Everything must go somewhere. Ecological laws Barry Commonor

Environmental laws set forth in many literary sources and familiarize themselves with them not much labor. For simplicity and convenience, we set out them here in the city of Bilyavsky et al. (1993). Basic laws are given in alphabetical order.

1. The bio-migration of atoms (or the Vernadsky law). The basis of migration is the predominant effect of live matter of organisms. A living substance either takes part in biochemical processes directly or creates an appropriate, oxygen-enriched, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus and other substances. The law has a great theoretical and practical significance. Understanding all chemical processes is impossible without taking into account the action of biogenic factors, in particular, evolutionary. Now a person affects the functioning of everything. Its negative impact becomes global, unmanaged (desertification, degradation, extinction).

This law allows "consciously and actively to preempt the development of negative phenomena, to control biochemical processes using soft environmental methods."

2. Cast of internal dynamic equilibrium ..

Substance, energy, information are closely related. The change in one causes the change in all, but the overall quality qualities of the system are preserved: real-energy, information and dynamic.

The effects of the law - after any changes, chain reactions are developing, which seek to neutralize these changes. It must be remembered that a slight change in one indicator may cause a strong deviation from others in the entire ecosystem. They may be irreversible, go to global. Changes cause responses that determine the relative constancy of environmental and economic potential? Artificial growth of environmental and economic potential is limited to the thermodynamic stability of natural systems. This answer to the question is to end the growth of environmental and economic potential. This is one of the most important laws in environmental management. It shows that the property of self-regulation works, the property is restored, but with the "observance" of the law of the ecological imperative. Exceeding the requirements of an ecological imperative entails unforeseen changes in the local, regional and global levels.

3. Sanding of genetic diversity.

All living genetically different and has a sustainable tendency to increase biological diversity. This is important in the field of biotechnology (genetic engineering, biopreparations) because, thanks to this law, you can always foresee the result of innovations during the cultivation of new microcultures through emerging mutations, or the spread of the action on the types of organisms they have been calculated.

4. Powered historical need.

The development of the biosphere and humanity as a whole does not occur from later phases to the initial, the overall development process is unidirectional. Only certain elements of social relations (slavery) or the types of management are repeated. This law is most likely social, not ecological. It is advisable to analyze actions with the actions of this law in nature.

5. Constance: (V.Vernadsky formulated).

The amount of live matter of the biosphere (for a certain biological time) is the magnitude of constant. This law is closely related to the law of internal equilibrium. Under the constancy law, any change in the number of living agents in one of the regions of the biosphere inevitably leads to the same changes in the substance in another region, but with the opposite sign. The consequence of the action of the law is the rule of mandatory filling of environmental niches.

6. Change of correlation (Formulated by J.Kowye).

In the body, as in a holistic system, all parts correspond to each other in both the structure and functions. Changes in one part inevitably cause changes to others.

7.And the maximization of energy (formulated by G.O. Otim and is supplemented by N. Reemers).

In competition with other systems, that of them remains that most contributes to the flow of energy and information and uses their maximum number and most effectively. Maximization is an increase in survival chances. Under this law, the system creates a repository (drives) of high-quality energy, which should provide: a) the receipt of new energy; b) a normal cycle; c) creates a regulatory mechanism; d) system stability and its ability to adapt to changes; e) exchanging exchange with other systems.

8. Possacon maximum biogenic energy (Vernadsky-Bauer law).

Any biological and "bioremore" system with biota, which resides in a state of "sustainable non-equilibrium" (dynamically moving equilibrium with the environment), increases, developing, its influence on Wednesday. According to Vernadsky, those that increase biogenic geochemical energy are survived. According to Bauer, all living systems are never in a state of equilibrium and are carried out at the expense of their free energy efficient work against equilibrium, which requires the laws of physics and chemistry under existing external conditions. This law is the basis for developing a strategy of environmental management.

9. The placle of the minimum (formulated by Y.Libich).

The stability of the body is determined by the weakest link in the chain of its environmental needs. When satisfying the minimum of the number and quality of environmental factors, the body survives if there is no minimum, the system is destroyed. Therefore, you always need to look for the weakest link.

10.Art of limited natural resources.

All resources are exhausted. The planet is a natural-limited body and it cannot exist endless components.

11.The reference flow of the energy flow.

The energy that the ecosystem receives and which is absorbed by the producers, is dissipated either with biomass irreversible consultations I, II and III orders, and then by the Rindunts. At each trophic level, large losses occur (no more than 0.25% of the initial energy returns in the opposite direction). That is why the term "cycle of energy" is quite conditional.

12.Products optimality.

No system can be narrowed or expanding to infinity. None organism can exceed certain sizes that provide maintenance of its energy. Dimensions depend on the conditions of nutrition and existence factors. In nature management is the dimensions of the fields of fields grown by animals, plants. Failure to follow the law leads to unnatural monotony in large territories (monoculturalness), causes violations of ecosystems, environmental crises.

13. Pyramid of energy (formulated by R.Londeman).

From one trophic level of the ecological pyramid to another, the mainly no more than 10% of energy passes. This law is the basis for managing the population to ensure food and other resources.

14. The equivalent of the equivalent of living conditions.

All natural environmental conditions necessary for life play equivalent roles. From this follows another law - the law of the joint action of environmental factors, which is often ignored.

15. The area of \u200b\u200benvironmental development.

Any natural system is developing only through the use of material and environmental and environmental opportunities.

Absolutely isolated self-development is impossible - this is a conclusion from the law of thermodynamics. Corollary of the law: a) absolutely waste-free production is impossible; b) a higher-organized biotic system is a constant threat to less organized, therefore, in the biosphere, it is not possible to re-emerge in the biosphere - it will be destroyed by existing organisms; c) the biosphere of the Earth as the system develops at the expense of internal and cosmic resources.

16. The ability to reduce energy accounting in environmental management.

In the process of obtaining from the natural system of useful products over time (in a historic aspect, it is on average, more and more energy is spent) the energy costs per person are increasing.

Now 60 times the cost of energy per day, than in the time of long ancestors, i.e. Several thousand years ago. Is it infinite? This can be relying, planning your relationship with nature in order to harmonize them.

17. The symbol of the joint action of natural factors (the law of Mitrycaliha - Tinema - Baul).

The volume of the crop does not depend on the individual, even if the limiting factor, and on the entire totality of environmental factors at the same time. The law is valid under certain conditions - when the effect of monotonously and maximizes each factor with the immutability of others in the combination, which is considered.

18. Tolerance (Shelford Law).

The limiting factor of the body's prosperity can be at least as well as the maximum environmental impact, the range between which determines the degree of sustainability (tolerance) of the body to this factor. Under this law, any excessive amount of substance or energy in the ecosystem becomes its enemy, pollutant.

19. Potion of soil. (Reducing fertility): A gradual decrease in the natural fertility of soil occurs due to their long-term use and disruption of the natural process of soil formation, as well as long-term cultivation of monocultures (this is the accumulation of toxic substances secreted by plants, residues of pesticides and mineral fertilizers).

20. The chart of a physico-chemical unity of a living matter (formulated by V. Vernadsky). The whole living substance of the Earth has a single physico-chemical nature. This means that harmful to one living matter is harmful and for the other, but to varying degrees. There is only sustainability of species to the action of a particular agent. Resistance to physicochemical exposure, the rate of selection for the stability of the population to a harmful agent is directly proportional to the harmfulness of the organism and alternate generations. This means that the long-term use of pesticides is inappropriate, since pests quickly adapt and the need to increase the amount of pesticides.

21. The protection of the environmental correlation: in the ecosystem, as in any other, all kinds of living agents and abiotic environmental components functionally correspond to each other. The loss of one part of the system (view) inevitably leads to the exclusion of another part and to functional changes.

22. The concentration of the unlimited progress. It is determined by an unlimited development of a simple to complex material in the limits of the biological form of motion. The essence of the law is that all living in its eternal continuous and absolute movement seeks to relative independence on the conditions of the existence environment. But at the same time it is clear that nothing can free yourself from the environment of life.

American scientist B. Kommonver made it determining 4 well-known laws of ecology: 1) everything is associated with everything; 2) everything should go somewhere; 3) Nature is better "knows"; 4) nothing happens without a trace (for everything you need to pay).

N. Rayimers indicates that the first law of Commoner is close in essence to the law of internal dynamic equilibrium; the second - to the same law and the law of the development of the natural system due to the environment; The third - warns us from self-confidence; The fourth - this problem is considering the law of internal dynamic equilibrium, the laws of constant and the development of the natural system. Under the fourth law of Commonor, we must return the nature of what we take from it, otherwise the disaster is inevitable.

Thus, over the past thirty-forty years, ecology has become a multifaceted comprehensive science, the main purpose of which is to develop the scientific foundations of the salvation of mankind and the environment of its existence - the planet's biosphere, rational nature management and nature conservation. Therefore, now, when environmental education covers all masses of the population on the planet, knowledge of environmental laws will help humanity find the right paths to the exit from the environmental crisis. Knowledge of environmental laws will allow we suspend, thought to foresee a distant perspective.

All the above, the above indicates that one part of the above laws is typical for traditional (heekkelev) ecology and serves as a fundamental base for neoecology, the other is undoubtedly neoecological, and finally, the third part is relevant for traditional ecology and for neoecology.

The rules in general can be interpreted as empirical effects from various environmental laws.

Ecological-thermodynamic rule of Odima, formulated by the author in 1967, he relied on the concept of A.Lotka (1925) and E. Shredinger (1945) regarding the relationship between thermodynamics and ecology - in any complex system of the actually existing world, it is paramount importance to maintain processes coming against the temperature gradient (by Sadyu, 1990, p.364).

The rule of inevitability of chain reactions (consequence of the law of internal dynamic equilibrium).

The rule of nonlinearity of internal interactions (the second consequence of the law of internal dynamic equilibrium).

The rule of irreversibility of violations (the third consequence of the law of internal dynamic equilibrium).

The rule of constancy of the environmental and economic potential (fourth consequence of the law of internal dynamic equilibrium).

Rule 10% percent (see Lindeman or the law of the Energy Pyramid).

The rule "soft" control. Soft, it means - indirect, guide, restoring the natural balance, and tough is technological. It can be called the rule of expedient conversion of nature. This is the restoration of ex-natural productivity or its increasing based on objective laws.

Rule 1% percent - the change in the energy of natural systems within 1% displays natural systems from the equilibrium (quasistationary) state. When the transition of the total energy is occurring in 1% of the solar radiation energy, it leads to significant anomalies - harsh climatic anomalies (powerful cyclones, volcanic eruptions, etc.), changes in the nature of vegetation, large fires, etc.

The principles of the focus of evolution (L.Nesager) or the law of minimum dissipation (dispersion) of energy and other evolutionary ecology theorems. Evolution is always aimed at reducing energy dissipation, on its uneven distribution. This principle among other principles of ecology and environmental management serves to decipher the law of optimality.

The principle of a catastrophic push - sharp changes in the medium first lead to a decrease in diversity, and then to the explosion of formation.

The principle of succeeded substitution - biotic communities form a natural range of ES, leading to the most sustainable natural system in these conditions. This is a consequence of the systematic law.

The principle of league-brown - with an external impact that displays the system from a state of stable equilibrium, the equilibrium is shifted in the direction at which the effect of exposure is weakened. He, among others, significantly explains the reasons for the action of the law of reducing the energy efficiency of environmental management - the greater the deviation from the state of ecological equilibrium, the more significant the energy costs should be for the weakening of the anti-natural system of this deviation.

The principle of deceptive well-being - the first successes (or failures) in nature management to transform nature or management it is objectively evaluated only after identifying the stroke and the results of natural chain reactions (10-30 years) within the natural cycle (the young forest will first dry the ground, and then leads to increased moistening of the territory).

The principle of Redi - Live occurs only from the living, between the lively and not living matter there is an impassable border. The principle was anewded by V.I. Vernadsky in 1924.

First law. Everything is connected with everything. This is a law on ecosystems and a biosphere, paying attention to the universal connection of processes and phenomena in nature. It is close in meaning to part of the law of internal dynamic development. He is designed to warn a person from the rampant effect on individual parts of the ecosystems, which can lead to unforeseen consequences. (eg, drainage of the marshes leads to the shallow ).

In nature, a huge number of different factors acts at any body. In order for a living being to successfully exist and multiply, these factors should fit into a certain range. This range is called the limit of tolerance (endurance) of this type of organisms. What unites living beings in the forest or in the meadow - trees, flowers flying over them butterflies? Butterfly caterpillars feed on the leaves of plants; Butterfly and bees are needed by nectar, which gives them flowers, and seeds in plants can be tied up only after pollination of flowers insects.
Known bike about Darwin, Which on the question of his countrymen about what to do to increase the hiring of buckwheat, answered: "Return cats." And in vain fellow countrymen offended. Darwin, knowing that in nature "everything is connected with everything", causing so - the cats will transfer all mice, the mice will stop breaking the nests of the bumblebees, the bumblebees will poll the buckwheat and the peasants will get a good harvest.
For example, the destruction of forests and the subsequent decrease in oxygen, as well as emissions into the atmosphere of nitrogen oxide and freon led to the depletion of the ozone layer in the atmosphere, which, in turn, increased the intensity of ultraviolet radiation, reaching the Earth and destructively acting on living organisms. For example, over the past 40 years, 50 percent of the forests were cut down in Nepalese Himalayas, which were used as fuel for wood products. But it was worth only to cut down trees, as the collapsed monsoon rains were washed off the soil from the slopes of the mountains. Since without the top layer of soil with young trees, it is impossible to put roots, in many mountains there are no vegetation in many mountains. Every year, due to the cutting down of forests, Nepal loses millions of tons of the top layer of the soil.
In other parts of the world, the deforestation of forests led to desertification and changes in the climate of individual locations.

Ecologists know little about how the parts of the biosphere are interconnected among themselves, and the problem may notice only when serious harm is already applied. Confirmation of this is the problem of disposal of waste, which clearly explains the second law of ecology.

So- everything is in nature interrelated!

Second law. Everything must go somewhere.
The second law of the ecology of the Commonor is close in meaning to the first law, as well as the law of development of the natural system due to its environment, especially in its first consequence, which says: ... absolutely waste-free production is impossible (it is equally created by the eternal engine).

This is a law on man's economic activity, waste from which is inevitable, and therefore it is necessary to think about how to reduce their quantity and on their subsequent use.

In this regard, when developing technologies, it is necessary:
a) low energy and resource intensity,
b) the creation of production in which the waste of one production is raw materials of another production,
c) organization of a reasonable burial of inevitable waste

Imagine how the usual house would look if the waste was not thrown out of it. Our planet is the same closed system: everything that we discard, in the end, should accumulate somewhere within our house - the Earth. Partial destruction of the ozone layer shows that even such, it would seem harmless gases, like chlorofluorocarbons (freons), do not disappear without a trace, dissolving in the air. In addition to freon, there are hundreds of other potentially hazardous substances that are thrown into the atmosphere, rivers and oceans.

True, some waste, which is called "biologically decomposed," with time can break through and engage in natural processes, others - cannot (plastic packaging will lay for several decades).

But the greatest danger is radioactive waste.

The time of payback for environmental ignorance and adventurism and for the space industry will come.

A dismissive attitude of a person to the problem of waste disposal is also reminded of the third law of ecology.

Third law. Nature "knows" better. This is a law of reasonable, conscious environmental management. We must not forget that a person is also a biological view that he is part of nature, and not her lord. This means that it is impossible to try to conquer nature, but you need to cooperate with it. While we do not have complete information about the mechanisms and functions of nature, and without accurate knowledge of the consequences of nature conversion, no "improvements" is unacceptable.
In other words, a person needs to maintain the order that exists in nature, and not compete with her, considering its solutions to the best. As an example, you can bring some pesticides. At first, they helped farmers fight weeds and destroyed almost all dangerous pests. It seemed that now unprecedented yields are provided. But everything turned out differently. Weeds and insects were resistant to various types of pesticides, while for animals and birds that feed in the insects, as well as for nature and man, these substances are poisonous. All over the world there are at least millions of such victims.

And to top it all, many evidence appears that the long-term use of pesticides does not contribute to the increase in yields. Today, in the United States from insects, much most of the crops die than before the use of pesticides has increased dramatically.

You can give examples about the shooting at one time of the wolves, which were "forest sanitary panels", or about the destruction of Sparrows in China, who allegedly crushing crops, but no one thought that sowing without birds would be destroyed by harmful insects. Natural systems "are constructed" according to the rules, "goals" and "laws" of which do not coincide with our. Forest, field, steppe - all this complex systems living in their own laws and cancel their person is not given

Fourth law. Nothing is given in vain. This is the law of rational nature management. "... The global ecosystem is a single whole, in which nothing can be won or lost and which cannot be an object of universal improvement." You need to pay energy for additional cleaning of waste, fertilizer - for raising the harvest, sanatoriums and drugs - for deterioration of human health, etc.

If we do not want to invest in nature conservation, you will have to pay health. This law is based on the results of the emergence and development of life on Earth, on the natural selection in the process of the evolution of life. So, for any organic matter produced by organisms, in nature there is an enzyme that can decompose this substance. In nature, no organic substance will be synthesized if there is no means for its decomposition.

Output. The approach itself should change to the concept of environmental purity. We must find ways to harmonious integration of our production with the biosphere of the planet. And the first plan in the motivation of a person should not get out of the greatest profit with lower costs, but the harmonicity of production. Where the defining role will be played not to play the personal income of the developer or manufacturer, but the purity of their conscience, the degree of awareness of their responsibility to nature. While it sounds rather utopian. But everything changes. Already, the development of measures to ensure environmental purity in the design of some industries is the main share of expenses. Created and develops an interesting direction in the design, called "Development of Fertile Technologies". Here, the main criterion for the optimal decision is not an economic indicator, but the conscience of the developer. As far as it is all viable, the future will show. But without such a search for a new worldview, a person is doomed.

Due to the great complexity of the objects of studying environmentalists in it there are a lot of laws, principles and rules. Therefore, they cannot be reduced to several, even highlighting among them the main. The famous American ecologist Barry Commoner in 1974 formulated his own as possible and simplified version of the laws of ecology. B. Commoner expressed a pessimistic thought: "If we want to survive, we must understand the cause of the approaching catastrophe." Environmental laws, he formulated in the form of four aphorisms:

o Everything is connected with everything - this statement repeats the well-known dialectical position on the general connection of things and phenomena.

o Everything should go somewhere - it is an informal paraphrase of the fundamental physical law of conservation of matter.

o Nature knows better - this position is disintegrated into two relatively independent thesis: the first is associated with the slogan "back to nature"; The second - with a call to caution in dealing with it.

o Nothing is given for nothing - this ecological law allegedly "unites" the three previous ones.

The first law "Everything is connected with everything" draws attention to the universal connection of processes and phenomena in nature and human society. By meaning it is close to the law of an internal dynamic equilibrium: a change in one of the system indicators, as a rule, causes structural and functional quantitative and qualitative changes; At the same time, the system itself retains the total amount of material and energy qualities.

Ecology considers the biosphere of our planet as a complex system with many interconnected elements. These relationships are implemented on the principles of reverse negative communication (for example, in the "predator - victim" system), direct connections, and also due to various interactions. Due to these connections, harmonious systems of the cycle of substances and energy are formed. Any interference with the work of a balanced mechanism of the biosphere causes an answer immediately in many directions, which makes prediction in ecology extremely difficult matter.

We give a typical example. In the aqueous ecosystem, the reaction rate is characterized in the aqueous ecosystem, which depends on the rate of metabolic processes and the reproduction of the relevant organisms. For the appearance of a new generation of fish, it is necessary for several months, algae - a few days, bacteria-roses are capable of multiplying in a few hours. The speed of the metabolism of these organisms (i.e., the speed with which they absorb nutrients use oxygen or produce life waste), is associated with the inverse dependence with their dimensions. That is, if the speed of the fish metabolism is taken per unit, then for algae, this speed will be equal to about 100, and for bacteria - about 10,000 units.

In order for the entire cyclic system to remain in equilibrium, it is necessary that the total speed of its internal processes is guided by the highest link, in our case - the growth and metabolism of fish. Any external impact that accelerates part of the cycle and thus causes some one part to work faster than the system as a whole leads to adverse consequences. If the system is in an equilibrium condition, oxygen is produced by algae and comes from the atmosphere. Suppose that the rate of receipt into the system of organic waste has increased sharply (for example, due to the discharge of wastewater - bacteria increased their activity, as a result, the rate of oxygen consumption of bacteria-roses may exceed the speed of its algae (as well as the speed of its receipt from the atmosphere), then The oxygen content in water approaches zero, and the system will die.

B. Commoner wrote: "All this is a consequence of a simple fact: everything is associated with everything. The system stabilizes due to its dynamic properties, and the same properties under the influence of external loads can lead to dramatic consequences: the complexity of the ecosystem and the speed of its cycle determine the degree of load, which It can withstand, that is, a small shift in one place can cause distant, significant and long-term consequences. "

Both nature and society are in a single network of system interactions. Any change in nature caused by a person causes a circuit of consequences - a violation of one link of this chain leads to appropriate violations in other links. The Earth's biosphere is an equilibrium ecosystem, in which all individual links are interconnected and complement each other. Violation of any link leads to a change in other links. For example, one of the consequences of human intervention in nature was the disappearance of species and a decrease in species diversity.

The second law "Everything must go somewhere" is close to the above, as well as the law of development of the natural system due to the environment. This law is an informal paraphrazing of the fundamental law of physics - Matter does not disappear anywhere. It can be called the law of preserving the mass of matter, and it is one of the most important requirements of rational environmental management. Unlike the social production and life of living nature, in general, almost waste-free - there is no garbage in it. Carbon dioxide that distinguishes animals as breathing waste is a nutrient for green plants. Plants "throw out" oxygen, which is used by animals. The organic remnants of animals serve as food for the reigns, and already their waste (inorganic substances - nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon dioxide) become food for algae. That is, in nature, the livelihoods of some organisms are "raw materials" for others. This indicates a high level of closetness of the cycle of substances in the biosphere.

On the example of a biological cycle, it can be seen like remnants and products of the vital activity of some organisms in nature source of existence for others. Man has not yet created such a harmonious circuit in its economic activity. Any production is constantly producing at least two things - the necessary products and waste. Waste themselves do not disappear: they accumulate, again involve in the cycle of substances and lead to unpredictable consequences. Technological waste society often "do not fit" into natural ecosystems, they do not disappear anywhere and become pollutants. From the point of view of wildlife, humanity produces mainly garbage and poison. Any pollution of nature returns to a person in the form of "ecological boomeranga".

Against this background, "brave" projects of utilization of our waste, especially radioactive, for example, in space, on other planets, are also offered to send them to the sun. Fortunately, there are many opponents in these projects, because no one has canceled the second law of Commemor. We still have no idea that there may be specific mechanisms of "ecological boomeranga" in the event of an attempt to "pollute" the sun. It is better not to try. So, nothing in nature disappears, but only passes from one form of matter existence to another.

The third law "Nature knows better" indicates that there are no absolutely reliable information about the mechanisms and functions of nature, people will almost inevitably harm natural systems. B. Commoner for a better understanding of this law conducted an analogy: when a person who is not familiar with the clock device wishes him to fix it, the clock is hardly earned. Any attempt at random to change something is doomed to fail. The Commonor Law in this case can be rephrased as follows: "The watchmaker knows better." Like the watches of a living organism, on which "blind" random changes affect, almost certainly will not be improved, but broken.

"Live consists of many thousands of different organic compounds," wrote B. Commoner, "and sometimes it seems that at least some of them can be improved if they are replaced by some kind of artificial embodiment of a natural substance. The third law of ecology claims that artificial The introduction of organic substances that do not exist in nature, and created by a person, but participate in a living system, most likely cause harm. " One of the most amazing facts in the chemistry of living substances is that for any organic substance produced by living beings, in nature there is an enzyme that can decompose this substance. Therefore, when a person synthesizes a new organic compound, which in structure is significantly different from natural substances, it is likely that there is no riskladeal enzyme for it, and this substance will accumulate in nature.

Therefore, this law calls for caution in relationships with nature. No wonder B. Commmon himself, two years later, supplemented the wording of this law: "Nature knows better what to do, and people must decide how to do it as much as possible."

Humanity has passed a much shorter way of development than the biosphere of the Earth. For many millions of years, the existence of the biosphere has fully formed links and mechanisms for its functioning. Hazardous, irresponsible interference of people in nature can lead (and leads) to the destruction of individual connections between links of ecosystems and to the impossibility of returning ecosystems to the original state. A person, self-wishing to "improve" nature, violates the course of natural processes. Indeed, in nature everything is very appropriate and functionally. And it can be understood, because she had enough time to discard all unsuccessful options and leave only verified.

In 1991. A group of American researchers conducted an experiment called "biosphere-2". In the desert area of \u200b\u200bArizona, a complex was built complex from the external environment of rooms with a glass roof and walls (only solar energy was received), in which five connected to each other ecosystems were created: wet rainforest, savanna, desert, swamp and sea (depth pool 8 m with live coral reef).

In Biosphere-2, 3,800 representatives of the fauna and flora were resettled, and the main criterion of their selection was the benefit that they could bring people (consulting both food, purify air, give medicine, etc.). In "Biosphere-2", a technosphere was made, which had residential and work premises, designed for eight people, gym, library, city and numerous technical equipment (springs, pumps for water and air circulation, computer with a multitude of sensors, which should Was monitored by the vital parameters of the complex).

The purpose of the experiment calculated for two years was to create a closed ecosystem, a peculiar mini-biosphere, which operated on the basis of self-sufficiency and was independent of the "biosphere-1" (so the authors called the Biosphere of the Earth). The minitexifer with researchers should organically enter this Mi-Biosphere. The authors dreamed of achieving artificially supported in the system of homeostasis, i.e. Stability of basic vital parameters (temperature, humidity, etc.). Biot waste of one ecosystem should have served resources for another.

The project was intended to implement (albeit on a small scale) Dream V.I. Vernadsky about the transition to managing a person by all processes in the biosphere.

The experiment ended unsuccessfully: in less than six months, researchers were evacuated from "Biosphere-2" back to the native "biosphere-1". The desired controlled by processes and balance of the technosphere and the "biosphere-2" could not be achieved; Moreover, the main parameters of the system, in particular the content in the air of carbon dioxide, the composition of microorganisms in the soil, etc., came out from under control. When the C02 content in the air has achieved dangerous to the health of the level people and it failed to reduce it, the experiment was discontinued.

The collapse of the experiment "biosphere-2" clearly proved that the complete balance of all processes, the cycle of substances and energy, maintaining homeostasis is possible only across the land, where these processes were worked out for many years. And no computers are able to take on the management of the system, the complexity of which is much higher than their own. The justice of the principle formulated by mathematician J. Neumanan was also confirmed: "The organization of the system below a certain minimum level leads to the deterioration of its quality."

So, as the comprehensive control of "Biosphere-1" and the creation of an artificial biosphere of the "biosphere-2" type today (and in the near future) is not for the human. The efforts of humanity should be aimed at preserving the generallylanet biosphere - a very complex, balanced system whose stability is now violated by the technosphere. We need to try not to "take the leadership of the biosphere", and act so that "not to interfere with nature", which, according to the law B. Commemor, "knows better."

Tragic egocentrism in the extreme manifestation of the 1930s in the famous breeder of the 1930s. IN AND. Michuryin: "We can't wait for a milfish from nature; take them with her - our task." Human activity will only be justified when the motivation of its actions will be determined primarily by the role to fulfill which it was created by nature when needs Nature will have more importance for a person than personal. Humanity must learn to live in harmony with nature.

The fourth law "For everything you need to pay, or nothing is given to the gift" reiterates the problems that summarize the law of the internal dynamic balance and the law of development of the natural system due to its environment. B. Commoner so explained this law: "... The global ecosystem is a single whole, in which nothing can be won or lost and which cannot be the object of universal improvement: everything that was learned from her human labor should be Reimbursed. Payment for this bill can not be avoided, it can only be delayed. The current crisis of the environment speaks only that the delay is very tightened. " And supplemented: "We opened a circle of life, turning it into countless cycles, in linear chains of artificial events."

The fourth law confirms: natural resources are not infinite. A person in the process of its activities takes nature in the "debt" part of its products, leaving those waste and pollution, which cannot or does not want to prevent. This duty will grow as long as the existence of humanity will be at risk and people are not quite aware of the need to eliminate the negative effects of their activities. And this elimination will require very large costs, which will become the payment of this debt. Indeed, the unreasonable exploitation of natural resources and natural benefits is threatened with a melt, which will come sooner or later.

At the present stage of the development of science and technology, humanity seems to be less dependent on nature, but this dependence has been preserved, and not just preserved, but complicated, since only the relative role of the laws of nature has changed. Humanity, as before, depends on the energy, mineral and commodity, biological, water and other natural resources. Therefore, the laws of Ecology Barry Commonor, as well as all other very important laws reflecting the general systemic patterns of the functioning and development of objective reality, should be remembered and take into account in their daily activities.

Barry Commoner became a famous ecologist due to its widely replicated books. He managed to explain the danger of a frivolous attitude towards the American society in popular science language. The famous laws of Commoner are a generalization of the conclusions that the researcher did for the long years of his professional career.

Biography Commoner

Future scientist Barry Commoner was born in 1917 in New York, in the family of emigrants from the Russian Empire. He decided to devote his life to science. The young man entered which he graduated in 1941. A young specialist received a doctor on biology. Back at the university, he became interested in studying the problem of the destruction of the ozone layer.

Studies of the scientist formed the basis of several of his books dedicated to ecology. In them, including the laws of Commonor, who became a business card of the researcher were published. Some scientist books were published even in the Soviet Union. At first glance, this may seem strange, but Commmon was perfect for the USSR. The fact was that the American ecologist adhered to socialist views. The combination of left ideology and research environments became the foundation for his books "Circle Circle" and "Profit Technology". They have the laws of Commonor.

Capitalism harms ecology

Commoner believed that modern industrial technologies, as well as intensive fuel mining, are a threat to all of humanity. Everything is growing due to the desire of entrepreneurs and states to extract maximum profits. Commoner criticize the capitalist system, at which nature suffers most of all.

Also, the scientist tried to convey to his readers the idea that the damage was already impossible to compensate. Human has no opportunity to restore the lost ecosystem. Therefore, the laws of Commoner were based on the fact that it is necessary to prevent possible harm, and not to treat the wounds already applied by society.

Alternative energy sources

The American ecologist not only pointed out the shortcomings of modern production. He also offered solutions to leaving the current situation. Commoner was an active supporter of the use of renewable energy sources. First of all, this is of course sunlight.

The ideas of Commoner were expressed in the 70s. Today you can personally observe the implementation of many of its projects. Solar panels, windmills - all this has become already ordinary energy sources for rich countries. These technologies are used not only at large enterprises, but even in the homes of ordinary citizens. The solar market in the US and Europe today grows the fastest pace.

Redistribution of good

The famous laws of Environmental Commoner also refer to social problems that cause environmental pollution. The twentieth century even more increased the abyss between rich and poor countries. In some states there are rapid technical progress, in other life it changes extremely slowly.

These were spent the term "third world countries". Mostly it is Africa. On the other hand, in Asia, there is a huge problem associated with overpopulation. Giant Chinese cities are world leaders in the emission of smog and other harmful substances into the atmosphere of the Earth.

Barry Commonor laws are based on socialist ideas. The scientist offered to distribute global wealth. According to his idea, unnecessary means of wealthy societies were to improve the lives of low-life countries. That would avoid enormous environmental problems in these regions. Because of overpopulation, the rivers are melted, the resources of the subsoil are score, sustainable natural bonds and chains are destroyed.

"Everything is connected with everything"

There are 4 commemor law. The first one is called "everything is connected with everything." What is his logic? Commoner in his books tried to explain that everything that happens in nature is closely interrelated. If a person makes harm to one part of the environment, he naturally beats the rest.

The law of Commonor "Everything is associated with everything" is also called the law of dynamic internal equilibrium. This principle states that even small changes made by the person in the world around him, over time we will develop in a catastrophe.

Consider an example. The company specializing in wood sells intensively cuts out the forest. How can this affect the rest of nature? With a decrease in the number of trees, the volume of free oxygen is also reduced. In addition, additional emissions of nitrogen oxide in the atmosphere are occurring, which depletes the ozone layer. Finally, the last link in this chain will be an increase in ultraviolet radiation, malicious for all living organisms.

Darwin and buckwheat

It should be noted that the main laws of the environment of Commoner were formulated by him due to the knowledge of the work of their predecessors. As you know, a scientist in his own profile education was a biologist. He studied a lot of Darwinian theory and was familiar with the biography of his famous predecessor.

In one of his books, Commoner retold a curious fact from the founder of the founder of the idea of \u200b\u200bevolution. One day, the peasants turned to Darwin with a request to give advice on how to increase the harvest of buckwheat. The scientist answered completely unexpectedly. He offered the peasants to have more cats. Darwin, like Commoner, perfectly aware of the relationship of everything that is happening in nature. He understood that new cats would destroy regularly rolving the harvest of buckwheat in the peasants. This story is an excellent illustration of what Barry Commoner wanted to say. Ecology laws, as this example shows, proved empirically.

"Everything should go somewhere"

The second law of Commonor affects the phenomenon of the redistribution of substances in the environment. This principle formulated is called "everything should go somewhere." In a natural natural state, each substance has its own cycle of "life." In the environment, it is synthesized only that in the future may disappear.

Laws Barry Commonor says that this is a natural process. And it is difficult to disagree with this. However, since humanity included in the modern era, it systematically produces artificial substances that are extremely difficult to destroy without consequences. For example, it is DDT, polyethylene, etc. In the same list, the resources mined from earthly subsoil can be attributed. The recycled and used oil leaves an indelible trace in the environment. Laws B. Commoner and his whole theory criticize such production. Oil, ore and other substances are converted to new compounds that cannot dispel in the environment.

Fighting production

A person can no longer refuse the modern industry. At the same time, it is also not possible to make it possible. Therefore, the scientist suggested at least minimizing the damage that production causes nature.

The environmental laws of Barry Commonor says that, firstly, new technologies should be as less resource-proof. Secondly, it is necessary to create such a production in which human waste can be used as raw materials. Finally, thirdly, if the emission of harmful products is inevitable, the society is obliged to create a reasonable burial system for them and disposal.

"Nature knows better"

The third law of Commonor concerns the complexity of the world. Even a modern person, with all its technologies, can not know all the relationships within nature. The biosphere consists of millions of different creatures. It is divided into many zones. Flora and fauna of the world have developed over billions of years. If a person can interfere in these processes, even wanting to improve the situation around himself, he will only apply additional harm.

Environmental laws of Commonor call people to caution. Active nature transformations can lead to the fact that all of our world will be unsuitable for normal life. Human intervention is represented by hundreds of indicative cases only lately. For example, shooting wolves in some northern forests led to the fact that this natural zone lost its natural "Sanitars". In China, Vorobyev tired massively. Residents of the country believed that huge flocks of these birds harm sowing. When the sparrow disappeared, insects came to their place, which became no one. Changes in the biological chain led to even greater loss of crop in China.

"Nothing is given to the gift"

This is the last law of Commoner. He also has another interpretation, which states that "for everything you need to pay." The law is based on the principle of the fact that the natural system is always evolving due to the environment. A single biosphere consists of a variety of parts. If something new appears in it, it will definitely displace something old.

The same can be said about the technical achievements of humanity. If we create something that affects nature, it will lead to some losses in the environment. The laws of Ecology B. Commonor are associated with the principle of internal dynamic equilibrium, which has already been mentioned in describing the first law.

The scientist compared the conversion of nature with the payment on the bill. A person will have to destroy something old to get a new one. At the same time, he can postpone the inevitable payment "on the bill of exchange", but sooner or later pay will still have to pay. The fourth law has a vivid example. This is agriculture. With the annual cultivation of vegetables in the same place, the level of nutrients in the soil (phosphorus, nitrogen, potassium, etc.) decreases. Each time the harvest is becoming less and less. In the end, a person has to leave this plot or process it with fertilizers.

Ecotechnologies

Commoner offered to create the production of a new type that would work in harmony with nature. These are the so-called ecotechnology. The scientist believed that such projects could be implemented if they would coincide with the processes occurring in the biosphere or even continue them. Therefore, humanity should find out those principles thanks to which nature retains its equilibrium. Already relying on these rules, society will be able to create harmless to the environment.

An example may be the situation with processing substances. In nature, they decompose only with the help of microorganisms. But some waste of human livelihoods only harm the environment. Therefore, according to Commoner, humanity should only be thrown into the biosphere that she herself can absorb. The rest must be processed artificially with the help of modern technologies. This is a matter of environmental expediency.

Laws of ecology - General patterns and principles of the interaction of human society with a natural environment.

The importance of these laws is to regulate the nature and focus of human activity within ecosystems of various levels. Among the laws of ecology formulated by different authors, four laws of the American Academic Ecologist Barry Commemor (1974) received the greatest fame.

• "Everything is connected with everything" (the law of the universal connection of things and phenomena in nature);
• "Everything should go somewhere" (the law of preserving the mass of matter);
• "Nothing is given to the gift" (about the price of development);
• "Nature knows better" (On the main criterion of evolutionary selection).

Of The law of universal connection of things and phenomena in nature ("Everything is associated with everything") flows several consequences:

• the law of large numbers - The cumulative action of a large number of random factors leads to a result that is almost independent of the case, i.e. having systemic character. Thus, the Miriada bacteria in the soil, water, bodies of living organisms create a special, relatively stable microbiological environment necessary for the normal existence of all alive. Or another example: the random behavior of a large number of molecules in some volume of gas causes well-defined temperature and pressure values;
• principle Le Chatel (Brown) - With external impact, outputting a system from a state of stable equilibrium, this equilibrium shifts in the direction at which the effect of external influence decreases. On the biological level, it is implemented in the form of an ability of ecosystems to self-regulation;
• law of optimality - any system functions with the greatest efficiency in some of the spatio-time limits characteristic;
• any systemic changes in nature have a direct or indirect impact on a person - from the state of an individual to complex public relations.

Of The law of preserving the mass of matter ("Everything should go somewhere") flow at least two postulates that are practical:

Barry Commoner written "... A global ecosystem is a single whole, within which nothing can be won or lost and which cannot be an object of universal improvement; Everything that was learned from her human labor should be refunded. Payment on this bill can not be avoided; It can only be delayed. The current crisis of the environment says that the deferment was very dragging. "

Principle "Nature knows better" Determines first of all what can and that should not have places in the biosphere. Everything in nature is from simple molecules to a person - a crucial competition for the right to existence was passed. Currently, the planet inhabits only 1/1000 tested by the evolution of species of plants and animals. The main criterion of this evolutionary selection is the enjoyment in the global biotic cycle, Filling of all environmental niches. Any substance developed by the organisms must exist decomposing his enzyme, and all decay products must be re-engaged in the circulation. With each biological species, which violated this law, the evolution sooner or later parted. The human industrial civilization grossly violates the closure of the biotic cycle on a global scale, which cannot remain unpunished. In this critical situation, a compromise must be found that only a person who has a mind and desire for this should be found.

In addition to the wording of Barry Commonor, modern environmentalists brought another environment of ecology - "There is not enough" (the law of limited resources). Obviously, the mass of nutrients for all forms of life on Earth is finite and limited. It lacks representatives of the organic world appearing in the biosphere, therefore, a significant increase in the number and mass of any organisms on a global scale can occur only by reducing the number and mass of others. On the contradiction between the speed of reproduction and limited power resources in relation to the population of the planet first drew attention to the English economist TR. Maltus (1798), which exactly, I tried to justify the inevitability of social competition. In turn, Ch. Darwin borrowed from Maltus the concept of "struggle for existence" to explain the mechanism of natural selection in wildlife.

Law of limited resources - Source of all forms of competition, rivalry and antagonism in nature and, unfortunately, in society. And no matter how much a class struggle, racism, interethnic conflicts are purely social phenomena - they all go to intraspecific competition, which sometimes takes much more cruel forms than in animals.

The essential difference is that in nature as a result of competitive struggle survive the best, and in human society is not at all.

The well-known Soviet scientist N.F. presented the generalized classification of environmental laws. Reimers. They are given the following wording:

• law of Socio-Environmental Equilibrium (the need to preserve the equilibrium between pressure on the environment and the restoration of this medium, both natural and artificial);
• principle of Cultural Development Management (imposition of restrictions on extensive development, accounting for environmental restrictions);
• social and Environmental Replacement Rule (the need to identify ways to replace human needs);
• law of socio-environmental irreversibility (the impossibility of turning the evolutionary movement to reverse, from complex forms to more simple);
• law of Noosphere Vernadsky (the inevitability of the transformation of the biosphere under the influence of thought and human labor in the nosphere - the geosphere in which the Mind becomes dominant in the development of the System-Nature system).

Compliance with these laws is possible, provided that humanity is aware of humanity in the mechanism for maintaining the stability of the biosphere. It is known that in the process of evolution, only those species that are able to ensure the sustainability of life and the environment are preserved. Only a person using the power of his mind can send the further development of the biosphere along the path of preserving the wildlife, the preservation of civilization and humanity, creating a more fair social system, transition from the philosophy of war to the philosophy of peace and partnership, love and respect for future generations. All this is the components of a new biosphere worldview, which should be universal.

Laws and principles of ecology

Minimum law

In 1840 Y. Libik It has established that the crop is often limited not to those nutrients that are required in large quantities, and those that need a little, but which are few and in the soil. The law formulated by it said: "The substance in a minimum is managed by the crop, the magnitude and stability of the latter in time is determined." Subsequently, a number of other factors added to nutrients, such as temperature. The action of this law limits two principles. The first libid law is strictly valid only in conditions of stationary state. A more accurate wording: "With a stationary state, the substance that the amounts of which are closest to the required minimum will be limiting. The second principle concerns the interaction of factors. High concentration or availability of some substance can change the consumption of the minimum nutrient. The following law is formulated in the ecology itself and summarizes the minimum law.

The law of tolerance

This law is formulated as follows: the absence or impossibility of the development of the ecosystem is determined not only by the disadvantage, but also an excess of any of the factors (heat, light, water). Consequently, organisms are characterized by both environmental minimum and maximum. Too much good is also bad. The range between the two values \u200b\u200bis the limits of tolerance in which the body reacts normally to the effect of the medium. The law of tolerance suggested V. Sheford In 1913, we can formulate a number of complementary offers.

• Organisms may have a wide range of tolerance in relation to one factor and narrow in relation to the other.
• Organisms with a wide range of tolerance to all factors are usually most widely distributed.
• If the conditions on one environmental factor are not optimal for the species, then the tolerance range may be narrowed to other environmental factors.
• In nature, organisms are very often found in conditions that do not correspond to the optimal value of one or another factor defined in the laboratory.
• The period of reproduction is usually critical; During this period, many environment factors often turn out to be limiting.

Living organisms change environmental conditions to weaken the limiting effect of physical factors. Types with wide geographical distribution form adapted to the local conditions of the population, which are called Ecotypes. Their optimis and the limits of tolerance correspond to local conditions.

Generalizing the concept of limiting factors

The most important factors on land are light, temperature and water (precipitation), and in the sea - light, temperature and salinity. These physical conditions of existence maybe Be limiting and influencing favorable. All environmental factors depend on each other and act coordinated. From other limiting factors, atmospheric gases (carbon dioxide, oxygen) and biogenic salts can be noted. Formulating the "minimum law", librix and meant the limiting impact of vital chemical elements present in the medium in small and non-permanent quantities. They are called trace elements and they include iron, copper, zinc, boron, silicon, molybdenum, chlorine, vanadium, cobalt, iodine, sodium. Many trace elements are similar to vitamins as catalysts. Phosphorus, potassium, calcium, sulfur, magnesium required by organisms in large quantities are called macroelements. An important limiting factor in modern conditions is pollution of the natural environment. The main limiting factor Y. Odumu, - Dimensions and quality " okosa", Or ours" natural Resident ",and not just the number of calories that can be squeezed out of the ground. Landscape is not only stock of stocks, but also the house in which we live. "It should be striving to preserve at least a third of all sushi as a protected open space. This means that one third of our entire habitat should be national or local parks, reserves, green zones, sections of wildlife, etc. ". The territory needed to one person, according to different estimates, hesitates from 1 to 5 hectares. The second of these numbers exceeds the area, which is now on one resident of the Earth.

The population density is approaching one person on 2 hectares of sushi. Suitable for agriculture only 24% sushi. Although from the square, only 0.12 hectares can be obtained enough calories to support the existence of one person, for full nutrition with a large number of meat, fruits and greenery, about 0.6 hectares per person. In addition, about 0.4 hectares are required for the production of different kinds of fibers (paper, wood, cotton) and 0.20 hectares for roads, airports, buildings, etc. Hence the concept of "Golden Billiona", in accordance with which the optimal number of the population is 1 billion people, and it became already about 5 billion "extra people". For the first time in his story, the man collided with the limit, and not local restrictions. Overcoming limiting factors requires huge costs of substance and energy. To double the crop requires a tenfold increase in the number of fertilizers, pesticides and power (animals or machines). The limiting factors applies to the population number.

Law of competitive exception

This law is formulated as follows: two species occupying one ecological niche cannot coexist in one place for a long time.

What kind of wins depends on external conditions. In similar conditions, everyone can defeat. An important circumstance for victory is the growth rate of the population. The inability of the form for biotic competition leads to its izperation and need to fit to more difficult conditions and factors.

The law of competitive exception can also work in human society. The peculiarity of his action is currently lies in the fact that civilizations cannot disperse. They have no place to leave their territory, because there is no free space for settlement in the biosphere and there is no excess of resources, which leads to the exacerbation of the struggle with all the consequences arising from here. We can talk about ecological rivalry between countries and even environmental wars or wars caused by environmental reasons. At one time, Hitler justified the aggressive policy of Nazi German struggle for living space. Oil, coal resources, etc. And then they were important. Even more weight they have in the XXI century. In addition, the need for territories for the disposal of radioactive and other waste was added. Wars - hot and cold - acquire environmental color. Many events in modern history, such as the collapse of the USSR, are perceived in a new way if they look at them with environmental positions. One civilization can not only conquer another, but to use it for mercenary from an ecological point of view. This will be environmental colonialism. So intertwined political, social and environmental problems.

The main law of ecology

One of the main achievements of the ecology was the discovery that not only organisms and types are developing, but also. The sequence of communities by replacing each other in this area is called Sukessia. Suksessia occurs as a result of changes in the physical environment under the action of the community, i.e. Controlled by them.

High productivity gives low reliability - another formulation of the basic law of the ecology, which follows the following rule: "The optimal efficiency is always less than the maximum." A variety in accordance with the basic law of ecology is directly related to stability. However, it is still unknown to what extent this connection is causal.

Some other laws important for ecology and principles.

Emergenism law: The integer always has special properties that are missing from its part.

The law of the required diversity: The system cannot consist of absolutely identical elements, but may have a hierarchical organization and integrative levels.

The law of irreversibility of evolution: The body (population, view) can not return to the previous state, implemented in a number of its ancestors.

The law of complications of the organization: The historical development of living organisms leads to the complication of their organization by differentiating organs and functions.

Biogenetic law (E. Hekkel): the organism ontogenesis is a brief repetition of phylogenesis of this species, i.e. Individual in its development repeats the abbreviated historical development of its species.

The law of uneven development of parts of the system: Systems of one level of hierarchy are not developing strictly synchronously, while some reaches a higher stage of development, others remain in a less developed state. This law is directly related to the law of the necessary diversity.

Law of conservation of life: Life can exist only in the process of movement through the living body of the stream of substances, energy, information.

Principle of conservation ordering (Ya. Prieuza): In open systems, entropy does not increase, and decreases until the minimum constant value is achieved, always more zero.

Principle le chateel-brown: With an external impact, outputting a system from a stable equilibrium, this equilibrium shifts in the direction at which the effect of external influence is weakened.

Principle of energy economy (L. Onzager): With the probability of the development of the process in a certain set of directions allowed by the principles of thermodynamics, it is implemented, which provides a minimum of energy dissipation.

The Law of Maximization of Energy and Information: The system has the best chances of self-preservation, to the greatest degree of contributing to entering, developing and efficient use of energy and information; The maximum admission of the substance does not guarantee the system of success in the competitive struggle.

The law of development of the system due to the environment: Any system can develop only through the use of material and energy and informational opportunities of its environment; Absolutely isolated self-development is impossible.

Schrödinger rule "On the nutrition" of the body of negative entropy: the organism's orderliness is higher than the environment, and the body gives more disorders in this medium than it receives. This rule correlates with the principle of preserving the ordering of the prigist.

The rule of acceleration of evolution: With the increase in the complexity of the organization of biosystems, the duration of the form of the form is reduced, and the rate of evolution increases. The average duration of the existence of the form of birds is 2 million years old, the type of mammals - 800 thousand years. The number of extinct species of birds and mammals in comparison with all of their number is great.

The law of relative independence of adaptation: High adaptability to one of the environmental factors does not give the same degree of adaptation to other living conditions (on the contrary, it can limit these opportunities due to the physiological morphological characteristics of the organisms).

The principle of minimal population size: There is a minimum population size, below which its number cannot be descended.

Rule of representation of the kind of one species: in uniform conditions and in a limited territory taxonomic genus, as a rule, is represented by only one type. Apparently, this is due to the proximity of the ecological niches of the species of one kind.

The law of dedication of the living agent in its island concentrations (G.F. Hilmi): "An individual system working in a medium with a level of organization is lower than the level of the system itself, is doomed: gradually losing the structure, the system is dissolved after a while in the environment." From this it follows an important conclusion for human environmental activities: artificially preservation of small-sized ecosystems (in a limited territory, for example, the reserve) leads to their gradual destruction and does not ensure the preservation of species and communities.

Law Pyramid Energies (R. Lindeman): From one trophic level of the ecological pyramid goes to another, a higher level on average about 10% of the previous energy entered. Reverse stream with higher at lower levels is much weaker - no more than 0.5-0.25%, and therefore it does not have to talk about the cycle of energy in biocenosis.

Rule of obligation of filling ecological niches: The empty ecological niche is always and necessarily happens naturally filled ("Nature does not tolerate emptiness").

The principle of formation of the ecosystem: The long-term existence of organisms is possible only within the framework of environmental systems, where their components and elements complement each other and are mutually adapted. Of these environmental laws and principles, some conclusions are followed by the "Man - Natural Environment" system. They relate to the type of the law of limitation of diversity, i.e. impose restrictions on human activity for the transformation of nature.

Boomeranga law: Everything that is extracted from the biosphere of human labor should be returned to it.

The law of indispensability of the biosphere: The biosphere cannot be replaced with an artificial environment, as, say, you can not create new types of life. A person cannot build an eternal engine, while the biosphere is almost the "eternal" engine.

Shagreen leather law: Global source natural resource potential in the course of historical development is continuously destructed. This follows from the fact that no fundamentally new resources that could appear are currently not. For the life of each person per year, 200 tons of solids are necessary, which it is using 800 tons of water and an average of 1000 W energy turns into a useful product. All this man takes from the already existing in nature.

Principle of Event Remoteness: Descendants will come up with anything for preventing possible negative consequences. The question of how much the laws of ecology can be transferred to the relationship between a person with the environment remains open, as a person is different from all other species. For example, in most species, the growth rate of the population decreases with an increase in its density; In person, on the contrary, the growth of the population in this case is accelerated. Some regulatory mechanisms of nature are absent in humans, and this can serve as an additional reason for technological optimism in some, and for environmental pessimists to testify the danger of such a catastrophe that is impossible for any other type.