literature was recognized as the most important.

Russian sentimentalism found the most complete expression in the work of Karamzin. His "poor Lisa", "Note of the traveler", "Julia" and a number of other ages are distinguished by all the features characteristic of this flow. Like the classic of French sentimentalism Zh.-H. Rousseau, in whose creations Karamzin, according to his confession, attracted the "sparks of passionate humanity" and "Sweet sensitivity", his works are saturated with humane moods. Karamzin aroused the sympathy of readers to his heroes, excitedly transmitting their experiences.

Karamzin's heroes are moral people, gifted by large sensitivity, selfless, for whom attachment is more important than everyday well-being. So, the heroine of the story of Karamzin "Natalia, Daughter Boyarskaya" accompanies her husband to war in order not to part with his beloved. Love for her above danger or even death. Aloiz from the story of Sierra-Morany deprives himself of life, unable to move the bride to betray. In the traditions of sentimentalism, the spiritual life of the characters of the literary works of Karamzin flows against the background of nature, the phenomena of which (thunderstorm, storm or affectionate sun) as the accompaniment accompany the experiences of people.

So, the story of the sad fate of the heroine "Poor Lisa" begins with a description of the gloomy autumn landscape, which is like the subsequent dramatic history of the love of the peasant girl. The author, on behalf of which is conducted by the story, goes through the ruins of the monastery "In the dark days of the autumn sorce together with nature." The winds are scary in the walls of the empty monastery, between the coffins, overgrown with a high grass and in the dark conversions of Kelii. "There, leaning on the ruins of sobric stones, I will listen to a deaf moan time." Nature, or "Natura", as it called her Karamzin, not only participates in the experiences of people, she nourishes their feelings. In the story of Sierra-Moraine, the romantic landscape inspires the owner of the castle Elvira: "Strong winds worried and twisted the air, the buggy lightning wound on the black sky, or the pale moon over gray clouds did - Elvira loved the horrors of nature: they were exalted, admired, fed her soul "

However, not only the "story of the feeling" attracted contemporaries in the works of Karamzin. The reader found a poetic image of Russian life, Russian people, Russian nature, Russian history. As evidenced by Al. Bestuzhev, Karamzin "fused us to the loyals of our old." The historical signs of Karamzin were inherent in the same features of sentimental sensitivity, which were distinguished and other works, historicism was in an instructive character: the author used the historical plot to prove any moral center.

However, the bourgeois moral of sentimentalism, glorifying the spiritual values \u200b\u200bof a person and quite attached to the fictional circumstances, it was difficult to be combined with the fortress entry of Russia.

The appeal to the modern Russian life has revealed the contradiction of the worldview of the writer. In one of its most popular leaders, "poor Lisa" Karamzin, with a big sympathy, revealing the "Heart" of the heroine, convinced readers in the fact that "and the peasants can feel." This humane statement was a bold innovation for that time. Karamzin The first of the Russian writers imposed the image of the peasant girl in the literature, having endowed her high virtues. Peasant of Lisa, in which her chosenist Eraste saw only an innocent "Custodian", makes an act, proven that, defending his love, she did not want to put up with prejudices of society. Erast obeys the laws of "Light" and leaves Lisa to marry on a rich bride to escape from card debts.

However, sincerely mourning the death of Lisa, the author refused to explain the causes of misfortune. The problem of social inequality, which essentially led to the tragedy of love of a young peasant to Barina, was looked around in the story. Moreover, even the image of the "cunning seducer" of Erast is drawn by Karamzin without condemnation, even with sympathy - an enlightened, sensitive nobleman, he is to blame, and is not guilty of what happened. Not angry intent, but only the eastity of the young man was obstacle in his actions. In addition, as reported in the conclusion, the news of the death of Lisa made him unhappy, "he could not comfort himself and read himself as a killer."

So, despite its moral trend, Karamzin walked around the social conflict with silence here, which was the true cause of the tragedy. The ratio of Sentimentalist writers to the social problems of the modern Russia was quite ambiguous. If in the compositions of the Radishchev kept the fierce impact of the serfdom and the political system in which these inhuman relations exist, then in the sentimental poses of writers of the beginning of the XIX century, in most cases there are not only conviction of serfs, but their idealization is found, the image of them as "deceo" The landowner about his peasants: "A good landowner was happy with sincerly happiness and shared him with them in a sensitive heart."

Karamzin did not share any other position. The ratio of Karamzin to the fastening right, as well as his historical views, represented a rather complicated combination of a monarchical worldview with the influence of the idealistic philosophy of the XVIII century, in particular the teachings of J.-Zh. Rousseau. Being convinced that the basis of world progress is the spiritual perfection of people, Karamzin - a historian and a thinker - naturally, opposed gross violence against the person, "Trirans" even at the royal throne. So, he praised Catherine II for "cleaned autocracy from the impurities of thirant." From the same position, he welcomed the policy of Alexander I. Of course, as a humanist and a supporter of the Enlightenment, he could not approve the cruelty of a serfdom.

The author of one of the monographs about Karamzin N. Ya. Eidelman leads a characteristic episode that illuminates the attitude of the historian to the fastening right: "Pushkin recalled about the conversation in which he, challenging Karamzin, said:" So, do you prefer freedom slavery? " Karamzin flashed and called him a slander. " However, the censure of "Tirantos" did not exclude apologetics of autocracy, faith in what Russia holds, and therefore the categorically denial of the violent breaking of the existing order. Arriving autocracy, Karamzin, as a historian, could not at the same time not to see the connection between the Institute of Feudal Monarchy and the serfdom. Hence the duality of his relationship to this issue, expressed in literary works.

"Poor Lisa" Karamzin caused numerous imitation. Many authors ranged the plot "Poor Lisa", however, refusing too tragic finals. Following the story of Karamzin, "Lovely Tatiana, living at the soles of Sparrow Mountains," V. Izmaylova, "Dasha - Rustic Girl" P. Yu. Lviv and others. It is noteworthy that the love of the Barin and the peasant women did not condemn themselves in them, on the contrary: "the inequality of the state, strengthening passion in them, elevates their virtue," the author of one of the similar ages notes.

The authors of sentimental associated relations based on the calculation sought to oppose other, disinterested feelings. Lviv's story emphasizes the love of heroine, which is recognized: "Only the same, he did not give me - both silver and gold, and beads, and ribbons; But I did not take anything, one love I was just needed. "

Thus, Russian sentimentalism introduced into the literature - and through it and in life - new moral and aesthetic concepts, which were hotly perceived by many readers, but, unfortunately, they dispersed with life. Readers brought up on the ideals of sentimentalism, proclaimed human feelings by the highest value, were found with bitterness that the measure of attitudes towards people was still knowledgeable, wealth, position in society.

However, the root of this new ethics, expressed at the beginning of the century in such, seemingly naive creations of Sentimentalist writers, eventually develop in public consciousness and will contribute to his democratization. In addition, sentimentalism enriched Russian literature with linguistic transformations. Particularly significant in this regard was the role of Karamzin. However, the principles of formation of the Russian literary language proposed by them caused violent criticism by conservative writers and served as a reason for the emergence of the so-called "language disputes", who seized Russian writers at the beginning of the XIX century.

Sentimentalism is the course of art and literature, which was widely distributed after classicism. If the cult of the mind dominated the classicism, then the cult of the soul comes into the first place. The authors of works written in the spirit of sentimentalism appeal to the perception of the reader, trying to awaken certain emotions and feelings using the work.

Sentimentalism originated in Western Europe in the early 18th century. To Russia, this direction came only by the end of the century and took the dominant position at the beginning of the 19th century.

A new direction in the literature demonstrates absolutely new features:

• The authors of the works of the main role are removed by feelings. The most important quality of the personality is considered to sympathize and empathize.
• If in the classicism the main characters were mostly nobles and rich people, then in sentimentalism it is ordinary people. The authors of the works of the Epoch of Sentimentalism promote the idea that the inner world of a person does not depend on his social status.
• Adherents of sentimentalism wrote about fundamental human values: love, friendship, kindness, compassion
• The authors of this direction have seen their calling to console ordinary people crushed by deprivation, adversity and money, and open their souls towards virtue.

Sentimentalism in Russia

Sentimentalism in our country had two currents:

• Noble. This direction was rather loyal. Speaking of feelings and human soul, the authors did not promote the abolition of serfdom. As part of this direction, the famous work of Karamzin "Poor Lisa" was written. The basis of the story was laid class conflict. As a result, the author nominates the human factor forward, and only after later looks at social differences. Nevertheless, the story does not protest against the order of things that exist in society.
• Revolutionary.Unlike the "noble sentimentalism", the works of the revolutionary flow promoted the elimination of serfdom. They put a person with his right to free life and happy existence.

Sentimentalism, in contrast to classicism, did not have clear canons writing works. That is why the authors working in this direction have created new literary genres, and also skillfully mixed them as part of one work.

(Sentimentalism in the product of Radishchev "Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow")

Russian sentimentalism is a special direction that, due to the cultural and historical features of Russia, was distinguished from the same direction in Europe. As the main distinguishing features of Russian sentimentalism, the following can be called: the presence of conservative views on a social structure and tendency to enlighten, instruction, teaching.

The development of sentimentalism in Russia can be divided into 4 stages, 3 of which occur by the 18th century.

XVIII century

• I stage

In 1760-1765, the magazines "Useful Miscellenus" began to go out in Russia, "free watches", which rallied around themselves a group of talented poets led by Heraskov. It is believed that it was Hranskov who marked the beginning of Russian sentimentalism.

In the work of poets of this period, nature and sensitivity begin to act as criteria of social values. The authors focus on a separate person and his soul.

• Stage II (since 1776)

For this period, the flourishing of the creativity of Muravyeva. Muravyov pays great attention to the soul of man, his feelings.

An important event of the second stage was the yield of the comic opera "Rosana and Love" Nikolev. It was in this genre that many works of Russian sentimentalists are subsequently written. The basis of these works was laid conflict between the landlord arbitrariness and the powerless existence of serfs. Moreover, the spiritual world of peasants is often revealed as richer and rich than the inner world of rich landowners.

• III stage (end of the 18th century)

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This period is considered the most fruitful for Russian sentimentalism. It is at this time that Creates his famous works of Karamzin. Magazines begin to appear, in which the values \u200b\u200band ideals of sentimentalists are promoted.

XIX century

• IV Stage (early 19th century)

The crisis stage for Russian sentimentalism. The direction gradually loses its popularity and relevance in society. Many modern historians and literary critics believe that sentimentalism has become a fleeting transitional stage from classicism to romanticism. Sentimentalism as a literary direction quickly exhausted itself, however, the direction opened the way to the further development of world literature.

Sentimentalism in overseas literature

The birthplace of sentimentalism as a literary direction is considered to be England. The starting point can be called the work of the "Seasons" of Thomson. This collection of poems reveals the beauty and splendor of the surrounding nature for the reader. The author is trying by their descriptions to call certain feelings from the reader, to instill a love for the amazing beauties of the surrounding world.

After Thomson in a similar style began to write Thomas Gray. In his works, he also paid great attention to the description of natural landscapes, as well as reflections on the difficult life of ordinary peasants. Important figures of this area in England were Lorens Stern and Samuel Richardson.

The development of sentimentalism in French literature is connected with the names of Jean Jacques Russo and Jacques de Saint Pierre. The peculiarity of French sentimentalists was that they described the feelings and experiences of their heroes against the background of beautiful natural landscapes: parks, lakes, forests.

European sentimentalism as a literary direction also quickly exhausted itself, however, the direction opened the way to the further development of world literature.

1. The literary direction is often identified with the artistic method. It denotes a set of fundamental spiritual and aesthetic principles of many writers, as well as a number of groupings and schools, their program-aesthetic installations used. In the struggle and change of directions, the regularities of the literary process are most clearly expressed. It is customary to allocate the following literary directions:

   a) classicism
   b) sentimentalism,
   c) naturalism
   d) romanticism,
   e) symbolism,
   e) realism.

2. The literary current is often identified with the literary group and school. Indicates a set of creative personalities for which ideological and artistic proximity and software-aesthetic unity. Otherwise, the literary flow is a variety (as if a subclass) of the literary direction. For example, as applied to Russian romantics, they are talking about "philosophical", "psychological" and "civil" current. In Russian realism, some identify "psychological" and "sociological" current.

Classicism

Artistic style and direction in European literature and art XVII-beginning. XIX centuries. The name is formed from the Latin "Classicus" - exemplary.

Features of classicism:

1. Appeal to the images and forms of ancient literature and art as an ideal aesthetic standard, the nomination of the principle of "imitation of nature" on this basis, which implies strict adherence to unshakable rules, drawn from ancient aesthetics (eg, represented by Aristotle, Horace).
2. The basis of the aesthetics is the principles of rationalism (from lat. "Ratio" - mind), which argues a look at the artistic work as an artificial creation - consciously created, reasonably organized, logically built.
3. Images in classicism are deprived of individual traits, as they are intended primarily to capture sustainable, generic, increasing signs over time, acting as an embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.
4. Social and educational function of art. Education of a harmonious personality.
5. Installed a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into "high" (tragedy, epic, sifting; their sphere - public life, historical events, mythology, their heroes - monarchs, commander, mythological characters, religious devotees) and "low" (comedy, satire , Bass, who portrayed the private daily life of medium-sized people). Each genre has strict borders and clear formal signs, no mixing of an elevated and low-lying, tragic and comic, heroic and ordinary is not allowed. Leading genre - tragedy.
6. Classic drama approved the so-called principle of "unity of place, time and action", which meant: the action of the play should occur in one place, the time of action should be limited to the time of the performance of the performance (possibly more, but the maximum time that the play was needed - one Day), the unity of action implied that one central intrigue not interrupted by side effects should be reflected in the play.

Classicism originated and received its development in France with the statement of absolutism (classicism with its concepts about "exemployment", a strict hierarchy of genres, etc. In general, often associated with absolutism and the flourishing of statehood - P. Cornel, J. Rasin, J. Lafontane, J. B. Moliere, etc. Encouraging a lane at the end of the XVII century, classicism was revived in the Epoch of Enlightenment - Voltaire, M. Shhenie, etc. After the Great French Revolution with the collapse of rationalistic ideas, classicism falls in decline that dominates the style of European art It becomes romanticism.

Classicism in Russia:

Russian Classicism originated in the second quarter of the XVIII century in the work of the nominator of the new Russian literature - A. D. Kantemir, V. K. Tredyakovsky and M. V. Lomonosov. In the era of classicism, Russian literature mastered the genre and stylistic forms in the West, joined the pan-European literary development, while maintaining its national identity. Characteristic features of Russian classicism:

but) Satyrian orientation - an important place is occupied by such genres like satire, fable, comedy, directly addressed to specific phenomena of Russian life;
b) The predominance of national historical themes over the ancient (tragedy A. P. Sumarokova, Ya. B. Prinjin, etc.);
in) High level of development of the genre of OD (at M. V. Lomonosov and G. R. Dervin);
d) General patriotic pathos of Russian classicism.

In the late XVIII - beginning. XIX century Russian Classicism is influenced by sentimentalist and predocabusement ideas, which affects poetry G. R. Derzhavin, tragedies V. A. Ozerov and the civilian lyrics of the Decembrists poets.

Sentimentalism

Sentimentalism (from English Sentimental - "sensitive") - the flow of European literature and art of the XVIII century. It was prepared by the crisis of educational rationalism, was the final stage of enlightenment. Chronologically, basically preceded romanticism, giving him a number of his traits.

The main signs of sentimentalism:

1. Sentimentalism remained faithful to the ideal of a regulatory personality.
2. Unlike classicism with his educational pathos, the dominant "human nature" declared a feeling, not a mind.
3. The condition for the formation of an ideal person considered not "reasonable reorganization of the world", but the release and improvement of "natural feelings".
4. The hero of the literature sentimentalism is more individualized: by origin (or beliefs), he is a democrat, a rich spiritual world of commoner - one of the conquests of sentimentalism.
5. However, in contrast to romanticism (predocant), the sentimentalism is alien to "irrational": the inconsistency of moods, the impulsivity of spiritual plows he perceived as an affordable rationalistic interpretation.

The most complete expression of sentimentalism accepted in England, where the ideology of the third class was previously formed - the works of J. Thomson, O. Goldsmit, J. Krabba, S. Richardson, Ji. Stern.

Sentimentalism in Russia:

In Russia, representatives of sentimentalism were: M. N. Muravyev, N. M. Karamzin (Naib, the famous produce. - "Poor Lisa"), I. I. Dmitriev, V. V. Kopnis, N. A. Lvov, young in . A. Zhukovsky.

Characteristic features of Russian sentimentalism:

a) rather pronounced rationalistic trends;
b) strongly didactic (moral) installation;
c) educational trends;
d) improving the literary language, Russian sentimentalists appealed to conversational standards, introduced the surprise.

Favorite genres Sentimentalist Elegy, Message, Epistolar Roman (Roman in letters), travel notes, diaries and other types of prose, in which confessional motives prevail.

Romanticism

One of the largest trends in the European and American literature of the end of the XVIII-first half of the XIX century, which has gained worldwide importance and distribution. In the XVIII century, the romantic was named after a fantastic, unusual, strange, found only in books, and not in reality. At the turn of the XVIII and XIX centuries. "Romanticism" begins to refer to the new literary direction.

The main signs of romanticism:

1. Antique orientation (i.e., against the ideology of the enlightenment), which was still in sentimentalism and predocant, and in romanticism reached its highest point. Social and ideological prerequisites - disappointment in the results of the Great French Revolution and the fruits of civilization in general, protest against the vulgarity, ordinaryness and prosperity of the bourgeois life. The reality of the story turned out to be non-fully "mind", irrational, complete secrecy and unforeseen, and modern world order - the hostile nature of man and his personal freedom.
2. The overall pessimistic focus is the ideas of "cosmic pessimism", "world grief" (the heroes of the works of F. Shatubrian, A. Mussse, J. Bairon, A. Vinyi, etc.). The topic of "the evil" "terrible world" was particularly brightly reflected in the "Rock Drama" or "Rock Tragedy" (Kleist, J. Bayron, E. T. A. Gofman, E. PO).
3. Faith in the omnipotence of the spirit of man, in his ability to update. Romantics opened extraordinary complexity, the inner depth of human individuality. A person for them is a microcosm, a small universe. From here - the absolutization of the personal beginning, the philosophy of individualism. In the center of the romantic work is always a strong, exceptional personality opposing society, his laws or moral norms.
4. "Dwellemiria", that is, the division of the world to the real and perfect, which are opposed to each other. Spiritual illusion, inspiration, which is subject to novel with a ticial hero, is nothing more than penetration into this ideal world (for example, the works of Hoffmann, especially brightly in: "Golden Pot", "Nutcracker", "Chicken Tsakhs on Nicknofing CynNober") . Romantics opposed the classic "imitation of nature" the creative activity of the artist with his right to transformation of the real world: the artist creates his own, a special world, more beautiful and true.
5. "Local color". The person opposing society feels spiritual proximity with nature, her elements. That is why romantics often arise as the exotic country and their nature (East). Exotic wildlife was completely fitted in the spirit of the romantic personality, aspiring. Romantics are the first to pay close attention to the creative heritage of the people, its national-cultural and historical features. National and cultural diversity, according to the philosophy of romantics, was part of a large one whole - "Universum". It was clearly implemented in the development of the genre of the historic novel (the authors as V. Scott, F. Cooper, V. Hugo).

Romantics, absoluting the creative freedom of the artist, denied rationalistic regulation in art, which, however, did not prevent them from proclaiming their own, romantic canons.

Genres developed: a fantastic story, a historic novel, a lyric epic poem, an extraordinary heyday reaches a lyrics.

Classic romantic countries - Germany, England, France.

Starting from the 1840s, romanticism in the main European countries is inferior to the leading position with critical realism and departs the second plan.

Romanticism in Russia:

The birth of romanticism in Russia is associated with the socio-ideological atmosphere of Russian life - a national rise after the war of 1812. All this led not only to the formation, but also the special nature of the romanticism of the Poets-Decembrists (eg, K. F. Ryleev, V. K. Kyuhelbecker, A. I. Odoyevsky), whose work was an insecious idea of \u200b\u200bcivil serving, penetrated by Paphos of Wolnolubia and Fight.

Characteristic features of romanticism in Russia:

but) The forcingity of the development of literature in Russia at the beginning of the XIX century led to "raid" and the combination of various stages, which in other countries were experiencing gradually. In Russian romanticism, pre-crocuted trends with the trends of classicism and enlightenment are intertwined: doubts about the omnipotent role of the mind, the cult of sensitivity, nature, elegy melancholism was combined with the classic streamlord of styles and genres, moderate didactism (edification) and the fight against excessive metaphoricity for the sake of "harmonic accuracy" (expression A. S. Pushkin).

b) A more pronounced social orientation of Russian romanticism. For example, the poetry of the Decembrists, the works of M. Yu. Lermontov.

In Russian romanticism, such genres such as Elegy, Idylli is obtained. Very important for the self-determination of Russian romanticism was the development of ballads (eg, in the work of V. A. Zhukovsky). The sharp of all the contours of Russian romanticism was determined with the emergence of the genre of a lyry-epic poem (the southern poems A. S. Pushkin, works of I. I. Kozlov, K. F. Ryleev, M. Yu. Lermontova, etc.). A historical novel is developing as a large epic form (M. N. Zagoskin, I. I. Lazhechnikov). The special way of creating a large epic form is cyclization, that is, uniting externally independent (and partially printed separately) works ("Double or my evenings in Little Russia" A. Pogorelsky, "Evening on the farm near Dikanka" N. V. Gogol, "Our Hero time "M. Yu. Lermontov," Russian nights "V. F. Odoyevsky).

Naturalism

Naturalism (from Latin Natura - "Nature") is a literary direction established in the last third of the XIX century in Europe and the United States.

Characteristic features of naturalism:

1. The desire for an objective, accurate and impassive image of reality and human nature caused by physiological nature and the medium that is primarily understood as a direct household and material environment, but not excluding socially student factors. The main task of naturalists was to learn the society with the same completeness, with what kind of scientist studies nature, artistic knowledge was likened to scientifically.
2. The artistic work was considered as "Human Document", and the main aesthetic criterion was considered the completeness of the informative act implemented in it.
3. Naturalists refused moralization, believing that the reality itself was expressive in itself expressive with scientific impartiality. They believed that literature, like science, was not eligible in choosing a material that there is no unsuitable storylors for the writer or unworthy topics. From here in the works of naturalists often there were immunity and public indifference.

The special development of naturalism was received in France - for example, the creativity of such writers, as the city of Flaubert, Brothers E. and J. Gekur, E. Zola (who developed the theory of naturalism).

In Russia, naturalism has not been widespread, he played only a certain role at the initial stage of the development of Russian realism. Naturalistic trends are traced in writers of the so-called "natural school" (see below) - V. I. Dal, I. I. Panayev, etc.

Realism

Realism (from Latelatinsky Realis - real, valid) - literary and artistic direction of the XIX-XX centuries. It originates in the revival (the so-called "Renaissance Realism") or in enlightenment ("educational realism"). Facilities of realism are noted in ancient and medieval folklore, ancient literature.

The main features of realism:

1. The artist depicts life in the images corresponding to the essence of the phenomena of life itself.
2. Literature in the realism is a means of knowing the person of himself and the surrounding world.
3. The knowledge of reality goes with the help of images created by typing the facts of reality ("typical characters in a typical setting"). Typification of characters in the realism is carried out through the "truth of the details" in the "specifics" of the conditions of the character of the characters.
4. Realistic art is the art of life-affirming, even during the tragic resolution of the conflict. The philosophical foundation of this is Gnosticism, faith in the cognitiveness and adequate reflection of the surrounding world, in contrast, for example, from romanticism.
5. The realistic art is inherent in the desire to consider reality in the development, the ability to detect and capture the emergence and development of new forms of life and social relations, new psychological and social types.

Realism as a literary direction was formed in the 30s of the XIX century. The direct predecessor of realism in European literature was romanticism. Having made an unusual image, creating an imaginary world of special circumstances and exceptional passions, he (romanticism) at the same time showed a personality richer in spiritual, emotional terms, more complex and controversial than it was available to classicism, sentimentalism and other areas of previous epochs. Therefore, realism has developed not as an antagonist of romanticism, but as its ally in the fight against the idealization of social relations, for the national historical originality of artistic images (flavor of the place and time). Between the romanticism and the realism of the first half of the 19th century, it is not always easy to spend clear boundaries, in the work of many writers, romantic and realistic features merged together - for example, works O. Balzak, Standal, V. Hugo, partly Ch. Dickens. In Russian literature, this particularly clearly appeared in the works of A. S. Pushkin and M. Yu. Lermontov (the southern poems of Pushkin and the "Hero of our time" Lermontov).

In Russia, where the foundations of realism were still in the 1820-30s. Mounted by A. S. Pushkin ("Eugene Onegin", "Boris Godunov", "Captain's daughter", late lyrics), as well as some other writers ("Woe from Wit" A. S. Griboyedova, Basny I. A. Krylova ), this stage is associated with the names of I. A. Goncharova, I. S. Turgenev, N. A. Nekrasova, A. N. Ostrovsky and others. Realism of the XIX century is customary to be called "critical", since the decisive principle in it was precisely Socially critical. An aggravated socio-critical pathos is one of the main distinguishing features of Russian realism - for example, "Auditor", "Dead Souls" N. V. Gogol, the activities of the Writers of the "Natural School". Realism 2nd half of the XIX century reached its vertices in Russian literature, especially in the work of L. N. Tolstoy and F. M. Dostoevsky, who became central figures of the world literary process at the end of the 19th century. They enriched world literature with new principles for the construction of a socio-psychological novel, philosophical and moral issues, new ways to disclose the human psyche in its depths.