Empirical and theoretical knowledge. II.Toretical level of scientific knowledge

It is a complex integral structure of interconnected facts, ideas and views. Its the most important difference from ordinary knowledge is the desire for objectivity, critical understanding of ideas, a well-developed methodology both in the acquisition of knowledge and in their verification.

Criterion for falsifier

For example, one of the most important elements of the scientific approach is the so-called Karl Popper criterion (by the name of the author). It consists in the possibility or impossibility of experimental verification of the theory. So, for example, in the predictions of Nostradamus, it is possible to find plots from the life of whole nations. However, it is not possible to check whether they are real foresights or simple coincidences that modern journalists are looking for only after the events that have happened. The same problem generates many blurry views of humanitarian concepts. At the same time, if we assume that the Heavenly Code is a firm, despite the absurdity in our days of this statement, it can be considered a scientific theory (albeit instantly refuted).

Levels of scientific knowledge

At the same time, any scientific activity involves not only the criteria for checking views, but also the methodology of finding new facts and theories. Levels of scientific knowledge in philosophy Specialists are usually divided into empirical and theoretical. And each of them has its own techniques and methodology that we will consider below.

Scientific Cognition Levels: Empirical

Here, knowledge is represented by sensual forms. It combines the entire set of paths that opens to a person thanks to its sense organs: contemplation, touch, sensations of sounds and smells. It should be noted that
empirical knowledge can occur not only through only human sensations, but also with the help of special devices that give the necessary, often more accurate facts: from the thermometer to the microscope, from measuring containers to quantum particle accelerators.

Levels of scientific knowledge: theoretical

The ultimate goal of the journey of empirical knowledge is their systematization, the elimination of patterns. Theoretical knowledge is a logical abstraction, which is obtained through the removal of scientific hypotheses and theories based on the available data, creating more global structures, a number of elements of which are often not yet known to empirical observation.

Methods and levels of scientific knowledge

The empirical level allocate the following methods:

• comparison;
• experiment;
• observation.

On theoretical level we are dealing with such mental constructions as:

• idealization;
• abstraction;
• analogy;
• mental modulation;
• system method.

Conclusion

Thus, the empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge are a unified system of procedures, processes and methods for acquiring knowledge of the world around us, the patterns of nature, the vital activity of human society and its individual areas (for example,

Scientific knowledge has 2 levels: empirical and theoretical.

Empirical level cognition is associated with the subject of scientific research, includes 2 components - sensual experience (sensation, perception, performance) and their primary theoretical understanding.

For empirical knowledge is characterized by factors.

Theoretical level lies in the further processing of empirical material. Theoretical knowledge is essential knowledge carried out at the level of high-order abstractions.

Positions of empiricism: on the 1st plan - the role of sensation, direct observations in knowledge and the denial of the theoretical thinking. The position of rationalism: in the 1st plan - the activity of the mind, attributes him the role of the unity of the power of knowledge and ignoring the meaning of sensual knowledge.

The empirical level of scientific knowledge is characterized Directly study of actual existing, sensually perceived objects. At this level, the process of accumulating information about the objects studied, phenomena by conducting observations, performing various measurements, experimental delivery. It also produces the primary systematization of the resulting actual data in the form of tables, schemes, graphs, etc. In addition, already at the second level of scientific knowledge - as a consequence of the generalization of scientific facts - it is possible to formulate some empirical patterns.

The theoretical level of scientific research is carried out On the rational (logical) stage of knowledge. At this level, the scientist operates only by theoretical (ideal, iconic) objects. Also at this level, the deepest essential parties are disclosed, connections, patterns inherent in objects studied, phenomena. Theoretical level - a higher stage in scientific knowledge

Considering the theoretical knowledge as the highest and most developed, one must first of all determine its structural components. The main one includes: the problem, hypothesis and theory.

The problem is a form of knowledge that is the content of which is not yet familiar with a person, but what to know. In other words, this is knowledge of ignorance, the question arising in the course of knowledge and requiring an answer. solutions.

Scientific problems should be distinguished from unscientific (pseudodoble), for example, the problem of creating an eternal engine. The solution to any particular problem is a significant moment of knowledge development, during which new problems arise, and new problems are nominated, certain conceptual ideas, including hypothesis.

Hypothesis - The form of knowledge containing the assumption formulated on the basis of a number of facts, the true value of which vaguely and needs proof. Hypothetical knowledge is probable, and not a reliable character and requires verification, justification. During the proof of the hypotheses of the hypotheses, one of them become true theory, others are modified, refined and specified, turn into error if the test gives a negative result.

Decisive verification of the truth of the hypothesis is practice (The logical criterion of truth plays an auxiliary role). The proven and proven hypothesis goes into the category of reliable truths, becomes a scientific theory.

Theory - The most developed form of scientific knowledge, which gives a holistic mapping of natural and substantial bonds of a certain area of \u200b\u200breality. Examples of this form of knowledge are the classical Newton mechanics, the evolutionary theory of Darwin, the theory of relativity Einstein, the theory of self-organizing holistic systems (synergetics), etc.

In practice, scientific knowledge is successfully implemented only in the case when people are convinced of their truth. Without turning the idea of \u200b\u200ba personal conviction, a person's faith is impossible to successfully implement theoretical ideas.

The general methods of knowledge of reality include: induction, deduction, analogy, comparison, generalization, abstraction, etc.

Specific methods of theoretical knowledge in science belong: idealization, interpretation, mental experiment, machine computing experiment, axiomatic method and genetic method for constructing the theory, etc.

The scientific knowledge is widely used, for example, abstraction of identification and insulating abstraction. An abstraction of identification is a concept that is obtained as a result of identifying a certain set of objects (while distracted from a number of individual properties, signs of these objects) and combining them into a special group. An example is the grouping of the entire set of plants and animals living on our planet, in special types, childbirth, detachments, etc. Isolating abstraction is obtained by allocating certain properties, relations that are inextricably linked with material world objects ("Sustainability "," Solubility "," electrical conductivity ", etc.).

The formation of scientific abstractions, general theoretical provisions is not the ultimate goal of knowledge, but represents only a means of deeper, versatile knowledge of the concrete. Therefore, it is necessary to further move (climbing) knowledge from the achieved abstract again to a specific one. The knowledge gained in this stage in this stage will be qualitatively different compared to the one that was in the stage of sensual knowledge. In other words, concrete at the beginning of the process of knowledge (sensual-specific, which is its original moment) and a concrete, comprehended at the end of the cognitive process (it is called logical, emphasizing the role of abstract thinking in his comprehension), is fundamentally different from each other.

Forms and methods of scientific knowledge.

Knowledge - This is a specific type of human activity aimed at comprehending the surrounding world and itself in this world. "Cognition is due primarily by social and historical practice, the process of acquiring and developing knowledge, its constant recess, expansion, and improvement.

A person comprehends the world around him, mastering them in various ways, among which two main one can be distinguished. The first (genetically source) is the material and technical - the production of funds to life, labor, practice. The second is spiritual (perfect), in which the cognitive relationship of the subject and the object is only one of many others. In turn, the knowledge of the knowledge and knowledge obtained in it during the historical development of practices and knowledge itself is increasingly differentiated and embodied in various forms. Each form of public consciousness: science, philosophy, mythology, politics, religion, etc. Complies with specific forms of knowledge. Typically, the following are distinguished: ordinary, game, mythological, artistic and figurative, philosophical, religious, personal, scientific. The latter although they are connected, but one another is not identical, each of them has its own specifics. We will not stop at the consideration of each of the forms of knowledge. The subject of our research is scientific knowledge. In this regard, it is advisable to consider the features of only the latter.

Analysis - mental or real decomposition of the object to the components of it.

Synthesis - Association of disguised as a result of the analysis of elements into a single whole.

Generalization - The process of a mental transition from one to a common one, from less general, to more common, for example: the transition from judgment "This metal conducts electricity" to judgment "All metals are carried out electricity", from judgment: "The mechanical form of energy turns into a thermal" The judgment "every form of energy turns into thermal."

Abstraction (idealization) - mental introduction of certain changes to the object being studied in accordance with the objectives of the study. As a result of idealization, some properties may be excluded from consideration, signs of objects that are not essential for this study. An example of such idealization in mechanics is a material point, i.e. Point with mass, but devoid of all sizes. The same abstract (perfect) object is an absolutely solid body.

Induction - The process of removing the general position from the observation of a number of private unit facts, i.e. Cognition from private to the general. In practice, incomplete induction is most often used, which involves the conclusion about all objects of the set on the basis of the knowledge of only part of the objects. Incomplete induction based on experimental studies and includes the theoretical justification is called scientific induction. The conclusions of such induction are often probabilistic. This is a risky, but creative method. With the strict formulation of the experiment, the logical sequence and rigor of the conclusions, it is able to give a significant conclusion. According to the famous French physics Louis de Broil, scientific induction is a true source of truly scientific progress.

Deduction - The process of analytical reasoning from total to private or less common. It is closely related to the generalization. If the initial general provisions are an established scientific truth, a true conclusion will always be obtained by the metag of deduction. Especially important is the deductive method in mathematics. Mathematics operate with mathematical abstractions and build their arguments in general provisions. These general provisions apply to solving private, specific tasks.

In the history of natural science there were attempts to absolutize the importance in the science of the inductive method (F. Bacon) or the deductive method (R. Descart), give them a universal value. However, these methods cannot be applied as separate, isolated from each other. Each of them is used at a certain stage of the process of cognition.

Analogy - The likely, plausible conclusion about the similarity of two items or phenomena in any sign, on the basis of their similarities in other signs established by their similarity. Analogy with simple makes it possible to understand more complex. So, by analogy with the artificial selection of the best breeds of Pets, Ch. Didvin opened the law of natural selection in the animal and the plant world.

Modeling - reproducing the properties of the object of knowledge on a specially arranged analogue - model. Models can be real (material), such as airplane models, buildings layouts. Photos, prostheses, dolls, etc. and ideal (abstract), created by the means of language (both a natural human language and special languages, for example, the language of mathematics. In this case, we have a mathematical model. Usually this is a system of equations describing the relationship in the system being studied.

Classification - Distribution of certain objects in classes (divisions, discharges), depending on their general features, fixing the patterns between classes of objects in a single system of a particular branch of knowledge. The formation of each science is associated with the creation of classifications of the objects studied, phenomena.

One of the first classifications in natural science was the classification of the vegetable and animal world of an outstanding Swedish Naturalist Karl Linnei (1707-1778). For representatives of wildlife, he set a certain gradation: class, detachment, genus, view, variation.

Home\u003e Analysis

Theoretical level of knowledge and its methods

Theoretical cognition reflects the phenomena and processes on the part of their universal internal connections and patterns, comprehended by rational processing of data from empirical knowledge.

Task: Achievement of objective truth in all its concreteness and completeness of content.

Characteristic signs:

The predominance of rational moment - concepts, theories, laws, etc. Forms of thinking Sensual knowledge is a subordinate aspect of the focus on itself (the study of the process itself, its forms, techniques, conceptual apparatus).

Methods: allow you to make a logical study of the collected facts, develop concepts and judgments, to make conclusion.

1. Abstraction - Distraction from a number of properties and relationships of objects less significant, with simultaneous allocation of more significant, this simplification of reality.

2. Idealization - The process of creating purely mental items, making changes to the object being studied in accordance with the objectives of the study (perfect gas).

3. Formalization - Display of thinking results in accurate concepts or allegations.

4. Axiomation - The basis is based on axioms (Euclide axioms).

5. Deduction - The movement of knowledge from the common to the private, climbing from the abstract to a specific one.

6. Hypothetical and deductive - excretion (deduction) of conclusions from hypotheses, the true meanings of which are unknown. Knowledge is probable. Includes the ratio between hypotheses and facts.

7. Analysis - Decomposition of the whole to the components.

8. Synthesis - Combining the results of the analysis of elements in the system.

9. Math modeling - The real system is replaced by an abstract system (a mathematical model consisting of a set of mathematical objects) with the same relationships, the task becomes purely mathematical.

10. Reflection - Research activities considered in a wide cultural and historical context includes 2 levels - the subject (activity is aimed at cognition of a specific set of phenomena) and reflexive (knowledge appeals to itself)

Theoretical knowledge is most adequately reflected in thinking (The active process of generalized and indirect reflection of reality), and goes here the way from thinking in the designated framework, according to the sample, to increasingly extraction, creative understanding of the studied phenomenon.

The main methods of reflection in the mindwork of the surrounding reality are the concept (reflects the general, essential sides of the object), judgment (reflects the individual characteristics of the object); Review (logical chain that boring new knowledge).

The structural components of theoretical knowledge: the problem (the question requiring an answer), the hypothesis (the assumption that is nominated on the basis of a number of facts and requiring test), the theory (the most complex and developed form of scientific knowledge gives a holistic explanation of reality phenomena). Generation of theories - the ultimate goal of the study.

Quintessence of theory - law. It expresses the essential, depth communications of the object. Formulation of laws is one of the main tasks of science.

With all the differences, the empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge are connected. Empirical research revealing new data with the help of experiments and observations, stimulates theoretical knowledge (which summarizes them and explains, puts new, more complex tasks in front of them). On the other hand, theoretical knowledge, developing and concretizing the new one's own content, opens up new broader horizons for empirical knowledge, orients and sends it in search of new facts, contributes to the improvement of its methods and means.

It turns out that the theory does not grow out of empiric, but as if next to it, or rather, above it, and in connection with it. " Theoretical level is a higher stage in scientific knowledge. "The theoretical level of knowledge is aimed at the formation of theoretical laws that meet the requirements of universality and necessity, i.e. Affect everywhere and always. " The results of theoretical knowledge are hypotheses, theories, laws. Having the specified two different levels in the scientific study, it should not, however, tear them from each other and oppose. After all, the empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge are interconnected. The empirical level acts as the basis, the foundation of theoretical. Hypotheses and theories are formed in the process of theoretical understanding of scientific facts, statistical data obtained on the empirical level. In addition, theoretical thinking is inevitably relied on sensually visual images (including schemes, graphs, etc.), with which the empirical level of the study has business.

Theory of decision-making - Interdisciplinary research area, which is of interest to practitioners and associated with mathematics, statistics, economy, philosophy, management and psychology; He examines how real decision makers choose solutions and how optimal solutions can be accepted.

The solution is the result of the specific activities of the LPR or the team. Developing and decision making is a creative process including:

development and setting goals; study of the problem based on the information received; the choice and substantiation of the criteria for effectiveness (effectiveness) and the possible consequences of decisions made; discussion with specialists of various solutions to the problem (tasks); selection and formulation of the optimal solution; decision-making; Specifying the solution for its performers.

Management technology considers the management decision as a process consisting of 3 stages: preparation of the decision; decision-making; Implementation of the decision. At the stage of preparation of the management solution, an economic analysis of the situation on micro- and macro levels is carried out, including the search, collecting and processing information, as well as identify and formulate problems that require solutions. At the decision stage, the development and evaluation of alternative decisions and courses of action conducted on the basis of multivariate calculations are carried out; selection criteria for choosing the optimal solution; Selection and adoption of the best solution. At the implementation stage, measures are taken to specify the solution and bringing it to performers, the progress of its implementation is monitored, the necessary adjustments are made and the result is appreciated from the decision. Each managerial solution has its own specific result, so the goal of management activities is to find so forms, methods, means and tools that could contribute to the achievement of the optimal result in specific conditions and circumstances. Management decisions may be reasonable to be accepted on the basis of economic analysis and multivariate calculation, and intuitive, which, although they save time, but contain the likelihood of errors and uncertainty. The decisions should be based on reliable, current and projected information, the analysis of all factors affecting the decisions, taking into account the foresee of its possible consequences. The amount of information that needs to be processed to develop effective management decisions is so large that it has long exceeded human capabilities. It is the difficulties of managing modern large-scale projects that determine the widespread use of electronic computers, the development of automated management systems, which demanded the creation of a new mathematical apparatus and economic and mathematical methods. Methods for making decisions aimed at achieving intended goals may be different:

The method based on the intuition of the manager, which is due to the presence of the previously accumulated experience and the amount of knowledge in a specific area of \u200b\u200bactivity, which helps to choose and make the right decision; The method based on the concept of "common sense" when the manager, making decisions, justifies their consistent evidence, the content of which relies on the practical experience gained; The method based on a scientific and practical approach offering the choice of optimal solutions based on the processing of large quantities of information that helps substantiate the decisions made. This method requires the use of modern technical means and, above all, electronic computers. The problem of choosing a solution implies the need for a comprehensive assessment of the Specific situation itself and the independence of the adoption of one of several options for possible solutions.

Since the LPR has the ability to choose solutions, it is responsible for their execution. In the management system, it is necessary to follow the principle of selecting a decision from a certain set of solutions. The greater the choice, the more efficient management. When choosing a managerial solution to it, the following requirements are presented: the validity of the solution; optimality of choice; eligibility of the decision; brevity and clarity; concreteness in time; Address in performers; Operational performance. Decision making involves the use of the following factors: hierarchy; target interfunctional groups; formal rules and procedures; plans; horizontal connections.

The use of a decision hierarchy is carried out in order to coordinate activities and enhance the centralization in management. The use of targeted interfunctional groups in adoption. Such target groups are usually created on a temporary basis. Their members are selected from various divisions and levels of the organization. The purpose of creating such groups is to use special knowledge and experience of group members, for making specific and complex decisions. The use of formal rules and procedures in decision-making is an effective way to coordinate actions. However, the instructions and rules give the rigidity to the management system, which slows the innovative processes and makes it difficult to amend plans due to changing circumstances. The use of decision-making plans aimed at coordinating the activities of the organization as a whole. Planning is the important type of management activity, which managers spend a significant part of their time. During the preparation of plans, a process of combining interests and goals between different levels of management is carried out. The monitoring and accounting system is at best adapted to solve management tasks, and on their basis is the development of plans. Managers are constantly monitoring the performance of planned indicators and have the opportunity to adjust them with the appropriate substantiation of such a need for the highest leaders of the company. The use of direct (direct) horizontal relations in decision-making without applying to the highest management contributes to decision-making in a shorter time, increasing responsibility for the implementation of decisions made.

28. Empirical and theoretical level of scientific knowledge. Their main forms and methods

Scientific knowledge has two levels: empirical and theoretical.

- this is a direct sensual study. really existing and experienced experience objects.

On the empirical level are carried out Next research Processes:

1. Formation of the empirical research base:

Accumulation of information about the objects studied and phenomena;

Determination of the sphere of scientific facts in the composition of the accumulated information;

Introduction of physical quantities, their measurement and systematization of scientific facts in the form of tables, schemes, graphs, etc.;

2. Classification and theoretical generalization Information about scientific facts obtained:

Introduction of concepts and designations;

Identification of patterns in relations and relations of objects of knowledge;

Identifying general features from objects of knowledge and minimize them into general classes on these features;

Primary formulation of source theoretical positions.

In this way, empirical level Scientific knowledge contains in its composition two components:

1. Sensual experience.

2. Primary theoretical understanding Sensual experience.

The basis of the content of empirical scientific knowledgeobtained in sensory experience are scientific facts. If any fact is a significant, single, independent event or a phenomenon, then a scientific fact is a fact, firmly established, reliably confirmed and correctly described in science in the science.

The identified and recorded methods accepted in science, scientific fact, has a forced force for a system of scientific knowledge, that is, subordinates the logic of the reliability of the study.

Thus, an empirical base of research is formed on the empirical level of scientific knowledge, whose reliability is formed by the forced force of scientific facts.

Empirical level Scientific knowledge uses Next methods:

1. Observation. Scientific observation is a system of measures for a sensual collection of information about the properties of the studied object of knowledge. The main methodological condition for the proper scientific observation is the independence of observation results from the conditions and the observation process. The implementation of this condition provides both objectivity of observation and the implementation of its main function - the collection of empirical data in their natural, natural state.

Observations in the method of holding are divided into:

- immediate (information is obtained directly by the senses);

- indirect (Man's senses are substituted by technical means).

2. Measure. Scientific observation is always accompanied by dimension. Measurement is a comparison of any physical value of the object of cognition with the reference unit of this magnitude. Measurement is a sign of scientific activity, since any study becomes scientific only when measurements occur in it.

Depending on the nature of the behavior of certain properties of the object in time, the measurements are divided into:

- staticwhich determine the time permanent values \u200b\u200b(external sizes of bodies, weight, hardness, constant pressure, specific heat, density, etc.);

- dynamicin which they find the magnitude of the magnitude (fluctuations amplitudes, pressure drops, temperature changes, quantity changes, saturation, speed, growth indicators, etc.).

By a method for obtaining measurement results are divided into:

- straight (direct measurement of the value by measuring instrument);

- indirect (by mathematical calculation of the value from its known relations with any value obtained by direct measurements).

The purpose of the measurement is to express the properties of the object in quantitative characteristics, translate them into the language shape and make the basis of a mathematical, graphic or logical description.

3. Description. Measurement results are used to scientific descriptions of the object of knowledge. Scientific Description is a reliable and accurate picture of the object of knowledge, displayed by means of a natural or artificial language.

The appointment of the description is to translate sensory information in a form convenient for rational processing: in the concepts, in signs, in the scheme, in drawings, in graphics, in numbers, etc.

4. Experiment. The experiment is a research impact on the object of knowledge to identify the new parameters of its known properties or to identify its new, previously unknown properties. The experiment differs from observation by the fact that the experimenter, unlike an observer, interferes with the natural state of the object of cognition, actively affects him itself, and the processes in which this object is involved.

By the nature of the goals set, experiments are divided into:

- researchwho are aimed at finding new, unknown properties in the object;

- checkwhich serve to verify or confirm certain theoretical constructions.

According to the methods of holding and tasks to obtain the result, the experiments are divided into:

- qualitywho are searching in nature, set the task of identifying the very presence or absence of certain theoretically alleged phenomena, and are not aimed at obtaining quantitative data;

- quantitativewho are aimed at obtaining accurate quantitative data on the object of knowledge or processes in which it participates.

After completion of the empirical knowledge, the theoretical level of scientific knowledge begins.

The theoretical level of scientific knowledge is handling empirical data with the help of abstract work of thought.

Thus, the theoretical level of scientific cognition is characterized by the predominance of the rational moment - concepts, conclusions, ideas, theories, laws, categories, principles, parcels, conclusions, conclusions, etc.

The predominance of a rational moment in theoretical knowledge is achieved by abstraction - distraction of consciousness from sensually perceived specific objects and transition to abstract ideas.

Abstract presentations are divided into:

1. Abstractions identification - grouping of many objects of knowledge in separate species, childbirth, classes, detachments, etc., according to the principle of their identity of their most essential features (minerals, mammals, complex, chord, oxides, protein, explosives, liquids, amorphous, subatomny etc.).

The abstraction of identification allows you to open the most common and essential forms of interactions and links between objects of knowledge, and then move from them to private manifestations, modifications and options, disclosing all the completeness of the processes occurring between the objects of the material world.

After distraunting the insignificant properties of objects, the abstraction of identification allows you to translate specific empirical data into an idealized and simplified knowledge of the system of abstract objects that can participate in complex thinking operations.

2. Insulating abstraction. Unlike the abstractions of identification, these abstractions are separated into certain groups not objects of cognition, but their any general properties or signs (hardness, electrical conductivity, solubility, shock viscosity, melting point, boiling, freezing, hygroscopicity, etc.).

Insulating abstraction also allow idealizing an empirical experience in order to cognizing and express it in concepts that can participate in complex thinking operations.

Thus, the transition to abstractions allows the theoretical knowledge to provide a generalized abstract material to obtain scientific knowledge about the whole manifold of real processes and objects of the material world, which could not be made, limited to empirical knowledge, without distraction from particularly each of these innumerable objects or processes. .

As a result of abstraction, the following Methods of theoretical knowledge:

1. Idealization. Idealization is mysterious creation of objects and phenomena To simplify the research process and build scientific theories.

For example: concepts point or material point that are used to designate non-dimensional objects; Introduction of various conditional concepts, such as: perfectly smooth surface, perfect gas, absolutely black body, absolutely solid, absolute density, inertial reference system, etc., To illustrate scientific ideas; Electron orbit in atom, pure chemical formula without impurities and other impossible concepts created for explaining or formulating scientific theories.

Idealizations are appropriate:

When it is necessary to simplify the object under study or the phenomenon for constructing the theory;

When it is necessary to exclude from considering the properties and communication of the object that do not affect the essence of the planned research results;

When the real complexity of the research object exceeds the existing scientific possibilities of its analysis;

When the real complexity of the objects of the study makes impracticable or makes it difficult to scientific description;

Thus, in theoretical knowledge there is always a replacement of a real phenomenon or an object of reality to its simplified model.

That is, the method of idealization in scientific knowledge is inextricably linked with the method of modeling.

2. Modeling. Theoretical modeling is replacement of a real object by its analog, performed by the means of language or mentally.

The underlying modeling condition is to create the model of the object of knowledge due to the high degree of its conformity of reality, allowed:

Carry out non-careful objects in real conditions;

Conduct research of objects, in principle inaccessible in real experience;

Conduct research of the object directly inaccessible at the moment;

Cheaper research, reduce it in time, simplify its technology, etc.;

Optimize the process of constructing a real object by running the process of constructing the model-type.

Thus, theoretical modeling performs two functions in theoretical knowledge: explores the simulated object and develops a program of action on its material embodiment (construction).

3. Mind experiment. Mental experiment is mental holding above the object of knowledge of non-reality in reality research procedures.

It is used as a theoretical polygon for planned real research actions, or to study phenomena or situations in which the real experiment is generally impossible (for example, quantum physics, theory of relativity, social, military or economic development models, etc.).

4. Formalization. Formalization is logical organization content Scientific knowledge means artificial language Special symbols (signs, formulas).

Formalization allows:

Bring the theoretical content of the study to the level of general scientific symbols (signs, formulas);

Transfer theoretical research on the study plane with symbols (signs, formulas);

Create a generalized iconic character model of the logical structure of studied phenomena and processes;

To make a formal study of the object of cognition, that is, to carry out the study by operating with signs (formulas) without directly appealing to the object of knowledge.

5. Analysis and synthesis. Analysis is a mental decomposition of a whole to composite parts, aiming:

Study of the structure of the object of knowledge;

Dismemberment of complex integer on simple parts;

Separation of a significant comprehensive as part of a whole;

Classification of objects, processes or phenomena;

Allocation of the steps of any process, etc.

The main purpose of the analysis is the study of parts as the elements of the whole.

Parts, disguised and meaningful in a new way, are added to the integer with the help of the synthesis - the reasoning method that constructs a new knowledge of the whole from the combination of its parts.

Thus, analysis and synthesis are inseparablely related mental operations in the composition of the process of knowledge.

6. Induction and deduction.

Induction is a process of knowledge, in which the knowledge of individual facts in the aggregate leads to the knowledge of general.

Deduction is the process of knowledge in which every next statement logically stems from the previous one.

The above methods of scientific knowledge make it possible to reveal the most deep and significant links, patterns and characteristics of objects of knowledge, on the basis of which arise Forms of scientific knowledge - the methods of the cumulative presentation of the results of the study.

The main forms of scientific knowledge are:

1. The problem is a theoretical or practical scientific question that requires. A correctly formulated problem partially contains a solution, because it is formulated on the basis of the relevant possibility of its solution.

2. Hypothesis is an estimated way to solve the problem. The hypothesis can act not only in the form of a scientific assumption, but also in the form of unfolded concepts or theory.

3. The theory is a holistic system of concepts describing and explaining what kind of reality.

Scientific theory is the highest form of scientific knowledgepassing in its formation of the stage of formulation and nomination of the hypothesis, which is refuted or confirmed by the use of scientific knowledge methods.

Major terms

Abstraction - distraction of consciousness from sensually perceived specific objects and transition to abstract ideas.

ANALYSIS (The general concept) is a mental decomposition of the whole to composite parts.

HYPOTHESIS - The estimated way to solve the scientific problem.

DEDUCTION - The process of cognition in which every next statement logically stems from the previous one.

SIGN - a symbol that serves to record values, concepts, relations, etc. reality.

IDEALIZATION - mental creation of objects and phenomena in reality to simplify the process of their research and the construction of scientific theories.

Measure - Comparison of any physical value of the object of cognition with the reference unit of this magnitude.

INDUCTION - The process of knowledge in which the knowledge of individual facts in the aggregate leads to the knowledge of general.

Mind experiment - Mooked over the object of knowledge of non-relevant research procedures.

Observation - a system of measures for the sensual collection of information about the properties of the object under study or phenomenon.

Scientific description - a reliable and accurate picture of the object of knowledge, displayed by means of a natural or artificial language.

Scientific fact - The fact, firmly established, reliably confirmed and correctly described by the methods adopted in science.

PARAMETER - The value characterizing any property of the object.

PROBLEM - Theoretical or practical scientific question that requires decisions.

PROPERTY - External manifestation of this or that quality of an object that distinguishes it from other objects, or, on the contrary, relates to them.

SYMBOL - The same as the sign.

SYNTHESIS (The thinking process) is a reasoning method that designs a new knowledge of the whole from the combination of its parts.

Theoretical level of scientific knowledge - Treatment of empirical data with the help of abstract work of thought.

Theoretical modeling - replacement of a real object by its analogue made by means of language or mentally.

THEORY - A holistic system of concepts describing and explaining what kind of reality.

FACT - a reliable, single, independent event or phenomenon.

Form of scientific knowledge - A method of the cumulative presentation of the results of scientific research.

Formalization - Logic organization of scientific knowledge by means of artificial language or special symbolism (signs, formulas).

EXPERIMENT - research impact on the object of knowledge to study previously known or to identify new, previously unknown properties.

Empirical level of scientific knowledge - Direct sensual study of actually existing and experienced experiences.

Empiries - The area of \u200b\u200bhuman relationship with reality, determined by sensory experience.

From the book Philosophy of Science and Technology Author Stepin Vyacheslav Semenovich

Chapter 8. Empirical and theoretical levels of scientific research Scientific knowledge are a complex developing system in which all new levels of the organization are arising as evolution. They have an opposite effect on previously established levels.

From the book Philosophy for graduate students Author Kalny Igor Ivanovich

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The specificity of the theoretical level of cognition is characterized by the predominance of the rational side of the cognitive process: concepts, judgments, conclusions, principles, laws. Theoretical knowledge is abstracted, indirect knowledge.

Theoretical knowledge reflects objects, phenomena, objects and processes on the part of their universal internal connections, patterns. They are comprehended by rational processing of these empirical knowledge.

An integral line, the most characteristic sign of theoretical knowledge is the use of such methods, techniques such as abstraction - distraction from insignificant features of the object of study, idealization - the creation of often simply mental objects, analysis - mental dismemberment of the object being studied on the elements, synthesis - the union of the elements obtained as a result of the analysis The system, induction - the movement of knowledge from the private to the general, deduction - the movement of thought from the total to the private, etc.

What are the structural components of theoretical knowledge? These include: the problem is more accurate to say the formulation of the problem. The problem literally means "barrier, difficulty", is defined as a situation characterized by the lack of ways, funds, to achieve a certain goal, ignorance of ways to achieve it. The problem characterizes not even by itself the obstacle, but the attitude of the scientist for an obstacle.

If we talk about solving the problem, then there is a range of differences. Solving problems can be palliative and radical, temporary or permanent.

The hypothesis as a form of theoretical knowledge contains the assumption formulated on the basis of a number of facts, the true value of which vaguely and needs proof. The hypothesis is probabilistic thing. As a scientific assumption, differs from arbitrary guesses that relies on the facts.

The nature of the hypotheses is determined in many respects, with respect to which object it is extended. So, general, private and working hypotheses are allocated. General hypotheses is a substantiation of the assumptions about the laws of various kinds. Such hypotheses serve as the foundation for the construction of the basics of scientific knowledge. Private hypotheses are reasonable assumptions about the origin and properties of single phenomena, individual events. Working hypotheses are assumptions that are explained, as a rule, in the first stages of the study and serving its guide guide.

The selection of reliable hypotheses occurs through proof as a form of knowledge. The most common are inductive and deductive proof methods. The inductive method is a chain of conclusions, the parcels of which cover private judgments and are arguments justifying the thesis, i.e., a common judgment is derived from private judgments, the transition from private to a common in thinking. Now the deductive conclusions are becoming increasingly important.

Theory as a form of cognition and knowledge, and the most complex and developed, gives a holistic mapping of the pattern of a certain area of \u200b\u200breality. By its structure, scientific theory is a system of initial, initial concepts and basic laws, which, with the help of the definition, all other concepts can be formed, and other laws are logically derived from the basic laws. From a methodological point of view, an important role in the formation of theory plays an abstract, idealized object (as a reflection of the real object being reflected). This is a special abstraction in which the meaning of theoretical terms (perfect item) is enclosed.

Generation of theories - the ultimate goal of the study. Quintessence Theory - law. It expresses the essential, depth communications of the object. Formulation of laws is one of the main tasks of science. Theoretical knowledge is most adequately reflected in thinking (The active process of generalized and indirect reflection of reality), and goes here the way from thinking in the designated framework, according to the sample, to more and greater extraction, creative understanding of the phenomenon under study.

The main methods of reflection in the mindwork of the surrounding reality are the concept (reflects the general, essential sides of the object), judgment (reflects the individual characteristics of the object); Review (logical chain that boring new knowledge). For all differences, er etc. Levels of scientific knowledge connected. E. Study Reveaning new data with the help of experiments and observations, stimulates T. Knowledge (which generalizes them and explains, puts new, more complex tasks in front of them). On the other hand, T. Knowledge, developing and concretizing the new one's own content, opens up new broader horizons for er. Knowledge, orients and sends it in search of new facts, contributes to the improvement of its methods and means.