Scientific knowledge, its specificity and structure. Specificity and levels of scientific knowledge
Scientific knowledge is a socially determined process of knowledge of the laws of the objective world, the result of which is a developing system of true knowledge and methods serving the objectives of transforming reality.
The main task of science is to identify objective laws of reality, and its immediate goal and the highest value is an objective truth. Scientific knowledge is inherent in objectivity, internal systemicity, constant focus on practice, an anticipation of prediction, strict evidence, the validity of the results obtained, the accuracy of the conclusions, systematics and systematicity, planness, orientation to the scientific truth.
Science forms a single interconnected developing system of knowledge of global laws. This system is divided into many branches of knowledge that differ among themselves what straight reality, they are studying the form of motion. According to the method and the subject of knowledge, it is possible to allocate sciences about nature - natural science, and society - social studies. In turn, each group of sciences can be subjected to more detailed membership. Science on the most general laws of reality is philosophy.
For their remoteness, science practices are divided into fundamental, finding out the basic laws and principles of the real world, where there is no direct orientation into practice, and applied is the direct application of the results of scientific knowledge to solve practical problems. But the boundaries between the sciences are conditional and mobile, the proof of this is the fact of the existence of the bog disciplines (biophysics, geochemistry ...).
Scientific knowledge involves the use of a certain set of techniques and operations leading to the achievement of the goal - the method (with Greek. "The path to something"). The concept of "methodology" has two main values: 1) a system of certain principles, techniques and operations used in a particular field of activity; 2) The doctrine of this system, the theory of the method.
The method comes down to the totality of certain rules, techniques, the norms of knowledge in action. He is a system! prescriptions, principles, requirements that orient researchers in solving a specific task. The method disciplines the search for truth, allows you to select the shortest path in search of the result. The main function of the method - regulation of cognitive and other forms of activity. The variety of human activity determines the diverse range of methods that are classified according to various criteria.
All methods of scientific knowledge are divided according to the degree of community and sphere:
1. Philosophical methods- dialectical, metaphysical, analytical, intuitive, etc.
2. Nearby approachesand research methods, to stepping as an interim methodology between philosophy and fundamental theoretical and methodological principles of special sciences. On the basis of general scientific concepts and concepts, appropriate methods and principles of cognition are formulated, such as systemic and fragments of non-suitable, cybernetic, etc.
3. Private scientific methods -the combination of methods, the principles of knowledge, research techniques and procedures used in a particular branch of science corresponding to this basic form of motion of matter. These are methods of mechanics, physics.
4. Disciplinary methodsthe system of receptions used in one or another scientific discipline included in some branch of science.
5. Methods of interdisciplinary research.
The method is considered scientific subject to its conformity.
the object of knowledge, goals and objectives of the study. The method must comply with a number of requirements: clarity, determinism, orientation, fruitfulness, ability to provide related results, reliability, efficiency. What is the perfect method, the greater the extent it meets these requirements.
The specifics of scientific knowledge and criteria of scientific relations. Functions of science. Levels of scientific research.
Specificity of scientific knowledge.
Science as a peculiar form of knowledge began to develop relatively independently in the era of the formation of a capitalist production method (XVI-XVII centuries).
The main features of scientific knowledge: 1. The first and main task of scientific knowledge, as we have already found out - the detection of objective laws of reality - natural, social (public), laws of knowledge itself, thinking, etc.
2. The immediate goal and the highest value of scientific knowledge is the objective truth, comprehended mainly by rational means and methods, but, of course, not without the participation of living contemplation.
3. Science is more than other forms of cognition, focused on practical embodiment. The life sense of scientific research can be expressed by the formula: "Know to anticipate, to foresee to practically act."
4. Scientific knowledge in the gnoseological terms is a complex, controversial process of reproduction of knowledge that form a holistic developing system of concepts, theories, hypotheses, laws and other ideal forms assigned in the language.
5. In the process of scientific knowledge, such specific material products are used as instruments, tools, another t. N. "Scientific equipment", often very complex and expensive.
6. Scientific knowledge is inherent in strict evidence, the validity of the results obtained, the accuracy of the conclusions. At the same time, there are a lot of hypotheses, guessing, assumptions, probabilistic judgments.
In modern methodology, various criteria for scientific relations are distinguished. These include, besides above called, such as internal systemic knowledge, its formal consistency, experienced verifiability, reproducibility, openness for criticism, freedom from bias, rigidity, etc.
Criteria.
Scientific criteria:
1) objectivity, or objectivity principle. Scientific knowledge is associated with the disclosure of natural objects taken by "by itself" as "things in themselves" (not in the Kantian understanding, but as not yet disabled, but learned).
2) rationality, rationalistic validity, evidence. According to some researchers, ordinary knowledge is, among other things, a reference character, relies on "opinions", "authority"; In scientific knowledge, something is not just reported, and the necessary foundations are given by which this content is true; This is valid for the principle of sufficient foundation.
3) Essentialist orientation, i.e. The focus on the reproduction of the essence, the patterns of the object (the reflection of repeated, but non-essential properties of the object is also subject to this goal).
4) a special organization, a special system of knowledge; Not just orderliness, as in everyday knowledge, and ordering for conscious principles; Organization in the form of the theory and detailed theoretical concept.
5) verifiability; here and appeal to scientific observation, to practice, and the test of logic, logical path; Scientific truth characterizes knowledge, which in principle verified and ultimately turn out to be confirmed. Checkeredness of scientific truths, their reproducibility through practice gives them the property of general security.
The general accuracy itself is not a criteria sign of the truth of one or another. The fact that the majority will vote for some position, does not mean that it is true.
Functions of science.
In the methodology of science, such functions of science are allocated as a description, explanation, foresight, understanding.
With all the influence of Empirism, he was not inclined to reduce science to the collection of single facts. The foresight he considered the main function of science.
E.Mima is the only function of science announced a description.
The explanation and foresight of the MAX in essence reduced the description. Theories from his point of view are like compressed empirical.
V. Dieltee divided the science of nature and "Science of Spirit" (Humanitarian). He believed that the main cognitive function of sciences about nature is an explanation, and "Sciences about the Spirit" - an understanding.
However, nature sciences also fulfill the function of understanding.
The explanation is associated with understanding, since the explanation arguedly demonstrates us the meaningfulness of the existence of the object, which means that it makes it possible to understand it.
Levels of scientific research.
Scientific knowledge is a process, i.e. the developing system of knowledge. It includes two main levels - empirical and theoretical.
On the empirical level, living contemplation (sensual knowledge), the rational moment and its form (judgments, concepts, etc.) are present here, but have a subordinate importance. Therefore, the object is investigated mainly by its external relations and relations available to living contemplation. Collection of facts, their primary generalization, description of the observed and experimental data, their systematization, classification and other factors - characteristic signs of empirical knowledge.
Empirical research is directed directly to its object. It masters it with the help of techniques and means as comparison, measurement, observation, experiment, analysis, induction.
The specifics of the theoretical level of scientific knowledge determines the predominance of the rational moment - concepts, theories, laws and other forms and "mental operations".
The empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge are interconnected, the boundary between them is conditional and mobile. At certain points of development of science, the empirical goes to theoretical and vice versa. However, it is unacceptable to absolute one of these levels to the detriment of the other.
Science from other types of knowledge (ordinary, religious, artistic, ideological) is distinguished by the following characteristics:
a) on the subject. The subject of science is not all infinitely diverse connections and phenomena of the world, but only the essential, necessary, general, repetitive links are laws. A scientist among suddenness is looking for a need, in single, concrete facts - general.
b) by the method. Special methods and techniques are being developed in science - methods. In the system of science, disciplines are developed specifically engaged in the study of methods of cognition: methodology, logic, history of science, linguistics, informatics, etc. Logic - Science on non-profitable forms and means of thought required for rational knowledge. Methodology - the doctrine of the methods of knowledge, the principles and borders of the application of methods, on their relationship (system of methods). General principles of knowledge and general scientific methods are traditionally studied in philosophy. For any developed science, methodological reflection is characteristic, that is, justifications and systematization of their own research methods. For modern natural science and scientific and technical knowledge, a wide use of special tools and appliances is characterized (there is even the concept of the "Industry of Science"). The methods of science are divided into philosophical (metaphysical, dialectical, principle of general communication, the principle of historicism, the principle of contradictions, etc.), general scientific and specific scientific, as well as empirical and theoretical (see Table 6).
c) by language. Science creates and enjoys a specific language. Language is a system of signs that serves as a means of human communication, thinking and expression. Language is a specific means of transmitting information. Highlight natural and artificial languages. The unity of the natural language is the word. As part of artificial languages \u200b\u200b- the formalization process. Formalization is the procedure for replacing the designation of the real object or its verbal description by the sign. For example, the same phenomenon expressed in the natural language (three plus two is equal to five) and the formalized language (3 + 2 \u003d 5). Formalized science languages \u200b\u200bcontribute to brevity, clarity of the expression of thought, allow you to avoid multigid, carry out complex operations with the iconic object models. Education (especially humanitarian) enjoys both natural language, but also contains special requirements: the logicality, rigor, clarity of the definition of terms. In science, the process of international unification of the language is gradually underway. Mathematics or cybernetics from different countries today do not need a translator, they understand each other thanks to universal formalized languages. Obviously, representatives of all other sciences will follow them. According to the results. Scientific knowledge system, reasonable, is proved and presented in the form of specific forms. The main forms of scientific knowledge have an idea, problem, hypothesis, scientific law, concept, scientific picture of the world.
e) on the subject. Scientific activities involve special training of the subject. The scientist must have certain qualities: S wide erudition; S deep knowledge in your area; S ability to use scientific methods; S creative abilities;
v A certain system of target attitudes and value orientations
(Truth is a vertex in the hierarchy of the values \u200b\u200bof the scientist) s a strong will.
In scientific knowledge allocated, as a rule, empirical and theoretical levels. Comparative analysis of them will be submitted as a table (see Table 6).
Table 6. Empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge.
The differences presented, of course, have no absolute nature. In real scientific activities, empiric and the theory are inextricably linked and complement each other.
Topify your dictionary with the following concepts: knowledge, object of knowledge, subject of knowledge, image, objectivity, subjectivity, resentment, agnosticism, sensual knowledge, feeling, perception, performance, sensualism, rationalism, abstraction, concept, judgment, conclusion, truth, dogmatism, Relativism, scientific knowledge, method of knowledge, concrete, abstract, observation, measurement, description, experiment, analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy, hypothesis, idealization.
Perform the following creative exercises:
Exercise 1
Which gnoseological position is expressed in the following fragment of the poetic text: "Mirozdanya is comprehended, everyone knows, and not by selecting: what - inside, in the external you will find it; what is outside, inside, you will find out. So, take a point without a light guarantee."
Task 2.
What is the name of the philosophical direction, reflected in the next thesis: "Human knowledge never reaches more than give him feelings. Everything that is not available to feelings is not available and for the mind." K. Gelwecia.
Task 4.
Which is a philosopher's gnoseological position: "All the thoughts and actions of our soul flow out of her own essence and cannot be fame ... feelings." Labitz.
Task 5.
Describe the position of agnosticism, hover the arguments or examples into the proof of the thesis: "The World is unrecognizable."
Task 6.
As you understand the reasoning F. Bekon: "Empirics, like ants, just collect and be satisfied with the collected. Rationalists, like a spider, make fabrics from themselves. The bee chooses the average way: it collects material from garden and wildflowers, but it has and change it According to his ability. It does not differ from this and the present case of philosophy. " F. Bacon.
Task 7.
How can I answer the question from different gnoseological positions: granted to a person when he sees red, it feels solid, etc., objective reality or not?
Task 8.
What arguments you can bring to justify the thesis: "Peace recognizable." As with this statement, combine the well-known paradox of the process of knowledge, the more we know, the more the limit of the unknown.
Task 9.
It is proved that in nature there is no red, green, yellow ... Why do we all define colors of the same?
Task 10.
Which is a gnoseological position reflected in the following reasoning: "Since external objects as they appear feelings, do not give us through their operations in isolated cases of the ideas of force, or the necessary communication, let's see, not our own spirit and or not copied it according to any internal impression? "D.YUM.
What is the difference between the visual image of the object in consciousness from the photo? What image more accurately, adequately reflects the object? Argument your answer.
If the world around us is controversial, then the knowledge must be contradictory, only in this case it will be true. Should I have from this that consistent knowledge is a mistake?
The world is in constant change, movement, development: we are the results of the knowledge of the world developing strive to submit to the finished, statistical provisions - truths. How is this contradiction solved in various gnoseological concepts?
Analyze the gnoseological position of the philosopher: "I see this cherry, I perceive her touching her, I try her ... So, it is real. Remove the feeling of softness, humidity, redness, tartness - and you will destroy the cherry. Because it is not there is a great From sensations, then cherry ... There is nothing more than a combination of sensual impressions or ideas perceived by different feelings. " J. Berkeley.
After all, you are doing the mind
And it may even settle the planet creating, the lighter of all living, and give them the image of a durable raft. ... immensely thought
After all, the thought of the radiant accommodates the years, life has long thickens during one.
D.Zh. Bayron.
What is the characteristic feature of thinking here is marked? How is this feature interpreted in various gnoseological concepts?
"Truth is what simplifies the world, and not what the chaos creates." A. De Saint-Exupery.
What feature of true knowledge competed here? What interpretations of truth do you know?
Give the definition of the concept of "objective truth". If all people disappear and only books will remain on the "bare" land, then the truth will remain?
Argument your answer.
Opposite gnoseological positions faces M. Gorky in the following text: "... In all the tradesman, it makes the existence of a person useful or fun for himself. He loves that he has strong, comfortable furniture in his house, and in the head were strong, reliable truths in his head, For which he could well cover himself from the head of new trends of thought. And so he always hurries to make from bold guessing. A person is useful for his life - it is his work of life that he is obliged to be such a mass of delusions and prejudices, which he considers truths of tested strength . He is much more convenient to believe - he wants to live calmly - and he does not like to think, because the opinion is looking to be tirelessly and creates, he examines the created it and destroys, and creates again. " M. Gorky.
"And what a measure of truth can be clearer and rather, as the true idea itself, both the world detects himself and the surrounding darkness, and the truth is Merylo and itself and lies." B. Spinosa.
Do you agree with the philosopher? What criteria of true knowledge exist?
"We should not forget that the criterion of practice can never at the very essence of the case, confirm or refute completely whatever human representation." VLENIN
Practice is at the same time the absolute and relative criterion of truth. Explain this thesis.
They say that the English scientist Jomson, who opened in 1897. The electron was confused, and is even amazed by what I found, because I could not believe in the existence of bodies that would be less atom. Not without hesitation gave him the first performances in front of his colleagues and the first publications, especially since his message was perceived, to put it mildly, without enthusiasm. Give a philosophical comment to this historic fact.
"What is truly true in itself, the truth is identically united, perceive it in judgments, people or monsters, angels or gods ... Even if all the suspended mass attracts disappeared, the law of attraction would not be destroyed, but just remained for limits of possible application. " £ Husserl.
Analyze the gnoseological position of the author.
Do you agree with the subsequent remark by A. Poincare about the "unusual" geometry: "The more these buildings are removed from the most common concepts and, therefore, from nature
the clearer can be seen for us, which can make the human mind when he is exempting more and more tyranny of the outside world. "
Analyze the following statement M. Born: "Observation or measurement is not to the phenomenon of nature as such, but only to aspect under which it is considered in reference systems, or to the projections on the reference system, which, of course, of course, is created by the entire installation ".
What kind of haapeological problems are reflected in the next reasoning E. Maha: "In everyday thinking and in everyday speech, it is opposed to certainly seemingly, illusory reality. Holding a pencil in front of us in the air, we see it in a literal position; dropping it in an inclined position into the water, we see It is bent. In the latter case, they say: "The pencil seems curved, but in reality he is straight." Speaking in such cases about illusion makes sense from the point of view of practical, but not scientific. It does not make any sense to the same way ... often The question discussed, there is really a world, or it is only an illusion ... ".
What contradictions of the knowledge of the knowledge of knowledge are in the following statement: "Dialectics - as a hegel explained," includes the moment of relativism, denial, skepticism, but does not boil down to relativism "? V. Lenin.
What a feature of the process of knowledge is seen in the next statement: "And the day, and night, before us, the sun walks, however, the right is the stubborn Galile!"?
What feature of knowledge, F. Bacon paid attention, claiming that the truth is a daughter of time, and not authoritative?
What a peculiarity of knowledge and what contradictions of the process of knowledge speaks in the next remark: "To learn, a person must disconnect what it should not be disconnected ...". /. Goethe
Task zo
The absolutment of which side of the process of knowledge ironically criticizes the philosopher in the following question: "If the moth a meal and ate the whole fur coat, does this mean that she understood this fur coat and studied?". A. Losev.
Among the many different cognitive processes can be allocated main types of knowledge. There is no unity of opinion in their classification, but most often they talk about ordinary (life), mythological, religious, artistic, philosophical and scientific knowledge. Consider here briefly only two types of knowledge - ordinary, which serves as the foundation of human life and any cognitive process, and scientific, which today has a decisive impact on all areas of human activity.
Ordinary knowledge - This is the primary, most simple form of cognitive activity of the subject. It is spontaneously carried out by every person throughout his life, serves as a device to the real conditions of everyday life and is aimed at purchasing those knowledge and skills that he needs every day and an hour. Such knowledge is usually quite superficial, not always justified and systematized, reliable in them is closely intertwined with delusions and prejudices. At the same time, in the shape of the so-called common sense, real everyday experience is embodied, peculiar wisdom, which allows man to behave rationally in a wide variety of everyday situations. Everyday knowledge, in addition, is constantly open to the results of other types of knowledge - for example, scientific: common sense is able to assimilate the relatively simple truths of science and becoming more and more theoretical. Unfortunately, such an influence of science on everyday consciousness is not so great as we would like, for example, one of the research has shown that half of the US adults surveyed does not know that the Earth turns around the Sun for 1 year. In general, ordinary knowledge is always limited to a certain framework - only the external properties and communication of the objects of everyday experience are available. For more deeper and significant information about reality, scientific knowledge is necessary.
Scientific knowledge It is fundamentally different from the ordinary. First, it is not available to any person, but only to the one who passed specialized training (for example, received a higher education), which gave him knowledge and skills for research activities. Secondly, scientific knowledge is specifically focused on the study of phenomena (and the laws of their existence), unknown today's ordinary practice. Thirdly, science is in special means, methods and tools that are not used in traditional production and ordinary experience. Fourth, knowledge gained in a scientific study possess a fundamental novelty, they are justified, systemically organized and expressed with the help of a special, scientific language.
For the emergence and development of scientific knowledge, certain sociocultural conditions are needed. Modern studies have shown that scientific knowledge could not arise in the so-called traditional society (such were civilizations of the Ancient East - China, India, etc.), for which the slowdown pace of social change, authoritarian power, the priority of traditions in thinking and activity and activities and etc. The knowledge here is appreciated not in itself, but only in its practical application. It is clear that under these conditions, a person is inclined to follow the well-established samples and standards than to look for non-traditional approaches and the path of knowledge.
Scientific knowledge was destined to work out in a man-made society, which involves high rates of change in all spheres of life, which is impossible without a constant inflow of new knowledge. The prerequisites of such a society are in the culture of ancient Greece. Recall that the democratic structure of society, freedom of citizen contributed to the development of the active activities of individuals, their ability to logically justify and defend their position, offer new approaches to solving the problems discussed. All this was due to the search for innovations in all activities, including in the knowledge (not by chance, therefore, it was in Greece that the first sample of theoretical science is an emerge - Euclide geometry). The cult of the human mind, the idea of \u200b\u200bHis Allbiz, then find their development in the European Renaissance culture, which contributes to the formation of professional scientific knowledge and the emergence of the science of the new time.
Scientific knowledge is usually carried out on two levels - empirical and theoretical. Empirical (from Greek. empeiria. - experience) knowledge Gives us information about the external parties and links of the objects under study, records and describes them. It is mainly carried out using the methods of observation and experiment. Observation - This is a targeted and planned perception of studied phenomena (for example, studying the behavior of man-like monkeys in natural conditions of their life). When observed, the scientist tries not to interfere in the natural course of things so as not to distort it.
Experiment - Specially prepared experience. In the course of its studied object is placed in artificial conditions that can be changed and taken into account. Obviously, for this method, the high activity of a scientist trying to get as much knowledge as possible about the behavior of the object in various situations and even more so is artificially to get new things and phenomena that do not exist in nature (especially this is characteristic of chemical research).
Of course, in addition to these methods of knowledge, in an empirical study, the methods of logical thinking are used - analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, etc. With the combination of all these methods - and practical, and logical - the scientist receives a new empirical knowledge. It is expressed mainly in three main forms:
scientific fact - fixation of a particular property or event (phenol melts at a temperature of 40.9 ° C; in 1986 there was a passage of a comet of galeus);
scientific description - fixing the holistic system of properties and parameters of a phenomenon or group of phenomena. This kind of knowledge is given in encyclopedias, scientific reference books, textbooks, etc.;
empirical addiction – knowledge that reflects certain relationships inherent in some kind of group of phenomena or events (Planets move around the sun in elliptical orbits - one of the laws of Kepler; Comet Gallea draws around the Sun with a period of 75 -76 years).
Theoretical (from Greek. theoria. - consideration, study) knowledge Reveals the internal relations and the relationship of things and phenomena, rationally explains them, opens the laws of their existence. It is therefore knowledge of a higher order than empirical - it is not by chance, for example, Hydegger SAYS itself determines as "the theory of valid".
In theoretical knowledge, special thinking operations are applied, which in one way or another to come to a new knowledge, which explains the previously obtained or develops the existing theoretical knowledge. These mental methods are always associated with the use of scientific concepts and so-called ideal objects (Recall, for example, the concepts of "material point", "perfect gas", "absolutely black body", etc.). Scientists spend mental experiments with them, apply a hypothetical and deductive method (reasoning, allowing to push the hypothesis and derive the effect from it, which can be checked), the method of climbing from the abstract to a specific one (the operation of the unification of new scientific concepts with the aim of building a more general theory A specific object - for example, an atom) and others. Word, theoretical knowledge is always a long and difficult work of thought, passing through diverse methods.
Theoretical knowledge obtained with these intelligent operations exists in various forms. The most important of them are:
problem - The question, the answer to which is not yet in cash scientific knowledge, the peculiar knowledge of ignorance (so, physics in principle knows today what thermonuclear reaction is, but cannot say how to make it managed);
hypothesis - a scientific assumption that probabilically explains this or that problem (for example, various hypotheses about the origin of life on Earth);
theory - reliable knowledge about the essence and laws of the existence of a certain class of objects (say, the theory of the chemical structure A. M. Butlerova). There are quite difficult relationships between these forms of knowledge, but in general their dynamics can be designated as follows:
The emergence of the problem;
Hypothesis nomination as an attempt to solve this problem;
Checking the hypothesis (for example, using the experiment);
Building a new theory (if the hypothesis confirmed one way or another); The emergence of a new problem (since no theory gives us absolutely complete and reliable knowledge) - and then this cognitive cycle is repeated.
The science - This is a special type of cognitive activity aimed at obtaining objective, systemically organized and reasonable knowledge, as well as a cumulative result of this activity. In addition, science is a social institution that has its own specific, regulatory activities social laws, fixed assets, labor frames, education system, financing, etc.
Scientific knowledge should be distinguished from other methods and forms of cognitive activity: from ordinary, philosophical, aesthetic, religious, false scientific, anti-scientific, etc.
The main distinguishing features of science are:
1. Objectivity. Science is called to give objectiveknowledge, impersonal and common, that is, knowledge, as purified from personal sympathies and antipathies, beliefs and prejudices. In this regard, science is radically different, for example, from art (aesthetic knowledge) or from philosophy, where personal, subjective start is necessarily present, giving originality and uniqueness by the results of aesthetic or philosophical creativity.
2) Accuracy, unambiguous, logical rigor of scientific knowledgeIt should exclude any ambiguity and uncertainty. Therefore, science is using special concepts Creates its own categorical apparatus. Categories and concepts scientific Have an accurate meaning, definition. Unlike science, ordinary knowledge uses the terms of the spoken language, multivalued and fuzzy, changing their meaning depending on the context of live communication and the addiction of the speaker.
3) Systemity.Various elements of scientific knowledge are not the amount of disparate facts and information, but logically ordered systemconcepts, principles, laws, theories, scientific tasks, problems, hypotheses, logically interrelated, defining and confirming each other. The systemic nature of scientific knowledge implies a logical relationship and unity not only within the framework of the Solk sciences, but also between them, which creates the basis for the scientific picture of the world as a holistic education.
4) Rationalthiness, reproducibility and verifiabilityall derivatives of scientific knowledge. For this science uses special research methods, logic and ways to substantiate and verify the truth of knowledge. View of justification in science is evidence. In addition, any researcher who recreates the conditions under which one or another result was received should be able to make sure of its truth. With this purpose, as well as to obtain new knowledge, science uses special equipment. Many of the sciences of modern times simply cannot exist and develop without special scientific research techniques, from the improvement of which the progress of scientific knowledge in this field depends in many ways .
5) Subject. Scientific knowledge subject, that is, every particular science comprehends not all the laws of the object being studied, but only some of them. She is interested in a certain aspect depending on the purposes of this science, which is called subject Its studies. For example, a person as an object of knowledge is the subject of studying the most different sciences - anatomy, physiology, psychology, anthropology, etc., each of which puts its goals and objectives, uses its research methods, reveals the patterns of human existence specific for this science.
6) Abstract. Web study objects abstract character Since they are the result of generalization ("elementary particles", "chemical elements", "genes", "biocenosis", etc.). Abstract objects of scientific research are generalized images of real objects that have only those signs that are inherent in all objects of this class. Unlike this, for example, ordinary knowledge is interested only in specific subjects and phenomena necessary to man in his daily life.
7) science has its own ideals and norms of scientific activity. They constitute the foundation ethics of science And regulate scientific activities. For example, the most important norm of scientific research is a ban on plagiarism, in the community of scientists condemns the distortion of truth in the name of political, religious or mercantyl purposes. Higher valuescience is truth.
8) In this regard, science has a certain rationality- relatively sustainable set of rules, norms, standards, standards, values \u200b\u200bof spiritual and material activity, and equally understood by all members of society. Scientific rationality is concrete-historical and, as it were, sets the boundaries of what is considered "scientific", and what is "unscientific" in some periods. Thus, in the era of the new time on the basis of classical mechanics there was a "classical rationality", at the beginning of the twentieth century due to the opening of a microworld based on quantum mechanics and the theory of relativity arose "non-classical rationality". Modern science based on synergies learning the processes of self-organization and self-regulation of open systems, starting from the 80s. The twentieth century operates in the framework of "postnotelyssical rationality".
9) science practical That is, scientific knowledge, ultimately, implies its practical application. In the history of the development of science there was a period (for example, in the era of antiquity), when knowledge was an end in itself, and practical activity was considered "lower art". But from the era of the new time, science was inextricably linked with practice. Starting from the middle of the XIX century, especially in Western Europe, scientific knowledge began to produce purposefully for their introduction. And this connection of science with production today increasingly increases. A certain exception is fundamental scientific research, the practical applicability of the results of which for a long time may remain in question.
10) Science is focused on foresight:revealing the patterns of functioning and development of the objects under study, it creates the ability to predict their further development. In addition, science is focused on obtaining knowledge of future, probable, new objects of the study. Such candidates for scientific studies are now becoming gravitons, dark matter and dark energy, biofield, UFOs, etc. Unlike science, ordinary knowledge, based on the everyday human experience, is focused on obtaining elementary information about the world, and it is not possible to give fundamentally new knowledge. Therefore, in the ordinary consciousness is so great interest in all kinds of "fortunekam" and "predictors".
Thus, although a person receives information about the world from various sources (literature, art, philosophy, everyday life experience, etc.), only science is able to give knowledge more reliable and reliable than everyone else.
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All the themes of this section:
Fundamentals of philosophy
Study Guide St. Petersburg UDC 1 (075.8) Seliverstova N.A. Fundamentals of philosophy: Tutorial / N.A. Seliverstov; P
The subject of philosophy
Philosophy - "Love for wisdom" (from Greek. Phileo - I love, Sophia - wisdom) - originated in the VI century BC. In Ancient India, ancient China and ancient Greece, where, where
Specificity of philosophical worldview
The worldview is a system of views on the world as a whole and in the place in it. The humanization is the most common understanding of reality and is associated with answers to such
Structure of philosophical knowledge
In the course of the development of philosophy, it historically develops various areas of research, each of which covers certain problems. Over time, these areas of research turned into a section
WORLD FUNCTION
Under the worldview, as already noted, the system of views on the world is understood as a whole and a place in it in it. The worldview of people is under the influence of various factors: education,
Methodological function
The method is a method of action. The combination of methods for conducting any work is called the methodology, and knowledge of methods and methodologies - methodology. In every sphere of human
And types of philosophical concepts
The whole history of philosophy is a collision of various points of view, views, concepts. Either there is such a philosophical problem, around which the disputes would not flare up between thinker
Subjective and objective idealism
The essence of the ontological problem is, first of all, in response to the question of the essence of being (reality, reality). With deep antiquity in philosophy two types were allocated
Sensualism, rationalism and irrationalism
The main gnoseological problem is the question of the cognition of the world, that is, can a person in his knowledge comprehend the essence of objects and phenomena of reality? The answer to this question is
Questions for self-control
1) What is philosophy and what is the subject of studying it? 2) What is the structure of philosophical knowledge? List the main philosophical sciences. 3) what is the philosophical worldview
Philosophical concepts of the Ancient East
The ancient foci of world civilization are Babylon and Egypt, in the culture of which you can find mythological, religious and incharpasses of natural science installations. But say
Specificity of ancient philosophy
Eastern philosophy for a number of parameters is different from Western, which today is manifested in the existence of two fundamentally different types of cultural and civilizational development (Eastern and Zap
Philosophy of Ancient India
The theoretical basis of the Ancient Indian philosophy is the Vedas - collections of religious and prefilic texts, which go out on their roots in the second millennium BC
The philosophy of the ancient China
The cultural history of China is rising to the Rube region III-II thousand BC, and the emergence of ancient Chinese philosophy refer to the VII-VI centuries. BC. During this period, the ideas of naturophilosophical character
Confucianism
Confucianized a solely important role, both in the history of Chinese culture and in the socio-political history of China. For more than two millennia (from the turn of I
Taoism
Taoism, along with the etiko-political teachings of Confucianism and came from India Buddhism, is the so-called "Triad of the exercises", which were at the heart of China's spiritual culture
Moism and Lead
Confucianism and Taoism are the most influential philosophical schools of ancient China, but not the only ones. So, in V c. BC. The doctrine developed by the Mo Tzu and the named
Origins and specificity of antique philosophy
Ancient philosophy (lat. Antiquus - ancient) is called philosophical teachings that developed in ancient Greek, and then ancient Roman society since the end of Yii in. BC. Before the beginning of the VI century. AD (Official
Early Greek Philosophy (Diskratic Schools)
Greek philosophy originally developed in the territory of mainland Greece, but in the East - in the Ionian cities of Malaya Asia (Milet and Ephesus) and in the West - in the Greek colonies of Southern Italy and Sitz
Antique atomism
Ancient Greek atomism is the top of the development of materialism in ancient philosophy. It is difficult to attribute to any one period, because in the development of atomistic teaching accepted
Softers, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle
In the V century BC The development of ancient philosophy moves from colonial paintings to mainland Greece, which was due primarily to the flourishing of the Athenian policy. Athens turned into the largest
And neoplatonism (III century BC -VI VZ. AD)
Hellenism (Grech. Hellen-Ellin, Greek; This term was introduced in the end of the XIX century.) - the period in the history of ancient civilization (III - I centuries. BC)
The origins and specificity of medieval philosophy
Medieval European philosophy is a long stage in the history of philosophy, covering the period from II century. by XIV. AD inclusive. She appeared and developed as a religious Christian Phil
Patristics. Augustine Aureli.
Patriote (Lat. Patres - Fathers) The term denoting the totality of the religious-philosophical teachings of the so-called "fathers of the Church" - Christian thinkers II - VIII centuries who had the main
Medieval scholasticism. Thomas Akvinsky
Scholastikos (Greek. Scholastikos is a scientist, school) - stage in the development of Christian philosophy VIII -XIV centuries, when the main religious dogmas has already been formulated
And philosophy
The Renaissance (Franz. Renaissance) XV -XVI centuries. - One of the most striking and fruitful periods in the history of European philosophical thought. The name of the era is associated with the revival of interest in the ancient
And religious and philosophical thought of the Renaissance
Humanistic worldview of the world's characteristic feature of the entire Renaissance culture originated in Italy in the era of the late Middle Ages, in the XIV century. To this period there is a creative
Renaissance natural philosophy and development of natural science
As already noted, one of the main doctrines of the revival era was Pantheism - depersonalization of God, the idea of \u200b\u200bhim as an impersonal force coinciding with nature. It changed radically
New Eurchase philosophy
In the history of Western Europe, a new time is the XVII and XVIII centuries. - The period when the formation of classical philosophy occurred. To the main sociocultural prerequisites for the formation of new European philos
Empirism F. Bekon and mechanical materialism T. Gobbs
Francis Bacon (1561 - 1626) - English political and public figure, an outstanding scientist and philosopher first formulated the basic principles characteristic of the new philosophy in
R. DEKART, B.Pinosis, Libnits
René Descartes (1596 - 1650) is an outstanding French mathematician, physicist, physiologist, the central figure of philosophy of the XVII century. Main Works - "reasoning about the method" (1637), "Beginning of Philo
J.Lock, J. Berkley, D.YUM
The response to the Cartesian rationalism and his doctrine of "innate ideas" was the appearance of sensualism in England - the opposite rationalism of the direction in the gnoseology. Subsilism
French Enlightenment Philosophy XVIII in
Enlightenment -Creedly complex and ambiguous phenomenon in the cultural and public life of a number of countries of the XVIII century (France, Germany, Russia, America). The term "Enlightenment
Questions for self-control
1) Name the main sociocultural backgrounds of the philosophy of the new time. What is its specificity? 2) What is the essence of the dispute between rationalism and sensualism? Name the main representatives of these
Objective idealism and dialectic Gegel
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770 - 1831) - the largest representative of the German classical idealism, the creator of the systematic theory of dialectics, the author of numerous philo
Questions for self-control
1) Why in the philosophical creativity I.Kanta allocate two periods - "pretreatic" and "critical"? 2) Why do the elements of agnosticism see in the teachings of Kant? 3) C.
Philosophy of Marxism
Marxist philosophy is a holistic system of philosophical, political and economic views, developed in the 40-70s. XIX century by German thinkers Carl Marks (1818 - 1883) and Fried
Philosophy of positivism
Positivism (lat.positivus is positive) - one of the largest directions in the philosophy of the XIX-XX centuries, the followers of which justified the fundamental meaning of the specific value, the basis
Philosophy of pragmatism in the USA
Pragmatism (Greek. Pragma is a matter, action) - the philosophical concept, which arose in the US in the 70s x1x century. and put in the twentieth century. A strong influence on the spiritual life of the country. Basic pre
A.Shopengauer and F. Nitsche
The philosophy of life is one of the most influential directions of the Western philosophical thought of the second half of the nineteenth century. The central concept in the teachings of representatives of this area is
Existentialism
The founder of existentialism - the philosophy of existence is the Danish writer, the theologian Sielen Kierkegra (1811 - 1855). He introduced the term "existential"
Philosophy of psychoanalysis
Interest in the problem of man, the inner world of the person found a very peculiar refraction in the philosophy of psychoanalysis, the formation of which can be viewed as an attempt to find an outlet of a dead end in
Stages of development and specificity of Russian philosophy
Under Russian philosophy understand the combination of philosophical ideas and theories that arose in the territory of the Russian state, that is, they are intellectual creativity in Russian
Philosophical ideas in the Russian Literature Xih in
One of the most significant phenomena in the intellectual life of Russia, the second half of the X1x century should be considered the development of philosophical ideas in Russian literature (L. Tolstoy, F.Dostoevsky), poetry (F. Tyut
The philosophy of the late XIX - early XX century. Russian Cosmism
Philosophy in Russia of the late XIX - early XX century is not only Russian, but also a global cultural phenomenon. Its specificity - in a fundamentally different system of values, which went into the foundation
Soviet period in the development of Russian philosophy
This period today has little studied. The existence of philosophy in the USSR was possible only within the framework of the Marxist-Leninist paradigm (although, at the same time in Russian abroad successfully
Teaching about being
ONTOLOGY - (Greek. Ontos - Surrender and Logos - doctrine) - The doctrine of being, as already noted, (see 1.5.1) refers to the number of fundamental concepts, from the character
Philosophical doctrine
The concept of "matter" began to be used as a philosophical category with deep antiquity for the designation of a single "initial", which is irrelevant and non-unique, does not depend
Movement as an attribute of being
One of the most important problems of ontology is the question of movement as existence in general and its parts. In philosophy under movement means any change, change in general (change
Space and time as attributes of being
The doctrine of space and time is among the most important sections of ontology, since the study of any phenomenon implies its spatial-temporary description (in particular, answers to questions
Determinism and pattern
Along with the principle of development, the most important principle of dialectical understanding of Genesis is the principle of universal connection of phenomena, postulating universal relationships and interdependence
According to the specifics of determinism, laws are divided into dynamic and statistical
Dynamic regularity across the behavior of isolated objects and allow you to establish an accurate link between its states, that is, when this state of the Singible system
Consciousness as a philosophical problem
The doctrine of consciousness is associated with various sections of philosophical knowledge: an ontological approach to consciousness includes issues of its relationship with matter, entity and structure; Gnosological - S.
The problem of the emergence of consciousness
Consciousness is one of the basic concepts in philosophy, denoting the highest level of human mental activity as a social being. Consciousness is related to activities
Consciousness and language
As already noted, the consciousness arose and formed in the process of labor activity of people as a necessary condition for its organization, regulation and reproduction. Together with the advent of
Essence and structure of consciousness
The problem of the essence of consciousness is one of the most complex due to the multi-term consciousness itself, which is a basic concept not only in philosophy, but also in psychology, physiology, sociology and friend
Epistemology
The task of the knowledge of the most informative process has long been the subject of philosophical analysis, the philosophical theory of knowledge is engaged in its decision - Gnoseology. As a special section of the philosophy of Gnoseo
Subject and object of knowledge
Cognition is a socio-historical process of creative activities of people who form their knowledge, on the basis of which the goals and motives of people arise
Sensual and rational knowledge
One of the important tasks in gnoseology has always been an analysis of human cognitive abilities, that is, finding a response to the question: How does a person get knowledge about the world? Analyzing the process of knowledge, philosopher
The problem of truth. The role of practice in the process of knowledge
Studying the world around him, a person does not just get knowledge, but also appreciates them. Evaluation of information can be carried out according to different parameters: for example, its relevance, practical utility, etc.
Structure of scientific knowledge
In everyday use, the term "science" is most often used to designate individual sectors of scientific knowledge. Analyzing science in this aspect, it can be structured (
Laws of the development of science
During its development, science is not simply increasing the volume of knowledge gained by it, but it changes its content qualitatively: new sciences appear, in the framework of the already existing sciences there are new theories
Questions for self-control
1) What is the specificity of scientific knowledge, his difference from other types of human cognitive activity? 2) What is the role of an empirical level in scientific knowledge? List
Philosophical anthropology
Human comprehension is the central problem of philosophy. Staging it is already contained in the words of Socrates: "Know yourself." It is believed that the term "anthropology" (Greek. Anthropos - man) introduced into the pack
Biological and social in man
The presence in the man of two principles - biological and social - indicates contradictory, antinomicity of human being. On the one hand, man - creating nature
The main factors of anthropogenesis
How did the above-mentioned inconsistency of human being arose, how did the person escape from the animal state and subjugate its natural being social? Modern science ut.
The essence of man and the meaning of his being in the world
The problem of human essence has always occupied a significant place in the history of philosophical thought along with ontological and gnoseological issues. She still remains relevant as in Theore
Problem of freedom
Reflecting on the meaning of our being and taking the decision to implement your life plans, a person should not forget about two circumstances: - First, that his life and
Main approaches and concepts
The subject of studying social philosophy is society. However, the meaning of this term is so undefined that in the "Russian Dictionary" is given at once six of its values \u200b\u200b(for example,
To coevolution interaction
The stroks of the view of modern science The formation of human society is a long process that lasted several million years and ending several tens of thousands of years ago.
Main spheres of public life
As already noted, society is a systemic education. As an extremely complex integer, as a system, society includes subsystems - "social life spheres" - the concept introduced for the first time
Stadial and civilization concept
The idea that changes occur in society, there was still deep antiquity, and it was purely appreciated: the development of society was perceived as a simple sequence of events. Only
Questions for self-control
1) What is the materialistic approach to the analysis of social phenomena from idealistic? What is "geographical determinism? 2) What a role in the development of society is the natural fa
Cyclicity and linearity of historical development
The philosophy of history (the term introduced Voltaire) is a special section of philosophy associated with the interpretation of the historical process and historical knowledge. Where are we and where
The problem of social progress
Public progress as a tendency of historical development means the movement of humanity forward, from less perfect to more advanced ways and forms of vital activity. Common
Prospects for modern civilization
The laws of history are that the predictions of the future are always conjugate with uncertainness and problems. Futurology - science offering future forecasts - builds its conclusions, the main
Questions for self-control
1) What is the fundamental difference between the linear and cyclic interpretations of human history? 2) List the basic concepts of the cyclical and linear development of society. 3) B.
Basic philosophical terms
Abstragging (lat. Abstrahere - distract) - mentally distracted from some properties, relationship, highlighting essential properties for this class of objects, forming themselves