Mechanistic Theory (Mechanistic Theory)

Mechanism name. Such psychol. Theory, K-paradium likes all animals, including. A person, cars and comes from the fact that even living beings can be difficult, nevertheless they are cars, and no additional considerations are required to explain their behavior.

M. t. Often they are associated with determinism and materialism, but it should not be confused with them. Supporter M. T., who refuses living beings in the right per soul or mind, always materialist, but not any materialist is a commitment to a mechanistic view on the world. Supporter M. t. Always deterministic, because machines - deterministic essences, but the opposite statement is incorrect, because the determinist does not have to be a supporter of M. t., As they were not spinosa, Pantheist, which, nevertheless, adhered to extreme deterministic Views and denied Will Freedom.

Roots psychol. The mechanistic doctrine lie in the mechanization of the picture of the world caused by the scientific revolution of the XVII century. According to the Newtonian view of the world, the Universe is the perfect clock mechanism, the next mathematically accurate and unchanged laws of nature. Such a look was the first step to acquire knowledge about nature, which could be practically applied to the first, and it still remains attractive for physicists.

The mechanistic view of the universe was inevitably postponed to behavior. The beginning of this process was put on Descarte, K-ry considered all animal machines, the behavior of the to-rye is determined by the mechanical functioning of their NA. People, to the extent that they are fis. The bodies are as machines, however, the person, according to Descarte, has both a "soul", free from the body acting like a body. Despite this reservation, Descartes made a significant step towards "psychol. Mechanics, "First of all, I gave a" soul "only by one ability - the ability to think, and explaining perception, memory, imagination, etc. Obviously" psychic. " Forms of activity based on physiologist. (i.e. mechanical) laws.

Juliente of the de Lamether boldly stated that "a person is a car." Although the lameterness and rejected the existence of the "soul", it cannot be called a supporter of mechanism in Sovr. The meaning of this word, for he was a vitalist who made the difference between inorganic matter, from which there are cars, and organic matter, forming living beings and empowered by special properties. However, he opened the road to subsequent mechanisters and others. Representatives of the atheistic philosophy of the Epoch of Enlightenment.

Two scientific obstacles prevented the evidence of mechanism. The first was in the poor understanding of the functions of the National Assembly of the National Assembly of the brain with behavior. Throughout the XIX and XX centuries, with the development of the sensor engine concept of nervous activity, according to the swarm, the brain is a kind of reflexes switch, connecting input incentives with output motor reactions, this obstacle was gradually overcome. The second obstacle was the problem of vitalism, requiring an answer to the question of how to explain the life, reproduction and change of animals and plants, without resorting to other concepts and the terms, in addition to fully mechanical, causal and non-peculiar. This obstacle was partially overcome thanks to the evolutionary theory, which had proven that it was possible to describe the evolution of organic matter without television, and finally - thanks to the opening of the DNA molecule, a reason for the processes occurring with the body throughout his life, as a result of mechanical Reproduction, copying and transferring information. Encoded in a double helix.

See also empiricism, freedom of will, religion and psychology, vitalism

Among the wonderful and bright figures in the history of philosophical and psychological thought in England in the XVIII century include David Gartley(1705-1757) and Joseph is attracted.

Gartley with his views begins an associative direction in English empirical psychology. He expresses his credo with sufficient clarity: "Everything is explained by the primary sensations and the laws of the Association." Gartley elevated an association to the universal mechanical law of all forms of mental activity, in something similar to the Great Newton, the law of world community.

This means that he distributed it to all spheres and floors of mental life.

Associations are established between sensations, between ideas, between movements, as well as between all of the mental manifestations listed above. All named associations correspond to associated trembling of nerve fibers or associated vibrations of the brainstant. The main conditions of the formations of associations are, time reconciliation or in space and repetition.

In his work, "Reflections on a person, his structure, his debt and hope", Gartley argued that the mental world of a person makes gradually as a result of the complication of primary sensory elements through their associations due to the adjacency of these elements in time and the frequency of the repetitions of their combinations. As for general concepts, they arise when from a solid association, which remains in different conditions unchanged, disappears all random and insignificant. The combination of these permanent connections is held as a whole due to the word, which acts as a generalization factor.

Installation on a strictly causal explanation of how the mental mechanism occurs and works, as well as the subordination of this teaching, the solution of socio-moral tasks - all this gave the scheme of Gartley wide popularity. Its influence and in England itself, and on the continent was exceptionally large, and it applied to various branches of humanitarian knowledge: ethics, aesthetics, logic, pedagogy.

Follower of the ideas of Gartley appeared Joseph attracted.Priestley opposed the opinion, as if Matter had something dead, inert and passive. In addition to stretching, matter has such an integral property as attraction and repulsion.

Consideration of the properties of attraction and repulsion as a form of activity of matter gave the basis of attracted to believe that there is no need to resort to God as a source of motion of matter. As for mental or spiritual phenomena, they are the same as repulsion and attraction, are the properties of matter, but not everyone, as it was in Spinoza, but in a special way organized. Such an organized system of matter whose property is mental abilities, they attracted the "nervous system or rather, brain". Spiritual phenomena are attracted not only dependent on the body, but also from the outside world.

Man's communications tool with the outside world are the senses, nerves and brain. Without them, they cannot have a feeling or ideas. All phenomena of the human spirit are removed from sensations. He believed that some external feelings were enough to explain all the variety of mental phenomena. The manifestations of the spirit are reduced to memory abilities, judgments, to emotions and will. All of them act as various types of associations of sensations and ideas. The same applies to the most common concepts. The anatomy-physiological basis of sensations, ideas and their associations are vibrations of the nervous and brainstant. Strong vibrations are characteristic of sensual images, weakened vibrations - for ideas. They were alien to the vulgar idea of \u200b\u200bmental, which took place at Tololand. He pointed out that in no case should it be assumed that brain vibrations are also a sense or idea. Vibration of cerebral particles is just the cause of sensations and ideas, for vibrations can occur without accompanied by perceptions.

The complex character of the phenomena of the Spirit was added dependent on the volume of the vibrating brain system.

The objective position was attracted in the question of the will. According to Volya, the will cannot be understood as the voluntary decision of the Spirit to act, anyway, beyond all the actual external cause. The will has the same need, as well as other manifestations of the Spirit. The origins of "free will" should be sought outside the will.

The most difficult for all philosophers of the described period was the question of whether there is a shower in animals, and if there is, then it differs from the human soul. They were attracted that "animals have the incarnations of all our abilities without exception, and so that they differ from us only to degree, and not in kind." He attributed them to them, emotions, will, reason, and even abstract ability. Having gave animals by the features of the human psyche, they were attracted by mistaken step towards the anthropomorphism.

The qualitative identification of the psyche of animals and the person admitted many advanced naturalists and philosophers-materialists of the XVIII-XIX centuries. (Priestley, Lametre, Darwin, Chernyshevsky, Right, etc.). Anthropomorphism played at that time a progressive role, for he was the form of the assertion of a materialistic view of the nature and origin of the psyche of animals and man.

With all the delusions, they attracted a significant role in strengthening the natural science and objective approach to the phenomena of the Spirit. Conducting the idea of \u200b\u200bGartley, he contributed to the spread of the basic principle of the English Associative School.

As a philosopher materialist, a naturalist and a brilliant experimenter in the field of chemistry, they attracted the use of experiment and to the field of mental phenomena possible.

In other things, the principle of the Association Two other English thinkers of this era - D. Berkley(1685-1753) and D. YUM.(1711-1776). Both accepted for the primary not physical reality, not the vital activity of the body, but phenomena consciousness. Their main argument was empiricism - the doctrine that the source of knowledge serves as sensual experience (formed by associations). According to Berkeley, experience is directly experienced by the subject matter: visual, muscle, tactile, etc.

In his work, "the experience of the new theory of view" of Berkeley analyzed in detail the sensual elements, of which the image of the geometric space is folded as a container of all natural bodies.

Physics suggests that this Newtono space is given objectively. On Berkeley, it is a product of interaction of sensations. Some sensations (for example, visual) are associated with others (for example, tangible), and the whole complex of sensations, people consider it to be a thing given to them regardless of consciousness, while "to be - it means to be in perception."

This conclusion was inevitably inclined to solipsis - to the denial of any existence, except for his own consciousness. To get out of this trap and explain why different subjects have perceptions of the same external objects, Berkeley appealed to a special divine consciousness, which all people are endowed.

In its psychological analysis of the visual perception of Berkeley, several valuable ideas expuate to the participation of tactile sensations in the construction of the image of three-dimensional space (with a two-dimensionality of the retina).

As for Yum, he took a different position. The question of whether they exist or do not exist independently of us physical objects, he believed theoretically unresolved (such a look is called agnosticism). Meanwhile, the doctrine of causality is nothing more than a product of faith in the fact that one impression (recognized as the cause) will appear (taken as a consequence). In fact, there is no more than a strong association of ideas that arose in the experience of the subject. Yes, and the subject itself and his soul is just a condensed ligament or beams of impressions.

Human skepticism awakened many thinkers from Dogmatic Sleep, made them think about their beliefs concerning the soul, causality, etc. After all, these beliefs were taken by them on faith, without critical analysis.

The opinion of the UMU that the concept of a subject can be reduced to the bunch of associations, was directed by its critical edge against the idea of \u200b\u200bthe soul as a special, given to the Almighty entity, which generates and binds individual mental phenomena among themselves.

The assumption of such a spiritual, the disembodied substance was defended, in particular, Berkeley, rejected the substance material. According to Yumu called the soul - something like scenic frames, where the sensations and ideas are trained.

A variety of impressions, or perceptions, Yume divides into two categories: perception (sensations) and ideas. Their differences are based on the strength and liveliness of the impression. Reflective impressions of YUM considers passions, effects, emotions. Feelings arise from unknown reasons, and reflective impressions are associated with bodily suffering or pleasure.

In addition to dividing impressions on perceptions and ideas, Yume divides those and others on simple and complex. Simple perceptions and simple ideas necessarily correspond to each other, while complex ideas can not always be similar to complex perceptions. Ideas are divided into ideas of memory and ideas of imagination.

Yum saw in associations the only communication mechanism of ideas. He was far from believing that perceptions and their connections have any attitude towards the outside world and to the body. He openly admits that he has no idea of \u200b\u200bthis place where the change of alone associations with others is about the material from which the mental world is.

There is not only an object of perception, there is no subject itself, the carrier of them. The personality for Yuma is nothing more than a "bunch or a bundle of various perceptions, following each other with incomprehensible speed and in constant flow, in constant motion."

The presentation of the philosophical and psychological system of Yum shows that it is permeated with the spirit of extreme subjectivism.

Converting Lokkov's external experience in the entire inner, he did not find the place in it for any object or for the subject. Outside the kaleidoscopically replacing states of consciousness, it is impossible to go to God or to matter.

With the need to get a question about the exit from the dead end of the dead end. The first attempts were taken by E. Kondillak; In the same England, the Berkley-Yum's subject line is further developed in James Mill(1773-1836) and his son John Stewart Mill(1806-1873). Their views were a classic model of mechanistic introspective associative psychology.

Mill believed that the first states of consciousness are sensations; derived from them - ideas. The nature of consciousness is that sensory data and the associative mechanism of their connection are already laid in it.

Associations are not power and not the reason, as it was understood by Hume, but simply a way of coincidence or contact of ideas. They are applied only to ideas, and sensual data do not affect.

Of simple ideas through associations are complex. If the UMU has a three association law, then J. Mill is one: contraction or proximity in time or in space. Simultaneous and consistent associations differ in force, which depends on two conditions - clarity and repetition of ideas.

The result of the diverse contacts (associations) of ideas is the essence of the mental life of a person. Access to it, except internal surveillance, no.

Mechanical glance of J. Mill to the structure of consciousness was criticized by his son D. Art. Millem. He opposed the situation on the atomic composition of the soul and mechanical connection of the initial elements.

Instead of the mechanical model, as not reflecting the true structure of consciousness, D. Art. Mill suggested a chemical, that is, now the consciousness began to be based on the sample of chemical processes.

The properties of the soul, Related D. Art. Mill, it is impossible to derive from the properties of the elements, just as water is characterized by properties that are not inherent in oxygen, nor hydrogen separately.

A new chemical approach did not interfere with D. Art. Mill to leave the main associative principle of communication of the elements of consciousness.

For him, the laws of the association have the same force in psychology, which is the law of agony in astronomy.

The initial phenomena of consciousness, associated, give a new mental state, whose qualities do not have similarity among primary elements.

D. Art. Mill has allocated the following laws of associations: similarities, contact, frequency and intensity.

Subsequently, the law of intensity was replaced by the law of non-dedication. All these laws were attracted by D. Art. Millem to substantiate the subjective idealistic theory, according to which the matter was understood as the "permanent possibility of sensation." It seemed to him that, along with a limited part of the cash sensations (vehicles and changeable), there was always an extensive area of \u200b\u200bpossible (permanent) sensations, which constitute the outside world for us.

Associative laws underlie mutual transitions of cash sensations in possible, and back.

The dynamics of the states of consciousness in the phenomenological concepts of both males occurs out of connection with the objective world and the physiological processes that constitute the material base for all mental phenomena.

English Associanism XVIII century, both in materialistic and idealistic versions, directed the search for many Western psychologists of the two subsequent centuries.

As if speculative to the views of Gartley on the activity of the nervous system, she, essentially thought to them as an organ transmitting external impulses from the senses through the brain to muscles as a reflex mechanism.

In this regard, Gartley became a perception of the discovery of the Descartes of the reflex nature of behavior.

But Descartes, along with the reflex, introduced the second explanatory principle - reflexion as a special activity of consciousness.

Gartley also outlined the prospect of an uncompromising explanation on the basis of the unified principle and those higher manifestations of mental life, which Dialyist Descartes explained the activity of an intangible substance.

This Garthlian line has subsequently entered the resource of the scientific explanation of the psyche into a new era, when the reflex principle was perceived and transformed by the Sechenov and his followers.

I found our followers at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. And the line marked by Berkeley and Hume.

Its successors became not only the positivist philosophers, but also psychologists (WEDDT, Titchener), focused on the analysis of the elements of the subject's experience as special, not from any of the mentioned mental realities.

In the philosophical attitude, the decisive step in the orientation of psychology on an objective and experienced study was made by the French materialists of the XVIII century. French materialism combined two lines of theoretical thought: the objective direction of Descartes in the field of physics and physiology and the sensualistic ideas of the Locke.

As for Lokovsky empiricism and sensualism, their transfer to the French soil contributed to work E. Kondillaka(1715-1780). These include: "Essay on the origin of human knowledge" (1746), which represents a summary of the book of Locke "Experience about the human mind", and the independent work of the Condillae "Treatise on the Features" (1754). Condijal came from the experienced origin of knowledge, he eliminated the reflexive source of knowledge. Condihalk took advantage of a statue that gradually ended with various sensations.

With the introduction of each new kind of sensations, the mental life of the statue becomes complicated. The main thing from all feelings is the touch. It acts as a teacher of all other feelings.

The dominant position of the touch is determined by the fact that only it teaches other senses to relate sensations to external subjects.

The human soul is a set of modifications of sensations. Memory, imagination, judgment is a variety of different combinations of sensations. The sensations are the only source of the inner world of man.

The overall concept of Kondilla was distinguished by duality. He did not deny, like, for example, Berkeley, the existence of an objective world.

At the same time, the Condiger criticized Spinozu for his doctrine of the substance, tried to prove that he could not see any substance for sensations.

Adhering to a similar point of view, the Condiger practically remained on the introspective positions of Berkeley and Yum. The phenomenological trends of the Condillak caused the deserved criticism by Didro.

The ideas of Descartes and Kondillaska found further development from the materialists of the XVIII century. J.Lametri(1709–1751), D.Didro(1713–1784), P. Golbakha(1723–1789), K. Gelving(1715-1771) and P. Kabanisa(1757-1808). They are characterized by overcoming the dualism of Descartes, Locke and Kondilla, both in the understanding of the entire universe and in the understanding of the inner world of man.

A significant step towards the objective analysis of the psyche of man and animals from the standpoint of mechanics did the hedge of French materialism, the doctor and the naturalist J. Lamether.His views were influenced by the Physics of Descartes and Sensualism of Locke.

Taking a fully Cartesian thesis about the machine-like character of the body of a physical organism, the lameter distributes the mechanical principle and on the field of mental phenomena. He firmly declares that a person is a difficult, vertically creeping the machine, "living personification of continuous movement".

The moving start of the animal and the human car is the soul, understood as the ability to feel. Lametre was a passionate champion of the objective method. It begins his work "man-machine" with the indication that only experience and observation were always its leaders.

The objective indicator of the flow of mental processes serve those bodily changes and the consequences that they cause. He believed that the only reason for all our ideas are impressions of external bodies. Of these, perceptions are growing, judgments, all intellectual abilities, which are "modifications of a peculiar brainwriting, on which, as from the magic lantern, reflected the objects imprinted in the eye." In the teaching on the sensations of Limetry, attention is noting attention to the ratio of objective and subjective moments of the image. To emphasize the most important role of thought components in the formation of the image, Limmer called the perception of "intellectual".

Despite the mechanistic approach in explaining the psyche of animals and man, anthropomorphic mistakes, Lamether played a prominent role in approving a materialistic, natural science view of the nature of mental phenomena, and therefore, in determining the scientific method of the coming experimental psychology.

One of the most original French thinkers was D. Didro.

The main ideas in the field of psychology are set forth in three works: "Letter about the blind in the edification of Emirates" (1749), "Thoughts to the explanation of nature" (1754) and "Conversation D" Alamber and Didro "(1769) .

In these works, Didro argues that matter is the only substance in the universe, in man and in the animal. Separating matter for live and inanimate, he believed that the organic form of matter comes from inorganic. All matter of the matter is characterized by the ability to reflect.

At the level of organic life, this ability acts in the form of active sensitivity.

At the level of dead matter, the reflection property is presented in the form of potential sensitivity.

The whole totality of mental phenomena, ranging from various kinds of sensations and ending with the will and self-consciousness, depends on the activities of the senses, nerves and brain.

The problem of sensations is the most developed part of the psychological views of Didro. In the work "Letter about the blind in the edification of Seryachim", he gives consistently materialistic solution of the issue of the nature of sensations and their interaction, rejecting the entire phenomenological "extravagant system" of Berkeley.

No less consistently analyzes about the natural origin of the psyche, another representative of French materialism - Paul Golbach.In his "System of Nature" there is no room for the spiritual substance. The person is declared the most fragile part of nature. As for the spiritual principle in man, it is considered by the Golbach as the same physical, but "considered only under the famous angle of view." Thanks to a high bodily organization, a person is endowed with the ability to feel, think and act. The first human ability is sensations. All others leak out of them. Feel - it means to experience the impact of external items on the senses. Any impact of an external agent is accompanied by changes occurring in the senses. These changes in the form of concussions are transmitted through the nerves in the brain.

Golbach emphasizes a certain role of human life needs. Needs are a moving factor in our passions, will, bodily and mental needs. The position of the Golbach on the needs as the main source of human activity is of great importance. Golbach in the doctrine of needs argued that some external reasons are enough to explain the activity of man and his consciousness (cognitive, emotional and volitional activities). He completely rejected the traditional representation of idealism about the spontaneous activity of consciousness.

For the knowledge of mental phenomena, the Golbach called on to turn to nature and in it herself to seek the truth, attracting their experiences in leaders.

The idea of \u200b\u200bthe possibility of an objective study of mental phenomena opened a real path to scientific experimentation in the field of mental processes.

In addition to the approval of natural determinism, when considering the inner world of a person, his consciousness and behavior, French materialists took the first step towards the idea of \u200b\u200bsocial determinism. Special merit belongs here K. Gelving,which showed that a person is not only a product of nature, but also a product of social environment and education. The circumstances are creating a person - this is the general conclusion of philosophy and psychology Gelving. Both books Gelvetia "On the mind" and "about man" are devoted to the development and justification of the original thesis, which proclaimed: a person has a product of education. The main task of Helvetia saw in the proof that the difference in mental abilities, the spiritual appearance of people is due not so much by the natural properties of a person how much to upbringing. It includes the substantive environment, and the circumstances of life, and social phenomena.

Gelving came to the underestimation of the role of physical potential of a person in the development of his mental abilities.

The first form of mental activity, in Gelving, are sensations. The ability of sensation is considered by the philosopher in the same natural property, which are density, stretching and others, but only it applies only to "organized animal bodies." All in Gelving is reduced to a feeling: memory, judgment, mind, imagination, passion, desire. At the same time, extreme sensualism Gelvection played a positive role in the fight against the information of the decoge of mental to consciousness and thinking. Helvetius indicated that the soul of a person is not only the mind, she is something more than the mind, for, besides the mind, there is an ability to feel. The mind is formed mainly during life; With his lifetime, it can be lost. But the soul how the ability to feel the sensation remains. It is born and dies along with the birth and death of the body. Therefore, one only thinking cannot express the essence of the soul. The mental sphere is not limited to the area of \u200b\u200bthinking and consciousness, because it has a large number of weak feelings, which "not causing attention to themselves cannot cause any consciousness or memories in us, but for which physical reasons cost.

Man in gelving is not a passive creature, but, on the contrary, active. The source of its activity is passion. They revive the spiritual world of man and lead him into motion. Passions are divided into two kinds, some of which are given from nature, others are acquired during life. They are familiar with external expressions and bodily changes.

As a genuine materialist, Helvetias regarding the method of knowledge of the psyche of a person could not not stand on the positions of an objective and experienced approach. The science of the spiritual world of man, according to his representation, should be interpreted and experimental physics are treated and created.

After the leibant, empirical trends begin to penetrate into German psychology. They became especially noticeable in the works X. Wolf.(1679-1754). In psychology, Wolf is known to the division of psychology on the empirical and rational part, which is reflected in the names of his books: "Empirical psychology" (1732) and "rational psychology" (1734). In addition, Wolf secured the name of "psychology" for science. Wolf, real science ideally is designed to solve three main tasks:

1) the removal of facts and phenomena from the essential foundations;

2) a description of these facts and phenomena;

3) the establishment of quantitative relations.

Since psychology cannot realize the third task, it remains to decide the first two, one of which should be the subject of rational psychology, the other is the subject of empirical psychology.

The basis of all mental manifestations is, on Wolf, soul. Its essence is in the ability of the presentation. This leading force is manifested in the form of cognitive and anamental abilities. The anamental abilities, or the ability of desire, are dependent on cognitive. In Wolf, everything comes down to the indigenous educational essence, which is the cause of various manifestations that empirical psychology should be engaged. The performance of Wolf for empiricism in psychology, for the creation of psychometry as science, similar to experimental physics, is the positive side of Wolf's teachings in psychology. But, solving the psychophysical problem in the form of psychophysiological parallelism, Wolf continued to share, instead of tie, mental and physiological processes into two independent series of phenomena.

Strong roll of German psychology in the direction of empiricism was carried out I. Kantte(1724-1804). Psychological views of Cant have emerged from his general theory of knowledge. He allowed that out of us there are real objects - "things in themselves." However, nothing can be said about them, since "things in themselves are unrecognizable. We are given only the phenomena of consciousness, which are produced by "things in themselves", but do not express their essences. What is represented by consciousness is the world of phenomena, not at all similar to the world of things. By itself, sensual experience does not bear any knowledge of the subjects. Obligation categories are not displayed from the sensual data, they are initially given. Since the essence of things of incomprehensible, and man can only be given in phenomena ("things for us"), then all sciences deal only with phenomena, and therefore can only be empirical sciences. The exception is mathematics and mechanics.

According to this provision for psychology, the object of studying which is the inner world of a person, the essence of the soul is not available. The subject of psychology can only be the phenomena of consciousness found by internal feeling. Thus, psychology is the science of the phenomena of consciousness to which he attributed cognitive, emotional and volitional acts. Kant replaced the dichotomous principle of soul dividing on a three-mended classification of mental phenomena. The main method with which the named types of phenomena is detected is internal observation. According to Kant, the phenomena derived from the inner feeling occur in one dimension - time sequence. The spatial measurement of consciousness phenomena is not peculiar. Therefore, psychology is deprived of the possibility of applying mathematics, the use of which requires a minimum of two dimensions. Experimental techniques are completely uncompaired to the thinking subject. From here it is concluded that psychology is never destined to become an "experimental teaching".

Meanwhile, it is believed that by their critical attitude to psychology I. Kant stimulated the search for new approaches and funds in the field of psychology at the subsequent stages of its development (Yaroshevsky, Boring, Merphy, etc.).

Among other provisions of Kant, influenced psychology, it is necessary to indicate its teaching about transcendental appeping as a special mind of reason to generalize, synthesize and integrate sensual contemplation.

The general doctrine of Kant on a priori conditions, or forms of sensory experience, will be based on the theory of the specific energy of the feelings of Muller, which has incorporated in foreign psychophysiology.

Along with the ideas of Kant at the beginning of the XIX century. In Germany, looks widely fame and spread I. Herbard(1776–1841).

The influence of his philosophical and psychological and pedagogical ideas has affected various directions.

One of them concerns the definition of psychology as a special explanatory science in which he saw the basis for the construction of scientific pedagogy.

Another position of the herbard is associated with the statement of psychology as the area of \u200b\u200bempirical experienced knowledge.

The call for the transformation of psychology into experimental science did not have real prerequisites at the herbard because it deprived the mental processes of the physiological basis. He did not allow the physiological approach to could contribute to a scientific knowledge of mental.

An experiment, according to herbart, cannot have places in psychology due to its analytical nature.

All the wealth of mental life develops from the statics and dynamics of ideas endowed with spontaneous activity. All representations have temporary and power characteristics.

Changes in intensity representations are the statics of the soul.

Changing presentations in time is the dynamics of the soul. Any representation that is not variable in quality may vary by strength (or intensity), which is experiencing a subject as clarity of representations. Each view has a desire for self-preservation. If there are differences in the intensity, weak representations are suppressed, and the strong remains.

The sum of all detainees, or inacked, representations and was a thorough computing with herbart. Depressed views take the nature of the motive forces.

From this struggle of various ideas for the place in consciousness, the Herbar Station on the thresholds of consciousness flows. Consciously considered the ideas that, by their strength and tendency to self-preservation, are above the threshold. Weak representations lying below the threshold do not give subjective experiences of clarity.

Representations that have fallen into the sphere of consciousness have the ability to assimilate into the total mass of clear ideas, called the Herbarrot "Uppercipient".

From the most valuable provisions put forward by the Herbarrot, for the fate of experimental psychology are:

1) the idea of \u200b\u200busing mathematics in psychology;

2) the idea of \u200b\u200bthe thresholds of consciousness.

The Herbared Laws of Representations (Mergers, Complaining, Apperceptible, etc.) will become the working concepts that psychologists operated in the first stages of development of experimental psychology.

As for the philosophical methodology, here they were discarded the most valuable and living and the initial principles of Leibnia and Wolf were taken.

It was this that he prevented him to carry out that the task he set himself - to build "experimental physics of the soul."

The philosophical stage of the development of psychology in the XVII-XIX centuries is the most important period of the formation of theoretical prerequisites for the transformation of psychology into independent science. Two main factors that contribute to the emergence and formation of psychology as science can be distinguished. One of them is penetration into the psychology of an empirical approach.

The essence of the empirical principle, proclaimed by Bacon, was in a single requirement to all specific sciences in the knowledge of the laws of nature, the study of individual facts and phenomena produced by observing and experiment.

In the transition of psychology from reasoning on the essence of the soul to the analysis of specific mental phenomena, obtained on the basis of experience, and consisted of a positive result of the implementation of beckon ideas in the field of psychology.

However, empiricism itself, replaced the idea of \u200b\u200bthe soul as a special indivisible essence on the idea of \u200b\u200bit as a set of mental phenomena, did not solve the problem of the method and paths of their knowledge. The concept of experience in empirical psychology was interpreted in close connection with the question of the relationship between mental phenomena with the physical world and the material substrate. Hence, in determining the method of psychology, the cardinal significance acquired this or that decision of psychophysical, and psychophysiological, problems.

The psychophysical and psychophysiological problem was solved in the history of psychology or in the spirit of dualism (the theory of the external interaction of Descartes, the theory of parallelism Leibniz), or in the spirit of MONISM in its materialistic (spinosa, French and Russian materialists) or in a subjectively idealistic form (Berkeley, Yum). For all the types of idealism, the solution of psychophysical and psychophysiological problem is characterized by the separation of the mental and physical and physiological, the reduction of the world of mental phenomena to a closed system of facts of consciousness, not accessible to objective observation. The only method of penetration into consciousness was proclaimed only internal experience, introspection, self-surveillance.

In the XIX century In the Western European philosophy and psychology, the most common form of solving the question of the attitude of the soul and body was the theory of parallelism, according to which mental and physiological was considered as two independent series of phenomena, but had a functional compliance with each other. This method of consideration of the psychophysiological problem allowed the opportunity to judge mental states under their accompanying physical changes and performed as a theoretical prerequisite for the introduction of natural scientific methods into psychology in idealism. It was the concept of psychophysiological parallelism that became the philosophical basis for the construction of experimental psychology in the West, the initiator of which came V. Wyndt.Staying on the positions of subjective psychology, WEDDT and his followers could not recognize the objective method of decisive in the knowledge of the psyche. The leading role was still assigned to introspection, and the attraction of physiological methods was considered by them only as a means of control. The materialistic line in psychology, which in the XVIII-XIX centuries, was opposed by introspective theories of consciousness for many centuries. Presented in England Toldland, attracted, in France Lametre, Didro, Golbach, Helvetia, in Russia Lomonosov, Radishchev, Herzen, Belinsky, Dobrolyubs, Chernyshevsky. Considering the mental psychic as a natural property, the materialist philosophers argued that mental phenomena can and should be studied by the same means and methods that natural sciences enjoy, i.e., observation and experiment. These ideas of philosophical materialism found their expression in a materialistic program for the translation of psychology on the natural science basis and methods that were developed from the standpoint of reflex teachings by a large Russian scientist I. M. Sechenov.

A.N. Lyontiev

History of development of views on mental phenomena

(Leontyev A.N. Lectures for general psychology. - M.: Meaning, 2000. - p.16-21).

The first lecture of our course was devoted to identifying specific features of mental phenomena. The answer to this complex question, of course, could be given only in the most common form, I stressed that the most characteristic function of mental processes is reflected that under reflection it is understood as a special, subjective form of reflection of reality arising at a certain stage of biological evolution. Thus, we attributed mental phenomena to the widest circle lifephenomena. Mental phenomena and processes are generated during the development of life and are necessary for life. And precisely because their reception and development is inseparable from the evolution of living organisms, they represent the function of the body or, more specifically, the function of the brain.

From these provisions, preliminary determination of the subject of psychological science follows:

Psychology is represented by science on the laws of generation and functioning of mental reflection in life, in the activities of living individuals.

As a preliminary definition, this definition is essential in all its elements, although, like any definition, it is by no means exhaustive and needs much more detailed development of what is hidden behind it. Nevertheless, it seems to me summarizing the results of the development of scientific thought relating to the nature of such close to us and at the same time so mysterious mental phenomena.

There are different paths for which their research can go. First of all, it is the way to study the history of the development of ideas about the psyche. The history of the development of ideas about the nature of mental phenomena is very instructive for understanding their essence. Another study path opens. Going along this path is also studying the development, but not the history of views on the nature of the psychic, but the very mental reflection, that is, they are studying the history of the Psi chicken phenomena. The third way is the path of systematic research of facts, Haracrieving mental phenomena and processes.<...>

Today it will be about the history of the development of views on mental phenomena. But I immediately note that it is not at all going to give a detailed statement of development psychology as science. This is the task of a special course of psychology history. Ii will be limited only by references to how first the ideas about mental phenomena emerged and how the main problems faced with human knowledge aimed at addressing the nature of these phenomena. Psychology as science has a very long background and a very short history of its development as an independent field of scientific knowledge. If the problem of mental more than two millennia has attracted the attention of philosophers, the history of psychology as positive science does not have one and a half years.<...>

Pretty early philosophical thought formulated some of the most important problems relating to the nature of mental phenomena. These problems are not the property of the past. They live and affect the development of psychology as a region of specific knowledge. So, in the ancient philosophy there are two opposite approaches to an understanding of the nature of the mental, the struggle between which continues to this day. The philosophers who hold one line proceeded from the assumption about the existence of an objective world. From their point of view, mental yav depend on material phenomena. In other words, Matter is primary, -the psyche is secondary. This line is known in the history of philosophy as a line of matter. lizma. In antique philosophy, it was brightly represented by a democritus, andwe usually talk about it as a line of democrites, a line of materialistic approach to mental phenomena.

Representatives of another line proclaimed the primacy of the spiritual world considering material phenomena as the generation of this special world, that is they argued that the psyche (or is more widely - a special spiritual start)wich, and matter is secondary. This line of an idealistic approach to mental phenomena is often referred to as Plato's line.

The struggle of these two lines and amounted to the most important content of the development of philosophical thought in the next two millennia. However, it would be a gross mistake to understand this struggle simplified, that is, dividing philosophers into two camps, trying all the richest directions of philosophical thought to fit into this tough external scheme. It is indisputable that the philosophers were divided into two camps: the camp of materialism and the camp of idealism. But from this undisputed position does not imply that the struggle of these two lines, these two main tendencies simply divided the philosophical systems into two parts. Everything was much more difficult. And if we retrospectively follow the views of the great philosophers, then often find contradictory elements in the same theoretical representations. Thus, the struggle of two trends acts in history not as an external collision of two different systems, but as the internal contradiction of philosophical views.

This phenomenon found its classic expression in the system of one of the visible she has representatives of antique philosophy - Aristotle. Aristotle, knowthe sense, developed a line of democritus. It was he who owns the thesis: "If there was no feeling that there would be no sensations." Consequently, in the system of revocation of Aristotle, the existence of an objective world as a source of sensations was recognized. The thesis that the feeling cannot occur without the presence of a felt, is definitely a materialistic thesis. But in the Aristotle system there is both Plato's line. Solving the question of what forms there is matter, in which form it appears before the perceiving subject, Aristotle concluded that these forms have extraterrestrial, that is, spiritual, origin. It is difficult to overestimate the influence of the theoretical views of Aristotle on the development of the mental problem. Some concepts introduced by Aristotle retained their relevance to our time. Such concepts include the concept of association. We still talk about associations and reproduce observations, summarized in the Aristotelian system. We know those phenomena that served as the basis for allocating the concept of "Association" (communication). The associations of impressions or sensations arise if the events causing these sensations were either close in time or similar to each other, or, on the contrary, one event contradicted with another (contrast association). All these ideas in one form or another form are alive to the present day. And the term "Association", having changed its initial importance, refers to the number of capital psychological concepts.<...>

I will allow myself to make a jump in time, as we do not consistently present the story, but only we put the milestones towards the development of philosophical thought. Our understanding of the prehistory of psychology as a specific science, and modern psychology, is inextricably linked with the name of the largest philosopher of the new René Descartes. When Descartes remember, the Latin word pops up in memory.cogito. "- since it is the Descartes that the famous thesis belongs:"Cogito Ergo Sum. "(" I think, therefore, I exist "). This thesis lies the whole worldview. Descartes spent a distinct border between two worlds: The world of mental phenomena and the world of material phenomena. One World - Ethen the world that we find. Descartes calls this world the world of thinking, understanding the entire set of mental phenomena under thinking. He repeatedly explained his thesis, emphasizing that a thinking is also understood. esus perception, memorization, feelings, - in short, all mental life. D.ekarta placed the world of mental phenomena inside the subject.<...>

In addition to the world of mental phenomena, there is a world outside us the world stretch. Is it possible to measure the thought or feeling? Do they have those signs of stretching that are inherent in objective bodily phenomena? Descartes responds to this question negatively and uses a criterion for stretching as a basis for separating two worlds.

To this separation, we experience a dual relationship. It is valuable, since at first led to an emphasis of the originality of mental phenomena and affected the subsequent development of psychology, contributing to the disconnect or, more precisely, to separate the internal subjective world from an external objective. The decartian distinction of the two worlds deserves the most close attention. And the outside world, and the human body, and the actions of a person, of course, belong to the world of stretching. But what then remains to the share of the inner world, which really has no metric, no longer? Where did we then attribute this thinnest plane, this scene to which the performance is played continuously replacing each other mental phenomena? As part of the concept of Decartes, consciousness turns out to be isolated, turns into a closed, isolated from life peace. Isolated from life, because life is body life, because life is life in a medium, because life is an action! Life is activea process that acts as an approval of the existence from any subject of behavior, and especially a person. Life as a statement is practical, and, therefore, the material process. If we tear consciousness from this practical process, it inevitably turns out to be closed in your own circle. Thus, the provision on the isolation of the mental world enters into a contradiction with our basic situation, according to which the mental processes are the essence of the vital processes generated during the evolution and reflective by their nature. The idea of \u200b\u200bDescartes about the world of consciousness, as separately from the world of stretch, was developed in relation to psychology and in the interests of psychology. Next to Decartes I want to put another name, meaningful not only for the history of philosophy, but also for the entire history of the development of human positive knowledge. I mean ... I.Nyuton. Newton, mainly, entered the history of human thought as one of the representatives of the accurate knowledge, the founder of the Newtonian worldview in physics. From the sight of historians, apparently one side of his activity fell out. The fact is that Newton was also indifferent to the problem of mental. He wondered over the nature of strange mental phenomena. These strange phenomena, at the same time the closest to us, and the most difficult for knowledge, are little achievable for scientific analysis. Newton dreamed of accurate psychological science, which possesses an equally mighty force of foresight, as physics, and wondered: "How to penetrate into the world of strange mental phenomena that bizarrely flicker in our consciousness?" They flashed brightly, they disappear, as if covered with clouds. Newton was well aware that the task of analyzing mental phenomena is equal to difficulty, if not more difficult, the task of penetration into the world of the universe. In the Universe, we also observe the shimmering shining, which from time to time hide behind the clouds. Despite the complexity and remoteness of the world of the Universe, we will manage not only to penetrate it with the help of direct observation, but also to treat the mind produced empirical facts, giving them a mathematical form. Will we be able to apply the same method to the analysis of the world of mental phenomena, that is, to use the method of observation to study the laws of the inner world? Such was the dream of Newton.<...>

The struggle of materialistic and idealistic trends, reflected in very complex forms the fight against the opposite ideologies, gave rise to some ideas that had a significant impact on the fate of our science. I will have to snatch out of the story some more problems, without which it would be difficult to submit some directions of modern psychology.

At the end of XVIII A group of philosophers appeared, trying to bring mental phenomena directly from the brain. The philosophers of this group undoubtedly represented the materialistic line of development, as they adhered to the thesis on the primaryness of matter and the cognition of the objective world. This direction is known in the history of philosophy as a direction of metaphysical and mechanistic materialism. It depicted a person with all its sorrows and joys by analogy with the car. One of the first representatives of this direction, the French doctor and the philosopher Limetry challenged his main work "Man-car", reflecting this name the very essence of French materialism. Philosophers of this school, comparing a person with a difficult mechanism, tried to explain the behavior of a person, based on the device of his body, which in those days knew quite a little. Displays the psyche from the brain device, in fact, means to reduce it to this device. We have two sides of the same medal. And now we often have to meet with theories that bring psyche from the device and the work of the human brain. If we take a similar point of view, then psychology is destroyed; She deprives her subject, turning into physiology, biology, etc. And the fact that still cannot explain the natural sciences remains at the share of psychology as temporary science, which, having described some phenomena and processes, should pass them for a truly scientific study in the hands of a physiologist ... Thus, the ideas of mechanistic materialism, adopting more sophisticated And hidden forms, moved to our age. The psyche, of course, is the function of the brain. But in what attitude is it to "brain" processes? Is it possible to bring the laws of mental activity from the laws of work of the brain? That is the question!

In conclusion, I have to stay on one representative of large fi losophical school - Bishop George Berkeley. Berkeley consider one of the foundationjumps of subjective idealism. This direction is of particular interest, as it leaves from a very important and purely psychological position: the first reality with which we are facing, there are sensations. The philosophers for which this provision is the starting point of philosophical constructions, called sensualists. Sensualism father John Locke Exko expressed the credo of this direction, saying: "There is nothing in intelligence that it would not have passed through the senses." The thesis of the Locke, arguing that the formation of images, ideas and concepts is possible only on the basis of our sensations, you can give a two-way meaning. Mother ialistly understood, it means that sensations - an indispensable source onshe is knowledge. But the same thesis takes a fundamentally different color in the context of the submissions of subjective idealism (or agnosticism). Representatives of subjective idealism asks the following question: "Feeling feelings as the initial source of knowledge, but what lies with the sensations? What are they called? We see the reason that caused by means of a sensation image of a phenomenon. But the fact is that about this reason I can get information through all the same sensations. " So, a closed circle is formed. If Cart Market Cart aet and isolates from the outside world consciousness, the circle of Berkeley is a circle, isolatingsy sensations. In the concept of subjective idealism, the feeling acquires an independent, separated from the reality of being, that is, it exists without felt. With such an interpretation of Lokkovsky thesis, our senses are no longer acting in the role of peculiar windows into the world, no longer associates us with the surrounding reality, but rather separated, they are separated from the outside world. Then mental phenomena become purely subjective phenomena, "purely" in the sense that there is nothing more than subjectivity behind them.<...>

I can look at the object under a different angle of view, and then it will change, but after all, about my movement I recognize everything from the same sensations. If you firmly adhere to the logic of subjective idealism, we will come to the paradoxical conclusion about the uniqueness of the existence of me as a subject. As subjective idealism acquires other forms, and mechanical materialism has not yet come across the Arena history.

And finally, a few words about the stage of history, when psychology began to come out of the depths of philosophy and develop as an independent science. I will note that psychology left the parent LONO much later than other natural sciences. She began to develop as a field of specific knowledge somewhere in the middle of the nineteenth century. The following appeal was crucial for the origin and development of psychology as an independent science, addressed to researchers of the nature of mental phenomena. Scientists who threw this cry, argued that psychology should tear with speculative, purely philosophical constructions and move to experimental analysis, designed in the image and likeness of natural positive sciences. This idea has become a turning point in the development of psychology as a region of specific scientific knowledge.

the lecture of our course was devoted to identifying the specific features of mental phenomena. The answer to this complex question, of course, could be given only in the most common form. I stressed that the most characteristic function of mental processes is the reflection, which reflects the special, subjective form of reflection of reality, arising at a certain stage of biological evolution1. Thus, we assigned mental phenomena to the widest range of vital phenomena. Mental phenomena and processes are generated during the development of life and are necessary for life. And precisely because their reception and development is inseparable from the evolution of living organisms, they represent the function of the body or, more specifically, the function of the brain.

From these provisions, preliminary determination of the subject of psychological science follows:

Psychology is represented by science on the laws of generation and functioning of mental reflection in life, in the activities of living individuals.

As a preliminary definition, this definition is essential in all its elements, although, like any definition, it is by no means exhaustive and needs much more detailed development of what is hidden behind it. Nevertheless, it seems to me summarizing the results of the development of scientific thought relating to the nature of such close to us and at the same time so mysterious mental phenomena.

There are different paths for which their research can go. First of all, it is the way to study the history of the development of ideas about the psyche. The history of the development of ideas about the nature of mental phenomena is very instructive for understanding their essence. Another study path opens. Walking along this path is also studying the development, but not the history of views on the nature of the psychic, but the very mental reflection, that is, they are studying the history of the mental phenomena themselves. The third way is the way to systematically study the facts characterizing mental phenomena and processes.

At what path do we best go? I think that the solution to the issue is not at all coming down to the selection of some one way. In my opinion, you should go one by one, and differently, and in the third.

Today it will be about the history of the development of views on mental phenomena. But I immediately note that it is not at all going to give a detailed statement of the development of psychology as science. This is the task of a special course of psychology history. I will limit it only by referring to how first the ideas about mental phenomena emerged and how the main problems faced with human knowledge aimed at addressing the nature of these phenomena.

Psychology as science has a very long background and a very short history of its development as an independent field of scientific knowledge. If the problem of mental more than two millennia has attracted the attention of philosophers, the history of psychology as positive science does not have one and a half years. Our science and old, and young. Old, if we consider as a history of psychology, the whole story of the development of views on the nature of mental phenomena, and young, if we talk about their specific study. At the dawn of human knowledge, people persistently looking for an answer to the question: "What are these strange phenomena?"

In the past, as well as now, people were able to intuitively separate these phenomena from objective, that is, those that we observe outside yourself. And this question, which in one form or another can stand in front of each thoughtful person, took a prominent place in the system of philosophical views of the past. Pretty early philosophical thought formulated some of the most important problems relating to the nature of mental phenomena. These problems are not the property of the past. They live and affect the development of psychology as a region of specific knowledge. So, in the ancient philosophy there are two opposite approaches to an understanding of the nature of the mental, the struggle between which continues to this day. The philosophers who hold one line proceeded from the assumption about the existence of an objective world. From their point of view, mental phenomena depend on material phenomena. In other words, the matter is primary, and the psyche is secondary. This line is known in the history of philosophy as a line of materialism. In antique philosophy, it was most brightly represented by a democritus, and we usually talk about it as a line of democritus, the line of the materialistic approach to mental phenomena.

Representatives of another line proclaimed the primacy of the spiritual world, considering material phenomena as the cause of this special world, that is, they argued that the psyche (or more widely - a special spiritual beginning) is primary, and the matter is secondary. This line of an idealistic approach to mental phenomena is often referred to as Plato's line.

The struggle of these two lines and amounted to the most important content of the development of philosophical thought in the next two millennia. However, it would be a gross mistake to understand this struggle simplified, that is, dividing philosophers into two camps, trying all the richest directions of philosophical thought to fit into this tough external scheme. It is indisputable that the philosophers were divided into two camps: the camp of materialism and the camp of idealism. But from this undisputed position does not imply that the struggle of these two lines, these two main tendencies simply divided the philosophical systems into two parts. Everything was much more difficult. And if we retrospectively follow the views of the great philosophers, then often find contradictory elements in the same theoretical representations. Thus, the struggle of two trends acts in history not as an external collision of two different systems, but as the internal contradiction of philosophical views.

This phenomenon found his classic expression in the system of one of the most prominent representatives of the ancient philosophy - Aristotle. Aristotle, in a sense, developed a democritus line. It was he who owns the thesis: "If there was no feeling that there would be no sensations." Consequently, in the system of revocation of Aristotle, the existence of an objective world as a source of sensations was recognized. The thesis that the feeling cannot occur without the presence of a felt is certainly a materialistic thesis. But in the Aristotle system there is both Plato's line. Solving the question of what forms there is matter, in which form it appears before the perceiving subject, Aristotle concluded that these forms have extraterrestrial, that is, spiritual, origin. It is difficult to overestimate the influence of the theoretical views of Aristotle on the development of the mental problem. Some concepts introduced by Aristotle retained their relevance to our time. Such concepts include the concept of association. We still talk about associations and reproduce observations, summarized in the Aristotelian system. We know those phenomena that served as the basis for allocating the concept of "Association" (communication). The associations of impressions or sensations arise if the events causing these sensations were either close in time or similar to each other, or, on the contrary, one event contradicted with another (contrast association). All these ideas in one form or another form are alive to the present day. And the term "Association", having changed its initial importance, refers to the number of capital psychological concepts.

I emphasize this moment, speaking of the significance of the concept introduced by Aristotle, in order to reinforce the thesis previously expressed again: "The history of philosophical views is instructive, and it cannot be crossed out." It would be extremely unreasonable to occupy the position of non-knowledgeable kinship, because many of the problems set by the thinkers of the past turned into actually psychological problems.

I will allow myself to make a jump in time, as we do not consistently present the story, but only we put the milestones towards the development of philosophical thought. Our understanding of the prehistory of psychology as a specific science, and modern psychology, is inextricably linked with the name of the largest philosopher of the new René Descartes. When Descartes remember, the Latin word "Cogito" pops up in mind very often, since it was the Descartes that the famous thesis belongs: "Cogito Ergo Sum" ("I think, therefore I exist"). This thesis lies the whole worldview. Descartes conducted a distinct border between the two worlds: the world of mental phenomena and the world of material phenomena. One world is the world that we find. Descartes calls this world the world of thinking, understanding the entire set of mental phenomena under thinking. He repeatedly explained his thesis, emphasizing that the processes of perception, memorization, feelings were also understood under thinking, - in a word, all mental life. Descartes placed the world of mental phenomena inside the subject. We discover this world when we set a certain task. We are not just thinking, but we find yourself thinking, we find ourselves perceive, "we find ourselves ...", that is, we discover the world of mental phenomena. In this "we find yourself ...", apparently, the key lies towards an understanding of the expansion interpretation of the term "thinking" as reflection (reflection) of its inner life.

In addition to the world of mental phenomena, there is a world outside us, the world of stretching. Is it possible to measure the thought or feeling? Do they have those signs of stretching that are inherent in objective bodily phenomena? Descartes responds to this question negatively and uses a criterion for stretching as a basis for separating two worlds.

To this separation, we experience a dual relationship. It is valuable, since at first led to an emphasis of the originality of mental phenomena and affected the subsequent development of psychology, contributing to the disconnect or, more precisely, to separate the internal subjective world from an external objective. The decartian distinction of the two worlds deserves the most close attention. And the outside world, and the human body, and the actions of a person, of course, belong to the world of stretching. But what then remains to the share of the inner world, which really has no metric, no longer? Where did we then attribute this thinnest plane, this scene to which the performance is played continuously replacing each other mental phenomena? As part of the Descartes' concept, consciousness turns out to be isolated, turns into a closed, isolated world. Isolated from life, because life is body life, because life is life in a medium, because life is an action! Life is an active process that acts as an approval of the existence from any subject of behavior, and in particular person. Life as a statement is practical, and therefore the material process. If we tear consciousness from this practical process, it inevitably turns out to be closed in your own circle. Thus, the provision on the isolation of the mental world enters into a contradiction with our basic situation, according to which the mental processes are the essence of the vital processes generated during the evolution and reflective by their nature. The idea of \u200b\u200bDescartes about the world of consciousness, as separately from the world of stretch, was developed in relation to psychology and in the interests of psychology. Next to Decartes I want to put another name, meaningful not only for the history of philosophy, but also for the entire history of the development of human positive knowledge. I mean ... I.Nyuton. Newton, mainly, entered the history of human thought as one of the representatives of the accurate knowledge, the founder of the Newtonian worldview in physics. From the sight of historians, apparently one side of his activity fell out. The fact is that Newton was also indifferent to the problem of mental. He wondered over the nature of strange mental phenomena. These strange phenomena, at the same time the closest to us, and the most difficult for knowledge, are little achievable for scientific analysis. Newton dreamed of accurate psychological science, which has the same mighty force of foresight, as physics, and wondered: "How to penetrate into the world of strange mental phenomena that bizarrely flicker in our mind? "They are brightly flashed, they disappear, as if covered with clouds. Newton was well aware that the task of analyzing mental phenomena is equal to difficulty, if not more difficult, the task of penetration into the world of the universe. In the Universe, we also observe the shimmering shining, which from time to time hide behind the clouds. Despite the complexity and remoteness of the world of the Universe, we will manage not only to penetrate it with the help of direct observation, but also to treat the mind produced empirical facts, giving them a mathematical form. Will we be able to apply the same method to the analysis of the world of mental phenomena, that is, to use the method of observation to study the laws of the inner world? Such was the dream of Newton.

At the very beginning of the XIX century, Newton's dream suddenly found a living response in the works of the famous German teacher and a Herbart Psychologist. From the point of view of Herbart, the reality that we observe in yourself there are ideas and their movements. The submission course is due to the power relations between the representations and, therefore, it can be mathematically described in the same way as the movement of celestial tel is described in physics. Herbart was deeply confident that such a way, the Newtonian path of knowledge, will be able to disclose a completely special world of mental phenomena. The attempt of herbart in advance was doomed to failure, since he did not take into account the specifics of the world of subjective phenomena. In the world of the Universe, their internal laws dominate, and for the analysis of these laws there is no need to attract some third force, since all the forces manageing this world are in it. We can not use the same method of analysis, that is, observation, to study the inner world, since the phenomena of this world, they detect a direct dependence on the effects that do not belong to the micromemore itself, but are external to it. Any representation movement is closely connected with the movement of those phenomena that no longer belong to the world of mental processes. We see the world and present it, but, in Aristotelevski, in order for us to have an idea, it is necessary to have someone submitted outside the world of consciousness.

You will not have to meet with the theory of herbart, describing the mechanics of our ideas, but you can hardly find the mention that the ideas of Herbarrt were a replica on Newton's great dream, which, in essence, first formulated the principle: Processing subjective phenomena and You will discover the laws that manage the world of our consciousness.

The struggle of materialistic and idealistic trends, reflected in very complex forms the fight against the opposite ideologies, gave rise to some ideas that had a significant impact on the fate of our science. I will have to snatch out of the story some more problems, without which it would be difficult to submit some directions of modern psychology.

At the end of the XVIII century, a group of philosophers appeared, trying to bring mental phenomena directly from the work of the brain. The philosophers of this group undoubtedly represented the materialistic line of development, as they adhered to the thesis on the primaryness of matter and the cognition of the objective world. This direction is known in the history of philosophy as a direction of metaphysical and mechanistic materialism. It depicted a person with all its sorrows and joys by analogy with the car. One of the first representatives of this area, the French doctor and the philosopher Limetry challenged his main work "Man-car", reflecting this title the very essence of French materialism. Philosophers of this school, comparing a person with a difficult mechanism, tried to explain the behavior of a person, based on the device of his body, which in those days knew quite a little. Displays the psyche from the brain device, in fact, means to reduce it to this device. We have two sides of the same medal. And now we often have to meet with theories that bring psyche from the device and the work of the human brain. If we take a similar point of view, then psychology is destroyed; She deprives her subject, turning into physiology, biology, etc. And the fact that still cannot explain the natural sciences remains at the share of psychology as temporary science, which, having described some phenomena and processes, should pass them for a truly scientific study in the hands of a physiologist ... Thus, the ideas of mechanistic materialism, adopting more sophisticated And hidden forms, moved to our age. The psyche, of course, is the function of the brain. But in what attitude is it to "brain" processes? Is it possible to bring the laws of mental activity from the laws of work of the brain? That is the question!

In conclusion, I have to stay on one representative of the major philosophical school - Bishop George Berkeley. Berkeley consider one of the founders of subjective idealism. This direction is of particular interest, as it leaves from a very important and purely psychological position: the first reality with which we are facing, there are sensations. The philosophers for which this provision is the starting point of philosophical constructions, called sensualists. Sensualism father John Locke Exko expressed the credo of this direction, saying: "There is nothing in intelligence that it would not have passed through the senses." The thesis of the Locke, arguing that the formation of images, ideas and concepts is possible only on the basis of our sensations, you can give a two-way meaning. Materialistically understood, it means that sensations are an indispensable source of our knowledge. But the same thesis takes a fundamentally different color in the context of the submissions of subjective idealism (or agnosticism). Representatives of subjective idealism asks the following question: "Feeling feelings as the initial source of knowledge, but what lies with the sensations? What are they called? We see the reason that caused by means of a sensation image of a phenomenon. But the fact is that about this reason I can get information through all the same sensations. " So, a closed circle is formed. If the Cartiary circle closes and isolates the Consciousness from the outside world, then Berkeley's circle is a circle, insulating sensation. In the concept of subjective idealism, the feeling acquires an independent, separated from the reality of being, that is, it exists without felt. With such an interpretation of Lokkovsky thesis, our senses are no longer acting in the role of peculiar windows into the world, no longer associates us with the surrounding reality, but rather separated, they are separated from the outside world. Then mental phenomena become purely subjective phenomena, "purely" in the sense that there is nothing more than subjectivity behind them. I see you on the basis of those data that the senses are supplied to me.

I can look at the object under a different angle of view, and then it will change, but I will learn about my movement everything from the same sensations. If you firmly adhere to the logic of subjective idealism, we will come to the paradoxical conclusion about the uniqueness of the existence of me as a subject. As subjective idealism acquires other forms, and mechanical materialism has not yet come across the Arena history.

And finally, a few words about the stage of history, when psychology began to come out of the depths of philosophy and develop as an independent science. I will note that psychology left the parent LONO much later than other natural sciences. She began to develop as a field of specific knowledge somewhere in the middle of the nineteenth century. The following appeal was crucial for the origin and development of psychology as an independent science, addressed to researchers of the nature of mental phenomena. Scientists who threw this cry, argued that psychology should tear with speculative, purely philosophical constructions and move to experimental analysis, designed in the image and likeness of natural positive sciences. This idea has become a turning point in the development of psychology as a region of specific scientific knowledge.

1.2. Development of psychological knowledge in the framework of the teaching about the soul

Antique philosophy that covers the entire set of scientific views, laid the beginning and psychology. It is here that the first philosophical systems appear, the authors of which are taken for the primancy of the world, which gives rise to all the inexhaustible wealth of phenomena, one or another type of matter: water (Falez), an indefinite infinite substance "Aleron" (Anaximandr), air (anaximen), fire (heraklit) .

1.2.1. Reviews on the nature of the psychic

Animism. The mythological idea of \u200b\u200bthe soul was dominated in the generic society. Each particular sensually perceived thing was endowed with a supernatural double - soul (or many souls). Such a look is called animism (from Lat. "Anima" - soul). The surrounding world was perceived as dependent on the arbitrariness of these souls.

Animism - Faith in the spirits hidden for visible things (shower) as special "agents" or "ghosts", which leave the human body with the last breath (for example, according to the philosopher and mathematician Pythagora) and, being immortal, forever waters on animal bodies and plants.

Getting to the ideas about human psychology in the ancient myths, it is impossible not to admire the subtlety of the understanding of the gods endowed with cunning or wisdom, vigorion or generosity, envy or nobility - all the qualities that the creators of the myths have known in the earthly practice of their communications with neighbors. This mythological picture of the world, where bodies are settled with souls (their "twins" or ghosts), and life depends on the mood of the gods, centuries reigned in a public consciousness.

Gilozoism. A fundamentally new approach expressed replacing the animism to the doctrine of the general animation of the world - gilosistance, in which nature was reflected as a single material integer endowed with life. Determined changes occurred initially not so much in the actual composition of knowledge, but in his general explanatory principles. Those information about a person, his bodily appliance and mental properties that the creators of ancient Greek philosophy and science have learned in the teachings of thinkers of the Ancient East, are now perceived in the context of new, freed from mythology of world-upsion.

Herclite: Soul as "Logos Sparkle". Gilozoist Heraclitus (end VI - the beginning of the V century BC) Cosmos appeared in the form of "forever living fire", and the soul ("psychhery") - in the form of his spark. Thus, the soul is included in the general patterns of natural being, developing by the same law (Logos), as the space, which is the same for all things, is not created by any of the gods and anyone from people, but which has always been, there is It will be "eternally live fire, measuring and agile with swelling."

The name of Heraclit is also associated with the allocation of several steps in the process of knowledge of the surrounding world. By separating the activities of the senses (sensations) from the mind, it gave a description of the results of the cognitive activity of a person, proving that the sensations give "dark", unoccupied knowledge, while the result of mental activity is "bright", distinct knowledge. However, sensual and reasonable knowledge is not opposed, but harmoniously complement each other as "multi-consciousness" and "mind". Heraclit emphasized that "Multivissary does not tell the mind," but at the same time a scientist, the philosopher should know much to make a correct idea of \u200b\u200bthe environment. Thus, different sides of knowledge of Heraclit are mutually related opposite opposites, helping the penetration into the depths of the logos.

He also pointed to the difference between the soul of an adult and the child, since, from his point of view, as the soul, the soul is becoming more and more "dry and hot." The degree of humidity of the soul affects her cognitive abilities: "Dry radiance - the soul of the wise and the best," says Heraclit, and therefore a child who has a woeful soul, thinks worse than an adult man. Similarly, "drunk rushes and does not notice where he goes, for his soul is wet." So Logos, which rules the cycle of things in nature, manages both the development of the soul and its cognitive abilities.

Democritus.The idea of \u200b\u200bHeraclitus that the course of things depends on the law of Logos, developed by Democritus (approx. 460-370 BC).

Unfortunately, the compositions of the democritus reached us only in passages. The basis of his theory is the concept according to which the whole world consists of the smallest, invisible eyes of particles - atoms. Atoms differ from each other form, order and turn. Man, like all the surrounding nature, consists of atoms forming his body and soul. The soul is also material and consists of small round atoms, the most mobile, for they must inform the activity of the inert body. Thus, from the point of view of a democritus, the soul is a source of activity, energy for the body. After the death of a man's soul dissipates in the air, and therefore death is not only the body, but also the soul.

Democritis believed that the soul was in the head (reasonable part), in the chest (courageous part), in the liver (the lust) and in the senses.

Democritus has two steps in the cognitive process - sensations and thinking. At the same time, he emphasized that thinking gives us more knowledge than the sensations. So, the sensations do not give us the opportunity to see atoms, but by reflections we come to the conclusion about their existence. Democritis also introduced the concept of primary and secondary qualities of items. Primary are the qualities that really exist in objects (weight, surface, smooth or rough, shape). The secondary qualities - the color, smell, the taste, these properties are not in the items, they came up with the people themselves for their convenience, since "only in the opinion there is sour and sweet, red and green, and in reality there is only emptiness and atoms."

Thus, Democrite first said that a person cannot be completely correct, adequate to know the world around him. This inability to understand to the end of the surrounding reality also applies to the understanding of the laws that manage the world and the fate of a person. Democrite argued that there are no accidents in the world, and everything happens according to a predetermined reason. People came up with the idea of \u200b\u200bthe case to cover out of ignorance of affairs and inability to control. In fact, there are no accidents, and everything is causally due.

Hippocrates: Teaching about temperaments. School of Hippocratic (approx. 460-377 BC), known to us by the so-called "Hippocratic Column", considered life as a changing process. Among its explanatory principles, we meet air in the role of force, which supports the inseparable connection of the body with the world, brings from the outside, and mental functions performs in the brain. A single material beginning as the basis of organic life was rejected. If a person was united, he would never have been sick, but if he had a sick, then the healing age would be one. But there is no such.

The doctrine of the unified element underlying the diversity of things, Hippocrates replaced the teaching of four liquids (blood, mucus, bile yellow and bile black). From here, depending on which fluid prevails, the version of four temperaments called hereinafter: Sanguineic (when blood dominates), phlegmatic (mucus), cholecical (yellow bile) and melancholic (black bile).

For future scientific psychology, this explanatory principle, with all its naivety, was very important (no wonder the terminology of the hippocrates was preserved today). First, a hypothesis was put forward to the forefront, according to which countless differences between people can be grouped by several common signs of behavior; Thus, the start of scientific typology underlying modern teachings on individual differences between people were laid out. Secondly, the source and cause of the differences of Hippocrates searched inside the body; The mental qualities were made dependent on bodily. On the role of the nervous system in that era, they did not yet know, so typology was, speaking by the current language, humoral (from Lat. Gumor - liquid).

If you look at the hippocratic temperaments from general theoretical positions, you can notice their weak side (however, it is also inherent in modern typologies of characters): the body was considered as a mixture - in some proportions - different elements, but how this mixture turned into a harmonious whole, remained for noodle.

Anaksagor: "Mind" as the beginning of things. The philosopher Anaxagor (V century BC) was trying to solve this riddle. He did not take a heraklitovo lesion on the world as a fireflow, nor a democriton picture of atomic vortices. Considering the nature consisting of a plurality of the smallest particles, he was looking for a beginning in it, thanks to which from chaos, organized space arises from the disorderly accumulation and movement of these particles. So the beginning of Anaxahor acknowledged the "the finest thing", which gave the name "Nus" (Mind). He believed that on how fully the mind was presented in various bodies, their perfection depends. "Man," Anaxagor said, "is the most intelligent animal due to what has hands." It turned out that not the mind determines the benefits of a person, but his bodily organization determines the highest mental quality - rationality.

The principles formulated by Herclic, Democritom and Anaxagore, created the main life nerve of the future system of scientific understanding of the world, including the knowledge of mental phenomena. Whatever the winding paths have such knowledge in the next centuries, it obeyed the ideas of law, causality and organization. Open two and a half thousand years ago in ancient Greece, the explanatory principles of steel for all times the basis of the knowledge of mental phenomena.

Softers: Teachers Wisdom. A completely new side of the knowledge of the mental phenomena was opened by the activities of Sofis Philosophers (from Greek. "Sofia" Wisdom). They were not interested in nature, with its independent legal laws, but the man himself, who, as the aphorism of the first Sofist Protagora, "there is a measure of all things." Subsequently, the nickname "Sofist" began to be applied to lzhemudremen, issuing imaginary evidence with the help of various tricks for true. But in the history of psychological knowledge, the activities of the Sofists opened a new object: the relationship between people studied using funds that are designed to prove and inspire any position regardless of its accuracy.

In this regard, the detailed discussion was subjected to techniques of logical reasoning, the structure of speech, the nature of the relationship between the word, thought and perceived objects. As you can transfer anything through the language, I asked Sophist Gorgius if his sounds do not have anything in common with the things that are denoted them. And it was not only a logical trick, but raised the real problem. She, like other issues discussed by Sofists, prepared the development of a new direction in the understanding of the soul.

There were searches for the natural "matter" of the soul. The forefront was the study of speech and mental activity in terms of its use for manipulating people.

Socrates.Return the actions of the soul strength and reliability, but rooted not in the eternal laws of Macrocosm, but in the inner side of the soul itself, sought one of the most remarkable thinkers of the ancient world of Socrates (469-399 BC). The meaning of the activity of Socrates (it was called "dialectic" - finding the truth with the help of the conversation) was to help the interlocutor to find a true answer (the so-called reduratory method) and thereby bring it from uncertain ideas to logically clear Knowledge of discussed objects. The discussion was the extensive range of "everyday concepts" on justice, injustice, good, beauty, courage, etc.

The motto of Socrates read: "Know yourself." Under the knowledge of himself, Socrates intelligently, not the appeal "inside" - to his own experiences and states of consciousness (the concept of consciousness has not yet been laid out yet), but an analysis of the actions and relations to them, moral assessments and norms of human behavior in various life situations. It led to a new understanding of the essence of the soul.

The ideas put forward by Socrates were deployed in the theory of his outstanding student of Plato.

Plato. Plato (428-348 BC. E.) Born in a notable Athenian family. Its versatile abilities began to manifest themselves very early and served as the basis for many legends, the most common of whom attributes to him the Divine origin (makes him the son of Apollo). Real name Plato - Aristocle, but still in his youth, he gets a new name - Plato, which means broadcaster (in the early years he was fond of gymnastics). Plato relied not only on the idea of \u200b\u200bSocrates, but also on some provisions of the Pythagoreans, in particular on the deification of the number. Over the gates of the Academy of Plato, it was written: "Not a knowledgeable geometry can not come here." In an effort to create a universal concept, uniting the person and space, Plato believed that the surrounding items are the result of the connection of the soul, ideas, with inanimate matter.

Plato considered that there is an ideal world in which there are souls, or ideas, things, those perfect samples that become prototypes of real objects. The perfection of these samples is not redeemable for items, but makes striving to be similar to them. Thus, the soul is not only the idea, but also the purpose of the real thing. The idea, or soul, from the point of view of Plato, is constant, unchanged and immortal. She is a keeper of human morality. Being a rationalist, Plato believed that the behavior should encourage and go to mind, and not feelings, and opposed the democritus and his theory of determinism, claiming the possibility of human freedom, freedom of his reasonable behavior. The soul, according to Platon, consists of three parts: lustry, passionate and reasonable. The desired and passionate soul should obey the reasonable. In his dialogues, Plato likes the soul of a chariot, harvested with two horses. The black horse is a lustful soul - does not listen to orders and needs a constant zero, as he seeks to turn the chariot, reset it into the abyss. White horse is a passionate soul, although it tries to go his way, but does not always listen to the cat and needs permanent supervision. And finally, the reasonable part of the soul Platon identifies with the cat, which is looking for the right path and directs the chariot along it, driving a horse. Since the soul is constant and a person cannot change it, then the content of those knowledge that is stored in the soul is also invariably, and the discoveries committed by man are essentially the opening of something new, but only awareness of what has already been kept in the shower. Thus, the process of thinking Plato understood as a recall that the soul knew in his cosmic life, but forgot when he was in a body. And the thinking itself, which, he considered the main cognitive process, in fact, is thinking with reproductive, and not creative (although Plato and operates with the concept of "intuition" leading for creative thinking).

Exploring cognitive processes, Plato spoke of sensation, memory and thinking, and he was the first to speak about memory as an independent mental process. He gives Memory Definition - "Prshit Freight in Wax" - and considers it one of the most important stages in the process of knowledge of the surrounding. The process of knowledge of Plato, as already mentioned, appeared in the form of a question; Thus, the memory was a repository of all knowledge, both aware of and not conscious at the moment.

However, Plato considered the memory, as well as the sensation, passive process and contrasted their thinking, emphasizing his active character.

Aristotle. Aristotle (384-322 BC) opened a new era in understanding the soul as the subject of psychological knowledge. Its source of steel for Aristotle is not physical bodies and disembodied ideas, but the body, where the bodily and spiritual form inseparable integrity. The soul, according to Aristotle, is not an independent essence, but a form, method of organizing a living body. Aristotle was the son of a physician at the Macedonian Tsar and himself was preparing for a medical profession. After was the seventeen-year-old young men in Athens to the sixty-year-old Platon, he was engaged in his academy for several years, with whom she broke out. The famous painting of Rafael "Athens School" depicts Plato pointing hand on the sky. Aristotle - to Earth. In these images captured the difference in the orientation of two great thinkers. According to Aristotle, the ideological wealth of the world is hidden in sensually perceived terrestrial things and is revealed in direct communication with them.

The huge number of facts of comparative anatomical, zoological, embryological and other, the experienced basis of observation and analysis of living beings were accumulated. The generalization of these facts, primarily biological, was the basis of the psychological teaching of Aristotle and the transformation of the main explanatory principles of psychology: organizations, patterns, causality.

The soul thought of Aristotle as a way to organize a live body, whose actions were appropriate. He considered the soul inherent in all living organisms (including plants) and subject to objective, experimental study. It cannot exist without a body and at the same time is not a body. It is impossible to separate the soul from the body.

The soul has various abilities as the steps of its development: vegetable, sensual and mental (inherent in man). In relation to the explanation of the soul Aristotle, contrary to his postulate about the inseparalness of the soul and capable of life of the body, believed that the mind in his higher, essential expression was something different from the body. The hierarchy of cognitive levels was completed by the "Supreme Mind", which was not mixed with anything bodily and external.

The beginning of knowledge is sensual ability. It captures the shape of things like the way "wax takes off printing without iron and gold." In such a process of liketing the live body to external objects, Aristotle attached great importance to a special central body called "General Sensitive". This center is learning common to all sensations - movement, magnitude, figure, etc. Thanks to it, it becomes possible and distinguishing the subject of modalities of sensations (colors, taste, smell).

Aristotle considered the central body of the soul, and the heart associated with the organs of feelings and movements by circulating blood. External impressions the body captures in the form of "fantasy" images (under this understood the presentation of memory and imagination). They are connected according to the laws of the Association of three species - adjacentness (if two impressions followed each other, then afterwards one of them is different), similarities and contrast. (These Open Aristotle laws became the basis of the direction, which later received the name of associative psychology.)

Aristotle adhered to, speaking in modern language, a systemic approach, since he considered a living body and its ability, as a valid system. Its important contribution is also the approval of the idea of \u200b\u200bdevelopment, for he taught that the highest level ability arises on the basis of the previous, more elementary. Aristotle relevant the development of a separate organism with the development of the entire animal world. In a separate person, they are repeated when it turns out of the baby into a mature creature, those steps that have passed the organic world for its history. In this generalization, the idea named afterly, the biological law was laid in its infancy.

Aristotle first spoke about the nature appearance of the upbringing and the need to correlate pedagogical methods with the level of mental development of the child. He suggested a periodization, the OS of which was the structure of the soul allocated to them. Childhood he divided into three periods: up to 7 years, from 7 to 14 and from 14 to 21 years. For each of these periods, a certain system of upbringing should be developed. For example, speaking of preschool age. Aristotle emphasized that during this period the formation of a plant soul occupies the most important place; Therefore, for small children, such a value has a day mode, proper nutrition, hygiene. Schoolchildren need to develop other properties, in particular movement (with gymnastic exercises), sensations, memory, aspirations. Moral education should be based on the exercise in moral actions.

If Plato considered the feeling of evil, then Aristotle, on the contrary, wrote about the importance of raising the feelings of children, emphasizing the need for moderation and reasonable correlation of feelings with others. Of great importance, he assigned to affects that arise regardless of the will of the person and the fight against which the force of one mind is impossible. Therefore, he emphasized the role of art. Especially the art of the dramatic, which, causing the corresponding emotions in the audience and listeners, contributes to the catharsis, i.e. Purification from the affect, while teaching both children and adult culture of feelings.

So, Aristotle transformed key explanatory principles of psychology: systematic (organizations), development, determinism. The soul for Aristotle is not a special essence, but a method of organizing a living body, which is a system, the soul takes place different stages in development and is capable of not only to capture what acts on the body at the moment, but also to be corrected with a future goal.

Aristotle opened and examined many specific mental phenomena. But there are no "clean facts" in science. Any fact is different in different ways depending on the theoretical angle of view, from those categories and explanatory schemes that the researcher is armed. Enriching explanatory principles, Aristotle presented a completely different, relatively with its predecessors, a picture of the device, functions and development of the soul.

Psychological views in the Ellinism Epoch. After the campaigns of the Macedonian king Alexander (IV century BC), the largest monarchy of antiquity arose. Its subsequent decay opened a new period in the history of the ancient world - Hellenistic - with the synthesis characteristic of the elements of the cultures of Greece and the countries of the East.

The position of the person in society has changed radically. Free Greek lost contact with his hometown, a stable social environment and turned out to be in the face of unpredictable change. With increasingly sharpness, he felt the pelilt of his existence in the changed world. These shifts in the real position and in self-satisfaction behave the imprint on the idea of \u200b\u200bher mental life.

Stoiki. School of Stoikov arose in the IV century BC. She received her name by the name of the place in Athens ("standing" - a portico of the temple), where her founder of Zenon (not mixed with Synomon Sophist) preached his teaching. Representing space as a single integer, consisting of infinite modifications of fiery air - Pneuma, the Stoics considered the human soul of one of these modifications.

Under the pneuma (initial meaning of the word - inhaled air) The first natural philosophers understood a single natural, the material principle, which permeates both the external physical space, and the living organism and the psuhe stay in it (that is, the area of \u200b\u200bsensations, feelings, thoughts).

According to this teaching, the world pneuma is identical to the world soul, the "divine fire", which is Logos or, as the later stoics believed, - fate. The happiness of man saw in to live according to Logos.

Like their predecessors in classical Greece, the steaks believed in the primacy of the mind, to the fact that a person does not reach happiness because of ignorance, in which it consists. But if the image of a harmonious personality was existed before, in the full life of which a reasonable and sensual (emotional) merge, then in the thinkers of the Hellenistic era, in the situation of social adversity, fear, dissatisfaction, anxiety, attitude towards emotional shocks - affects - has changed.

The stoics declared the affects of the war, seeing "damage the mind" in them, since they arise as a result of the "wrong" activity of the mind. Pleasure and suffering are false judgments about the present; Desire and fear are just as false judgments about the future. From affects should be treated, as from diseases. They need "with the root of pulling out of the soul." Only the mind free from any emotional shocks (both positive and negative) is able to properly lead the behavior. This is what allows a person to fulfill its purpose, his duty and maintain internal freedom.

Epicuretes. On other cosmological principles, but with the same orientation in search of happiness and art, the school of Epicur (end of the IV century BC) was based on. In his ideas about the nature of the epicuretes relied on the atomism of democritus. However, unlike the version of the "tough" causality in everything that is performed in the world (and, it became, in the shower), the epicuretes allowed spontaneity, the spontaneity of changes, their random character. In other words, epicuretes believed that the personality was able to act at their own risk. However, the word "fear" here you can use only metaphorically: the whole point of Epicury teaching was to, penetrating them, people flew out from fear.

This goal was also the doctrine of atoms: a living body, like the soul, consists of atoms moving in the emptiness, which at the time of death are dissipated by the general laws of the same eternal space. And if so, "the death does not have any relation to us: when we are, then there are no death, when death comes, then we are no longer."

Like many stoics, the epicuretes reflected on the ways of achieving individual independence from external. The best way they saw in self-assets from all public affairs. This behavior will allow to avoid chagrins, anxiety, negative emotions and, thereby, to experience pleasure, for it has nothing like the absence of suffering.

1.2.2. Results of the development of ancient psychological thought

In the writings of the ancient Greek thinkers, many great problems are open, which today direct the development of psychological ideas. In their explanations of the genesis and the structures of the soul, three directions are found, according to which the search for those large, independent of the individual spheres, in the image and the similarity of which was interpreted by the microcosm of an individual human soul.

The first direction was the explanation of the psyche based on the laws of movement and the development of the material world. Here the main thing was the idea of \u200b\u200bthe decisive dependence of mental manifestations from the general structure of things, their physical nature. (The question of the place of mental in the material world, raised for the first time with ancient thinkers, still remains rod in psychological theory.)

The second direction of the ancient psychology created by Aristotle was focused mainly on living nature; The initial point for it was the difference between the properties of organic bodies from inorganic. Since the psyche is a form of life, the nomination of this problem has been a major step forward. It made it possible to see in the mental soul that having spatial parameters and capable (according to both materialists and idealists) to leave the body with which it is externally connected, but a way to organize the behavior of living systems.

The third direction put the mental activity of the individual dependence on the forms that are created not by physical or organic nature, but by human culture, namely, from concepts, ideas, ethical values. These forms, really playing a large role in the structure and dynamics of mental processes, were, however, starting with Pythagoreans and Plato, were alienated from the material world, from the real history of culture and society and are presented in the form of special spiritual entities, alien to sensually perceived bodies.

This direction has given special sharpness to the problem that should be denoted as psycho-homicitic (from Greek. "Gnosis" is knowledge). Under it, it is necessary to understand a wide range of issues that the study of psychological factors is facing, initially binding a subject with an external reality to him - natural and cultural. This reality is transformed according to the device of the subject's mental apparatus in the form of sensual or mental images perceived in the form of sensual or mental images - be it images of the environment, behavior in her personality or the very personality itself.

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