Romantic era. Romanticism in Russian literature
Romanticism is a ideological direction in art and literature, which appeared in the 90s of the 18th century in Europe and gained widespread in other countries of the world (Russia includes their number), as well as in America. The main ideas of this area is the recognition of the values \u200b\u200bof the spiritual and creative life of every person and its right to independence and freedom. Very often in the works of this literary direction, heroes possessing the strong, rebellious temper were depicted, the plots were characterized by bright passions of passions, nature was depicted in the spiritualized and healing vein.
Appearing in the era of the Great French Revolution and the World Industrial Revolution, romanticism changed such a direction as classicism and the era of the enlightenment as a whole. In contrasting the adherents of classicism that supports the ideas of the cult value of the human mind and the birth of civilization on its basis, romantics put on a pedestal of worship a mother-in-law, emphasize the importance of natural feelings and freedom of the aspirations of each person.
(Alan Meley "Elegant Century")
The revolutionary events of the late 18th century have completely changed the course of the usual life, both in France and in others in Europe. People feeling sharp loneliness, distracted from their problems, playing various gambling, and having fun in various ways. It was then that an idea arose to imagine, as if human life was an endless game where there are winners and defeated. In romantic works, heroes were often depicted against the surrounding world, rustling against fate and rock, obsessed with their own thoughts and reflections on their own idealized vision of the world, sharply coinciding with reality. Realizing its defenselessness in the world where capital rules, many romances were in confusion and confusion, feeling infinitely lonely in their surrounding their lives, which was the main tragedy of their personality.
Romanticism in Russian literature of the XIX century
The main events that had a huge impact on the development of romanticism in Russia were the war of 1812 and the uprising of the Decembrists of 1825. However, differing identity and originality, the Russian romanticism of the early 19th century is the inseparable part of the pan-European literary movement and has its shares and basic principles.
(Ivan Kramskaya "Unknown")
The emergence of Russian romanticism coincides in time with the brewing of the socio-historical fracture in the life of the society of the time when the socio-political way of the Russian power was in an unstable, transitional state. People of advanced views, disappointed in the ideas of the Epoch of Enlightenment, promoting the creation of a new society based on the principles of the mind and celebration of justice, resolutely rejected the principles of bourgeois life, without understanding the essence of antagonistic life contradictions, felt the feelings of hopelessness, loss, pessimism and disbelief in a reasonable conflict solution.
The main value representatives of romanticism considered the human personality, and the mysterious and beautiful world of harmony, beauty and high feelings concluded in it. In their works, representatives of this direction were not a real world, too low-aluminated and vulgar for them, they reflected the universe of the senses of the chief hero, his inner world filled with thoughts and experiences. Through their prism and the outlines of the real world, with whom he cannot accept and therefore tries to rise above him, without submitting to his social and feudal laws and morality.
(V. and Zhukovsky)
One of the founders of Russian romanticism is the famous poet V.A. Zhukovsky, who created a number of ballads and poems that had a fabulous fantastic content ("Undina", "Sleeping Tsarevna", "Tale of Tsar Berendei"). His works are inherent in a deep philosophical meaning, the desire for moral ideal, his poems and ballads are filled with his personal experiences and reflections inherent in the romantic area.
(N. V. Gogol)
The thoughtful and lyrical elegances of Zhukovsky are replacing the romantic works of Gogol ("Night before Christmas") and Lermontov, whose creativity is a kind of imprint of the ideological crisis in the mind of the public, impressed by the defeat of the Decembrists' movement. Therefore, romanticism of the 1930s of the 19th century is characterized by disappointment in real life and care in the peaceful world, where everything is harmonious and perfect. Romantic main characters were depicted as people who are torn off from reality and lost interest in earthly life, conflicting with society, and the implanting power of this world in their sins. Personal tragedy of these people, endowed with high feelings and experiences, was the death of their moral and aesthetic ideals.
The mindset of progressively thinking people of that era was most clearly reflected in the creative heritage of the great Russian poet Mikhail Lermontov. In his works "The Last Son of Volosts", Novgorod, in which the sample of the republican freestyle of the ancient Slavs is clearly traced, the author expresses a hot sympathy to the fighters for freedom and equality, those who oppose slavery and violence against the person of people.
For romanticism, it is characterized by an appeal to the historical and national origins, to the folk folklore. It was most brightly manifested in the subsequent works of Lermontov ("The song about King Ivan Vasilyevich, a young Ochrichnik and a removed merchant Kalashnikov"), as well as in the cycle of poems and poems about the Caucasus, who was perceived by the poet as a country of freestry and proud people opposing the country of slaves and gentlemen Under the rule of the king-autocrat of Nikolai I. Images of the main in the works of "Izmail-Bay" "MTSYRY" are depicted by Lermontov with great passion and lyrical pathos, they carry the chief of chosen and fighters for their depth.
An early poetry and prose Pushkin can also be attributed to the romantic area ("Eugene Onegin", "Peak Lady"), the poetic works of K. N. Batyushkova, E. A. Baratynsky, N. M. Languch, the creativity of Poets-Decembrists K. F . Ryleva, A. A. Bestumev-Marlinsky, V. K. Kyhehelbecker.
Romanticism in foreign literature of the XIX century
The main feature of European romanticism in foreign literature of the 19th century is the fantasticity and fabulousness of the works of this direction. In most of these legends, fairy tales, stories and novels with a fantastic, unreal plot. The most expressively romanticism was manifested in the culture of France, England and Germany, each of the countries made its special contribution to the development and distribution of this cultural phenomenon.
(Francisco Goya "Yield " )
France. Here, literary works in the style of romanticism were bright political color, in many ways configured against the new bourgeoisie. According to French writers, the new society, which appeared as a result of social change after the Great French Revolution, did not understand the value of the personality of each person, ruined her beauty and suppressed the freedom of the Spirit. Most well-known works: Treatise "Genius of Christianity", Tale "Attala" and "Rena" Shatubriac, Romans "Dolphin", "Corin" Germains de Stelle, Novels Georges Sand, Hugo "Cathedral of Parisian Mother of God", Romanov series about Dumas Musketeers, meeting Works on Ohore Balzak.
(Karl Broullov "Horseman")
England. In English legends and legends, romanticism was present for quite a long time, but did not stand out as a separate direction until the mid-18th century. English literary works distinguishes the presence of a bit of gloomy gothic and religious content, there are many elements of the national folklore, the culture of the worker and peasant class. A distinctive feature of the content of English prose and lyrics - description of travel and wanderings in distant land, their research. Bright example: "Eastern poems", "Manfred", "Travel Child-Harold" by Bairon, "Ivango" Walter Scott.
Germany. The idealistic philosophical worldview was enormous on the basics of German romanticism, which was promoted by individualism and his freedom from the laws of the feudal society, the universe was considered as a single live system. German works written in the spirit of romanticism are filled with reflections on the meaning of human being, his soul's life, they also differ in fabulous and mythological motives. The brightest German works in the style of romanticism: William's fairy tales and Jacob Grimma, Novels, fairy tales, gofman novels, Heine's works.
(Kaspar David Friedrich "Stages of Life")
America. Romanticism in American literature and art developed a little later than in Europe (the 1930th century), his flourishing falls on the 40s -60s of the 19th century. Such large-scale historical events as a war for the independence of the United States at the end of the 18th century and the civil war between the North and South (1861-1865) were enormous on his appearance and development. American literary works can be conditionally divided into two types: Abolitionist (supporting slave rights and their liberation) and Eastern (supporters of plantatorship). American romanticism is based on the same ideals and traditions as the European, in his rethinking and understanding to his own way in the conditions of a peculiar structure and the pace of life of the inhabitants of the new, little-known mainland. American works of that period are rich in national trends, they are acutely felt feeling independence, the struggle for freedom and equality. Bright representatives of American romanticism: Washington Irving ("Legend of Sleeping Hollow", "Groom-Ghost", Edgar Allan Po ("Laeyia", "Falling at Home Ashers"), Herman Melville ("Moby Dick", "Taipi"), Nathaniel Gotorn ("Alay Letter", "House of Seven Frontones"), Henry Wedsworth Longfello ("Legend of Guyavate"), Walt Whitman, (the poetic collection "Leaves of herb"), Harriet Bilecher-Stow ("Huts Uncle Tom), Fenimore Cooper ("The last of the Mogican").
And let romanticism in art and literature reigned for a long time, and pragmatic realism came to replace the heroism and chivalry, this does not in any way reduce its contribution to the development of world culture. Works written in this direction love and read with great pleasure a large number of romantic fans all over the world.
2) SentimentalismSentimentalism is a literary direction that recognized the feeling of the main criterion of the human person. Sentimentalism originated in Europe and Russia approximately simultaneously, in the second half of the 18th century, as the counterweight of the rigid classical theory dominated at that time.
Sentimentalism was closely related to the ideas of enlightenment. He assigned a paramount site for manifestations of human mental qualities, psychological analysis, sought to awaken in the hearts of readers an understanding of the nature of man and love for her together with a humane attitude to all weak suffering and persistent. Feelings and experiences of a person are worthy of attention regardless of its class affiliation - the idea of \u200b\u200buniversal equality of people.
The main genres of sentimentalism:
tale
elegy
novel
Letters
travels
memoirs
Motherland Sentimentalism can be considered England. Poets J. Thomson, T. Gray, E. Jung tried to awaken in readers. Love for the surrounding nature, drawing in their works simple and peaceful rural landscapes, sympathy for the needs of poor people. A bright representative of English sentimentalism was S. Richardson. In first place, he put forward a psychological analysis and attracted the attention of readers to the fate of his heroes. Writer Lawrence Stern preached humanism as the highest value of man.
In French literature, sentimentalism is represented by the novels of Abbot Abbot, P. K. De Shamblin de Marivo, J.-zh. Rousseau, A. B. de Saint-Pierre.
In German literature - works by F. G. Klopshtok, F. M. Klinker, I. V. Guete, I. F. Schiller, S. Laros.
Sentimentalism came to Russian literature with the translations of the works of Western European sentimentalists. The first sentimental works of Russian literature can be called "Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow" A.N. Radishcheva, "Letters of the Russian Traveler" and "Poor Lisa" N.I. Karamzin.
3) Romanticism
Romanticism originated in Europe at the end of the 18th - early 19th centuries. As opposed to the previously dominated classicism with his pragmatism and following established laws. Romanticism, as opposed to classicism, promoted the retreat from the rules. Backgrounds of romanticism lies in the Great French Revolution 1789-1794, which overthrown the power of the bourgeoisie, and with it - bourgeois laws and ideals.
Romanticism, like sentimentalism, pays great attention to the personality of man, his feelings and experiences. The main conflict of romanticism was confronting the personality and society. Against the background of scientific and technological progress, the complicating social and political device went to spiritual devastation of the individual. Romance sought to attract the attention of readers to this circumstance, to cause protest against confusion and selfishness in society.
Romantics were disappointed in the surrounding world, and this disappointment is clearly traced in their works. Some of them, such as F. R. Shutubin and V. A. Zhukovsky, believed that a person could not resist the mysterious forces, must comply with them and not try to change his fate. Other romance, such as J. Bayron, P. B. Shelly, S. Petfi, A. Mitskevich, Early A. S. Pushkin, believed that it was necessary to deal with the so-called "world evil", and opposed him the power of the human spirit.
The inner world of the romantic hero was full of experiences and passions, throughout the work the author forced him to fight the world around, doubt and conscience. Romantics portrayed feelings in their extreme manifestations: high and passionate love, cruel betrayal, contemptuous envy, low-lying ambition. But romantics were interested not only by the inner world of man, but also the secrets of being, the essence of all the living, maybe, therefore, there are so many mystical and mysterious in their works.
In German literature, romanticism was most pronounced in the works of Novisa, V. Tika, F. Göldderlin, Kleista, E. T. A. Gofman. English Romanticism is represented by the works of Wordsworth, S. T. Kolridge, R. Sauti, V. Scott, J. Kita, J. Byrona, P. B. Shelley. In France, romanticism appeared only by the beginning of the 1820s. The main representatives were F. R. Shatubin, J. Steel, E. P. SENANKUR, P. Merim, V. Hugo, J. Sand, A. Vinyi, A. Duma (father).
The Great French Revolution and the Patrican War of 1812, the Great French Revolution and the Patriotic War of 1812 were on the development of Russian romantics and the Patriotic War of 1812 - before and after the Decembrists' uprising in 1825, representatives of the first period (V.A. Zhukovsky, K.N. Batyushkov, A.S. Pushkin periods of the Southern Link), believed in the victory of spiritual freedom over everyday life, but after the defeat of the Decembrists, executions and references, the romantic hero turns into a well-refined and incomprehensive human society, and the conflict of personality and society becomes unresolved. The bright representatives of the second period were M. Yu. Lermontov, E. A. Baratinsky, D. V. Venevitinov, A. S. Khomyakov, F. I. Tyutchev.
The main genres of romanticism:
Elegy
Idyll
Ballad
Novella
Novel
Fantastic story
Aesthetic and theoretical canons of romanticism
The idea of \u200b\u200bdvoemirine is the struggle between objective reality and subjective maidos. In realism, this concept is absent. The idea of \u200b\u200bdvoemirine has two modifications:
care in the world of fantasy;
Travel concept, road.
Hero concept:
Romantic hero is always an exceptional personality;
The hero is always in conflict with the surrounding reality;
The dissatisfaction of the hero, which manifests itself in lyric tonality;
Aesthetic purposefulness to the unattainable ideal.
Psychological parallelism - the identity of the inner state of the hero of the surrounding nature.
Speech style of a romantic work:
extreme expression;
principle of contrast at the level of the composition;
abundance of characters.
Aesthetic categories of romanticism:
rejection of the bourgeois reality, its ideology and pragmatism; Romance denied the value system, which was based on stability, hierarchy, strict system of values \u200b\u200b(house, comfort, Christian morality);
cultivation of individuality and artistic worldview; Rejection rejected by romanticism was subordinate to the subjective worlds based on the creative fantasy of the artist.
4) Realism
Realism is a literary direction that objectively reflects the surrounding validity to be affordable by artistic means. The main reception of realism is the typing facts of reality, images and characters. Writers-realists put their heroes in certain conditions and show how these conditions affected the person.
While the romantic writers worried the inconsistency of the world around them to their inner globacy, then the realist writer is interested in how the world affects the person. The actions of the heroes of realistic works are due to life circumstances, in other words, if a person lived at another time, elsewhere, in another socio-cultural environment, then he would be different.
The foundations of realism laid another Aristotle in 4 c. BC e. Instead of the concept of "realism", he used the concept of "imitation" close in meaning. Then the realism was revived in the era of the Renaissance and Epoch of Enlightenment. In the 40s 19th century In Europe, Russia and America, realism came to replace romanticism.
Depending on the content motives, recreated in the work, distinguish:
Critical (social) realism;
realism of characters;
psychological realism;
Grotesque realism.
Critical realism focused on real circumstances that affect human influence. Examples of critical realism are the works of Standal, O. Balzak, Ch. Dickens, W. Tekkkeva, A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol, I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, and . P. Chekhov.
Characteristic realism, on the contrary, showed a strong person who can fight circumstances. Psychological realism more attention paid to the inner world, the psychology of heroes. The main representatives of these varieties of realism are F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy.
In grotescan realism, deviations from reality are allowed, in some works of retreats bordered with fantasy, with the more grotesque, the stronger the author criticizes reality. Grotesque realism is developed in the works of Aristophan, F. Rabl, J. Swift, E. Hoffmann, in the satirical poses N. V. Gogol, works of M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, M. A. Bulgakov.
5) Modernism
Modernism is a collection of artistic directions that promoted freedom of self-expression. Modernism originated in Western Europe in the second half of the 19th century. As a new form of creativity, opposed to traditional art. Modernism manifested itself in all kinds of art - painting, architecture, literature.
The main distinguishing feature of modernism is its ability to change the world around. The author does not seek realistic or allegorically to portray reality, as it was in realism, or the inner world of the hero, as it was in sentimentalism and romanticism, and depicts his own inner world and his own attitude to the surrounding reality, expresses personal impressions and even fantasies.
Features of modernism:
denial of classic artistic heritage;
recharged discrepancy with theory and practice of realism;
Orientation per person individual, not social;
high attention to the spiritual, not the social sphere of human life;
Orientation on the form to the detriment of the content.
The largest currents of modernism were impressionism, symbolism and modern. Impressionism sought to capture a moment in the form how he saw or felt the author. In this author's perception, the past, present and future can be gossipped, the impression that any subject or phenomenon has rendered on the author, and not this subject itself.
The symbolists tried to find a secret meaning in everything that happened, emphasized the usual images and words to mystical meaning. Modern style promoted a refusal to proper geometric forms and direct lines in favor of smooth and curved lines. Especially Bright Modern manifested itself in architecture and applied art.
In the 80s. 19th century The new course of modernism was originated - decades. In the art of decades, a person is put in unbearable circumstances, he was broken, doomed, lost taste for life.
The main features of the decadence:
cynicism (nihilistic attitude towards universal values);
eroticism;
Tonatos (according to Z. Freud - the desire for death, decline, expansion of the individual).
In the literature, modernism is represented by the following currents:
Axism;
symbolism;
futurism;
Imazinism.
The most prominent representatives of modernism in the literature are French poets Sh. Bajler, P. Vellen, Russian poets N. Gumilev, A. A. Blok, V. V. Mayakovsky, A. Akhmatova, I. Northernik, English writer O. Wilde, American Writer E. By, Scandinavian playwright of Ibsen.
6) Naturalism
Naturalism is the name of the course in the European literature and art that emerged in the 70s. XIX century And especially widely unfolded in the 80-90s., when naturalism became the most influential direction. The theoretical substantiation of the new flow gave Emil Zola in the book "Experimental Roman".
End of the XIX century. (In particular, the 80s) marks the flourishing and strengthening of industrial capital, developing into financial. This corresponds to, on the one hand, a high level of technology and an increase in operation, on the other - the growth of the self-consciousness and class struggle of the proletariat. The bourgeoisie turns into a class of reaction, struggling with a new revolutionary force - a proletariat. The petty bourgeoisie ranges between these basic classes, and these oscillations are reflected in the positions of the petty-bourgeois writers who joined naturalism.
The main requirements presented by naturalists to literature: scientific, objectivity, apoliticalness in the name of "universal truth". Literature should stand at the level of modern science, should be imbued with scientific relations. It is clear that naturalists are based on their works only that science that does not deny the existing social system. The basis of its theory of naturalists make mechanistic natural-scientific materialism such as E. Geckel, Spencer and C. Lombroso, adapting the interests of the dominant class of heredity (heredity is the cause of social bundle, which gives advantages to one before others), the philosophy of positivism of Auguste Contit and Small bourgeois utopians (Saint-Simon).
Through an objective and scientific note of the shortcomings of modern reality, French naturalists hope to influence the minds of people and thereby cause a number of reforms to save the existing system from the impending revolution.
Theoretics and leader of French Naturalism, E. Zola ranked in the genuine school of Flaubert, the Brothers Gekroch, A. Dode and a number of other less well-known writers. In the immediate predecessors of the Naturalism of Zola attributed French realists: O. Balzak and Standal. But in fact, none of these writers, not excluding the zol himself, was not a naturalist in the sense in which he understood this direction of the sol theoretics. To naturalism, as the style of the lead class, writers are unworn and on the artistic method, and according to accessories to various class groups. It is characteristic that the unifying moment was not an artistic method, but the reformist trends of naturalism.
For followers of naturalism, only partial recognition of the complex of claims nominated by naturalism theorists is characterized. Following one of the principles of this style, they are repelled from others who differing sharply among themselves, representing both various public trends and various artistic methods. A number of practitioners of naturalism perceived his reformist essence, throwing without constraint even such typical of naturalism requirement as the requirement of objectivity and accuracy. This was done by German "Early Naturalists" (M. Creerer, B. Bill, V. Lesse and others).
Under the sign of decay, rapprochement with impressionism went to the further development of naturalism. The resulting in Germany is somewhat later than in France, German naturalism appeared to the style of predominantly petty-bourgeois. Here, the decomposition of patriarchal petty bourgeoisie and the aggravation of capitalization processes creates more and more new personnel of the intelligentsia, which far from always finding themselves. In their medium, frustrating in the power of science penetrates more and more. Gradually tolerate the wreck of hope for the resolution of social contradictions in the framework of the capitalist system.
German naturalism, as well as naturalism in Scandinavian literature, is a whole transitional step from naturalism to impressionism. So, the famous German Lamprecht historian in his "History of the German People" suggested this style to call "physiological impressionism." This term is further applied by a number of historians of German literature. Indeed, from naturalistic style, known in France, it remains only a worship of physiology. Many German naturalist writers do not even try to hide their tendentiousness. In the center of it usually puts some problem, social or physiological, around which the facts are grouped, it is illustrating (alcoholism in the "before the sunrise" of Hauptman, heredity in "Ghosts" of Ibsen).
The founders of German naturalism were A. Golz and F. Hisf. The main principles are set forth in the Goltz's "Art" brochure, where Golz argues that "art tends to become nature again, and it becomes in accordance with the reproduction and practical applications available. Also denied the complexity of the fabul. The place of rich in the events of the French Roman (Zola) occupies a story or novel, extremely poor plot. The main place here is allocated to the painstaking transfer of moods, visual and auditory sensations. A drama and poem, to which the French naturalists treated is extremely negative as the "family of entertainment art", are also replaced by Roman. Special attention is paid to the drama (Ibsen, Gauptman, A. Golz, F. Hisf, Zudman), in which the intensively developed effect is also denied, only a catastrophe and fixation of the experiencing of heroes ("Nora", "Ghosts", "Before sunrise", "Master Eleza" and others). In the future, naturalistic drama is reborn in the drama impressionistic, symbolic.
In Russia, naturalism did not receive any development. The early works of F. I. Parferov and M. A. Sholokhov called naturalistic works.
7) Natural School
Under the natural school, literary criticism understands the direction originated in Russian literature in the 40s. 19th century It was an era of increasingly aggravated contradictions between the serfs and the growth of capitalist elements. Followers of a genuine school in their works tried to reflect the contradictions and mood of that time. The term "Natural School" itself appeared in criticism thanks to F. Bulgarin.
A natural school in the expanded application of the term, as it used in the 40s, does not indicate a single direction, but is a concept largely conditional. There were such heterogeneous schools for their class-based school and the artistic appearance of writers as I. S. Turgenev and F. M. Dostoevsky, D. V. Grigorovich and I. A. Goncharov, N. A. Nekrasov and I. I. Panayev.
The most common signs, on the basis of which the writer was considered belonging to a natural school, were the following: social and significant topics, who captured a wider circle than even a circle of social observations (often in the "low" layers of society), a critical attitude to social reality, the realism of artistic Expressions that fought against the embellishment of reality, aesthetics, romantic rhetoric.
V. G. Belinsky allocated a realism of a genuine school, arguing the most important feature of "truth", and not the "lies" of the image. The natural school is not drawn to the ideal, fictional heroes, but to the "crowd", to the "mass", to people ordinary and most often to people of "low title". Completed in the 40s. All sorts of "physiological" essays satisfied this need for a reflection of other, short-lived life, at least just in reflection by externally domestic, superficial.
N. G. Chernyshevsky especially sharply emphasizes as the essential and main feature of the "literature of the Gogol period" its critical, "negative" attitude to reality - "Literature of the Gogol period" is here another name of the same genuine school: it is to N. V. Gogol - The author of the "Dead Souls", "Auditor", "Shineli" - as a generic team was erected by a genuine school V. G. Belinsky and a number of other critics. Indeed, many writers ranked in a genuine school experienced the powerful influence of various sides of the creativity of N. V. Gogol. In addition to Gogol, such representatives of Western European small -coming and bourgeois literature were influenced on the writers of the Natural School, as Ch. Dickens, O. Balzac, Georges Sand.
One of the currents of the genuine school, represented by the liberal, capitalizing nobility and the social layers, was distinguished by the surface and cautious nature of the critics of reality: this is or harmless irony in relation to individuals of noble reality or noble-limited protest against serfdom. The circle of social observations of this group was limited to the bosom estate. Representatives of this course of the Natural School: I. S. Turgenev, D. V. Grigorovich, I. I. Panayev.
Another course of a genuine school was relied mainly on the city boss of the 40s, strangled, on the one hand, still with tenant fortresses, and on the other - the growing industrial capitalism. A certain role here belonged to F. M. Dostoevsky, the author of a number of psychological novels and leads ("poor people", "twin" and others).
The third course in the natural school, represented by the so-called "differences", ideologists of the revolutionary peasant democracy, gives in his work the most clear expression of the trends, which were associated with contemporaries (V.G. Belinsky) with the name of a natural school and opposed the noble aesthetics. Further and sharply, these tendencies showed themselves to N. A. Nekrasov. To the same group, A. I. Herzen must be attributed ("Who is to blame?"), M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin ("confusing business").
8) Constructivism
Constructivism is an artistic direction, originated in Western Europe after the First World War. The origins of constructivism lie in the thesis of the German architect G. Zemper, who argued that the aesthetic value of every artistic work is determined by the correspondence of its three elements: the work, the material from which it is made and the technical processing of this material.
In this thesis, which was subsequently adopted by the functionalists and functionalists-constructivists (L. Wright in America, Ya. J. P. Aud in the Netherlands, V. Gropius in Germany), is put forward to the forefront of the material and technical and material and utilitarian side of the art And, essentially, the ideological side of it is powered.
In the West, constructivist trends during the First World War and in the post-war period were expressed in a variety of directions, more or less "orthodox" interpretative thesis of constructivism. Thus, in France and Holland, constructivism was expressed in Purizme, in the "Aesthetics of Machines", in the "Neo-Plasticism" (Isoiski), an aesthetic formalism of Corbusier (in architecture). In Germany - in the naked cult of things (pseudoconductivity), one-sided rationalism of the Gropius school (architecture), distracted formalism (in a free-free movie).
In Russia, a group of constructivists appeared in 1922. A. N. Chicherin, K. L. Zelinsky, I. L. Selvinsky. Constructivism was originally narrowly a formal direction that puts forward an understanding of the literary work as a design. In the future, the constructivists were freed from this narrow aesthetic and formal slope and put forward significantly wider substantiations of their creative platform.
A. N. Chicherin, around I. L. Selvinsky and K. L. Zelinsky, a number of authors are grouped by a number of authors (V. Inbert, B. Agapov, A. Gablovich, N. Panov), and in 1924 a literary center is organized constructivists (LTCK). In its Declaration, LTCC primarily comes from a statement about the need for art as close as possible in the "Organizational Science Class Organization", in the construction of a socialist culture. From here there is an installation of constructivism on the saturation of art (in particular, poetry) with modern topics.
The main topic, which always attracted the attention of constructivists, can be denoted as follows: "Intelligentsia in revolution and construction". With special attention, stopping at the image of the intellectual in the Civil War (I. L. Selvikinsky, "Commander 2") and in construction (I. L. Selvinsky "Pushtorg"), constructivists are primarily put forward in a painful-exaggerated form its proportion and value under construction. This is especially clear this in the "Pashtorge", where the exclusive specialist of the semi-survey is opposed to a talent communist of Kol, which prevents him from working and bringing him to suicide. Here Paphos technique of work as such overshadows the main social conflicts of modern reality.
This exaggeration of the role of the intelligentsia finds its theoretical deployment in the article of the main theorist of constructivism of the Cornelia of Zelinsky "constructivism and socialism", where it considers constructivism as a holistic worldview of the epoch, transition to socialism, as a condensed expression in the literature of the experienced period. At the same time, again, the main social contradictions of this period Zelinsky are replaced by the struggle of man and nature, pathos of naked technology, interpreted out of social conditions, outside the class struggle. These erroneous provisions of Zelinsky, who caused a sharp rebuff from the Marxist criticism, were far from random and with high clarity opened the social nature of constructivism, which is easy to schedule in the creative practice of the whole group.
A social source that feeds constructivism is undoubtedly the layer of urban petty bourgeoisie, which can be designated as a technical qualified intelligentsia. It is not by chance that in the work of the Selvinsky (who is the largest poet of constructivism) of the first period with undoubtedly, the image of a strong personality, a powerful builder and a conqueror of life, individualistic in its essence, is detected.
In 1930, LCC collapsed, "Literary Brigade M. 1" was formed, announcing himself by organizing transitional to RAPPU (Russian Association of Proletarian Writers), which places his task a gradual transition of travelers to the rails of communist ideology, to the style of proletarian literature and condemning Former errors of constructivism, although also retaining his creative method.
However, the inconsistency and the zigzagness of the promotion of constructivism to the working class gives itself to know here. This is evidenced by the poem of the Selvinsky "Declaration of the Poet Rights". This is confirmed by the fact that the Brigade M. 1, having existed for less than a year, in December 1930, also dismissed, recognizing that he did not allow themselves to task.
9)Postmodernism
Postmodernism in translation with the German language literally means "what follows upgrades." This literary direction appeared in the second half of the 20th century. It reflects the complexity of the surrounding reality, its dependence on the culture of the preceding centuries and information saturation of our time.
Postmodernists did not suit that literature was divided into elitar and mass. Postmodernism opposed all modern in the literature and denied mass culture. The first works of postmodernists appeared in the form of a detective, thriller, fantasy, followed by a serious content.
Postmodernists believed that higher art was over. To move on, you need to learn how to correctly use the lower genres of pop culture: thriller, western, fantasy, fiction, erotica. Postmodernism finds the source of new mythology in these genres. The works are becoming focused on the elite reader, and to the uniability audience.
Signs of postmodernism:
the use of preceding texts as a potential for own works (a large number of quotes, it is impossible to understand the work if you do not know the literature of the previous epochs);
rethinking the elements of the culture of the past;
Multi-level text organization;
Special organization of text (gaming element).
Postmodernism questioned the existence of meaning as such. On the other hand, the meaning of postmodern work is determined by the pathos inherent in it - critical of the mass culture. Postmodernism tries to erase the border between art and life. All existing and ever existed is the text. Postmodernists said that everything was already written before them, which could not come up with anything else and they only remain playing with words, take ready-made (already once and somehow invented, written ideas, phrases, texts and collect works of them. There is no point in that, because the author itself is not in the work.
Literary works are similar to a collage made from incomparable images and combined into a whole uniformity of technology. This technique was named Fastish. This Italian word is translated as a Popourry operator, and in the literature it means a mapping of several styles in one work. In the first stages of postmodernism, the Pastish is a specific form of a parody or selfartment, but then a way of adapting to reality, a way to show the illusory of mass culture.
The concept of intertextuality is associated with postmodernism. This term introduced Y. Kristev in 1967. She believed that history and society could be viewed as text, then culture - a single intertext, which serves as an avnet aster (all texts that precede this) for any newly emerging text, and the individuality is lost here Text that dissolves in quotations. For modernism, a quote thinking is characteristic.
Intertextuality- Presence in the text of two or more texts.
Paratext- The attitude of the text to the title, epigram, afterword, preface.
Mettextuality - It can be comments or reference to the following.
Hypertextuality - Rugging or parody of one text to others.
Architectuality - genre communication of texts.
A person in postmodernism is depicted in a state of complete degradation (in this case, destruction can be understood as a violation of consciousness). There is no character development in the work, the image of the hero appears in the blurred form. This technique calls defocalization. He pursues two goals:
avoid excessive heroic pathos;
Hover in the shadow of the hero: the hero is not put forward on the fore, it is generally not needed in the work.
Bright representatives of postmodernism in literature are J. Faulz, J. Bart, A. Rob-Grièry, F. Sollers, H. Kortasar, M. Pavich, J. Joyce and others.
Romanticism is an ideological and artistic direction in the culture of the end of the XVIII - 1st half of the XIX centuries. Romanticism arose as an answer to the disappointment in Europe in the ideals of the Great French Revolution 1789-1794, enlightenment and bourgeois values. So what is romanticism, and what are his signs?
The main features of romanticism
Unlike classicism, who approved by the irrevomination of state feasures and serving public interest, a new direction expressed a desire for personal freedom, independence from society. Romanticism brought a lot of new in all areas of artistic activities.
The works of lyrical focus allowed to reflect human emotions. A strong personality is becoming a strong personality that experiences the inconsistency of the domestic aspirations and the requirements of society. An independent character stands and nature. Her image (often with the elements of mysticism) helps convey the condition of a person.
Appeal to national history, the folk episas became the basis of a new topic. Works appear, illuminating the heroic past, depicting the heroes, sacrificing the life for the sake of high goals. Legends and legends allowed to escape from the ordinary to the world of fiction, symbols.
Romanticism in literature
Romanticism arose in Germany, in the literary and philosophical circles of the "Jenskaya school" (Schlegel brothers, etc.). Bright representatives of the direction - F. Shelling, Brothers Grimm, Hoffman, Gaine.
In England, new ideas were perceived by V. Scott, J. Kitts, Shelly, W. Blake. The brightest representative of Romanticism was J. Bayron. His creativity had a great influence on the spread of the direction, including in Russia. The popularity of his "Travel of Child Harold" led to the appearance of the Bayronism phenomenon (Pechorin in the Hero of Our Time "M. Lermontov).
French romance - Shatubin, V. Hugo, P. Merim, George Sand, Polish - A. Mitskevich, American - F. Cooper, Longfello, etc.
Russian romance writers
In Russia, romanticism was developed after the Patriotic War of 1812 due to the refusal of Alexander I from the liberalization of public life, the beginning of the reaction, led by the oblivion of the merit to the patrols of the whole Pleiads of heroes. This served to the appearance of works, drawing strong characters, stormy passions, conflicts. In this significant period for Russian culture, literature has appeared, using new artistic agents. So what is romanticism in the literature? It is the greatest development of such genres as a ballad, an elegy, a lyrical epic poem, a historic novel.
The features of romanticism are manifested in the work of V. Zhukovsky and receive the development of Baratynsky, Ryleev, Kyhelbecker, Pushkin ("Eugene Onegin"), Tyutchev. And the works of Lermontov, the "Russian Byrona", consider the peak of Russian romanticism.
Romanticism in music and painting
What is romanticism in music? This is the display of the world of spiritual experiences, desire for ideals through fabulous and historical images. Hence the development of such genres as a symphonic poem, opera, ballet, song genre (ballad, romance).
Leading composers-romance - F. Mendelssohn, Berlioz, R. Schuman, F. Shopin, I. Brams, A. Dvarak, R. Wagner, and others. In Russia - M. Glinka, A. Dargomyzhsky, M. Balakirev, A. Borodin, M. Mussorgsky, N. Rimsky-Korsakov, P. Tchaikovsky, S. Rachmaninov. In music, romanticism lasted before the beginning of the twentieth century.
For romantic painting is characterized by the dynamism of the composition, the feeling of movement, saturated flavor. In France, this is Zhriko, Delacroix, David; In Germany - Runge, Koh, Bidermeier style. In England - Turner, Constable, Pre-Faelites Rossetti, Morris, Burn-Jones. In Russian painting - K. Brylov, O. Kiprensky, Aivazovsky.
From this article you learned what romanticism is, the definition of this concept and its main features.
And coincides with the industrial revolution, designated by the emergence of a steam machine, a steam locomotive, steam, photos and factory-factory-factory. If the enlightenment is characterized by a cult of mind and based on its beginnings of civilization, romanticism claims the cult of nature, feelings and natural in man. It is in the era of romanticism that the phenomena of tourism, mountaineering and picnic, designed to restore the unity of man and nature. The image of the "noble savary", armed with "folk wisdom" and not spoiled by civilization, is in demand.
Philosophy of romanticism
Founders of philosophical romanticism: the smiled brothers (Augustus Wilhelm and Friedrich), Novalis, Gölderlin, Schleiermacher.
Romanticism in painting
The development of romanticism in painting proceeded in acute controversy with adherents of classicism. Romantics reinforced their predecessors in the "cold rationality" and the absence of a "life movement". In the 1820-1830s, the work of many artists was distinguished by pathetic, nervous excitement; They outlined the exotic motifs and the game of imagination capable of lead from "dim everyday life." The struggle against the frozen classic norms lasted for a long time, almost the attacker. The first one who managed to consolidate the new direction and "justify" romanticism was Theodore Zheriko.
One of the branches of romanticism in painting is the style of the bidermeyer.
A number of objects of art of the era of romanticism are presented in the new Pinakotek Munich (Germany).
Romanticism in literature
Romanticism emerged for the first time in Germany, in the circle of writers and philosophers of the Ian School (V. G. Vakkenroder, Ludwig Tik, Novivis, Brothers Friedrich and Augustus smiled). The philosophy of romanticism was systematized in the works of F. Schlegel and F. Shelling. In the future, the development of German romanticism is distinguished by interest in fabulous and mythological motives, which was particularly pronounced in the work of the Vilhelm brothers and Jacob Grimm, Hoffman. Heine, starting his creativity within the framework of romanticism, later exposed his critical revision.
Romanticism received distribution in other European countries, for example, in France (Shatubin, J. Stal, Lamartin, Victor Hugo, Alfred de Vinyi, Prosper Merim, Georges Sand, Alexander Duma), Italy (N. U. Foscolo, A. Mandzoni , Leopard), Poland (Adam Mitskevich, Julius Slovak, Zygmunt Krasinsky, Ciprian Norvid) and in the USA (Washington Irving, Fenimor Cooper, U.K. Bryant, Edgar, Nathaniel Gotorn, Henry Longfello, Hermann Melville).
Also, the French romance ranged be a standal, but he meant something other than most of his contemporaries. In the epigraph of the novel "Red and Black" he took the words "True, Gorky True", stressing his calling to the realistic study of human characters and actions. The writer was addicted to romantic outstanding agents, for which he recognized the right to "go hunting for happiness." He sincerely believed that only the company depends on the company, whether a person would be able to realize his eternal, given by the nature of the craving for well-being.
Romance poets began to use angels, especially fallen, in their works.
Romanticism in Russian literature
The most prominent representatives of romanticism in music are: Franz Schubert, Ludwig Van Beethoven (only the first notes of romanticism in works), Johannes Brahms, Frederick Chopin, Ferrenz Leaf, Charles Valenten Alcan, Felix Mendelssohn, Robert Schuman, Louis Schor, A. A. Alyabyev , M. I. Glinka, Dargomyzhsky, Balakirev, N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov, Mussorgsky, Borodin, Kyui, P. I. Tchaikovsky.
For a romantic worldview, a sharp conflict between real reality and a dream is characteristic. Reality is low and lean, it is permeated by the spirit of mesh, Filiuterism, and deserve only denial. A dream is something beautiful, perfect, but unattainable and incomprehensible mind.
Prose of life Romanticism contrasted the beautiful kingdom of the Spirit, the Life of the Heart. Romantics believed that feelings make up a deeper soul reservoir than the mind. According to Wagner, "the artist addresses the feeling, and not to the mind." And Schumann said: "The mind is mistaken, feelings - never. It is not by chance that the ideal type of art was announced music, which, due to its specifics, the most fully expresses the movement of the soul. It is the music in the era of romanticism ranked lead in the art system.
If in the literature and painting the romantic direction mainly completes its development by the middle of the XIX century, the life of musical romanticism in Europe is much longer. Music romanticism as a direction has developed at the beginning of the XIX century and developed in close connection with various currents in the literature, painting and theater. The initial stage of musical romanticism is represented by the work of F. Schubert, E. T. A. Gofman, K. M. Weber, N. Paganini, J. Rossini; The subsequent stage (1830-50s) - the works of F. Chopen, R. Shuman, F. Mendelssohn, Berlioz, F. Sheet, Sh. Alcana, R. Wagner, J. Verdie. The late stage of romanticism stretches until the end of the XIX century.
As the main problem of romantic music, the problem of personality is put forward, and in the new lighting - in its conflict with the surrounding world. The romantic hero is always alone. The theme of loneliness is hardly the most popular in all romantic art. Very often, the thought of creative personality is connected with her: a person is alone when he is precisely an outstanding, gifted personality. Artist, poet, musician - favorite heroes in the works of romantics ("love poet" Shumanan, "fantastic symphony" of Berlioz with her subtitle - "Episode from the life of the artist", the symphony poem of the Tasso sheet).
Inherent in romantic music, a deep interest in the human person was expressed in the predominance of personal tone in it. The disclosure of a personal drama was often acquired by the romantics with a hint of autobiographicity, which contributed special sincerity to music. So, for example, many piano works of Shuman are associated with the history of his love for Clara Vic. The autobiographical nature of his operas has undergraded the Wagner.
Attention to feelings leads to a change of genres - the dominant position acquires a lyrics in which love images prevail.
The theme of nature is often intertwined with the topic of "lyrical confession". Resonating with the mental state of a person, it is usually painted with a feeling of disharmony. The development of genre and lyric epic simphonism (one of the first essays is "big" symphony - "Big" symphony is closely connected with nature images.
Reading the wonderful works of the authors of love romance has become one of the favorite hobbies in our time. A distinctive feature of a good author, who risked to write a non-standard love story, is the ability to create multifaceted characters, which are perfectly perceived by the public.
Most of the novels described below are not strictly romantic genre, but not remembering them cannot be taken into account the well-built plot line and a wonderful style of writing. We suggest familiarizing yourself with these stunning authors of love romance, whose books will definitely make you return to them again and again. Regardless of how popular these authors are, it is impossible to ignore their phenomenal talent.1. Nicholas Sparks
Nicholas Charles Sparks (Born December 31, 1965) - American Writer, Kinoszenarist and Producer. On his account, he has seventeen published one documentary novel, eight of his love-dramatic works were specialized.First, speaking of the great writers of love romance, it is impossible not to allocate the world-famous Nicholas Sparks for his contribution to the emotional development of the genre. Starting from the inspirational classics "Diary of Memory", "Last Song" and "Dear John" to less well-known (but no less awesome) "salvation" and "at first sight" novels, Nicholas Sparks is a real pros when it comes to writing love Stories about human intimacy and broken heart. Everyone is eagerly awaiting the release of one of his last novels "the longest ride." Despite the fact that some do not consider Sparks writer-novelist, his works for some reason fascinate readers all over the world.
2. Emily Giffin
Emily Fisk Giffin (born March 20, 1972) - American author of several novels in the category Women's Prose.For the first time reading the book by Emily Giffin "The Groom Rent", you will not immediately understand whether to admire the book, judging by the general theme of love and betrayal. However, after reading the remaining writer's books, you will understand why the six of her novels New York Times called bestsellers!
3. Nora Roberts
Nora Roberts (Eleanor Marie Robanson was born on October 10, 1950) - famous American writer, author more than 209 love Romanov, also published under the pseudonyms of Ji Di Robb in the "Death" series, Jill March and under the pseudonym Sarah Hardist in the UK.With Arsenal in more than 200 love novels, Nora Roberts is truly an expert in creating intriguing love stories. In her style of writing there is something special, which makes you looking forward to her new masterpiece. Nora Roberts was the first author entering the Hall of Glory RWA, the author, a very long lasted on the bestseller list of New York Times. Her wide bibliography speaks for himself. If you have never read the Roberts Nora Nora, an excellent option for the start will be the Roman "Right to Dream".
4. Lori L. Otto
It is impossible to tear away from reading the novel "The Complete Emi Lost & Found Series" (consisting of three stakes, covered, followed by two stories). Lori L. Otto is an excellent writer, as her novel is very emotional and realistic, he is full of people close to us in the spirit of the characters and life situations. You do not get bored, reading her work.
5. Linda Miller
Linda Leyl Miller (Linda Leyl was born in 1949) - a popular American author of more than 100 historical and modern novels is also known under the literary pseudonym Leyla Art. James.If you are looking for a novel exclusively about love, Linda Leyl Miller is the author that you need. Her books rank first in the New York Times and USA Today bestseller list. Miller perfectly writes about disinterested love, about love at first glance and everything in this spirit.
6. Balla Andre.
Balla Andre is really a very talented writer, her novels occupy the first places in the list of bestsellers New York Times, USA Today and Publishers WEEKLY. She is one of those authors who managed to make something new in romantic literature.William Shakespeare was born on April 26, 1564 (baptized April 23, 1616) - English poet, playwright and actor, often considered the greatest English-language writer and one of the best playwrights of the world. It is often referred to as the National Poet of England, as well as the Bard from the coast of Avon. His works that came to us, including work, written in conjunction with other authors, number 38 plays, 154 sonnets, two long epic poems, as well as several poems, whose authorship remains unknown so far. Pieces of Shakespeare are translated into all major languages \u200b\u200bof the world and are asked more often than works by other playwrights.
If you are really a fan of literature that affects the soul and heart, you will not be mistaken by reading the works of these authors. Still recommended books: Sidney Sheldon "Stranger in the Mirror", Erik Mitchell "50 shades of gray", Margaret Mitchell "Gone by the Wind".