Organogenic sediment rocks

1. Sediment Organogenic rocks

On the surface of the Earth, precipitation is formed as a result of the action of various exogenous factors, which are subsequently compacted, undergo various physicochemical changes - diageneses, and transformed into sedimentary rocks. Three groups are distinguished among sedimentary rocks :) Crowded rocks resulting from mechanical destruction of any breeds and accumulation of fragments formed;) clay rocks that are a product of predominantly chemical destruction of rocks and accumulation of clay minerals;) chemical (chemogenic) rocks, Formed as a result of chemical processes;) Organogenic rocks formed as a result of biological processes.

About sedimentary organogenic rocks and will go conversation. Organogenic rocks are sedimentary rocks resulting from accumulation of livelihoods and indecomposited remains of living organisms: limestone shells, fossil coals, guano - decomposed litter of seabirds, etc.

In describing sedimentary organogenic rocks, attention should be paid to their mineral composition, which is a decisive basis and structure. Also the most important feature characterizing the structure of sedimentary rocks is their layered texture. The formation of layers is associated with precipitation conditions. Any changes of these conditions cause either a change in the composition of the undelated material or stop in its admission. In terms of this leads to the appearance of layers separated by surfaces of the simplification and often differing composition and structure. The layers are more or less flat bodies, the horizontal dimensions of which are many times higher than their thickness (power). The power of the layers can, to reach tens of meters or not exceed the share of centimeter.

1.1 Origin

The formation of precipitation, of which there are sedimentary rocks, occurs on the surface of the Earth, in its near-surface part and in water basins.

The process of forming a sedimentary rock is called lithogenesis and consists of several stages:

) The formation of a sedimentary material;

) transfer of sedimental material;

) sedimentogenesis - precipitation accumulation;

) Diagenesis - conversion of precipitate to the sedimentary rock;

) Catgenesis - the stage of the existence of a sedimentary breed in the zone of the stratosphere;

) Metagenesis - stage of deep conversion of sedimentary rock in the deep zones of the earth's crust.

The bulk of organogenic rocks arose in various salinity, depth and sizes of marine and continental reservoirs, as well as as a result of the operation of chemical processes and the livelihoods of organisms on land and sea. All breeds of chemogenic and organogenic origin are associated with mutual transitions and have mixed chemogenic and organogenic origin. The classification of the breeds of chemogenic and organogenic genesis is carried out by chemical composition.

Consider the formation of some organogenic rocks. For example, limestone. Huge limestone deposits, formed millions of years ago from sea animal skeletons, are approximately 20% of the total sedimentary rocks. Limestones were formed as a result of long geochemical processes. Rivers annually endure in the sea many millions of tons of lime in the form of suspension and dissolved. At the meeting of river water with a salty marine, a kind of "geochemical barrier" is formed, on which soluble compounds, including lime, fall into the sediment, mixing with sludge. Part of the calcium bicarbonate remains in a dissolved state and is gradually absorbed by marine plants and animals. As a result, for millions of years, a huge variety of sinks of dead mollusks and corals formed colossal accumulations of calcium carbon dioxide. Thus, various limestone emerged, among which coral, shell, numbulite, msanka, algae, and others differ in the breeding organisms.

Fig. 1. Education of oil deposits

Or the formation of another organogenic rock, such as oil. (Fig. 1) The main conditions for the development of the process of the formation of oil, which causes the name of the thermocatalysis is the lowering of sedimentary rocks containing organic residues, to large depths, the effects of dominant at these depths of high temperatures and pressures and the catalytic role of the accommodating rocks themselves, accelerating the decay reactions and chemical Processing of organic substances. When oxidizing on the surface, oil goes into kira and asphalt.

Another example is the formation of combustible shale. Education begins from the moment of the accumulation of organic residues. "Parents" of shale are the smallest algae, moving by waves or (phytoplankton), sometimes algae of underwater meadows (phytobentosis) or lower representatives of the animal world (Phiancton). Began to form combustible shale 130-140 million years ago in the Nizhnevolzhki century of the Jurassic period. The Jurassic seeds were shallow water, well warmed and were densely populated by algae who served the habitat of numerous invertebrates and vertebral organisms. After the death of organisms fell to the bottom in the Ilovato-clay precipitate, which served as the basis for the formation of combustible shale. If we break a piece of fuel slate, you can see a large number of algae prints, worms, ammonites, whites, bivalve mollusks, cursed fossil fish, vertebrae ichthyosis, plesiosavrov and other organisms.

Fig. 2. Coal formation

The variety of types of vegetation, which grown on Earth into various geological epochs and in various climatic zones, the conditions of burial and transformation in peat deposits determined the widest range of organic mass properties, which was the source material, and later became directly coal. The formation of peat deposits occurred (and happening now) in swamps of various types: in coastal-marine, lake, river valleys. The peatlands were periodically flooded with waters with which one or another amount of mineral impurities was brought in both suspended and chemically dissolved state. The intensity of their introduction and the composition of the rocks surrounding peatlands determined the ash content of coal and the presence in its composition of harmful and beneficial chemical elements, such as sulfur, phosphorus, Germany, Alley, etc. Next peatlands due to the burning of the earth's crust overlap the thickness of the so-called sediment breeds and immersed on various depths, where in conditions of significant pressure and temperatures, the initial organic substance acquired the properties inherent in a particular coal brand.

1.2 Classification

Organogenic rocks (biogenic rocks) - consist of remnants of animals and vegetable organisms or their livelihoods.

Organisms have the ability to concentrate certain compounds, forming skeletons or tissues that are stored in the fossil state. By real composition among organogenic rocks, you can allocate:

) carbonate;

) silicon;

) phosphate;

) combustible shale;

I propose to consider each group separately.

Organogenic carbonate rocks (limestone) consist of foraminifera, corals, msnok, brachiopod, mollusks, algae, and other organisms. A peculiar representatives are the reef limestones, the congratulations atolls, barrier reefs, etc., as well as chalk.) Reef limestone - Currently, most reefs are built by corals, but hundreds of millions of years ago, the main builders of the reefs were Mshanki (colonial aquatic, mainly sea, Animals, leading attached lifestyle) and algae.) Mel-soft limestone with a very thin texture, which is usually white or light gray. It is formed mainly from the limestone shell of microscopic marine organisms, such as foraminifer or limestone remains of numerous types of seaweed.

Silicon breeds consist of water silica (opal). Among them are distinguished :) diatomitis - formed from diatom algae shells and partly from the skeletons of radilation and sponges, between which the finest Il and clay are deposited. It consists mainly of amorphous silica in the form of a mineral opal.) Sprongs - rocks that usually contain more than 50% of the sprocket of silica sponges. They have silicice's cement, from opal rounded Taurus, or clay, slightly limestone, often includes secondary chalcedon.) Radioarities - siliceous rocks, more than 30% consisting of radiolearia skeletons, which in modern oceans form a radioleary il. In addition to radilation, they include single spokes of sponges, rare shells of diatom algae, kokkolitoforids, opal and clay particles. When recrystallization, the radioarites go into jasper.) The threshold is predominantly colloid-chemogenic origin, consisting of the smallest grains of opal;) Okoka is a solid silicon breed formed by recrystallization and diatomite cement or tremble.

Organogenic phosphate rocks do not have much spread. These include sevenchers from phosphate silurian shells Brachiopod - obolide, clusters of bones of fossil vertebrates, known in the sediments of different ages, as well as guano - the decomposition products are littered with birds, the thickness of which is usually accumulated on the islands under dry climates.

Coal forms from the accumulation and preservation of plant materials, as a rule, in swamps. Coal is a combustible breed and, together with oil and natural gas, is one of the three most important fossil fuels. Coal has a wide range of applications, the most important is to use electricity.

Depending on the metamorphism stage in Russia distinguish such types of coal. (Table 1)

Table 1. Steps of coal metamorphism

The combustible slate-mineral mineral depths, which occur at relatively small depths, belongs to the group of solid caustobiolites and consists of an organic matter (10-50% by weight) and the mineral part. Industrial value is both organic and mineral parts of shale, the main components of which are carbonates and aluminosilicates. The combustible shale of thin-layers, possess dark gray or brown color, the smell of bitumen is distinguished.

Oil - Organogenic rock. The initial material for the formation of oil is a rotary IL, or a sapropel accumulating at the bottom of the congestive reservoirs: lakes, sea bays, lagoon, sometimes also in the coastal sections of the bottom of the open marine pools as a result of the death of various lower plants and animals, mainly plankton microorganisms, inhabiting water seas and oceans.

Also, organogenic rocks can be divided by structure. In these rocks, the form of components, which is determined by the character of organisms. Among the breeds of this group, structures are distinguished: crinoid, coral, peletsipelary, msanka, foraminiferous, algae, mixed, etc. Depending on the preservation of debris in the breed, structures are distinguished:

Biomorphic - good safety of organic residues. In the size of the components, they can be very different depending on the organisms - from very large (for example, corals) to the smallest (for example diatoms);

Detritus (deritic) - breed is made by fragments of skeletons of organisms.

In turn, among the breeds with the Detritus structure, there are distinguished :) Solid-rigid breeds are composed of non-oral fragments, often well-noticeable simple eyes and easily determined under the microscope. The size of the debris is most often from several millimeters to about 0.05 mm.) Small settlement. They are composed by the smallest chips of organisms (usually from 0.05 mm and smaller), indistinguishable by a simple eye and in most part are not defined under the microscope in the sluff.

Organogenic-chip structure is characterized by the fact that the fragments of the shells mostly are well discarded and almost the same value (0.5-0.1 mm).

2 . Distribution of organogenic rocks in the Krasnodar Territory

In the bowels of the region, more than 60 types of minerals are open. Basically, they lie in the foothill and mountainous areas. There are reserves of oil, natural gas, mergel, iodo-bromine water, marble, limestone, sandstone, gravel, quartz sand, iron and apatite ore, stone salt and other minerals. The Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation approved a list of common minerals of the Krasnodar Territory, the following is a list of some of them:

Diatomit;

Limestone;

Marl;

Seven;

Shale (except combustion);

Peat (except for the medicinal purposes).

2.1 deposits in the Krasnodar Territory

Hydrocarbon and energy raw materials

Hydrocarbon and energy raw materials. On the territory of the region revealed 280 fields of oil (Fig. 3) and gas. Oil deposits are located in the thickness of sedimentary rocks and are located at a depth of 700 to 5,200 m. According to geological services, 218 million tons of oil were produced in the region. Of the more than 70 explored oil deposits with a reserve of 41.8 million tons, it is 66. The forecast estimation of oil reserves above explored by about three times.

An example of one of the largest oil fields can serve as a Novodmitrian (Seversky District): it has a length of about 10 km, the width is 2.5 km, and the power of oil-containing rocks (the floor of the nestlessness) is 450 m. Oil lies here at a depth of 2400-2800 m .

Coal deposits are found in mountainous areas in the pools of the rivers of the White, Small and Big Laba. Coal is found in the form of a reservoir of 0.5-0.9 m. But due to the low calorific value, the mining of the Kuban coal is not profitable.

The manifestations of combustible shales of low and medium quality in the interfluve large and small labians were found. According to the forecasts of geologists, shale reserves make up 136.25 million tons. The peat deposits were found in the lower course of Kuban (Hyryva), in Novokubansky district by r. Urup, as well as the mouth of the Mzmitt and Psou rivers on the Black Sea coast. The development of flange flasks and peat deposits is also unprofitable due to their low energy value and small reserves.

Limestone

Limestones and chalk are widely used in the chemical industry for the production of soda, carbide calcium, caustic potassium, caustic soda, in the production of mineral fertilizers and other products. On the territory of the Krasnodar Territory, one (right-bank) deposit of limestone is known. It is located in the Labinsky district, on the right bank of the river. Small laba, 4 km east of J.-D. Station Shemok. Limestones of the Touron and Cogna Taruses of the Upper Chalk are the useful strata, the power of which ranges from 0 to 73 m. The chemical composition of limestone productive strata (in%): CAO - 54.2; MgO - 0.3; SiO 2 - 1.4; R 2 O 3 - 0.7; Na 2 O - 0.04; K 2 o - 0.07; SO 3 - 0.1; P - 0.024. In its properties, limestones are suitable for soda production, and can also be used in the sugar industry and for the production of lime and cement. The reserves of raw materials make up 244314 thousand tons.

Sea shell

The seafrine deposits in the Krasnodar Territory are confined to the coast of the Azov Sea and his estuary and to a lesser extent of the Limanov of the Taman Peninsula. Genetically, they are modern sea preciputes, scamped by sea currents and surfs along the coastline in the form of shafts and braids. Such clusters of the sea rocker have a width and a length of several kilometers and a power of several meters. The main component in the composition of the seasons deposits are lime shells (integers or debris) of modern clams containing small amounts of sand, clays, organic residues, etc., depending on the particle size and pollution, the sea shell can be used to ballasting the railway canvase, For firing on lime, for the production of wall blocks and for the preparation of feed flour and cereals.

In the Krasnodar Territory described 33 seasons deposits. Of these, only 6 deposits are on the balance sheet of stocks (Brick, West Plot; Slobodkinskoye, Khansky, Dolzhanskoye; Zaboyo and Cherneerkovskoye) with common reserves equal to 4220 thousand m 3. Of these, the Bridge, Zakooye and Cherneerkovskoye deposits are being developed. They are located on the territory of Yeisk and Primorsko-Ahtar regions. The raw materials of all listed deposits are suitable for use as a stern flour and cereals.

The most largest in Krasnodar Territory is the valder seashell's field. It is located in Eiskner, 3 km north-west of the village of Dolzhanskaya and 45 km to the west of Yeisk, on the braid is long. The useful stratum is composed of medium-duty and modern marine sediments presented by the whole and crushed sea shek, with an admixture of sand. Crowded clusters are plastually in the form of a braid of 4 km long and a width of 30 to 1200 m; The capacity of the useful thickness is 2.65-6.1 m. Curl sediments are suitable for feeding birds. The deposit is a reserve.

Building stone .

In Krasnodar Territory, 41 building stone deposits are known. 25 deposits are developed, 7 - prepared for the development, one is encouraged and 8 is a reserve. There are such fields such as: Medvezhiegorskoe (6 km from Derbent), Northern Mountain (4 km from Ilskaya), right-bank (4 km from Shemok), Hodgokhokhskoe (12 km from the stone-beam). The total stocks of the building stone make up 213.15 million m³, with the reserves of limestone used to obtain rubble and butt stone - 118.886 million m³; Stocks of sandstones suitable for obtaining rubble - 39,123 million m³. Also limestones are used for the needs of sugar production.

2.2 mining of the main organogenic rocks in the Krasnodar Territory

Krasnodar Territory is the birthplace of the domestic oil industry. From the depth of the region, 1.7 - 1.9 million tons of oil is extracted annually, natural gas production has been brought to 3 billion m³. The specified table shows how oil production in Kuban has steadily grew, with the exception of military years and the period of the economic crisis of the 90s of the XX century.

Table 2. Radiation rates of oil production in the Kuban

All currently developed oil fields of the Krasnodar Territory are located on land. Oil production in the edge of small fields was 74%, and from Anastasian-Troitsky large deposit - 26% of the annual volume. In recent years, the greatest increase in the reserves and production of oil (and gas) is ensured by refrigerant and exploration of the coastal-sweet-frost group of deposits (33.8% of the annual production of oil). The average security of oil reserves in the region, with a modern level of production, is about 22 years.

Preparation of new industrial stocks of hydrocarbons in the region, at the present stage, is complicated by the fact that the searches are carried out mainly into small and complex deposits, with exit to significant depths, in areas with severe mining and technical conditions.

The main exploded fields in the territory of the deposits are at the final stage of development. Krasnodar region refers to the oldest oil and gas distribution regions of Russia. Most of its deposits with the main reserves of raw materials were put into operation more than 30-40 years ago and continues to be operated so far.

The main district of the coal industry is the east wing of Donbass in the Rostov region. (Shakhty, Novoshakhtinsk, etc.). Coal mining is about 7 million tons. (2% of all-Russian mining) ". Coal (cocking and energy) is mined at high depth in the conditions of low power of the formation, which causes a high cost and limited (south of Russia) the market for the sale of these coal. Further drop in production is unlikely to stop, as the production conditions are complex, and the rich deposits have already been developed.

Unwanted limestone mining is conducted on the eastern slope

Fig. 4. Limestone mining

Dzochinsky karst massif, in the 24th quarter of the Sochi National Park (Fig. 4), which is included in the particularly protected area. Here, on the rocks of the Shahgin Gorge, there are several types of plants introduced into the Red Book of Russia and the Krasnodar Territory. The development of the career is carried out using excavators, the stone is loaded on the dump trucks and export the crusher on the ermolok located above.

3 . Application in industry, construction and agriculture

Sedimentary breeds have an extremely important practical and theoretical value. In this regard, no other rocks can be compared with them.

The sedimentary rocks are the most important practical terms: it is also minerals, and grounds for structures, and soil.

The scientific and practical importance of coal and combustible shale are exceptionally large: they are used to periodize the history of the Earth, in stratigraphic studies (correlation of cuts and the determination of age), facial analysis and paleogeography, in the stadial analysis of the reflectivity of the shower, etc.

The practical value of coal can not be overestimated. This is before under the main source of energy. Only from the mid-50-x years, the first place of oil lost, but there was already a tendency to re-enter the leaders, and this perspective is ensured by huge coal resources on Earth (almost 15 or even 30 trillion. T), an order of magnitude more than oil and gas resources, Together (Golitsyn, Golitsyn, 1989, p. 42). With soon reducing oil production, its substitute will perform combustible shale (GC), "the total global reserves of which are 450 trillion. T "(UN, 1967), which is an order of magnitude more coal and oil reserves (92 billion tons), although the inorganic part is and predominant in their composition. The HS contains from 26 to 53 trillion. T Slanza resin (according to different estimates; Golitsyn, Prokofiev 1990, p. 15), if the lower limit of the resin is to take 4% (and the top reaches 35% in the balkalti coucerks and in the Glen-Devis field in Australia). More than half (53%) HP resources are concentrated in the United States, especially in the richest Green River basin (Rocky GOPs). Only from coal, if it is mined all, you can build a cube with a rebier 21 km (volume more than 10 thousand km3, which is almost 3 times higher than Everest (Golitsyn, Golitsyn, 1989, p. 42). Stone coal resources are counted to depths 1800 m (sometimes up to 2000 m), brown - 600, lignites - 300 m.

Fuel shale are used as fuel at least from 1694 as the source of energy they are the hope of humanity. The heat of fighting them from 4-5 to 20-25 MJ / kg (Golitsyn, Prokofiev, 1990, p. 7). For heat combustion (more than 15 mJ / kg), resin exit (up to 25-30%), small sulfur (less than 1%), low ash content and humidity The world's best Baltic Corksites. Limit the combustion of the shale. Their sulfur caused by 10% (sulfur poisoning with sulfuric acid), and high ash content and humidity (up to 30%). Shale - valuable chemical raw materials, especially due to the large content of phenols, difficult from oil. The diagonal shale of the Baltic states are interesting to the content of molybdenum, vanadium, silver, lead, copper and other rare and scattered elements (Golitsyn, Prokofiev, 1990, p. 25, etc.).

Peat - unique material. Despite the fact that it is known for many hundreds of years and has been actively used by humanity in industry as fuel and agriculture as a fertilizer, only recently unique peat properties were discovered. Peat turned out to be an unsurpassed natural antiseptic and fantastically excellent raw materials for the production of natural fabrics.

Its huge and constantly renewable reserves can be considered as giant deposits of a unique sorbing material.

Peat can crush oil in a harmless substance in large quantities. During the tragedy in the Mexican bay, it was necessary to simply float the spot in a large number of peat, which could turn into il, which would stimulate the growth of algae.

The peat is practically not used to clean wastewater from metals and organic substances, although its low cost and high degree of purification can make it the most popular material in the world. Moreover, the spectrum of sorption them is very wide from lithium to uranium. Practically all toxic organic substances can be caught peat.

The practical importance of carbonatolites is that all of them are minerals. Limestone, chalk and dolomite, are used in black and non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical industry, in the production of cement and other binding materials, for the release of rubber, glass, sugar, obtaining limestone flour for the amelioration of acidic soils, mineral feeding in animal husbandry and poultry farming, as well as in Other industries, where requirements for carbonate raw materials are determined mainly by its chemical and mineral composition. Due to the considerable distribution and variety of properties, carbonate rocks are used in large volumes in various industries and agriculture. Also, one of the main consumers of carbonate rocks is the construction industry. Used to finish the facades (Fig. 5), for the manufacture of various sealants, putty and plaster mixtures. The total number of explored reserves of carbonate raw materials, taken into account by various stocks of Russia's reserves, is currently exceeding 60 billion tons, more than 1900 deposits are developed, about 570 are developed.

Silicon breeds (diatomites, trees, clocks) due to the presence in their composition of amorphous active silica acids have a number of very valuable properties: a thin-burning structure, a relatively small volumetric mass and thermal conductivity. The combination of these properties predetermines their effective use in the production of building materials (Fig. 6) and in particular in the production of ceramic products. Experience shows that the use of siliceous and clay rocks in a mixture with welded waste can significantly improve the physicomechanical properties of ceramics due to the creation of the reducing medium and the transition of the trivalent iron in a more incommable bivalent, which provides more intensive sintering when the temperature is reduced by 100 - 1500С.

Conclusion

The purpose of this course work was to explore such a type of sedimentary rocks as organogenic. The set goal is achieved - the origin, composition and features are considered, as well as the main deposits in the Krasnodar Territory.

Despite the diversity of organogenic rocks, the most common and most important are present in the work.

More than three-quarters of the continents are covered with sedimentary rocks, so they are most often dealing with them in geological work. In addition, the overwhelming part of the mineral deposits developed, including oil and gas, is associated with sedimentary rocks. They are well preserved the remnants of extinct organisms, for which you can trace the history of the development of the Earth. Also, organogenic rocks have been widely used in many industries, construction and agriculture.

Based on the work done, it is possible to sum up that organogenic rocks used by a person have unique and beneficial properties that make these breeds relevant and today.

Bibliography

seding Mountain Oil Organogenic

1. Kuznetsov V.G. Lithology. Sediment rocks and their study. - M.: Non-Ukrainian Center, 2007.

2. Sokolovsky A.K., Korsakov A.K., Fedchuk V.Ya. and others. General geology. M.: KDU, 2006.

3. Dreeshymers Ya.S. Basics of geology, search and exploration of mineral deposits. - M.: Nedra, 1987.

4. Svanov V.N., Frolov V.T., Sergeeva E.I. and others. Systematics and classification of sedimentary rocks and their analogues. SPB: Nedra, 1998.

Mountain breeds are minerals and their connections. It is impossible to present our planet without minerals actually forming it.

Classification system

Eliminate a huge number of types of breeds divided into groups. Genetically distinguish:

• sediment;
• metamorphic;
• magmatic.

The latter are still divided into three classes:

• plutonic;
• hypabissual;
• volcanic.

Subgroups can be divided into:

• sour;
• medium;
• main;
• ultrasound.

It is practically unrealistic to make a complete list of rocks, given all the species that exist on Earth, so many of them. As part of this article, we will attempt to structure information on the most interesting and common types.

Metamorphic rocks: list

These are formed under the influence of the characteristic earthly crust because the transformation occurs when substances in the solid phase are visually invisible. During the transition, the structure, texture, composition of the initial breed change. So that such changes occurred, a successful combination is necessary:

• heating;
• pressure;
• the effects of gases, solutions.

There is a metamorphism:

• regional;
• contact;
• hydrothermal;
• pneumatolite;
• dynamometamophism.

Amphibolites

These minerals are formed and plagioclase. The first is classified as a ribbon silicate. Visually amphibolites are shale or arrays of colors from a dark green to black. The color depends on the ratio in the composition of the mineral there are dark color components. Secondary minerals of this group:

• garnet;
• magnetite;
• titanite;
• thaisite.

Gneissa

By its structure, GNEs is extremely close to granite. Visually to distinguish these two minerals from each other may not always be, since Gneis copies granite and is nearing to it in physical parameters. But the price of Gneis is significantly lower.

Gneissi is widely available, so applicable in construction. Minerals are diverse and aesthetic. The density is high, so you can use a stone as a concrete aggregate. With little porosity and low ability to absorb water Gneisse have increased resistance to freeze. Since weathelation is also small, the use of a mineral is allowed as a facing.

Shale

By drawing up a list of rocks, from among the metamorphic necessarily you need to mention the shale. Eliminate their kinds like:

• clay;
• crystalline;
• talc;
• chlorite.

Due to the unusual structure and aesthetics of this stone, in recent years, the slate has become an indispensable decorative material used in construction.

Shale is a rather large group that make up rocks. The list of types of varieties actively used by humanity for different purposes (mainly in construction, repair, reconstruction):

• aneurolite;
• zlatlatit;
• serpentinite;
• gnisy;
• and phyllite shale.

Quartzite

This stone is known for its strength, as it is formed by quartz with the addition of impurities. A quartzite of sandstone is formed when the initial elements of the mineral are replaced by quartz with regional metamorphism.

In nature, quartzite is found in a solid layer. We are often impurities:

• hematite;
• granite;
• silicon;
• magnetite;
• mica.

The richest deposits were found in:

• India;
• Russia;
• Canada.

Main features of the mineral:

• resistance to frost, moisture, temperatures;
• strength;
• safety, environmental cleanliness;
• durability;
• resistance to alkalis, acids.

Phillit

Not last place in the list of rocks belongs to phyllitis. They occupy an intermediate position between clay and saliva shale. Material is dense and fine-grained. At the same time, the stones are obviously crystalline, they are characterized by pronounced shale.

Phillites have a silky glitter. Color gamut - black, shades of gray. Minerals split into thin plates. The composition of the phyllitis is distinguished:

• mica;
• serisite.

May be grains, crystals:

• albit;
• andalusite;
• grenade;
• quartz.

Rich deposits of phyllites in France, England and the USA.

Sedimentary rocks: list

Minerals of this group are located mainly on the surface of the planet. The following conditions must be observed for the formation:

• low temperatures;
• precipitation.

Three genetic subspecies are isolated:

• crying, representing coarse stones formed in the destruction of the breed;
• clay, the origin of which is associated with the transformation of minerals of Silicate and Aluminosilicate groups;
• biochemo-, chemo-, organogenic. These are formed in precipitation processes in the presence of appropriate solutions. This is also actively involved in microscopic and not only organisms, substances of organic origin. It is important to the role of life products.

From chemogenic allocate:

• halogen;
• sulfate.

List of rocks of this subgroup:

• gypsum;
• anhydrites;
• sylvinitis;
• rock salt;
• carnallit.

The most important sediment rocks:

• Dolomite, similar to dense limestone.
• Limestone consisting of potassium carbonate with an admixture of the same magnesium and a number of inclusions. Mineral parameters vary, are determined by the composition and structure, as well as the mineral texture. Key feature - increased compression strength indicators.
• Sandstone formed by mineral grains associated with among themselves substances of natural origin. Stone strength depends on impurities and what kind of substance has become a binder.

Volcanic rocks

Must be mentioned volcanic rocks. The list is created, including Minerals, formed during the course of this place:

• poland;
• chip;
• volcanic.

• andesite;
• basalt;
• diabase;
• liparite;
• trachyte.

To pyroclastic, that is, the debris, rank:

• breccia;
• tufy.

Almost the full alphabetical list of volcanic type breeds:

• aNORTOZIT;
• granite;
• gabbro;
• diorite;
• dunit;
• comatitis;
• latitis;
• monzonite;
• obsidian;
• pegmatite;
• peridotitis;
• perlite;
• pumice;
• rhyolite;
• syenite;
• tonalit;
• felsitis;
• slag.

Organic rocks

Organic rock formations are formed from the remains of living beings, the list of which is rightfully begins with the most significant substance - chalk. These breeds belong to the above-mentioned group of sedimentary, and are important not only in terms of applicability to solve various human problems, but also as a rich archaeological material.

The most important subspecies of this type of rock is chalk. It is widely known and is actively used in everyday life: it is they written on the schools in schools.

The chalk was formed by Calcite from which the Panziri of the coccolitoforide algae in the ancient seas was consisted. These were microscopic organisms, in the abundance inhabited by our planet about a hundred million years ago. At that time, algae could float freely in the vast territories of the warm sea. Die, microscopic organisms fell on the bottom, forming a dense layer. Some terrain are rich in sediments, in thickness with a hundred meters and more. The most famous chalk hills are:

• volga;
• french;
• english.

Studying chalk breeds, scientists find traces in them:

• marine hero;
• mollusks;
• sponges.

As a rule, these inclusions are only a few percent of the total volume of proven chalk, therefore such components do not affect the parameters of the breed. After studying the chalk deposits, the geologist receives information about:

• age of breed;
• the thickness of water that was here before;
• special conditions that have previously existed in the terrain under study.

Magmatic rocks

Under magmatism, it is customary to understand the totality of phenomena due to magma and its activities. Magma is a silicate melt, in nature present in liquid form close to the fire. The magma has a high percentage of volatile elements. In some cases, there are species:

• non-silicate;
• low-line.

When the magma cools and crystallizes, magmatic rocks appear. They are also called erupted.

Separate rocks:

• intrusive;
• effective.

The first are formed at great depths, and the second - with an eruption, that is, directly on the surface of the planet.

Often in magma there are a variety of rocks, melted and mixed with silicate mass. It is provoked:

• increase in temperature in the thickness of the Earth;
• faded pressure;
• a combination of factors.

The classic version of the magmatic rock is granite. Already his name itself in Latin - "Fire", displays the fact that the breed in the original condition was exclusively hot. Granite is highly appreciated not only at the expense of its technical parameters (this material is incredibly durable), but also because of the beauty caused by crystalline engines.

A large group of breeds occurs in various reservoirs and places on
land as a result of a variety of chemical processes and livelihoods of animals and plants, as well as due to the accumulation of organic residues after, dieting animals and plants. Among them can be isolated carbonate rocks, siliceous, sulfate and halogen, glands, phosphate and caustobiolites.

The carbonate rock group includes limestones, dolomites and mergel.

Limestone (SASO 3) are of the greatest distribution and are formed both by chemical deposition and mainly organogenic. Organogenic limestones are usually made from lime shells of mollusks, remnants of crinoids, limestone algae, corals, etc. Depending on the predominance of remnants of certain marine organisms of limestone, they are called coral, brachyopod, foraminiferous, etc. accumulation of spherical lime grains-olith; Limestone tuffs deferred by sources rich in water with a two-way liquor.

Writing chalk It is a breed formed by dofoy, a significant part of it, about 60-70%, is the remains of skeletal formations of planktonic organisms, the rest is fine-grained, powdered calcite - occurred by a chemical path.

Marl Gives another example of the mountain, rock resulting in two ways. It consists by 50-70% of CASSO 3 of organic origin, and the remaining 50-30% fall into clay particles, as part of which, particles of both debris and chemical origin.

Dolomitesby chemical composition are (by 90-95%), double carbonic salts of calcium and magnesium CAMG (CO 3) 2. With a content of at least 50% Sacoo 3, the breed is called limestone dolomite. They can form by falling out of water from water with high salinity, in this case the dolomite layers are often alternate with plastering plates. But more often, the dolomites are formed due to the change ("dolomitization") with respective solutions of limestone (or lime precipitation before turning the latter in the rock) - the so-called exogenous metasomatic substitution of limestone, as well as hydrothermal-metasomatic means (at low temperatures).

Silicon breeds

Diatomit - loose, earthy or poorly selected mountain breed of yellowish or light gray, consisting of accumulation of skeletal residues stacked by aqueous silica (opal) and microscopic diatomaceous algae. They are sometimes a small admixture of clay particles, quartz and glauconite grains.

Trephal According to its properties, diatomitis is similar, but differs from it the lack of remnants of obvious organic origin. The breed is composed of the smallest opal grains.

Flask - silicon light rock, consisting of opal silica (up to 90%) with a small impurity of radiolearium residues and diatom shells, with quartz grains, glauconite and clay particles. Most often, the layers are solid, a break - a sink, color - from bluish-gray to almost black.

Flove concretion (Jumping) are widespread among sediment rocks. They are formed in various ways. Some of them arise from the solutions circulating in the rocks by filling out the opal-chalcedon substance available in the breeds of emptiness. Others are formed in the process of diagenesis (rebirth of precipitate in the rock) by increasing around any center from a foreign substance as a result of the action of crystallization forces. Space with voids inside called the strokes, with a solid core inside - stuff. Silicon concretions are found in many rocks, but they are especially frequent in the thickness of limestone.

Sulfate and halogen breedsDespite the diversity of their chemical composition, combine the generality of their origin. Their homeland is the drying lagows and solenous lakes separated from marine reservoirs. To this group of rocks includes such single rocks as anhydrite (Caso 4), gypsum (Caso 4 · 2H 2 O), stone salt (NACI).

Breed breeds. Olithic brown troops, consisting of small, rounded, concentrically hell or radial-radial formations, have the greatest distribution and practical importance.

Phosphorite breed Present sedimentary rocks containing 12-40% p 2 o 5. In the form of the occurrence, the phosphorites of the novel or busty are distinguished when they are represented by rivals with spherical or incorrectly rounded shape, and the reservoir when they are stacked in the board of the conglomerate.

Kautobiolites(Organogenic combustible breeds). Among them, caustobiolites of the coal series are distinguished, to which peat, brown coal, stone coal, anthracite and caustobiolites of the bituminous row - oil.

Peatit consists of semi-fed vegetable residues accumulated over a long period in specific conditions of swamps and lakes. The decomposition occurred in water with the participation of various microorganisms and with an insufficient air inflow. The total power of the peat can reach sometimes several meters. The organic substance of the peat contains carbon (from 28 to 35%), oxygen (30-38%), hydrogen (5.5%).

Brown coals There are also a product of changes in plant sediments of previous geological periods. Brown coals are harder and dense peat: specific gravity - 1.1-1.3. They have an admixture of clay material, which causes their high ash content. The carbon content in them is within 67-78%. They are a transitioned breed from peat to stone coals.

Stone coals represent the next stage in changing brown coal. They are black, densely, have a fatty or resin shine and make up a black feature on a porcelain plate. Specific weight - 1.0-1.8; Hardness - 0.5-2.5. Carbon content reaches 80-85%.

Anthracite -the last stage of the process of metamorphization of solid plant residues. The proportion of anthracite - 1.3-1.7; hardness - 2.0-2.5; black color; glitter - semi-metallic; Damn - black. Carbon content - 95-97%.

Oil - Natural combustible oil brown liquid. The composition of the oil includes C, O, N, of which the main role belongs to carbon and hydrogen. Oil is a mixture of liquid hydrocarbons of methane (with N 2 n +2), naphthene (with N 2 n) and aromatic (C n h 2 n -6) series. The proportion of oil is 0.8-0.9. Oil is formed in the thickness of sedimentary rocks accumulating at the bottom of the aqueous basins in the presence of a scattered organic substance, transforming into oil with the participation of organic and inorganic catalysts, in conditions of a strictly reducing medium.

Organogenic rock rocks (from Greek. Organon - organ and -genes - Rodding, Born, Biogenic rocks * A. Organogenic Rocks, Biogenic Rocks; and. Organogene Gesteine; F. Roches Organogenes, Roches Biogenes; I. Rocas Organogenicas) - Sediment Mountain breeds consisting of remnants of animals and plants and their livelihoods. Organisms have the ability to concentrate certain substances that do not reach saturation in natural waters, forming skeletons or tissues that are stored in the fossil state.

On the real composition among organogenic rocks, carbonate, siliceous, some phosphate rocks can be distinguished, as well as coals (see), combustible shale, oil, solid bitumens. Organogenic mountain rocks are carbonate () consist of foraminifera, corals, msnok, brachiopod, mollusks, algae and other organisms.

A peculiar representatives are reef limestones, the congratulations atolls, barrier reefs and others, as well as the writing chalk. It includes organogenic mountain rocks: diatomitis, spongolitis, radiolite, etc. diatomites consist of opal skeletons of diatom algae, as well as a sprocket of silica and radilation. Sprongs - rocks usually containing more than 50% of the sprocket of silica sponges. Cement is silly, from opal rounded Taurus, or clay, slightly limestone, often includes secondary chalcedony. Radioarities are silicon breeds, more than 50% consisting of radioleary skeletons, which in modern oceans form a radiolarium il. In addition to radiolearians, spokes are included in them, rare shells of diatom algae, kokkolitoforids, opal and clay particles. Many jashers have the basis of radilation.

Organogenic rock phosphate rocks do not have much spread. These include sevenchers from phosphate shells of silurian brachiopod - obolide, clusters of bones of fossil vertebrates (bone breccia), known in sediments of different ages, as well as Guano. Organogenic mountain breeds carbon - fossil coals and combustible shale are often found, but their mass in the earth's crust is small compared to carbonate rocks. Oil and hard bitumens are peculiar breeds, the main material for the formation of which phytoplankton served.

Under the conditions of formation (mainly in relation to carbonate rocks), bio-meters can be distinguished - the accumulation of the residues of organisms in the lifetime position, tanato- and taprocenoses - the joint burial of the dead organisms living here or transferred by waves and flows; Breeds arising from planktonic organisms are called planktonogenic (for example, diatomit, chalk, foraminiferous limestone).

If the organic residues are fragmented as a result of the action of the waves and the surf, organogenic-chip rocks are formed, consisting of debris (detritus) of shells and skeletons fastened by any mineral substance (for example,).

Sedimentary rocks (OGP) are formed in mechanical and chemical destruction of magmatic rocks under the action of water, air and organic matter.

Sedimentary rocks - rocks that exist in thermodynamic conditions characteristic of the surface part of the earth's crust, and resulting from moving products of weathering and destruction of various rocks, chemical and mechanical precipitation from water, livelihoods of organisms or all three processes at the same time.

Under the influence of wind, the sun, water and due to the temperature difference, the magmatic rocks are destroyed. Loose fragments of magmatic rocks form loose sediments and layers of sedimentary debris origin are formed. Over time, these breeds are compacted and comparatively solid dense sedimentary rocks are formed.

More than three quarters of the continents are covered with OGP, so with them most often have to deal with geological work. In addition, the overwhelming part of mineral deposits is also associated with OGP genetically or spatially. The remnants of extinct organisms are well preserved in OGP, according to which you can trace the development history of various parts of the Earth. In sedimentary rocks contain fossils (phossils). Studying them, you can find out what kinds inhabit the land millions of years ago. Fossilis (Lat. Fossilis - fossil) - Fossil remains of organisms or traces of their livelihoods belonging to the former geological epochs.

Fig. Fossilia: a) Trilobites (marine arthropods found in Cambrian, Ordovik, Silurian and Devonian periods) and b) petrified plants.

The initial material in the formation of OGP is minerals formed due to the destruction of previous minerals and mining rocks of igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary origin and moved in the form of solid particles or solutes. Litology science is engaged in studying sediment rocks.

In the formation of sedimentary rocks, various geological factors are involved: destruction and transition of the destruction of previously existing breeds, mechanical and chemical fallout of sediment from water, the vital activity of organisms. It happens that several factors take part in the formation of a breed. At the same time, some breeds can be formed different ways. So, limestone, there may be chemical, biogenic or debris origin.

Examples of sedimentary rocks: gravel, sand, pebbles, clay, limestone, salt, peat, combustible slate, stone and brown coal, sandstone, phosphoritis, etc.

Mountain breeds are not eternal and they change over time. The diagram shows the process of cycle of rocks.

Fig. The process of cycle of rocks.

In the sign of origin, sedimentary rocks are divided into three groups: chip, chemical and organic.

Chip rocks They are formed in the processes of destruction, transfer and deposits of rocks of rocks. This is most often stony scree, pebbles, sands, loams, clay and stories. Crowded breeds are divided into size:

· Grub-lumpy (\u003e 2 mm); Acreditated fragments - dressing, crushed stone, sacked by clay shale form breccia, and cycled - gravel, pebbles - conglomerates);

· middle Blumber(from 2 to 0.5 mm) - form sands;

· Fall-cleaned, or dusty - form stories;

· fine-roll, or clay (< 0,001 мм) – при уплотнении превращаются в глинистые сланцы.

Sedimentary breeds of chemical origin - salts and deposits formed from saturated aqueous solutions. They have a layered structure, consist of halogen, sulfate and carbonate minerals. These include stone salt, plaster, carnallitis, opoks, mergel, phosphorites, iron-manganese concretions, etc. (Table 2.4). They can be formed in a mixture with debris and organic sediments.

Mergel is formed when shears from limestones of calcium carbonate, contains clay particles, dense, light.

MARGANDESS SPECIONS Form from colloidal solutions and under the action of microorganisms and create balloidal deposits of iron ores. Phosphorites are formed in the form of cishetoid concretions of the wrong shape, with the merger of which phosphoritic plates occur - the deposit of phosphorite ores of gray and browned colors.

Mountain breeds of organic origin are widespread in nature - these are the remains of animals and plants: corals, limestone, shells, radiolearies, diatoms and various black organic iba, peat, stone and brown coals, oil.

The sedimentary thickness of the earth's crust is formed under the influence of climate, glaciers, drain, soil formation, the life of organisms, and it is inherent zonality: zonal bottom yers in the world ocean and continental deposits on land (glacier and water-glacier in polar areas, peat in taiga, salt in desert, etc.). The sedimentary strata was accumulated for many years. During this time, the pattern of zonality varied repeatedly due to changes in the position of the axis of the rotation of the Earth and other astronomical causes. For each specific geological era, a system of zones can be restored with the corresponding differentiation of precipitation processes. The structure of a modern sedimentary shell is the results of overlapping a set of multiple zonal systems.

For most of the territory of the globe, the soil formation goes on sedimentary rocks. In the northern part of Asia, Europe and America, extensive spaces are occupied by rocks, deferred quaternary period glaciers (moraine) and the products of erosion by their thawed glacial waters.

Moraine loam and sandy. These breeds differ in the inhomogeneity of the composition: they represent a combination of clay, sand and boulders of various sizes. Summer soils contain more Si02 and less than other oxides. Coloring mostly red-brown, sometimes pale or light brown; Addition dense. More favorable medium for plants represent sea sediments containing boulders of lime rocks.

Coating clay and loam - Maleless, fine-graded rocks. Consist mainly of particles less than 0.05 mm in diameter. The painting is brownish-yellow, mostly possess the shallow porosity. Contain more power items than the sands described above.

Ledsovoid loams and lesters are mantam, fine-seated, carbonate, failed and yellow-failed, fine-porous rocks. For typical explosions, the predominance of particles with a diameter of 0.05-0.01 mm is characteristic. There are also varieties with a predominance of particles with a diameter of less than 0.01 mm. Calcium carbon dioxide ranges from 10 to 50%. The upper layers of Limsoid Suglinks are often exempt from carbon dioxide calcium. Quartz prevail, wild spasps, clay minerals dominate.

Red color weathered. In countries with tropical and subtropical climates, fine-graded sediments of tertiary age are widespread. They differ in reddish color, are strongly enriched with aluminum and iron and depleted with other elements.

A typical example: latherites, a red-colored rock is rich in iron and aluminum in hot and wet tropical areas, formed as a result of weathering of rocks.

Fig. Laterithic weathered crust

Indigenous rocks. On significant territories on the surface, sea and continental rocks of the spectacle age are published, united by "indigenous rocks". These rocks are especially common in the Volga region, as well as in the foothills and mountainous countries. Among the indigenous rocks are widespread, carbonate and merghelistic loams and clay, limestones, as well as sandy deposits. It should be noted the enrichment of many sand indigenous breeds by food elements. In addition to quartz, these sands contain significant amounts of other minerals: mica, field spatts, some silicates, etc., as the parent rock formation, they differ sharply from the annular quartz sands. The composition of the indigenous rocks is very diverse and not sufficiently studied.