Typification in literature examples. Forms of manifestation of typical in fiction

Essence of typing and individualization . A significant definition of these categories is the established judgment on the nature of the artistic generalization: from the fund similar realities is borrowed the most characteristic. The fact of typing gives the work aesthetic perfection, since one phenomenon is able to reliably display a number of repeated paintings of life.

Specific clips between individual and typical distinguish the nature of each artistic method. One of the most important planes where differences are constantly deployed are associated with romanticism and realism. The principles of artistic generalization become the keys with which you can enter the world of art. When the nature of the typical and individual should be remembered that the paths and means of artistic generalization flow out of the nature of the thoughts deployed by the writer, from the ideological definition, which this particular picture has.

Take, for example, battle episodes from the "war and the world". In each battle there is its own inner logic, a special selection of those phenomena and processes, of which are composed and which are determined by the course of the development of combat. And the choice of the writer falls on the epic image of the battle of armies through the prism of the thinnest details. Borodino and Shenagrabensky battles can be correlated, and there is a sharply distinctive principle between them. Differences are observed in what the artist's attention is drawn and that he recorded. On the pages of the novel is available household battalizationHere it is depicted by the installation of the ordinary mass in Shengrab. Soldiers look at the kitchen with greedy eyes. They are interested in stomachs. When Borodino is depicted, there are no battles there, there is no army, there are people there: "all the people want to fall out." All soldiers refused to be laid before the battle of vodka, this is generalization of the event. So detailing and generalization play a significant role in typing and individualization. The media of the generalization is the characters, images and their details. It is necessary to analyze not only paintings, episodes, but also a totality of the smallest germination. When it comes to one hero, you should think about the friend and what role he plays in the fate of the first. Typical and individual recreate the world according to the laws of beauty.

The image concludes a picture, an image, unity of generalization ( typification) and concretization ( individualization). So, the image of some character necessarily represents some of the collection and uniqueness of the person in all its concreteness, in all its inherent features. When the images of Gobsek, the Grande Dock, Plushkina, Bubble, Bubble, Corey Iskamba are considered, then they all come under one generalization - the tragic type of miscarriage, to which even their "talking" names (Gobsek - Logglot; Bubble - Immirement Scaremen; Bubble - Eagerly and hurry swallows; Ishkamba - stomach). Each of these images personifies its unique distinctive features: Features of appearance, personal habits, warehouse character. As there are no two undoubtedly identical people, there are no two completely similar, to the complete same, images. For example, in many French novelsXIX. There are images of the so-called "Napoleonic warehouse", they are very similar, they enter into identical generalization. In front of the researcher appears the type of Napoleon of peacetime, when a millionthor, Rothschild go to his shift. And all the same, and these characters are different, they are distinguished by their unusualness. Individualization of artistic creativity is as close as possible to the very reality, to life. In science, real validity is reflected only in pure generalizations, abstractions, distractions.

So, the general definition of the image is reduced to the following: an image with the properties of generalization or typing, and on the other hand, concreteness(concretization) of a single, individual fact.Without the unity of concretization (individualization) and generalizations (typification), the image itself does not become the essence of artistic creativity, a phenomenon of art. One-sided typing is called schematismIn art, it is absolutely impossible, destructive for him; And just as unacceptable, the harmful limited specification. When literary criticships face minor individualization or a very weak total conclusion, incommensurable with the real side of the image, then they call it factography. There is also an extremely declarative character. Real events grilled from reality itself will lead the author to artistic failure. Recall the instruction of the classic: I look at the fence - I write a fence, I see the clown on the fence - I write on the fence to the crow.

Literary critics in such cases speak not just about the schematics of recreation of paintings, but they say the vulnerable side of the facts. In other words, this is an extreme drawback, deforming the image and artistry. In a truly artistic outfit, there should be no one-sidedness of generalization and concretization. The typening moments are obliged to be in equilibrium with specific, actual aspects, only then the image appears, a full-fledged artistic image.

It should be reopening that in exact sciences and journalism are appropriate and even necessary schematism, abstraction, naked generalization of thought, but they are contraindicated in artistic work. Any art, including literature, reflect the reality in the form of the maximum approximation to it, the literature reproduces validity in the forms of life itself. In the language of literature theory, the form of life is called individualization and typisation, brought to aesthetic perfection. In the exact sciences (mathematics, physics, chemistry ...) and journalism there is no life. It takes place only in artistic creativity.

It so happened that in the science of literature, the concept of typing is used in relation to realistic art. Discussions are underway around this principle. Simultaneously with the word "typification", individual critics were offered other terms, believing, if the realism is associated with the concept of "typification", then in romanticism it will be "idealization." It is clear that the term " idealization"Upholstered, it is related to some distortion operation, embellishment, gravity and varnishing. However, in the main direction to study these categories, the step is made, the word is pronounced, and it must be welcome, for it is impossible to denote the same concept of artistic generalization inherent in different artistic methods, directions, trends. If in the realism of "typification", then in romanticism there will be something else, and how it will be called - it is unknown. In any case, the artistic generalizations in the art of the Middle Ages, Renaissance, Enlightenment require their clarification. Most of all done to disclose the nature of realistic generalization, while in other spheres a lot and much wish the best.

Fiction as a way to typing and individualization in literature . Artistic creativity without fiction is impossible, it cannot exist. The ability to fantasize distinguishes and scientists, "accurate" science without creative imagination is unthinkable.

A faithful sign of artistic gifting is the ability to speculate, invent, imagine. This process follows from the nature of thinking in images. And the most important law becoming typery. Art does not copy, but the life recreates, displays it in such a way that it seems clearer and more beautiful. There are opposite relations between the way and real matter. On the one hand, they correspond to each other, on the other, differ from each other, because every image is not a copy, not reality, but built into the Pearl creating a fact more similar to life.

The basis of the artistic fiction is not the law is not good, but law of Truthwhich makes itself felt through dissolutely. So, the Shchedrian Grador instead of the head has an organizing, but this grotesque generalization is truthfully. The essence of typing is that the typical image contains in itself a unique and holistic alloy through which the essence is shifted. These relationships that do not repeat reality are approved only on the basis of creative imagination.

What is the feature of artistic fiction? Art does not repeat reality, but reflects the most significant in it, it says not about what was or is there, but as it happens in the world. It "happens" and creates familiar strangers. The model of artistic fantasy expresses contradictory connections: on the one hand, similar to the other - distinctive. The writer does not copy and does not repeat life, but explore her. He sometimes trample the truth of the fact in the name of the truth of life, he must break with a little truth in the name of a big truth. The basis of the fiction is always what is associated with human ability from real - this to extract essential meaning.

Fiction is the special way as an illogical, non-artistic abstraction is created, which is called "ways of types." This is an internal feature. " departure»In the art of art from reality. The ability to fiction is a specific gift, he reveals the natural inclinations to abstraction, to a guarantee of reality. For artistic fiction, it is particularly what could be called a gift of transformation, reincarnation, to measure someone else's life, comprehend it, evaluate and recreate in the forms inherent in reality. Hence the writers often manifest artistically - creative hallucinations. Many authors say that they hear the voices of their heroes, even feel their will, which would like their pen. Recall the Vronsky, which, contrary to the initial design, is shooting; Tatyana "dispersed the thing" - jumped married; Balzac fell in fainting, and when he was asked about the reason, he replied: Just now died, daddy Gorio; Flaubert felt the taste of arsenic in his mouth. It does not mean that all writers should test hallucinations, but always write so that "a piece of meat remained at the tip of the pen." If this is not, it will be cold and unconvincing.

This quality should distinguish not only classics, but also artists are less gifted. Each writer has a fiction of his character and its special measure. Some authors are creating, fictional on the actual canvas, others are too far away from the ground in their imagination. And the point here is not only in the creative person and the talent of the artist. It also plays a role and memory of the genre, and the manner of the creative development of the author. However, even in cases where "departure" from reality is very high, it has a real artist, it never turns out to be completely removed from the law of artistic fiction. It remains only that constitutes the essence of knowledge and penetration into its subsidiary.

Typification in art is a method of disclosure in artistic images of a common, natural in the human life and life of society, in the psychological experiences of people and their relationship through the image of the unique and individual; A combination of generalization of artistic and individualization.
In the process of typing, the artist allocates and selects the most characteristic class features, actions and actions, psychological features, habits, tastes, gestures, external signs, speech features. The basis of this purposeful process of identifying and summarizing some qualities and discarding, the discharge into the background of others is the worldview of the artist, its aesthetic attitude to reality. At the same time, the artist with the help of typical imagination and fantasy, using fine-expressive capabilities and specific material equipment of this or that type of art, embodies the achieved generalizations in the shape of individualized, bright and original characters encountered and acting in specific, peculiar circumstances.
Only as a result of the successful implementation of this dual entity of typing, it is possible to create true, high-ideas in content and perfect on artistic artwork. Ignoring any of these components of typing inevitably leads to distortion of the content of the work, to weaken and even the destruction of its artistic form, to a decrease in the level of artistic skills.
The ratio of generalization and individualization depends ultimately from the method of artistic. In realistic art, where the essence of the depicted phenomena is revealed through the show of a particular, individual appearance of media of these phenomena, both sides of the typing are interrelated, interpenetrate each other. On this basis, the created classic images are the types of global realistic art - Hamlet and Don Quixote, Chatsky and Oblomov, the heroes of Rembrandt and V. I. Surikov, films Ch. Chaplin and S. M. Eisenstein. In various directions of modern modernist art of the bourgeoisie (abstraction, cubism, expressionism, surrealism, tashizm, naturalism, etc.), generalization and individualization, on the contrary, are transformed into antagonistic opposites, which leads to a violation of typicalness, and therefore artisticity.

The type of artistic (from Greek. Typos is an imprint, sample) - an artistic image, in the individual originality of which the features are embodied, characteristic of representatives of a particular public group, class, nation, features typical of many people of a certain historical era or even a number of epochs. For example, in the portrait of Pope Innocent X work of the Spanish artist D. Velasquez, such features of the character portrayed as cunning, maliciousness, cruelty, but this is not just the features of this person: the colossal force of the generalization helped the artist to disclose in the portrait of one person psychological and social essence in the portrait A whole state of clergy, i.e. create a specific social type.
Typical individuality, in the appearance, thoughts and actions of which most fully, convex, are concentrated, the features characteristic of the whole circle of people are undoubtedly exist in the life itself. V.I. Lenin in his works has repeatedly noted the existence of "group and class types". A genuine realist artist has the ability to skillfully notice the existing types in life and use them in their artistic generalizations. But most often an artistic type is not a reproduction of a really existing personality: his unique individuality is the fruit of the artist's imagination, the result of creative understanding, generalizations and concentrations of the features and features inherent in many people.
The significance of the type created by the artist depends on the public significance of those traits that are embodied in a typical image, and on the degree of artistic of its outcome in the work. The artist generalizes in a particular type of vital phenomena in its nature: arising, already spreading and rooted in society and dying, disturbing their age. Images that embody any of these groups of phenomena, with equal rights can apply for typics. So, the image of the Chatsky from Comedy A. S. Griboedov "Mount from Wit", expressing the typical features of the most advanced people of the 20s of the XIX century, no less typical than the image of Molchalin, prototypes for which Griboedovsky time spawned significantly more than for Chatsky.
Artistic type on its content is always historically concrete. This is the "mirror" of artistic creativity, which reflects the epoch in which the generation sees his portrait and portraits of its predecessors. However, this cannot interfere with the typical image to embody along with the features peculiar to people of a certain social layer and a certain era, features inherent in people in general, universal features. Romeo and Juliet V. Shakespeare, Don Quixote M. Servantes and Faust I. V. Goethe, Gogol Hoglekov and Goncharovsky Oblomov, Sicstinskaya Madonna Raphael or David Michelangelo, lyrical hero of poems A. A. Bloka or "Little Man" Ch. Chaplin - All these and many other types created by world art embodied along with the specific historical features of their era of deep and eternal universal features.

Collection output:

To the problem of "typology" and "typification" in Russian literature

Bulychev Vera Pavlovna

lecturer in the Department of English for Economic Specialties Astrakhan State University, Astrakhan

For linguistics, the problem of typology is not new. Term " typology"Was considered in the works of ancient ritizers, and the list of works on studying tyology, there are hundreds of names. Like some other fundamental concepts, term typology Wash and multifacenes, within the framework of different sciences is understood in different ways, which makes it an extremely difficult task of its definition. For example, in philosophy typology (from Greek - imprint, shape, sample and - word, teaching) - this "The method of scientific knowledge, which is based on the dismemberment of systems of objects and their grouping using a generalized, idealized model or type", in the Great Encyclopedic Dictionary. Scientific method, the basis of which - dismemberment of systems of objects and their grouping using a generalized model or type; Used in order to comparative study of essential signs, links, functions, relationships, levels of organization of objects.

Only in the large encyclopedic dictionary, we find information about linguistic typology - this is "a comparative study of the structural and functional properties of languages, regardless of the nature of genetic relations between them"

Perhaps precisely because of the complexity of the very concept, the term "typology" is absent in a number of specialized terminological dictionaries. Therefore, we believe that the term "typology" is primarily a general scientific term, and not literary.

Much more often in literary criticism we meet the term "typification", although in the terminological dictionaries for philology this term is also absent. Typification is "the development of typical structures or technological processes based on common for a number of products (processes) of technical characteristics. One of the standardization methods. "

Images-characters, like all other types of images, are a clock that the writer sees around himself. Such a thickening of essential phenomena in the image is typification, and the character-character reflecting the leading features of the era, the group, the social layer and the like is called a literary type.

The literary types of three species are distinguished: epochal, social, universal.

Eporal types condense in themselves the properties of people of a certain historical period of time. It is not by chance that the expression "Children of His Time" will happen. So, the literature of the XIX century developed in detail and showed the type of excess person, which manifested itself in such different images: Onegin, Pechorin, Oblomov - they all belong to different generations of people, but unites them in a general type of discontent with themselves and life, the inability to be implemented, to find application Its abilities, but it is manifested every time in accordance with the requirements of time and individuality: Onegin misses, Pechorin is chasing his life, brooms lies on the sofa. Epochal types are brighter thanks to temporary signs in people.

Social types focus the features and qualities of people of certain public groups. It is for these indicators that we can determine in which environment this type arose. So, Gogol in the "Dead Souls" very convincingly showed the type of landowners. Each of them, according to the author's plan, is characterized by a unique enlarged line of character: Manilaov - a dreamer, a box - a distincto-colon, nostril - a historical person, Sobekevich - Kulak, Plushkin - riding in humanity. In the aggregate, all these qualities recreate the general type of landlord.

Social types allow you to recreate the bright typical properties of people of a certain public group, emphasizing the most natural qualities, indicators for which we can judge about the state of society, its hierarchical structure and make the appropriate conclusions about relationships between public groups of one or another period.

Universal types focus in itself the properties of people of all times and peoples. This type is synthetic because it manifests itself in an epochal and social type. This is a notion of multidimensional, independent of temporary or public relations and relations. Such qualities as, for example, love and hatred, generosity and greed, characterize people from the moment they are aware of themselves to our times, that is, these categories are permanent, but filling in the process of historical development in peculiar content. More accurately, these universal categories appear every time individually, so, Pushkin in a stingy knight, Gogol in Plushina, the Moliere in Tartiufea portrayed a type of a meager person, but each writer he found his incarnation.

By creating typical characters, the writer every time makes his trial over the pictured. His sentence may sound in various forms, for example, in the form of satire - direct ridicule, which we hear already in the title of the fairy tale of Saltykov-Shchedrin "Wild landowner"; Irony - hidden ridicule, when the direct content of the statement contradicts its inner meaning, for example, in the Basna of the "Fox and the Donkey" of Lisa says: "Outside clever You wander your head. " The verdict of the writer can be expressed in the form of pathetics, that is, an enthusiastic image of positive phenomena, for example, the beginning of the poem of Mayakovsky "Good":

I am a globe

I almost went around!

And life is good!

The nature of the author's assessment depends on the worldview of the artist and in some cases may be erroneous, which leads to errors in typing, as a result, atypical characters appear. Their main reasons: a shallow understanding of the writer's problem and the crisis of worldview, for example, in the 20s of the twentieth century, many writers portrayed the participation of children, adolescents in the Terrible events of the Civil War in the Heroic Adventure, Romantic Plan, and readers had the impression of the war as a chain Feats, beautiful actions, victories. For example, in the "Red Devollats" Peter Blyakhina adolescents make actions that are notepins for their age and life experience, that is, the writer's characters are created, but they are not typical. An important factor in the emergence of such characters is the crisis of worldview. Sometimes the writer lacks artistic skills, it usually happens with young, beginner writers, the first works of which remain in the discharge of students, for example, A.P. Gaidar wrote the first story "Days of defeats and victories," for which he received serious remarks of the editor: Splitness, unconvincing images. She was never printed, and the next story brought fame to the author.

It happens that the author did not find a full-fledged artistic form to express his life impressions and observations, for example, A.I. Kubrin wondered to write a big novel about the life of the military, for which he collected a large autobiographical material, but when working on it, he felt that he was sinking in this volume and his plan was not realized in the intended form of the novel. Kubrin appealed to the bitter, which advised him the story. The desired form was found and appeared "Duel".

Sometimes the writer just did not work sufficiently on the improvement of the created image.

In all these cases, the image contains or significantly less, or not at all what the author wanted to say. From the above, it follows that the type with the type is in the following ratio: the type is always an image, but the image is not always the type.

Working over the way, striving to embody the essential patterns of time, society and all people, the writer typoses a wide variety of phenomena in it:

· Mass. The fact of the wide distribution of one or another indicates its typicality for a certain group of people or society as a whole, therefore, literary types are most often created by a writer with a generalization of mass, for example, a type of small person in the literature of the XIX century;

· Rare single phenomena can be typed. Any new phenomenon at the time of birth is a few, but if it contains the prospect of further distribution, then such a phenomenon is typically, and drawing it, the writer predicts social development, for example, Gorky songs about falcon and the petrel was written until 1905, but they have become the symbols of the approaching events that soon acquired a wide range;

· A typical character of the artist can be portrayed even that summarizes exceptional features in it, for example, A. Tolstoy, in the image of Peter the first in the same name, recently recreated the typical properties of the sovereign and man, despite the fact that Peter I is a phenomenon is exceptional in history. In the recreation of this image, Tolstoy follows the Pushkin tradition, according to which Peter was endowed with the best qualities of his people. The exceptional in it is not quality, but their depth and collens in one person, which makes it an exception to the rules. So, the typing of an exceptional is a thickening in one form of a large number of positive and negative qualities, which highlights it from all. These qualities, as a rule, have prominent historical figures, brilliant people in different fields of science and art, political criminals;

· Typed in the image and phenomenon of negative order, thanks to which a person is developing the concept of negative. Examples include various negative deeds of children in the poem of Mayakovsky "What is good ...";

· Typification of a positive occurs when there is a direct exercise of the ideal and ideal characters are created.

So, typing is the law of art, and the literary type is the ultimate goal, to which every artist seeks. It is not by chance that the literary type is called the highest form of image.

When working on text, creating its artistic paintings, writers take material from life, but handle it differently. In accordance with this, in science on literature, two ways to create a literary type are distinguished.

1. Collective, when a writer, observing the different characters of people and stirring their common features, reflects them in the image (Don Quixote, Pechorin, Sherlock Holmes).

2. Prototype. A method of typing, in which the writer takes as a basis of a truly existing or existing person, in which the properties and qualities inherent in a certain group of people have manifested themselves particularly brightly, and on its basis creates its image. In this way, Nicholya Irtemyev, A. Peshkov, Alexey Meresyev, are depicted. Using the direct material to create an image, the artist does not just copy it, as well as, as in the first case, is subjected to processing, that is, discards insignificant and emphasizes the most characteristic or important. If in the case of a collective image path from the total to a specific one, then in the case of a prototype - from a specific one.

The difference in these two ways is that in the second case, the artist blends less, but the creative processing of life material and here is large, therefore the image is always richer than the prototype, that is, the writer thickens the crude life of life and brings its assessment.

Along with the methods of typing to create an image, artists use tipping or image creation tools. Main techniques 12.

Of course, this amount does not exhaust all the wealth and variety of artistic text poetics. Let us dwell on the characteristics of fixed assets:

1. Portrait characteristic - the taking of typing, in which the appearance of a person is described, for example, "rich, good by Lensky";

2. Commodity characteristic - Type of typing, consisting in the image of the situation, which a person surrounded himself, for example, the office of Onegin;

3. Biography - a taking of typing, which reveals the history of human life, its individual stages. As a rule, biography is introduced by writers to show how this human type was formed, for example, Chichikov's biography in the first volume of the "dead souls" was placed at the end, namely, the reader concludes how the type of entrepreneur was formed in Russia;

4. The manners and habits - the taking of typing, with which the stereotypical forms of human behavior are revealed, which were formed on the basis of the general rules (manners) and the unique features of the person (habit), for example, Gogol in the "Dead Souls" emphasizes the desire of the provincial ladies to resemble women Moscow and St. Petersburg: "Some lady will not say that this glass or this plate stinks, but they said" behave badly. " Example of habits We can lead, remembering your favorite Manil's lesson smoking the tube and the ashes to fold on the windowsill;

5. Behavior - acceptance of typing through which the artist shows actions, human actions.

A detachment of books by settling the shelf,

I read-read - and without anything;

6. The image of spiritual experiences is the taking of typing by which the writer shows that a person thinks at different moments: "Oh, I would be happy as a brother";

7. The attitude towards nature is the reception of typing, with which a direct assessment of a person of a natural phenomenon is given, for example:

I do not like spring,

In the spring I am sick;

8. The worldview is the reception of typing, with which the system of human views on nature, society and himself is revealed, for example, representatives of various beliefs - NiHist Bazarov and Liberal Kirsanov;

Sorry me, I love so much

Tatyana Mild Moy;

10. Specifying the surname - the reception of typing when a person is endowed with such a name, which indicates the most important, dominant feature of the individual, speaks for itself, for example, prostakova, cattle;

11. The performance characteristic - the taking of typing enclosing a set of lexico-phraseological, figurative, intonational properties of a person, for example, in the Basna of Krylova, Martyshki says the bear: "Look, Kum my dear, what is there for a face", - this speech Characteristic - explicit testimony of ignorance of martyrs;

12.The view of the action of the actions give an assessment to each other, for example, Magovyov speaks about Lisa: "Oh Potion Balovnica", and Lisa about Famowov: "Like all Moscow, your father would like the son-in-law with the stars yes with rank. "

Methods and Typification techniques make up the form or composition of the image. In order to analyze the image content, the writer puts it into a certain form, that is, it builds the image with the help of methods and methods of its characteristics. Since the content and form cannot be separated from each other, and the image is the main significant category of artistic text, the law of unity of content and form applies to all the work.

Bibliography:

1. BES. 2000. [Electronic resource] - Access mode. - URL: http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enc3p/293094, http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enc3p/293062
2. Efimov V.I., Talanov V.M. Universal Values \u200b\u200b[Electronic Resource] - Access Mode. - URL: http://razumru.ru/humanism/journal/49/yef_tal.htm (date of appeal 04/30/2013).
3. New philosophical encyclopedia: 4 tt. M.: Thought. Edited by V.S. Stupin. 2001 [Electronic resource] - Access mode. - URL: http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enc_philosophy/4882 (date of appeal 04/30/2013).
4. Black N.I. Realistic convention in modern Soviet prose. Kiev: Sciences Dumka, 1979. - 192 p.

Appeal to the folk hero and the gradual transformation of this hero in the main face of the literature is rooted in those processes that began in the 40s. At this time, the study of society through its types, through representatives of all social media, in their combination of its living structure, has become a slogan of young realistic literature, "genuine school".

At the beginning of the development of the "Natural School", the peasant and the "small person" - a poor official, a socially and politically depressed representative of the urban bases - performed in the literature only as types characterizing the device of society and its functions facing a person.

In the literature of "Natural School" the estate of the hero, his professional belonging and public function, which he performs, resolutely prevailed over the individual character. After all, the imperference of the hero was determined by relations that dominate in society, and the type was interested in writers as a common expression in private. Thus, the hero became an official, a janitor, a shamanist, a bullshnik and lost his personal traits. Even if he was given a name, it was a tribute to the literary tradition or the expression of the hero's stereotype - an ordinary carrier of socio-typical traits that did not perceive as an individuality.

At the same time, the lining of this objective and as it were, the scientific description of the Company in the literature of the 40s was deep dissatisfaction with modern social orders, the ideal of universal fraternity and a historical injury to social injustice.

The person was further outlined by Satirically as a social mask, although the writer was imbued with the desire to protect a person from the tyranny medium, to revive, awaken the person in it. This was an approach to the type and its literary and public value in advanced fiction of the early 40s. This feature of typing in the works of the genuine school of the first half of the 40s and gave the reason to Samarina, speaking in 1847 with a critical article "On the views of the contemporary" of historical and literary ", blame the writers of this direction in the fact that they did not find" no Sympathy to the people "that in their works Folk types are also impersonal as representatives of higher estates. The genuine school does not give individual personalities at all, "these are all types, that is, the names of their own with the patronymic names: Agraphen Petrovna, Maur of Terentievna, Anton Nikiforovich, and all with a swimming eyes and squeezed cheeks," said Samarin.

Samarin caught, although exaggerated, some weaknesses of the fiction of the genuine school of the beginning of the 40s. The accusations of the essay sacrifices, in a schematic, and sometimes standard interpretation of the method of social typiization had well-known foundations. However, the critic was decisively not right in the most important points of its analysis. Seeing the activities of the natural school, the submission of art politics, public "questions", thus the beginning of a rapid invasion of political interests in the literature (here it is impossible to refuse him in insights), Samaria has incriminated to the natural school slander on reality, outlining of modern society, refusing it to "free ", An objective approach to life and in sympathy to the people. It was distinguished by the very essence of the literary direction.

The inevitability for each member of the "typical" path, typical tragedies, the transformation of the social oppression in the rock, depriving a person of the natural right to live, develop and act according to nature, deformation even in nature itself, the natural desires themselves - this is what the dramatic collisions of the enemy of the natural school and expressed Environmental sympathy to oppressed classes. No less than Paphos denial, a genuine school was inherent in pathos study, research. Artistic typisation Writers of this direction approached the methods of scientific systematization. In this sense, they sought to accurate descriptions, reproducing facts, to introduce new materials into the literature, expanding the information of the reader about modern life and the range of literary generalizations. Protecting the Writers of the Natural School, in particular Grigorovich, from the attacks of Samarin, Belinsky referred to the data of statistical studies and thus the truthfulness and objectivity of literature likened scientific accuracy, and the typical - statistically established prevalence. Of course, we should not forget that he did it in response to the accusations of slander on reality. The convergence of the method of typing with the scientific methodology of statistics was possible with respect to the physiological essay of the 40s by the one of another, very significant features.

Writers of this direction for the first time looked at society with the "quantitative" party. Considering a person as a representative of a certain social group, they did not indifferently relate to this, great or small, this group, numerous "appearance" or "discharge" of humanity makes it. It was significantly important for them that most of the humanity suffering, oppressed and disadvantaged, which "Little Man", each habit of which, every gesture, every desire corresponds to the same properties of other representatives of his group, - carrier of mass traits, man "crowd " In the literature of the 40s for the first time became the hero of the team, the crowd. This feature of physiological essays was associated with essential shifts in the psychology of thinkers and era figures, in their self-consciousness and approach to reality and had a significant impact on the development of realistic literature. The share of each ordinary person "Crowd" is given so much moral strength, energy and initiatives, how much society allows these qualities in every unit of a multi-dimensional team of people of the lower class.

In the "literary memories" D. V. Grigorovich, there is one episode in which the impulses that prompted young realist writers to go beyond this essay typing and look for new ways of the image and summarizing the image of the reality and generalization of its phenomena. Having finished his essay "Petersburg Harbor", where the shabbers were characterized by "discharges", in accordance with the "capital", which they invest in their microscopic "enterprise", and where individual representatives were not allocated at all from their environment, their "shop", Grigorovich, at that time, who made the first steps in the literature and collaborated in Nekrasov's almanachas, read his essay as young as he himself, Dostoevsky. "He, apparently, remained satisfied with my essay ... He did not like only one expression ... - recalled Grigorovich later. - I was written like this: when the Charmana stops playing, the official from the window throws a pile, which falls to the feet of the flore. "Not that, not that, - suddenly spoke to the Dostoevsky spokenly, - not at all! You get too dry: Pyatk fell to the legs ... I had to say: Pile fell on the bridge, linking and bouncing ... ". Note it - I remember very well - it was for me a whole revelation. Yes, really: links and bouncing comes out much more painfully, telesses the movement. The artistic feeling was in my nature; Expression: Pyatk fell not just, and linking and bouncing, - these two words are pretty for me to understand the difference between the dry expression and alive, artistic and literary reception. "

This case is not more pronounced that there are no "artistic techniques" that do not carry the semantic and ideological load. It is easy to note that the fall of the Patch in the original text of Grigorovich was depicted by a man looking out of the window, Dostoevsky saw him if he was not through the eyes of a sharperman, then in any case, as it were, from the crowd surrounding it, and the most attention to falling the patch and his ringing A copper coin of the poor man who perceives this fall as a significant, worthy of closer interest. The "irritated" words of Dostoevsky "Not that, not that, not at all," they were not at the absence of literary admission to the sketch, but to the well-known dryness of the author's attitude towards the experiences of his Heroes-poor. This subconsciously irritated perception of Dostoevsky image of a person in the essays of a genuine school. Soon quite a conscious expression in the novel "Poor people", where he was the mouth of his hero Makara Girl expressed the insult that the disadvantaged people who were faded, favorite Heroes of essays, to humane writers describing , studying them as an object, without respect for their vane and vulnerable soul, without trembling in front of their suffering.

The new look of Dostoevsky on the principles of the image of "poor people" was historically natural. He struck contemporaries, but he was immediately perceived by young realists as a position close to them, and in a few years Grigorovich, developing completely independently and organically, wrote a "village" and "Anton-Gorryku", in which Tolstoy watched the image of the Russian man "in full growth , not only with love, but with respect and even trepidation " (66, 409).

In the titles of the Natural School in the second half of the 40s, the new literary type was finally formed, which was destined to become one of the fundamental types of Russian literature, pass through a significant number of works of Russian realists, modify, test the polemical strikes, survive critical analysis. This is the type of "little man", which can be put in one row with world superdipates.

We call such a literary type with superlum, since, having arisated in the work of one writer, in one of his work, he then subordinates for some time the thoughts of the writers of a whole generation, "moved" from the work into a work, changing their individual traits, some details of their Fate and Regulations, but keeping the general meaning of its characteristics. One thing that afterwards for decades, referring to the image of a person crushed by poverty and the social oppression of a person, writers invariably repelled from this created by Gogol in "Sineli" and developed by the natural school type, speaks of the proximity of the form of his literary existence to the specific function that carry Some world types in the history of art, especially in the literature.

Thus, abandoning the "strong", "personal" heroes created by the preceding literary development and genetically, and in part and ideally connected with pan-European processes, proclaiming the fundamental equality of all people - as carriers of social traits, how to generate a medium - before the court of a writer who studies Social morals, genuine schools nominated their super thump, their hero, who mastered the minds and began a framework on the pages of books and on the epochs. This hero has become an anti-grantic, antidlemonic ordinary person. But he became not before in his image, all the pathos protest, humanism and the protection of personal rights, which was introduced by the creative genius of mankind before the image of Hamlet, Don Quixote, Faust, Childe Harold, Chatsky, Onegin, Pechorin . From the first, instinctive exclamation of Dostoevsky: "Not that, not that", and his advice, take a look at the falling coin with the eyes of passionately waiting for her deterioral to a straight path leads to the era of the domination of a "little man" in literature, reinforced interest in the personality of the poor official, and then Peasant. If at the beginning of the 40s, not without some reason was accused of neglecting individuality, personality and in a single satiritic approach to all classes of society, then at the beginning of the 50s A. Grigoriev, one of the main "vices" of this literary direction considered Already the writers have taken on the expression of the "petty claims" of the heroes of "silent angles", erected "to the degree of law" their demands and imbued with them "exclusive, painful sympathy". No longer the lack of individuality of the hero, and the excess of it was imputed to the guilt of the writer.

The chapter of this current A. Grigoriev proclaims Dostoevsky, but immediately mentions I. S. Turgenev, calling it "Gradovyatnaya author" Hunter's notes "" and stating that he only "gave tribute to" the painful direction of the genuine school in the "bachelor".

However, between the method of generalization, the typing of a small person in the works of a genuine school and the image of the people in the "Notes of the Hunter" there is organic relationship. The first essay "Hunter's notes", in which, as in the grain, contained the most important ideas, and then in the book, draws two characters, two peasants, outlined very precisely, socially and ethnographically accurately and at the same time representing the main types of humanity.

In the sketch "Chorine and Kalinich", all the challenges were solved, which set the authors of physiological essays in front of them. Here, both the exact descriptions of the mistake of the life and appearance of heroes, so characteristic of the physiological essay; The heroes were drawn as representatives of their estate - a serf peasantry, and it was and remained the main content of the essay. However, the writer went beyond this content. Heroes turned out to be not impersonal carriers of the medium, but with bright individuals capable of submitting all the people in its highest features. It is fundamentally important that at the same time they remain "small people", ordinary peasants separating the fate of all fortress people. The essay opens a typical "physiological" comparison of the peasants of the Orlovskaya and Kaluga province, but not this ethnographic comparison, and the connection and opposition of two main psychological types of creative natur is made by the scene of the essay. Internal proximity and the deep inner difference between the principle of such opposition from Gogol in the "Tale of how Ivan Ivanovich and Ivan Nikiforovich were quarreled and in the essay of Turgenev. Gogol does not get tired of changing the opposite of his heroes. This opposite of grotesque is expressed even in their appearance, but the comparison reveals the imaginaryness of their differences. Essentially in the human, moral sense, as in the social, they are the same, they are variants of the same type, not only similar, but entirely coinciding identical. The heroes of Turgenev - Personality, the names are not only not similar, but formed grammatically according to a different principle (a chorine is a figurative comparison that has become a nickname, Kalinich - patronymic that has become name). Representing indigenous opposite types, they together (gentle friendship binds them) make up the unity that the name is humanity. In a physiological essay about the peasants, Turgenev found a new typological principle, outlined the characters that were destined to compile the inner rod of many great psychological images of novels of the 60s. These are the types of thinker-skeptic, capable of operating in the practical sphere, but disappointed and looking through a stern person experience, and an eternal child, a poet of a prophet, direct close to nature.

From the very beginning, the story of the heroes, without breaking down from concreteness, the writer eases their characters into a high, international rank. He emphasizes that his heroes are the serfs of the landlord of semi-kin, and gives them to Mr. Characteristic is quite in the spirit of satirical "physiological" portraits. It is known that in general, through the book "Notes of the Hunter", there is opposition to Russia by the landlord and Russia of the peasant, but in the essay "Horing and Kalinich", as in some other essays, it is only an external, first shell; The world of people is so raised over the world of Lords, that, in social and living on a single society with him, serfs, painted as the core and the root of the country's life. In relation to the strength and significance of the characters depicted in the "Hunter Notes", the peasant and the barin cannot be measured by one scale. The semi-cynical landowner is not correlated with no horses, nor from Kalina. As the characters in the story are compared with each other, the choir and Kalinich are two peasants. At the same time, the writer is needed to go beyond the world and find the scale to evaluate its heroes. This scale is the highest images stored by mankind as ideals. "An old man was met on the threshold of the hut, a bald, low growth, a shoulder and tight - the chorny himself ... The warehouse of his face reminded Socrates: the same high, bold forehead, the same small eyes, the same smoke nose" (IV, 12) - Thus, the writer "represents" the Horrel, and the usual appearance in physiological essay becomes a means of elevation of the hero, including it in a number of characters worthy of humanity. Such an approach to peasant heroes was carried out through the entire essay. In his journal text, the comparative characteristic of two men naturally ended with the likelihood: "In a word, the chorine was more on Goethe, Kalinich more on Schiller" (IV, 394). This at the beginning of the "signal" of a high poetic structure, which includes the narrative of peasants, "the comparison of the Horing with Socrates - seemed to the writer with a sufficient charter, especially since the sketch was kept another episode that reminded the reader about the" scale "character of the character of the hero. In the "choir and Kalinic", as then and throughout the book "Notes of the Hunter", the peasant acts as a representative of the nation, its highest features, embodiments of a national nature. "The chorine was a positive man, practical, administrative head, rationalist" (IV, 14), "the author says and on the basis of observations on the character of the peasant comes to the conclusion:" I made one conviction from our conversations. . What Peter the Great was most advantage of the Russian man, Russian in his transformations. Russian people are so confident in his strength and fortress that he is not off and breaking herself: he is doing a little engaged in his past and boldly looks forward "(IV, 18). Thus, again there is a comparison of Horing with a great man, which has become a legend. The peasant is his personality, individually inherent in the features not only reminds Peter, but also serves as an excuse of his activities, testifies to its historical fruitfulness.

Kalinych is drawn without the help of such comparisons, but this is the character of "pair" Kore, opposing him in his psychological warehouse, but equal to scale and component of organic unity with him. Having stressed the comparison of Kalinich with Schiller, the writer, as it were, opened the promotion of independent readership associations, and in the imagination of the reader configured to the elevated way, the analogies arise - the human-ethical images from the legends, ancient parables, living literature. The idealist Kalinich appears the hunter-poet on the peasant and landlord Russia surrounded by the comfort of clean and poor, like a cella, huts hung with beams of healing herbs, he will like a pendant with a key water and feed with honey. Kalinych comes to a friend - a church - with a bundle of field strawberries, like a nature ambassador, and nature, recognizing his relationship with him, gives him a mysterious power: he speaks blood and illness, the people pause and soothes animals, "he has no mercy." Love and peace come to the house. Poor, having anything and not baked about the benefits of earth, he can give a well-being of the rich: "The church asked him to introduce a new horse in the stable, and Kalinich with good importance performed the request of the old skeptic. Kalinich stood closer to nature; Heart - to people, to society ... "(IV, 15).

Kalina is endowed with kindness, "favor" and gifted the ability to believe. Turgenev emphasizes this feature: "Kalinich did not like to reason and believed everything blindly." This feature of a folk hero will subsequently fall into the basis of the images of idealists, Dongeneyev's images, and at the same time will force the writer to deepen in the problem of people's "hobbies" of the prophets, the origins of the ability of poetically enthusiastic natures from the people valuably comply with the suggestions of someone else's will. Kalinych, unlike the Khoria, who "was seeing" the Barin, idealizes the landowner, loves and respects him.

The choir "rises" to an "ironic point of view on life," but he recognizes that impractical Kalinich owns some kind of secret. Thus, Vera Kalinica puts the limit of skepticism of the Horrel. One of the signs of "mystery" Kalinich, his kinship with the elements, with nature, with eternal is his vagrancy. Distinguishing in the peasant world of skeptics, practically thinking and prone to analysis, and poets capable of unlimited hobbies and blind faith, Turgenev divides this world also on the "wanders" and "Domostedov". The image of Russia, a century-old destroyed, attached to the Earth, accepted by the audit fairy tales and the doomed legislative measures to live motionless, Turgenev at the same time draws a continuing movement, convection occurring in the folk masses.

He sees historically emerged new forms of life and activity of the folk medium. The Big Peasants of the Non-Black Gubniy, released on the lifts, go to the cities, the most involuntary of them are made by pedestals, and then buy a canvas from the same brother-peasant, abyssing him, or are waiting for their hour to "go to merchants" ("Strength yard "). These processes, very important for the historical life of the predhormerary Russia, also noted Grigorovich and, by portraying them in their "peasant" ones and novels ("Village", "Anton-Gorryka", "four years of the year", "Fishermen"), interpreted They are as one of the main evils of the modern village. However, in the "Notes of the Hunter", Turgenev is mainly interested in the movement, and the eternal movement, without which there is no most somewhere and patriarchal life. Such a movement is carried out only with certain, vested with the special character of the people and is associated with "secret", underlying, unknown, and may be incomprehensible, as it seems in this stage, Turgenev, processes occurring in the folk thicker.

Turgenev has created a whole gallery of the images of people from the people, which are surrounded by an environment that is firmly connected by a modern relationship system (serfdom) lives as if from it. These are seekers, tramps, travelers (Kalinich, Steakhm, Kasyan, etc.). They are expressive to the dreams of the masses, her poetic consciousness. In the "Notes of the Hunter", Turgenev still does not yet consider the people as a carrier of an original worldview. However, his attention to "special people" from the people, to "strange people" anticipated that interest in folk ideological searches and to the forms of worldview of the masses, which fully manifested itself in the literature of the 60s and amounted to one of its characteristic signs.

The image of the people in the "Hunter's Notes" was not only a step forward towards Russian literature of the 40s, but also opened a new page in European literature.

The property of the mystery of Turgenev attached not only to the poetic, strange character of a person from the people, but also the peasantry as a whole. Not spreading the idea of \u200b\u200bunrecognizability in the Russian national character (cf. The later theory of the mysteriousness of the Slavic soul), Turgenev at the same time permeates its image of the people with the feeling of the enormous content and mystery of the spiritual world of a simple person who finds an expression in the diversity of folk characters and "surprise" their manifestations. A hunter who comes into the life of the village, at every step makes amazing discoveries, any of his collision with men leaves the feeling that he got in touch with the secret, could not answer the question before which it turned out, did not understand the motives that these people were driven. So, in a detailed way, in the story of "Yermolai and Melnichikha", the necnet of the carefree and good-natured Yermolay, the supervisory "hunter" suddenly notices unexpected outbreaks of demonism in it, manifestations of some kind of sinryness. As bird flights, inexplicable and mysterious, sudden transitions from the village to the village of this at first glance is a prose man. In the story of "Malinovaya Water", two courtyard people and a random passage of a peasant half an hour spent at the source with the poetic name in the author's society. How are their simple, household conversations, as the original characters! One of them, several young ray devices, creates the image of his old Barina Graph, and the words of the spreeside of the Barsroom nests rises, the crazy luxury and cruel arbitrariness of the XVIII century. The feeling that his memory is full of secrets of the past era, the secrets only and persistent with such old servants, forces the young hunter to direct the "fog" (so nunted this yard) on stories about Starne. The halo of mysteriousness is also having an innocent figure of Steakhki, all the time engaged in worries about feeding, and a man of Vlas, who, telling about his grief - the death of his son and a hopeless position, in which the whole family turned out to be losing the main miner, - hoped imposes that the owner -Graf nothing else can not take anything. Delicately hiding from the listeners their despair, Vlas laughs.

The "Hunter's Notes" in the image of the people was a significant step forward in relation to not only the "dead souls" of Gogol, but even to his "sinels". If the "Sineli" is a poor official - "Little Man" - called "brother" of a thinking and socially more prosperous person and in the fantastic ending, he turned out to be a general chinel on his shoulder, that is, in its essence, on human data he It turned out to be equal to General, then in Turgenev gentlemen Semikin, Count Valerian Petrovich, Pochochnu, the Horrel and Kalinic Army, Yermolya or Biryuk, Kasyan, and Yashi-Turk. Through the entire book, there is a motive of misunderstanding with the bars of the peasants. At the same time, the "notes of the hunter" constantly sound the authoritative feedback from the peasants about a particular landowner, about the burmist, assessing the moral essence of the behavior of people, reasoning about Russian life and about the life of other peoples. The author refers to the opinion of the peasants as a decisive argument in favor of any point of view and, wanting to give its judgment a greater weight, reinforces him heard from the mouth of the men by the sentence.

In this regard, the position of Turgenev in his stories of the late 40s - early 50s is sharply different from the position of Grigorovich. The entire pathos of the first peasant ages of Grigorovich in that and consisted that the peasant, being in his ability to feel, in his thirst for happiness and for all spiritual qualities an equal landlord, turns out to be at the situation of the dysfunctional, drunk, intimidated and falling from the abnormal work of the animal. Of course, in Grigorovich, the peasant was depicted with a sympathy, and his persecutor, whether she was a landowner, a manager or a miller-fist, - with antipathy, but also a peasant and a landowner represented their position in his own positions. The main thing in the characteristic and shark ("village") and Anton ("Anton-Gormanka") was the persecurity of the hero, his meekness, which was functionally important, which confirmed the unjustiness of the cruel treatment with it. The suffering of the peasant is a direct consequence of its fortress state. The ruin, torment and death of Anton, the whole blatant injustice that fell on it, there is an image of serfdom.

The folk heroes of Turgenev are carriers of the best features of a national character. In them, as a writer shows, you can find the key to the most important universal problems, and they are set in the position of "property" of one or another, mostly insignificant, stupid and vulgar barina. Every time in the text of the writer there are phrases like: "Yermolay belonged to one of my neighbors ..." - it is striking the reader, it's striking not because the hero of the story is insulting and blowing, although the manifestations of social injustice, arbitrariness, violence in the book A lot is shown, but by inconsistency in the image of the image of the hero with the fact of its "affiliation" to the owner, its existence on the position of the thing. The figures of the peasants shown by Turgenev in all complex wealth and in all the inexhaustibility of human personality opportunities, acting as representatives of the nation with the whole mysteriousness of its coming fate, the most creativeness and the most tone of their image were much eloquently arguing Flame journalistic tirades or violence paintings.

In the peings of the 40-50s of Turgenev, the Assoles of Mystery from the inner world of the intellectual hero, the infinite complexity of which was approved by Lermontov, he admired it to the scale of a provincial small person, whose claims are endless. At the same time, he gave the mystery to the peasant who was postponed in the literature as a "little man." By continuing in their novels, Lermontov's case, exposed to the internal world of intellectual, at the same time showed the inner wealth of the spiritual world of a simple person. But this last he portrayed synthetically, without penetrating his psychological "mechanism". The peasant, as well as nature, appeared Turgenev as a strength determining the life of the country, the forces of both the most beautiful, but solid and non-analyzing.

In this regard, Turgenev to the peasantry affected the peculiarity of the personality of the writer. All intimately close and to the end understandable to him quickly lost his power over him, and he, easily alienated from such phenomena and characters, exposed them to a strict, impartial court, and often painted satirically. It so happened that Turgenev, who wrote a poetic confession to the imitation of Lermontov and frankly believed in this confession to the category of "extra people," in this confession, became the first intelligence of this category of the thinking intelligentsia and did it in the "Hunter's Notes." It belongs to him without sympathy written by the images of "weak" people who can obey the will of the "demonic woman" ("Wound Waters") and not able to assess the importance and necessity of life risk ("Asya"), an artist for whom art is a major vitality (" On the eve of "), and the carrier of the traditions of noble culture, its ethical covenants, her understanding of the spiritual secret (Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov in the" fathers and children "). At the same time, they are particularly lyricly written by Turgenev and the greatest sympathy of sheaves in his works. Socoo and psychologically more distant from the author Images: Diemocrat-Democrat, materialist and supporter of "positive knowledge" (bazaars), dreamy girls walking on a feud , peasants.

In the "Hunter's Notes", the focus of the poetic line of the book (there is a book and a satirical line that is no less significant in it) is the story of "Bezhin Mead". Here the author- "Hunter" is surrounded by the mysterious nightlife living his own, independent of him, man, life.

The society in which he was doubly alien to him. "Hunter" surround the peasants for whom he is someone else's Barin, and these peasants are children who are alien to him as an adult. The narrator acutely feels his alphabia and from nature, and from the people with whom he came down with a warm night under a mysterious summer sky. Everything that the other could cause a feeling of loneliness and longing, Turgenev-Lyrics excites the thirst for mergers with others, the love of his loved on him, the desire to unite with the union. The "hunter" with an excitement listens to the conversations of peasant boys, put in the legends that they tell, and sensitively perceiving the poetry of the situation and conversations. The inability to join the naive faith in the wonderful participants of the conversation does not lead it. To the complete denial of what he listens. Transferring the undisputed conversation of peasant children, the primitive simplicity of frightening them will take and believes, the writer states that the mysterious incident of the night, interpreted by the boys as a gloomy prophecy, has indeed preceded the death of one of them. Staying the skeptic, completely alien to the ancient semi-speaking superstitions of peasant children, he admits that in some kind of system of views of their faith can be rational.

In the story of "Mum" Turgenev creates an epic image of a serf peasant - Gerasima. The hero is depicted as the identity of exceptional spiritual integrity, endowed with the features of the perfect human nature: physical power, kindness, spirit, moral purity, the ability to find joy in labor. Gerasim can be considered a model of a popular hero in Turgenev and, due to the fact that the property of a famous mysteriousness, which the writer attached to the peasants in his stories and the onasses, is expressed in it the most clearly. He deaflyon, and this physical drawback is symbolic. The inner world of this hero is closed to others, and its actions seem mysterious. He does everything as if "suddenly." The logic of his motives remains a mystery and can only guess. Suddenly, for those around him hesitated with love for a scored, unremarkable girl, then to the dog and, forced to give up both of these attachments, makes it sharply, decisively and cruel. Also, suddenly, and decisively, his full and meek sufferment of the lady is replaced by "Bunlet", refusal to obedience, care.

We noted above that Turgenev expressed in the "notes of the hunter", he expressed an idea of \u200b\u200bthe people as "psychray" of the nation's life. However, the peasants in his stories never go beyond the narrow sphere of personal being. Horie's mind, his ability to criticism, his revolutionary rationalism leads only to the fact that the old man succeeds in creating a relative well-being, very shaky, as it is based on the fact that "Barin", conscious that it is not in his benefit to break the peasant Tossting Horing, gives him to rise. Even to pay off at the will, the chorine does not want, realizing that under the serfdom and under the modern administration, attempted, he remains powerless and, not acquiring genuine independence, is deprived of the protection of the Barin, which from its own benefit is able to enhance it to officials.

Thus, the "Hunter's Notes" - a book about the people and its enormous opportunities - are at the same time the narrative about the unfulfilled hopes of ruined forces. In this regard, Turgenev, according to his own recognition, in the story "The Strength Dvor" "took a step forward" after the "notes of the hunter" and "Muum" (letters, II, 97).

And in "Muuma", and in the "Convent" two worlds are opposed to each other - the world of the peasant and "society" of landowners. In both poses, the hero is the peasant responds to the arbitrarian of the landowner. However, the difference, and significant, between the two works is that the care of AKIM is associated with certain moral views that make a religious form. The presence of a kind of "theoretical" at the hero of a fundamental response to the evil of life and its "intractable" questions is the most important feature that foreshadows new interpretations of the folk theme in the 60s.

The other side of these new interpretations anticipates Roman D. V. Grigorovich "Fishermen". Grigorovich, who wrote this novel after the appearance of most stories "Notes of the Hunter", made an attempt to create an epically large image of a folk hero in the face of Gleb. The positive contribution of Grigorovich to Russian literature A. I. Herzen believed that his novel was deprived of a idyllic laid that he realisticly paints the harsh life of the people and creates at the same time the ideal embodiment of a strong folk nature, which established in the conditions of community ownership to land, a representative "Cyclopeic races of peasants-fishermen "(XIII, 180). Herzen attached particular importance to the fact that "Roman" Fishermen "brings us to the beginning of the inevitable struggle (struggle of evolutionary) between the" peasant "and the" urban "element, between the churchyard-blade and a peasant-factory worker" (XIII, 178).

Grigorovich one of the first noticed in the 40s and reflected in his titles the penetration of bourgeois relations into the fortress village, the beginning of the prolealization of the village, its bundle. True, Turgenev finished the story of "Burmister" with authoritative, as always for him, judgments of peasants that the village of Pammy's landowner only belongs to Barina, in fact cases are the undivided patrol burmard of the Sofron - local fist. In the "inn of the courtyard", Turgenev also opposed the lantern at once, two folk character - the good owner of Akim, who diluted with a mixture, calamity and patience, and cynical, predatory Naum, who lives like a wolf. Turgenev convincingly shows that the serfdom is not a hindrance for such Deltsov, like Naum, but always drawn against the labor peasant and condes the power of his punitive mechanism on an honest person, respected by the folk medium. Thus, Turgenev, as it were, "split" the People's World, presenting different ethical and psychological types belonging to the peasantry environment.

In "Fishermen" Grigorovich People's World as a single moral patriarchal environment merge and embodied in the image of Savinich Gleb. In the "Convent" Turgenev, the reservation of people from the folk medium was largely determined by the influence of serfdom, Grigorovich is completely distracted from the existence of serfdom. It depicts the life of the fishermen free from the fortress dependence and puts the task in the epic web of the people's novel show those processes that occur in the folk medium as such. He draws drama of the usual flow of the daily life of the people - labor, the fight against nature. The problem of the struggle for the existence that has become the most important in the literature of "National Realism" in the 60s, Grigorovich pays great attention. With peasant labor, with his traditional features, the writer binds patriarchal forms of life and family.

It seems to him that, just like the eternal and unchanged epic of the struggle of a peasant with nature and communication with her, as eternal and increditly valuable, the work experience gained by generations of peasants, so the unharmed form of family life of the people and the harsh relationship created by it, without the preservation of which it is impossible to continue Eternal "relationships" of man with nature. The history of the family and the fate of the patriarchal forms of the people of the people - that's what puts the basis of the construction of his novel D. V. Grigorovich, that's what it seems to him with the problematics worthy to draw up the basis of the novel from the people's life. As a force, increasing patriarchal-family relations, in the novel acts "disorder" of the younger generation, which is not clear the highest moral and practical meaning of the authority of the elders, as well as the decomposing influence of the city, the factory. The writer as it may forget that he himself observed back in the 40s and showed the process of penetrating the fist - merchant and the buyer in the top of this time. Now, the main source of influence of comprehension and immoralism on the peasantry, he considers the factory activating the evil will of the "restless" natur. Grigorovich finds two mutually polar types in the folk medium: meek and predatory. Both of these character are organically inherent in it, although the meek nature, carrier, the beginning of family, creation, labor and devotion to the earth, is the root and main folk type. If Gleb Savinich embodies the unity of the patriarchal life, the historically established common features of the peasant, then many of the heroes of the novel express the antagonism of the forces of creation and destruction within the patriarchal world; Their characteristic is given by mutual comparison and opposition, and the plot of the novel is based on their collisions. The identification of two antagonistic types in the folk medium was the basis of the narrative in the novel of Grigorovich "Fishermen". Such a method of image of the People's Characters, Grigorovich applied here for the first time; Subsequently, he received widespread both in works, drawing folk life and in theoretical and critical articles. Of great importance for the formation and formation of literature depicting people, and the attempt of Grigorovich consider the history of the peasant family in time, to see the conflicts inherent in the folk medium in its original, free from the impact of serfdom of development.

At the same time, the perception of Grigorovich the peasant life as the life of the patriarchal and the nomination of the patriarchal peasant as the main character of the literature, drawing people, influenced the attitude of criticism of the People's Roman. Based mainly on the experience of Turgenev and Grigorovich, P. V. Annenkov in the article "On the number of novels and stories from common life" (1854) argued that novels and a story from the people's life is a genre that is not destined to develop and progress. He believed that Turgenev and Grigorovich were mainly exhausted by the possibility of this genre, since the patriarchal peasant is a solid, non-psychological analysis - cannot give material sufficient to deploy that wide and multifaceted narration, which corresponds to the modern stage of the development of a large genre in literature. .

Thus, Annenkov agreed with Grigorovich in the fact that the hero of modern literature depicting the people should be primarily a patriarchal peasant, and did not share the views of Turgenev on the secret, which lies behind the external integrity and the peasant personality impermeability. P. V. Annenkov did not satisfy some parties to the Turgenev approach to the image of the people in the "Hunter's Notes". In the mid-50s, together with the revival of public life, revived and again acquired a huge literary value of the essay, it would seem impossible with the story from literature. He again became an instrument of the study of society and one of the literary forms of the image of the people. P. V. Annenkov not only drew attention to the new essay, but gave him a special meaning, opposing, with a positive sign, an essay manner of the image of the "lyrical" manner of Grigorovich and Turgenev.

He immediately noted the emergence and strengthening of a new "essay school", calling her "School of Dala" and referring to her P. I. Melnikov-Pechersk. In a letter, Turgenev in January 1853, he made it clear that the features of creativity writers- "documentalists" - knowledge of people's life in all its details, the ethnographic accuracy of the descriptions and the emotional restraint of the author - more correspond to the plots from the modern life of the peasantry than the lyrical style of Turgenev.

In this letter to Turgenev, P. V. Annenkov anticipated some thoughts of the Chernyshevsky article "Do not be changed?", Written as a whole with completely different positions. Indeed, if the lyric-poetic style of the image of the people - the style of Turgenev and Grigorovich - did not lose its meaning in the 60s, then the need for a different approach to folk life and its conflict soon gave rise to a powerful literary movement, which imposed a print on the development of Russian art of the subsequent Period. A sign of the beginning of the formation of a new stage of realistic literature Chernyshevsky considered the appearance of a collection of works by N. Uspensky, in which the contrary manner of the image of reality prevailed.

The essay became not only the central phenomenon of the artistic prose of the 60-70s, but largely opposed himself to the psychological and philosophical story and the novel. The very fact of his huge success of the reader and his influence on the literature, he as if he had questioned the unconditionalness of the primary literary meanings of the psychological and philosophical story, as well as a storylive story from the life of the noble intelligentsia. The problem of an essay and essay, based on the material of the real reality of a story from the national life stood as one of the main in front of contemporaries, comprehended by the patterns of development of the literary process in the second half of the XIX century.

For Lion Tolstoy - one of the most active creators of psychological and philosophical ages and novels - the understanding of the value of the folk start in the life of society and the artistic embodiment of the folk topics were the basis of worldview and creativity. However, as a theorist, reflecting on the laws of contemporary art and criticizing its samples, he did not escape the opposition of two flows of literature and two approaches to the image of life, which merged in his writing practice. Polymiting with the statement of Goncharova, hearded by him undoubtedly in the 50s-60s and in its theoretical part of the verbatious provisions of Article P. V. Annenkov "On the occasion of novels and stories from a common life," Tolstoy wrote: "I remember how the Writer Goncharov, Smart, educated, but completely urban man, aesthetic, told me that from a folk life after the "notes of the hunter" Turgenev has nothing to write. All exhausted. The life of the worker people seemed so simple that after the popular stories Turgenev, there was nothing to describe there ... and the opinion is that the life of the working people is poor in content, and our life, idle people, is full of interest, shared by many people of our circle " (30, 86-87). Himself Tolstoy in the "Sevastopol stories" made his hero and the people, and the truth of the narration about him. Essaying the authenticity of the facts depicted in the "Sevastopol stories" and characteristic of the essay genre, the introduction into the literature of new displays of vital material was combined in this book of Tolstoy with psychologism, the clarity of the plot-composite organization and the attention of the fate of individual, mutually opposed heroes. These last features of the work relate to him with the story, and it is because of the artistic features of "Sevastopol stories", they can be considered the first approach of the writer not only to the most important historical and philosophical problems, but also to the literary tasks that he then allowed in the novel "War and Peace "

"Sevastopol stories", in genre attitudes close and to the essay and to the story, carried the imprint of the "stories of eyewitnesses", noting false and inaccurate reports of Sevastopol defense and transmitting their immediate observations. In this cycle, the total trend of the development of genres in the literature of the middle of the XIX century was manifested in the limits of one writer in the literature: Evolution from the essay to the story, from the story to the story (or the cycle of stories and essays) and then - from the age frame or cycle - to the novel, which He led to the flourishing of the genre of the novel in the 50s and 1960s. It should be noted, however, it should be noted that, starting to his big romance, the thickness itself was not completely free from the influence of the point of view formulated by Annenkov.

In one of the draft editions of the text of the "War and Peace", Tolstoy argued that "the life of merchants, kucher, seminarians, convicts and men" seems to him "monotonous, boring", and all their actions arising from the same springs: envy to Higher estates, korestolobia and material passions " (13, 239). Tolstoy cast in this reasoning the challenge to all democratic tendencies of literature of the 60s. It is enough to remember that the life of the merchants was one of the main objects of the image in the creativity of the island, that Kucher was a hero of the story of the Muma Turgenev, and the peasant stories from the "Notes of the Hunter" and the story and the novels of Grigorovich, painting the people's life, were recognized as classic at this time. . If Tolstoy claimed: "I can't understand in any way ... What thinks the seminarist when he is in the hundredth time to enter the rogues" (13, 239), - then the pomoalovsky in the "essays" just shows what it thinks in such circumstances a child, a doomed to be a seminarist. If Tolstoy finds the life of the convicts "monotonous, boring", and the impulses of their exclusively low, then Dostoevsky in the "Notes from the Dead House" showed how substantially not boring, and the terrible life of the KORGI and how diverse the types of people who were in this terrible place as various types of people Their characters and contradictions of their feelings are complex.

Tolstoy, as if demonstratively became in the position of the hero of Roman Turgenev "Fathers and Children" Pavel Petrovich Kirsanova, who claimed the principle of aristocracy in a dispute with the Democrata Bazarov: "I am an aristocrat because - writes Tolstoy - what brought up from childhood in love and respect for higher estates and In love for an elegant, expressing not only in Homere, Bakha and Raphael, but also in all the trifles of life. " In the crown further, the text Tolstoy explained, in which "trifles of life" is manifested by aristocracy: "In love for clean hands, to a beautiful dress, an elegant table and crew" ( 13, 239).

About Raphael, about the meaning of art in general and about aristocraticism, Kirsanov in the novel "Fathers and Children" with Bazarov. Bazarov, in turn, found a ridiculous scope of Kirsanov, the fear of his nails, the care of which he would shave and bended, his starch collars and elegant clothes. Commitment to the grace in everyday life as a line inherent in Kirsanov, Turgenev opposed the external "cynicism", the burda of the Bazarov, ascetic indifferent to the external "form" of life.

Touched Tolstoy in this - not included in the final text of the novel - the retreat and the main topic of democratic, disconnect literature: the topic of struggle for existence. He expressed contempt for the material interests, enslaved the lower classes, and deliberately taped the democratic intelligentsia by the comment: "I am an aristocrat because I was so happy that neither I, no father, nor my grandfather knew the needs and struggle between conscience and need, not We had the need to never envy anyone nor to bow, did not know the need to form for money and for the position in the light, etc. The tests that people in need are exposed to " (13, 239).

Tolstoy talked here the subject of the special pride of the allocates - the consciousness inherent to them that work, professional skill makes them necessary and independent people that they themselves are the creators of their own happiness. Tolstoy sees their professionalism in a different light, for him it is inseparable from the slave dependence and compromises. He does not hide that his arguments are acutely a polemic character that he opposes the views of most public. Thus, it is usual for a thick manner to think by consultations, notice the "axioms". Integrating the aristocratic declarations of Tolstoy, it should be borne in mind that in the middle of the XIX century, in the environment of the rapid development of capitalism and misunderstanding the most part of the country's population of what kind of life is "fit" into the place of familiar life forms, the orientation on the "aristocratic principle" did not always mean reactionary, And even more re-retrograde trends. In the novel, Turgenev "Fathers and Children" of Kirsanov argued that the principle of aristocracy was played by a historically positive role and could play it. The bazaars objected to Kirsanov ironic replicas, the meaning of which is reduced to the fact that Russia has to solve the problems of its future independently and on new historical paths. Bazarov perfectly understood that his opponent is convinced by Angloman, - speaking of the meaning of the aristocracy, focused on the historical experience of England. Attempts to comprehend the history of advanced European countries - England and France - and in the light of their political experience, to identify ways of social progress in Russia, the prospects for its development and threatening hazards were made by the thinking people of the 40s. Recognizing the inevitability and historical progressiveness of industry growth and at the same time fearing relations and morals who carry the bourgeoisie, V. G. Belinsky addressed the experience of England, where the aristocracy is smaller than the average estate. "The time of the aristocracy in England will end, the people will figure out the average class; And not that England will prevent himself, maybe even more disgusting spectacle than France now, "he wrote in December 1847 (XII, 451).

The Lion Tolstoy is much more wary and implacably followed the signs of the capitalist development of Russia than Belinsky, and the symptoms of the growth of bourgeois relations in the Russian society of the early 60s were more visible and are obvious than in the late 40s. Often Tolstoy saw bourgeois elements in a democratic thought and turned the bourgeois essence of liberal concepts. This side of his approach to modern ideological disputes and flows often pushed him on the path of nomination of the "principle of aristocratism", which, if we use the expression of Belinsky, "blowable" the ideals of the bourgeoisie - the "middle class". Inherent in the thick thirst for dispute, critical assessment of all political concepts of modernity is a typical trait of the thinker of the 60s. Furiously struggling against the "epidemic" of the concepts that have become a common place, ready to "discharge everyone" to welcome Askochensky, Tolstoy remained a man modernly thinking, absorbed in the interests of modernity.

The controversy with such a strong opponent, as the entire society and its generally accepted ideas, was for a thick important incentive when developing their original ideas and concepts. In the dispute with the triumphant, leaving the front border of Russian social thought by a democratic worldview, he put forward "Aristocracy as a principle" (on the terminology of Paul Petrovich Kirsanov), and then in the dispute with the idea of \u200b\u200baristocratism, at the other end of the chain of his reflection, maturing the idea of \u200b\u200bthe people as the main acting The forces of history, the idea, which has become the core of the novel "War and Peace". No wonder the "aristocratic" reasoning was very soon with a writer withdrawn from the text of the novel, removed as "forests", the necessity of which disappeared after the identification of the main ideas of the narrative. At the same time, it is impossible to represent the case as if the democratic ideal in the "war and the world" completely cancels the ideal ideas associated with the "aristocratic principle". If a democratic feature of his worldview and sympathy is expressed in the historical concept of Tolstoy and in the image of Pierre Zuhovov, then the ideal of aristocratic is embodied in the image of Prince Andrei Bolkonsky and the whole family of Bologna.

Such a combination of mutually exclusive and arcing trends was peculiar phenomenon even in the most difficult, "dialectical" novels of the 60s. Tolstoy clearly prevailed the democratic solution of the most important problems of history and ethics. However, the preservation of the "aristocratic principle" as a certain result of the cultural and ethical conquests of a large historical period attached originality to his democratis.

At the same time, it should be noted that Turgenev also felt duality, working on the novel "Fathers and Children", and this duality of the approach ("secret", but strong attraction to the Bazarov and lyrical sympathy of the leaving noble culture) was the source of the ambivalence of novel images and their capabilities Opposite reading.

If Tolstoy exposed false ideas about the defenses of Sevastopol, generated by official reports and one descriptions of it in the literature, then in the "war and the world" he entered into an irreconcilable struggle with interpretation, which historians gave events 1805-1815. Relying on an extensive documentary material, Tolstoy seeks to restore the events of the past in their entire authenticity, the authenticity he saw the eyes of the artist. It should not be forgotten that the events that he painted in the epic was not so distant past that the return of the Decembrists from the reference was the fact of a very close past that about the Decembrists and the Alexandrovsk era, for the first time at this time, began to write and began to write, studying her for memories living people. The discussion of these events amounted to an integral part of the spiritual life of society in the 60s.

Not only the first half of the XIX century., But also the XVIII century. re-overestimated. The fall of the serfdom caused a rude interest in the period of his heyday. There were numerous works about this era. The controversy with the image of the XVIII and early XIX century. In the fiction of the 60s, also contains in the draft edits "War and Peace". The Decembrists moved at the end of the novel and granted the first impetus to the writer's plan, was considered as a deportation of the People's War of 1812, as a historical phenomenon organically related to the development of the spiritual culture of Russian society and with ideological searches of the best representatives of the nobility for several decades.

The hero in which Tolstoy embodied the best, the perfect carrier of the noble culture of the beginning of the XIX century, organically grown from the enlightenment of the XVIII century, is in the novel "War and Peace" Prince Andrei Bolkonsky. The dignity of the man Tolstoy measures its attitude towards the people and those connections that may arise between him and simple people: peasants, soldiers. Prince Andrei, with all his aristocradisses, love soldiers. They call him "our prince," they see in him the intercession, trust him endlessly. The modest and brave person Captain Tushin speaks of him: "Bluebute", "cute soul", - words that no one would have said in the highest light about the pride and arrogant Bologkoe. To the soldiers, to Tushina, as well as to Pierre, Prince Andrei is facing his best qualities: inherent in his knightly nobility, kindness and sensitivity. "I know your road is a way to honor," says Bolkonsky Kutuzov, and this instinctively feel subordinates to the Bolkonsky soldiers. Prince Andrei Bolkonsky belongs to his spiritual warehouse and the worldview to those thinkers who naturally came to the Decembrism at the end of the first quarter of the XIX century. As you know, the soldiers of the regiments in which the Decembrists were officers, loved their commanders and walked behind them.

We indicate in this regard that in the scientific literature of recent years, the view is widely spread that L. Tolstoy blames the Aristocracy of Prince Andrei that Bolkonsky cannot merge with the soldiers' mass and that even his death is a meaningless and useless consequence of pride or devotion to the Nobility Code of honor. Meanwhile, it was in the episode of injuries to Bolkonsky Tolstoy directly showed the conscious acquisition of his hero, an officer who commander to soldiers to their position. Prince Andrei with his regiment stands in the reserve, in the open area. His regiment is subjected to hurricane shelling and carries huge losses. Under these conditions, Bolkonsky and gets fatal injury, not "bowing" grenade. "" I can't, I don't want to die, I love life, I love this grass, the earth, the air ... "He thought it and at the same time remembered what they were looking at him. (11, 251). His modest feat is needed to strengthen the courage of soldiers in the position in which they are. After all, if the officer falls in front of a grenade to Earth, the soldiers must be placed in the trenches, which, by the way, was first implemented in Sevastopol during the campaign, in which L. Tolstoy took part.

Describing the Nikolai Andreevich Bolkonsky, the father of Prince Andrew, as a typical representative of the noble culture of the XVIII century, L. Tolstoy penetrated the story about him by memoir and essay elements and a polemoid pathos. He sought to recreate the typical and living image of a man of the XVIII century, having freed him from the stereotypes of narratives of the 60s, and restored this type of family legends, as if turning them into the "witnesses" of their truth.

In the draft texts of the novel, where the controversy with modern literature is more pronounced and frankly, Tolstoy gives a direct author's assessment of Nikolai Andreevich Bolkonsky and, which is characteristic, relies her on the opinion of the peasants (here he also calls his Hero Volkhonsky). "No matter how much the reader wanted to upset the reader, no matter how the descriptions of the time did not want to describe all the descriptions of that time, I should not warn that the prince of Volkhonsky was not the villain, did not kill anyone, did not laid wives in the wall, did not eat For four, did not have selected, was not concerned with one Porma of people, hunting and crucified, and on the contrary, all this could not tolerate and was a clever, educated and ... a decent person ... He was, in one word, exactly the same person , like we are people, with the same vices, passions, virtues and with Toy and so complicated, like our mental activity, "he says (13, 79).

First of all, attention is drawn to the fact that Tolstoy is confident that his objective, truthful portrait of the aristocrat XVIII century. Waiting for most readers, accustomed to the standard of crushing. Tolstoy acts, as usual, against the dominants of the provisions in the eyes of contemporaries.

Speaking about the dedication of the peasants to the prince, he is not seduced and notes that this loyalty was slave in nature and was based on the fact that Prince Gord, Vlassen and Alien to them, and not on his genuine human virtues. And here Tolstoy believes that it hurts the Democrats who believe in the moral independence of the people and his internal independence from the Lord. However, the case was not so simple. Recall the characteristic exchange of replicas between Kirsanov and Bazarov in one of their disputes:

"- No no! - exclaimed with a sudden gust of Pavel Petrovich, - I do not want to believe that you, gentlemen, know the Russian people for sure, that you are representatives of his needs, his aspirations! No, the Russian people are not like that you imagine it. He holy honors legend, he is a patriarchal, he can't live without faith ...

- I will not argue against it, - interrupted the bazaars, - I am even ready to agree that in this you are right ... And yet it does not prove anything ... You blame my direction, and who told you that it is in I accidentally, that it is not caused by the most popular spirit, in the name of which you are so tattoo "(VIII, 243-244).

Thus, the bazaars do not deny the prevalence of patriarchal views and habits in the folk medium, but he considers them the illusions with which it is necessary to fight and which people will win, relying on their own revolutionary potencies.

A very similar position occupied in the article "Does not be changed?" Chernyshevsky, who gave a special, orphanage to the work of a writer, who portrayed not strong, original people from the folk medium, and "routine" characters and cases showing the backwardness and the darkness of the peasant mass. In addition to the fact that N. Uspensky, belonging to a democratic environment, well knew her life and introduced fresh material in the literature, he turned out to be close to Chernyshev's fact that his works were penetrated by Paphos to expose all forms of idealization of the past and present in modern life of the people. N. Uspensky ruthlessly destroyed the illusion of the inviolability of patriarchal forms of life, rejected an idea of \u200b\u200bthe significance of the patriarchal character of a person from the people, important not only for writers such as Grigorovich, but also for Herzen. Chernyshevsky put a sign of equality between patriarchalism and routine and stated that the fight against the routine, conservative worldview in the people's environment - the task of paramount importance. The subtext of the article Chernyshevsky was also a controversy of him with the look of Turgenev, who saw unrecognizance, the secret for many "strange" manifestations of folk life. Chernyshevsky attached great importance to the ability of N. Asspensky to display those features of social morals, which are also manifested in the life of the peasantry, and in the life of other classes, as well as the ability of the writer to reveal relations and processes covering all society and affect the characters of people from the people.

Among the works of N. Uspensky, who attracted special attention to Chernyshevsky, turned out to be the story of the old woman, which portrayed the case from the life of a peasant family, similar to the situation, which then was the basis of one of the central episodes of the novel of the Chernyshevsky "Prolog" himself and the plot of his own story "Natalia Petrovna Svirskaya. " In the "Prolog", such a family-public situation develops in the medium of top officials, in Natalia Petrovna Svirskaya - in the circle of provincial nobility. Mapping in his article the behavior of the peasant family, depicted by N. Asspensky in the story of "Old Woman", with the hands of representatives of higher layers of society, the critic notes the corporate effect of false relations for the whole life of modern people.

Chernyshevsky emphasizes that routine views are not characteristic of most people, especially for the whole people: "Our society makes people very different images of thought and feelings. It has people of a vulgar look and noble look, there are conservatives and progressors, there are people impersonal and people independent. All these differences are located in each village, and in every village "(VII, 863)," he writes and reminds that according to the "Dinner", "colorless", "impersonal" representatives of the peasantry can not be judged "about what is capable of Our people, what he wants and what is worthy "(VII, 863). At the same time, he puts in front of the literature and in front of all the defenders of the people, in general, the task of combating public prejudices and the passivity posed in the people of the centuries of slavery. It should be noted that the bid to awaken the political amateurness and the spiritual independence of the people is expressed in the article through the criticism of the humanism of literature of the 40s - Gogol, Turgenev, Grigorovich. This criticism in many of its aspects coincides with the criticism of Sensimonism in the article Chernyshevsky "July monarchy".

The criticism of Tolstoy in the above-above draft text from the "war and the world" is not directed against the noble writers, its predecessors in the development of the folk theme and in the image of serfdom. Tolstoy himself recognized that Grigorovich and Turgenev opened him, "That the Russian man is our breadwinner and - I want to say: our teacher ... it is possible and should write in full growth, not only with love, but with respect and even tremble" (66, 409). In addition to the consciousness of the special merit of these writers in the case of the development of a folk theme, in which Tolstoy gave himself a report, on his own recognition, already at the age of sixteen, the criticism, distributed to their address from such authoritative judges, as Annenkov and Chernyshevsky, could not configure Tolstoy on Polemic in relation to these predecessors of the way. It did not argue here Tolstoy and with young devices-democrats. These writers have just begun to act in the literature, and the creativity of the first of them, noted by Chernyshevsky as the sign of the new literary period, is the work of N. Uspensky - it was pretty thick. The sharp controversy of Tolstoy is directed against the exvere success and authority in the early 60s of the accusatory direction, more precisely against Melnikov-Pechersk. It was Saltykov-Shchedrin and Melnikov-Pechersky as the most powerful representatives of the accusatory direction seemed to the writers who spent in the "contemporary" in the late 40s and early 50s, the attention of the public attached to the literature alien to her interest of magazine topicality, utilitarian practicism (direct The crushing of abusers) and sensationality. To this direction, Tolstoy wanted to oppose genuine fiction, for which he even assumed to publish a magazine.

Melnikov-Pechersky entered fiction as a crazy person, an experienced official who knows professional secrets of bureaucracy, and as a historian familiar with the documents of official archives. Documentality, outline accuracy, sometimes bordering the publication of documents was its Profession De FOI. With this principled position, he approached the image of the morals of the XVIII century, pretending to be frank, brave conversation with the reader and sensational exposure. Image of life XVIII century. Pechersky Melnikov dedicated two stories: "Babushkina Rosskazni" and "old years". With the last of them, L. Tolstoy and half amemissed, opposing his hero, the aristocrat XVIII century. -Gord feudal, but humane and enlightened man, Patriot and Volnoduumz, - Drawn Pechersk Prince Zaborovsky, Self-Sadist, who wavetter to the death of the peasants, who had selected from fortress women and who wrapped his son's wife.

The serf peasantry Melnikov-Pechersky depicted as a lackless, scored, devoid of initiatives. As a typical Barina-Velmazb XVIII century. In his story, he played the court, nominated not to military exploits, his own and his ancestors, like Prince Nikolai Andreevich Bolkonsky (Volkhonsky) at Tolstoy - Suvorov's companion and friend of Kutuzov, - and to the ability to "hit" to temporary users, to use intrigues to achieve their Careeristic goals. This is not only a person of honor, but in essence the dark undergoes, which brilliance of feudal power and support of the bureaucratic oligarchy makes it possible to unpunish.

Accordingly, the entire XVIII century. I was interpreted in the story of the "old years" as an eyelid of more than the permanent torturing of the people and the discharge, the age of the unbridled characters of landowners and the full slavery of the people. Not only the attitude towards the fastening right, but also the attitude towards the people determined the historical concept of the author, the assessment of the whole period of Russian history.

Truthfully portraying the bloody fun and the business of Baria, creating bright images of serfs and their horses, Melnikov-Pechersky could not in their work to give a realistic image of the serfdom as a whole, to reflect the true attitude of the peasantry to the gentlemen. Large movements of the people, which was characterized by the XVIII century, which ultimately led to the Great Peasant War - Pugachev's uprising, did not seem essential. A public school supporter in historical science, Melnikov believed that the activities of the state apparatus determines the life of the people, the history of the country and the fate of a separate person. The "instability" of state power in the XVIII century, according to the writer, dismissed the vicious nature, unleashed the predatory instincts and contributed to an increasing suppression of unrequited and lacking people. In his titles, people are depicted as historically passive force, which is entirely dependent on the country's domestic political state, from government orders. In the second half of the 60s, working on the novels "in the forests" and "on the mountains", the writer moved away from this concept, in any case at that time he saw the initiative characters in the folk medium. The religious movement of the split and the traditional stability of the old-supplied life was perceived by him at this stage of his creativity as manifestations of the identity, the spiritual independence of the peasant population of large areas of Russia. The writer's hero became smart independent - although stubbornly conservative - Potap Maksimych Chapurin, a rich peasant, a merchant for capital and business splash, a peasant in the warehouse of family life, for self-consciousness and habits. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe identity of the people's life, penetrating the work of Melnikov-Pechersky, the appearance of the bright, individual characters of the Volga peasants in his works and the approach to the life of ordinary people as a historical nature was influenced by the genre nature of his narration. From the essay, the story and the story, the writer moved to the novel and then the cycle of novels.

The detailed and comprehensive characteristic of the problems and stylistic features of the Russian physiological essay is contained in the monograph of A. G. Zeitlin "The formation of realism in Russian literature" (M., 1965, p. 90-273).

Yu. F. Samarin. Works. T. I. M., 1900, p. 86, 88-89.

On naturalistic tendencies in realistic literature of the 40s, see: V. in Vinogradov. Evolution of Russian naturalism. L., 1929, p. 304; V. I. Kuleshov. Natural school in Russian literature. M., 1965, p. 100-108; Yu. V. Mann. Philosophy and poetics of "Natural School". - In the book: Problems of the typology of Russian realism. M., 1969, p. 274, 293-294.

G. A. Gukovsky. Realism of Gogol. M.-L., 1959, p. 457-461.

D. V. Grigorovich. Full Cathedral cit. In 12 volumes. SPb., 1896, t. XII, p. 267-268. - Further references to this publication are given in the text.

A. Grigoriev. Works. T. I. SPb., 1876, p. 32.

Valuable materials about the perception of "Hunter's notes" in the West are contained in the article M. P. Alekseev "The World Value of the Hunter Notes". - In the book: "Hunter's Notes" I. S. Turgenev. Eagle, 1955, p. 36-117.

It is characteristic that subsequently in the novel "Brothers Karamazov" Dostoevsky invested in the mouth of German Genzentstuba statement: "Russian is very often laughing where it is necessary to cry" (F. M. Dostoevsky. Coll. Op. In 10 volumes. M., 1956 -1958, t. X, p. 212. - The references to this publication are given in the text).

See: B. F. Egorov. P. V. Annenkov is a writer and critic of the 1840s - 1850s. Uch. Zap. Tart. State un-ta. Vol. 209. Works in Russian and Slavic philology, XI, 1968, p. 72-73.

P. Biryukov. Lion Nikolayevich Tolstoy. Biography. T. 1. M., 1906, p. 397.

How significant and underestimated in the critical literature, the image of Pavel Petrovich Kirsanova, "defeated" and obscured by a huge figure of Bazarov, can be an idea if you remember that this embodying Comme Il Faut and the Guards-noble ideal of the hero capable, however, bring his great ambition And all the most important career considerations for the victim of the all-consuming passion and together with the loss of a beloved woman to lose all meaning of existence, some of their own features anticipate the Vronsky from the novel L. Tolstoy "Anna Karenina".

E. N. Kupyanova. "War and Peace" and "Anna Karenina" Lion Tolstoy. - In the book: The history of the Russian novel. T. 2. M.-L., 1964, p. 313.

S. Bocharov. Roman L. Tolstoy "War and Peace". M., 1963, p. 107.

The specific feature of the artistic and figurative consciousness is the embodiment In general, in a single. In other words, declares a problem Typification. Typification in art - this generalized image of human individuality Characteristic for a certain social environment. Typical is not a random phenomenon, but the most probable, exemplary For this connection system, the phenomenon.

The origins of such a look at the content of "typical" in art are noted in the works of Aristotle, repeatedly writing that "Art recreates the likely, possible". European classicism put forward the thesis "about the samples of an artistic image." Enlightenment put on the fore the idea of \u200b\u200b"normal", "natural" as the basis of art. " Hegel wrote that the art creates the images of "ideal phenomena." However, the defining concept of typing becomes only in aesthetics XIX. in related to realistic art.

The concept of typing attributes Marxism. For the first time, this problem was set by K. Marx and F. Engels in correspondence with F. Lassalem about his drama "Franz von Zikkingen". In a letter dated 05/18/1859, F. Engels will emphasize: "In your Zikkingen, a completely correct installation is taken: the main actors are truly representatives of certain classes and directions, and therefore be certain ideas of their time, and draw the motives of their actions not In petty individual whims, and in the historical stream, which carries them "(Engels - F. Lassala 18.05.1859. Op. T. 29.- P. 493). In another letter to M. Garcness, F. Engels will connect the typing directly with the realistic art of the XIX century: "Realism suggests, in addition to the veracity of the details, truthful reproduction of typical characters in typical circumstances" (F. Engels - M. Garcness 04.1888. Op. T. 37.- S. 35).

In the 20th century, the old ideas about art and artistic form disappear, the content of the concept of "typification" changes.

Two interrelated approaches to this manifestation of artistic and figurative consciousness are distinguished.

Firstly, Maximum approximation to reality. It must be emphasized that documentaryism as a desire for a detailed, realistic, reliable reflection of life was not just Leading The tendency of the artistic culture of the 20th century. Modern art has improved this phenomenon, filled it with an unknown earlier intelligent and moral content, in many respects by defining the artistic and-shaped atmosphere of the era. It should be noted that interest in this type of shaped convention does not subsigh down today. This is due to the stunning successes of journalism, non-chamber movies, art photography, with the publication of letters, diaries, memories of participants in various historical events.

Secondly, Maximum enhancement of conventionality Moreover, with a very tangible connection with reality. This system of conventions of the artistic image involves nomination to the fore integrative Parties to the creative process, namely: selection, comparisons, analysis, which act in organic communication with the individual characteristic of the phenomenon. As a rule, typification implies minimal aesthetic deformation of reality, which is why the name of the life-like, recreating world "in the forms of life" has been established in art historical deformation of this principle.

In the completion of the analysis of the place and the importance of typing in the artistic and figurative consciousness, it is necessary to emphasize that typification is one of the main laws of the artistic development of the world. In many ways, due to the artistic generalization of reality, the identification of the characteristic, essential art and becomes a powerful means of knowledge and transformation of the world.

The main directions of formation of a modern artistic-shaped consciousness

Modern artistic and figurative consciousness should be antidogmatic That is, it is characterized by a decisive refusal of any absolutization of one single principle, installation, formulation, assessment. No authoritative opinions and statements should be deified, becoming the truth in the last instance, turn into artistic and shaped standards and stereotypes. The construction of a dogmatic approach to the "categorical imperative" of artistic creativity with inevitability absolutes class confrontation, which in a specific historical context, ultimately be poured into justification of violence and exaggerates its semantic role not only in theory, but also in artistic practice. The dogmatization of the creative process manifests itself and when those or other artistic techniques and installations acquire the character The only possible artistic truth.

Modern domestic aesthetics must be leaving and imitation, So characteristic of it for many decades. Free from taking endless quoting of classics on artistic and figurative specifics, from non-critical perception of other people, even the most tempting of convincing points of view, judgments and conclusions and strive for the statement of their own, personal views and beliefs - it is necessary to anyone and every modern researcher if he Wants to be a real scientist, and not the functioning person in the scientific department, not an official in serving someone or something. In the creation of artistic works, epigionism manifests itself in mechanical following the principles and methods of any art school, directions, excluding the changed historical situation. Meanwhile, epigionism has nothing to do with genuinely creative mastering Classical artistic heritage and traditions.

Another very essential and important feature of modern artistic-shaped consciousness should be Dialogism That is, a focus on a continuous dialogue, which is the nature of constructive controversy, creative discussion with representatives of any art schools, traditions, methods. The constructiveness of the dialogue should consist in continuous spiritual mutual enrichment of the discusing parties, wearing creative, is truly dialectically character. The existence of art is due Eternal dialogue artist and recipient (viewer, listener, reader). Agreement, binding them, undivorid. The newly born artistic image is a new edition, a new form of dialogue. The artist is full of dedication to recipient when he tells him something new. Today, as never before, the artist has the opportunity to speak new and in a new way.

All listed areas in the development of artistic and figurative thinking should lead to approval of the principle pluralism In art, that is, to approval of the principle of coexistence and complementary, multiple and most diverse, including contradictory points of view and positions, views and beliefs, directions and schools, movements and teachings.

LITERATURE

Gulga A. V. Principles of Aesthetics. - M., 1987.

Zazh A. Ya. In search of an artistic meaning. - M., 1991.

Kazin A. L. Artistic image and reality. - L., 1985.

Netchka M. F. Functions of the artistic image in the historical process. - m., 1982.

Tableovich L. N. Beauty. Good. Truth: Essay of aesthetic axiology. - M., 1994.