Watch what is "Gutenberg, Johann" in other dictionaries. Gutemberg Printed Machine: History of His Invention and Development

Johann General General Tsur Laden Tsum Gutenberg (it. Johannes Gensfleisch Zur Laden Zum Gutenberg; between 1397 and 1400, Mainz - February 3, 1468, Mainz) - German jeweler and inventor. In the mid-1440s, he created a European method of typography by mobile lines spreading around the world.

Biography
Due to the very limited number of preserved documentary sources relating to Gutenberg, it is not possible to restore his connected biography. In the years of his life, as a rule, only noticeable political figures and church figures were honored to be fixed in any sources of biography. Gutenberg was a production officer, partly by the artist, and therefore did not imagine much interest. However, his invention still contributed to the fact that some facts regarding his life were recorded in the book response of that time.

1400-1448. Early activities
Johann (Johann - Henne, Hengin, Hanssen) Gutenberg was born in the family of Mainz Patricia Friel Gensflash and Elzy Virich. Patricians in medieval Germany were called citizens belonging to the highest layers of the urban burgundy. Mother belonged to the family of Suknegovkov, thus the marriage union of the parents of Johann, prisonered in 1386, was Mesallians. Mainz was a very important city, since it was here that the Archbishop of the German Church was elected, Kurfürst. The city was one of the many cities where clashes occurred between patrician and shops, which forced the Johanna family to temporarily leave the city during the periods of defeat of the patrician.

Gutenberg's ancestors in Mainz are traced from the first half of the fourteenth century. Gensflash leads origin from the name of the estate acquired by the family. In turn, Gutenberg's surname is somewhat derived from the name of the Gutenberghof's foundation, which belonged to the father of Gutenberg in Mainz. The question is unclear, very important in gutenburning, was Lee Gutenberg knight, such as belonging to patricians in Germany did not mean accessories to chivalry. Two sources are evidenced in favor of this assumption: the Ordonance of the French king Karl VII and the Venetian chronicle of 1483. However, the origin of the mother and the image of Gutenberg classes are in contradiction with the possibility of having a knight's rank.

The exact date of the birth of Gutenberg is unknown, as records about its baptism have not been preserved. It is known that he was the youngest of children in the family (he had an elder brother Frile, Sister Alsa and a podtsi sister Pats). Presumably, his birth time falls on 1395-1400 years, sometimes in the afternoon of his birth to be considered on June 24, 1400 - the day of John the Baptist. The place of his birth is also reliably unknown. The forced expulsion of the family from the city could be the reason that Johann could be born in Strasbourg, he testifies to several sources, although he was considered a citizen Mainz.

Nothing is known about the childhood and youth of Johann. Based on the existing facts, the researchers are assumed that he studied at school, and later compiled the foundations of handicraft business. It is known that Gutenberg was engaged in training a jewelry business, but for this he had to have the title of Master, which means the highest degree of professional skills. However, where, like someone who has a future inventor, has compiled an Aza craft skill remains unknown. Until 1434, Gutenberg's life is known to be negligible, to judge what it did it in addition during this period, it is impossible.

From 1434 to 1444 he lived in Strasbourg, engaged in grinding semi-precious stones (Agatha, Onyx) and the manufacture of mirrors. Presumably, there he was engaged in experimental activity on a typography. In 1438, together with his student, Andreas, hellin and others founded a partnership on a partnership for the manufacture of mirrors, as well as with the aim of commercial implementation of a certain secret "enterprise with art" (AFENTUR MIT DER KUNST). The activities of the partnership ended in the process, which was opened against Gutenberg, the heirs of drits after Andreas's death and which in 1439 was won by Gutenberg.

Some expressions of the acts of the process associated with this company make it possible to make the assumption that at that time Gutenberg has already advanced in its invention. The characteristic feature is that everything connected with the technical side of the work of Gutenberg was the strictest protected secret and often in the materials of the process is indicated as "this work", "do it", etc. On court records it is impossible to make a clear idea about What did Gutenberg workshop, only certain words, accidentally zaming in the testimations of witnesses, allow us to assume that by this time the inventor was already on the verge of discovery. In the texts, press, lead, shape casting, "embossing" or "printing" are being taken. Analysis of the case materials allows to judge that in 1438-39, Gutenberg had a certain press, perhaps an experienced instance. It was rained forms, but were these liteers? Probably, at that time Gutenberg has already created a design, a tool with which it was possible to cast liteers. He stood on the threshold of the practical application of his invention, but the death of the companion delayed this moment, since some parts of the design remained at Andreas heirs.

Most of the XV century researchers believed that the final invention of Gutenberg's typography was performed in 1440, although not found literature printed and dated this year. The assumption about 1440 as the point of reference of modern printing is confirmed by documents learned from the Affairs of the Avignon notaries and published in 1890 by the Abbot Reta (Requin, L'Imprimerie à Avignon EN 1444). From these documents it is clear that in 1444 and 1446, a certain procopy Waldfogel entertained into transactions with different persons who for money and other benefits devoted to the mystery of an artificial letter. The assumptions were made that Waldfogel and Gutenberg are one and the same face, but it is impossible to confirm it.

It is likely that some time after charge the invention of Gutenberg was already used for practical purposes in Strasbourg. The lack of preserved publications of that period may indicate that the most part has been produced by the chest, always have the smallest chances of preserved and survive.

1448-1455. The invention of printing
The ingenious invention of Gutenberg consisted that it made "movable" convex letters from the metal, cut out in the opposite form (in the mirror image), scored a row from them and was scrupped with a special press on paper. However, he has lacking funds for the operation of its invention.

Having moved in 1448 in his native Mainz, Gutenberg entered into an agreement with the Mainz Deller, apparently, the Roshovshchik Johann Flow, due to which he looked for 800 guilders from 6% and, moreover, it was obliged to issue 800 guilders annually on the need for production (paints, paper and other consumables); The printing house with all its accessories was supposed to share popolates between Gutenberg and Fust. The main capital of Gutenberg received, however, in parts. From the issuance of working capital, the Fast deviated completely, and on an additional agreement of 1452 for one-time payment of 800 Guldenov was released from annual contributions.

Bible Gutenberg. Instance from the museum in Mainz
With such limited means, having no experienced workers nor advanced tools, Gutenberg, nevertheless, achieved significant success. Until 1456, he cast at least five different fonts, Printed Latin grammar Elya Donata (several sheets had reached this day and stored in the National Library in Paris), several papal indulgences and, finally, two Bibles, 36-line and 42-line ; The latter, known as Maazarini Bible, printed in 1453-1455.

Johann Gutenberg could not pay the Fuce interest, and the Flow appealed to the court. The process ended with a sworn of the Fust, which was compiled a protocol recorded by the notary Gelmassberger on November 6, 1455; The original of this act, so important for the preservation of Gutenberg the name of the inventor of a typography, in the XIX century was opened by Carl Dziatzko in the library of the University of Gottingen (K. Dziatzko, Sammlung BibliothekwisShaftlicher Arbeiten 1889 and Sl.). By the decision of the court, the printing house with all its accessories switched to Fast, and Gutenberg had to start the case from scratch.

1455-1468. Activities after the court
He joined the company with Conrad Gummer and in 1460 issued an essay of Johann Balba from Genoa (1286), "Catholyon" (Latin grammar with a dictionary). In 1465, Kurfürste Adolf accepted Gutenberg to the service, but on February 3, 1468, a book engagement died; He was buried in Mainz, but today the location of his grave is unknown. Some sources claim that his grave is located on the Franciscan cemetery.

Authorship of the invention
The invention of Gutenberg was attributed to different persons at different times (see typography). The truth was finally restored by Anthony Van der Linde in the work of 1878 (in Russia - see Article F. I. Bulgakov in "Bibliographic Notes" 1892, No. 1).

Guteenbudge
The study of Gutenberg's life, his personality, the facts of his biography and its meaning for the history of typography and history generally devoted a very significant number of scientific and popular works. By the middle of the twentieth century, the number of essays on the Gutenberg theme has already exceeded three thousand units, and in the future only increased. The revolutionary of the invention of Gutenberg made it, on the one hand, a popular subject of research, which contributed to the development of knowledge about him and the historical period in which he lived. On the other hand, the extraordinary importance of the start of typography has advocated some researchers to interpret the facts not the most correct way in an attempt to attribute to others, challenge the occurrence of typography and other distortions, in the hope of learning from such an important event in world history.

Attempts to "take away" the authorship of the invention in Gutenberg began hardly at his life. From the very beginning there was a dispute, what kind of city is considered a cradle of typography: Mainz or Strasbourg? Who actually committed such an important shift in world history: Johann Fast and Peter Schaeffer, Johann Mentelin? Or did someone in China in China be the printed book?

In Germany, for a long time, Gutenberg was considered only a submiturate allegedly true inventors - Fust and Schaffer. This point of view was supported by many (in particular, the Johann Gotted). Despite the fact that the Gutenberg championship was confirmed in the eighteenth century (D. Keler, D. Shepflin), and Menhelin and Fust and Ponyna are mentioned in this regard, although already mainly in an unscientific environment.

The main problem in gutenburning is the lack of books released by Gutenberg, in which his colophon would be present (mark on the old books about the author, time and place of publication). The fact that the book was issued by Gutenberg is confirmed only with the help of secondary signs from which the key is used when printing the font. Side: a small amount of documentary evidence is added to this main problem (there are only 34 acts about Gutenberg), the lack of personal correspondence, records, the lack of a reliable portrait.

Identification of ancient printed books in the font is a well-known practice in the field of historical bidders. With the initiation of printing, almost every publisher found its font, thanks to which it is possible even by nameless fragments to recognize, some type of typographic belongs to one or another page. In the Guterbygation, the fonttological method played a crucial role. It was with his help a heritage of Gutenberg was installed.

Another significant factor in attempts to explore the history of the famous German was the desire to create some kind of "legend" from it, build his image such a manner so that he corresponds to the roles allocated to him in history. In the nineteenth century, such a legend was safely created. Gutenberg was presented as an educated representative of the elite, who was passionate about the idea of \u200b\u200benlightenment, which, dismantling its financial interests, gave power to the development of a typography. However, compiled under this legend, the image did not stand the test of time, which led to the split in the gutenburning at the beginning of the twentieth century. Excessive concentration of attention on various aspects of the life of the inventor led to the skewers: sometimes the issue of a mercantile nature was put at the head of research, only monetary aspects of activity were taken into account, sometimes all attention was focused on issues of origin, confirming the belonging of Gutenberg elite estates. Some researchers fully focused on the analysis of fonts, which brought their fruits, but, again, led to a too narrow look at the problem as a whole.

A group of researchers (Otto Hupp (eng. Otto Hupp), Paul Schwenke (Male. Paul Schwenke)) I saw in Gutenberg only a talented practice, the creator of the first skilled fonts, which was only a typographer and was not concerned about the objectives of the enlightenment. Johann Cedler (Eng. Johann Heinrich Zedler) considered Gutenberg even more limited. In his view, he was only a technically educated person who created some of the first printed books, and, in force, the novelty technologies for their time, the data of the edition of the Cedler considered very imperfect, especially compared to further developments in this area. This point of view fully fited in the idea of \u200b\u200bGutenberg as a tool, part in the mechanism of historical development, the appearance of which was predetermined by the laws of history.

"" ... a long and fierce dispatch about the valid inventor of a book printing will never be resolved ... Gutenberg made the last decisive step with the greatest courage and clarity in this direction and thanks to this with the greatest success ... It only means that he best had once been able to summarize the accumulated experience and All unsuccessful or semicadal attempts of their predecessors. And it does not utter his merit at all; His merit remains immortal ... But not a new unknown plant, he planted in the earth's ground, but only successfully threw a slowly matched friction. "
Franz Mering. From the work "On Historical Materialism" »
A look at the contribution of Gutenberg from a similar position pushed the development of research on technical prerequisites of the invention, and this aspect received proper disclosure (work of Victor Scholder (Hellmut Lehmann-Haupt) and others), although it took almost a hundred for this years of surveys. However, the displacement of the accent from the person to historical reasons again led to involuntary distortions.

Often the main reason for the appearance of a typography was called the predetermination of economic development. The birth and development of capitalism required an increase in knowledge, the instrument of which and became a typography. When the image of Gutenberg - the public enlightener showed his one-sidedness, the image of Gutenberg-Delta appeared. In an attempt to find an answer to the question of what Motago, this man, understandable to many, the pursuit of personal gain was made to justify its motives: new times dictated new morals, and an idea of \u200b\u200ba businessman trying to use the freshest invention for their own benefit, found their supporters. Considering the documents confirmed by the documents that the deeds of Gutenberg were not good, but in the future bankruptcy, Gutenberg as a person began to be evaluated noticeably in the detaching key, as a unfortunate dealers or as an untenable artist who did not manage to achieve little success.

The image of Gutenberg-Delta managed to resolve contradictions caused by the fact that in his heritage there were editions of a very wide range, from high-screen to "fair-term literature". However, this approach is not able to give a key question. The expressed opinions that Gutenberg could not even realize the meaning of his invention, hardly correspond to the truth, since any major person, encouraging revolutionary changes in the history of mankind, is, as a rule, the concentration of the main conflicts of its time and, due to this, cannot be a personality limited, Closed in the framework of narrow personal interests.

Russian (Soviet) gutenbudge began to develop mostly in connection with the noted in public life and in the scientific world of the five hundredth anniversary of the invention of a typography (celebrated in 1940). Until this time, no serious studies were, Gutenberg and its invention were mentioned only in popularizative purposes. The first story about Gutenberg was information from the books "about the inventors" (de InventorIbus Rerum) of Polydar Vergil Urbinsky, served in 1720. An obstacle to the development of guidelide was the absence of documents in the country on this topic and the small interest of the scientific community. Anniversary of the anniversary was able to raise this interest and in the postwar years began a more prominent development of this topic. The first notable contribution was made by the Leningrad historian Vladimir Lublin, then transfers began to appear in Russian historical Gutenberg documents, the first dissertations on this topic were presented.

According to Vanuchcho Biringuccio, "The solid tool is made of bronze or brass. It consists of two parts, fitted to each other in such a way as to obtain the desired value of the height and width of the font. Inside the form is made in such a way that the matrix can be inserted into it.

The first technically competent description of a solid form accompanied by drawings, we find in the book of the English technologist Joseph Mokson (1627-1700) "Mechanical exercises, or the doctrine of crafts" published in London in 1683. The second volume of this work, profound illustrated by drawings and schemes, is devoted to the printing case. The book saw the light in almost 250 years after the invention of Johann Gutenberg. But it is known that the handicraft technique of a feudal method of production during the centuries remained unchanged. Therefore, it can be assumed that from the middle of the XV to the end of the XVII century. The Sloll form has changed little.

According to Mokson, a solid form is made up of two metal parts of a complex shape - bottom and top. Wooden shirt b.attached to the details allowed the wolpitz to take shape in the hands
at the time of filling in it molten metal. The lower and upper parts of the shape folded in such a way that the protrusions from Participated in the groove g.. Pyramido-shaped peel at the same time formed bevelled planes d. and e.and the working cavity arose between the planes but. Matrix pressed at the bottom of the cavity fG. with an in-depth embossed image E. font sign. The matrix was fixed by planes I, I.forms. The exact position of the points provided the adjustment needle h., fastened on a leash. The needle was inserted into the hole in the back plane of the matrix.

Increhensively with the equipment of a Slolling workshop, the reader may get acquainted on the reproduction of engraving, which we borrow from the four-volume guidelines for the printing case of the printer's printer and the publisher of Christian Friedrich Gessner (mind 1756); The leadership was published in 1740-1745. in Leipzig. By this time, the invention of Johanna Gutenberg was already 300 years old, and the work of Gessner was timed to celebrate this anniversary. But we think that the technology of solid production over these many years has changed little. Hesner's work as usual years have had a long name: "The necessary and useful book print art and a font drawing with its fonts, formats and all relevant tools, depicted and understandable, as well as a brief story about the origin and development of typography, especially about Typologists in Leipzig and other cities of Germany, which in 300 years after the invention are presented to the world.

Equipment of a great workshop.
By engraving from the book of H.F. Gessner. 1740-1745

In the left side of the engraving is a furnace in which a typographic alloy melted. Presented - in the right bottom of the figure - and the transverse section of the smelting furnace. On the furnace and on a nearby table lie various tools of the wrapper. We see here and a spoon, which was buried the molten metal and poured it into a solid form. On the floor near the oven there are various containers for the ingots of individual components of the alloy. The Sloll form is depicted in the upper right corner of engravings. It consists of two parts with protrusions. but and b.forming a gateway. Metal parts of a wounded form are placed in a wooden shirt H., prevented by the arms of the wrapper from the burn. In the cavity there is a protrusion g.Thanks to which the signature is formed on the leather - cross-recession on the leg, helping the typesetter to determine the correct position of the litera at the set. When casting a matrix l.place between guides at the bottom of the form. The position of the matrix is \u200b\u200bfixed by the needle s.installed on a flexible leash r.. Between two parts of the form on the engraving, the newly cast r with a litter q.who sawpowed after closing a liter in the vice.

Set of tools

The oldest famous image of the printing house is placed on a engraving illustrating the French poem on the topic "Dance of Death" in the medieval literature and visual art. We find engraving in the book, which published in Lyon in 1499 or in 1500. Tiograph of Mattias Gus. On the engraving is shown and installed with a slope case. This is a box separated by partitions into many compartments - by the number of font characters. To one of the walls of the cashier is attached copyholder - Holding for a manuscript sheet, which serves as the original for the set. Skatcher holds in the left hand verstatka - Flat boxes with two walls. The third wall is made mobile - it was installed in the format of the string. The typewriter took the litera from the cashier with his right hand and put them in the workshop. At the same time, the string was turned off using the space material - pepsiaplaced in interconnect intervals.

The oldest image of typography.
Gravy "Dance of Death" from the Lyon edition of 1499

Approximately such a toolor was in the printing house of Johann Gutenberg. Perhaps he used a workshop designed for a set of two columns of the text (his bible was two-populatures).

Such a workbath is depicted on one of the engravings in the book of Joseph Mokson. On the same engraving is visible a flat board with sides, which consistently exhibited from separate litera font lines. The proofreading was carried out with the help of a sewn, which was heating and removed erroneously inserted into a set of literas. For the formation of the bands and their conversion, a frame was served, which is located on the table with an inclined top lid.

The engraving from the book of J. Mokson also illustrates the installation process of a liter in the workshop and rows per verstal board.

Equipment and tools for set we see and on the engraving from the book X.F. Gessner. Literars are stored in the dialing offices, installed obliquely on the bevelled top surface of the wardrobe real.In the left top of the engraving, the vertically is shown - a three-stranded metal box with a side moving wall. Taking litera from the box office and put them in the desired order in the workshop, a typewriter and carried out a set. Nearby we see highly enlarged images of font and spacer.

We repeat that time in the feudal society went slowly. Technical decisions, once found, remained unchanged for many decades. Therefore, we have every reason to assume that the same set-up toolkit, which we see on engraving 1499 and in drawings from Mokson and Gessner's books, was used in the printing house of Johann Gutenberg.

Gutenberg system set

In the Latin alphabet of 25 lowercase and 25 capital letters. We will add to this a limited number of punctuation marks, we get 60, at the most 70 different litera. Meanwhile, in Johann Gutemberg editions, you can meet from 150 to 300 font signs. The fact is that the inventor, as many primitives of various countries and peoples, including the Russians, tried to follow handwritten practice. In order for the printed book to be similar to handwritten, it was necessary in the font drawing to reproduce at least the simplest calligraphic tricks of scribes, striving to disturb the monotony of the text strip.

A characteristic feature of the gothic handralls were diamond-shaped endings of vertical strides Liter. When writing letters in the line for a more integral perception of writing, the calligrapies smoothed pointed protrusions on the side of the litera, which adjoined the neighboring, such projections having. To convey this feature of a medieval letter, Gutenberg had almost every liter to cast in a sufficiently large number of options.

Handwritten practices were sent and listers with sudden signs of abbreviations corresponding to the Slavic letters under the titles.Reductions in most cases were designated horizontal or slightly wavy feature, as well as one or two diamonds or nolik posted on the literal. There were also special signs for abbreviations of the endings of words.

Let's call, finally, numerous in Gutenberg ligatura - Dynamous designations of two alphabetic signs, cast on one leg.

Otto Huup, who carefully studied first-line fonts, allocated eight main groups that united the main graphic strokes. We give a table compiled here.

In the upper graph, it is placed images of alphabetic signs from, so to speak, the main group.

The next line is so-called. Connecting listers ( Anschlussbuchstaben.), Left vertical strains of which are deprived of diamond-shaped tides.

The third group allocated letters with the acute endings of the left vertical stages.

The fourth group presents us a variety of special graphic forms of a liter who are also taken from manuscript practices and existed in two or three versions.

In the fifth line collected all sorts of ligatures. This is mostly a combination of consonant and vowels: bA, BE, BO, DA, DE, DO, HA, HE, HO etc. But there are also double consonants: fF, PP. SS.

The sixth group contains liteers with as if hanging over the neighboring, placed on the right sign element. Huppa calls such an element to the banner ( Fahne.).

The seventh group is alphabetic signs with adhesive abbreviations. And finally, in the last eighth group, special signs of abbreviations and punctuation marks are collected.

Johann Gutenberg skillfully used in the set of the same name of various draws. For this there were unwritten rules that the inventor kept in the mind. Liters with adhesive signs of abbreviations and ligatures facilitated shut down Lines, i.e. Bring them to one length. Will in large editions of Johann Gutenberg impeccurn. The switchboard mechanism that could be carried out and by changing the width of the inter-slave spaces, in this case is simple. Suppose in the string, the length of which was exceeded, was the word eST., Gutenberg in this case replaced it to e. With a fear of abbreviation, thereby reducing the length of the string into two listers.

The Gutenberg system system contributed to the optimal aesthetic effects of the bands of his books, which today leave an unforgettable impression.

Features of the Catholicon set. 1560

This is a publication, if we talk about its printing exercise, is significantly different from all other firstite editions.

We studied the "Catholicon" the American explorer Paul Nidhem put forward a completely sensational hypothesis in 1982. In his opinion, the "Catholicon" is not printed using a rolling font. Its bands are composed of solid double rows collected in the columns and in the pages.

I must say that still Gottfried Cedler, and before him Adolf Schmidt noticed that the double lines play in the Catholikon "a completely special role. In the old-line, and in new editions it is often possible to meet the inverted, set upside down the listers. In the "Catholikon" there are no such. But the Cedler found in the first column of the front side of the sheet 131 as many as two rows set up "upside down". At the same time, the lines changed places. From above, it turned out to be string 36, and below - line 35. In other copies, these rows stood correctly, and the impression, without any doubt, was produced from the same set.

At the end of the front line of the leaf 189, 12 empty lines were left. The typographer filled them with no space material, but a set, which when printing was not packed with paint. So-called blind ottis Dali lines 13, 14, 11, 12, 9, 10 kolofon sets from the sheet 372. It is easy to see that all this "odd - even string" pairs. "

Interestingly, when printing the 189th sheet of book, there was already a set of its last sheet. In the case of a set of moving fonts, it usually does not happen: the set and printing is carried out in parallel in order to use the minimum amount of font. The scored stripes, after they are printed, disassembled, dash on the cash offices and use the second time.

The blind print on the sheet 189 Cedler found in the copy of the "Catholicon" with Filigree Literary S., and in the instance with watermarks Tower and Crown At the same place there were completely different lines, besides inverted: 5, 6 and 3, 4. Comment on the strangeness of the Catholicon set of Cedler failed. But they are easily explained using the Nidhem Paul's hypothesis.

An American researcher, having studied many copies of the Catholicon, discovered new examples of the special role played in this edition of the combination of odd and even lines. In the Catholicon instance from the library of St. Genevieve in Paris (this copy is printed on paper with watermark Head Bull) on the revolving side l. 284 lines 5-6 and 7-8 changed places. At the same time, there were mistaken again two lines - an odd and even one.

In the instance of Chantillilly on the back side of l. 131 changed sections of the line 13-14 and 53-54. The error apparently happened because of the rows 13 and 53 were launched by the words in writing: curro. and [s] uruco.. When set by separate literals, such an error is impossible. In the second column of the circulation side l. 5 and in the second column on the front side l. 38 copies from the collection of Pierponta Morgana P. Nidhem noticed the shift of some rows compared to the rest. Wave off the line type "Catholicon" did not do. All lines here are different lengths. So, on l. 5 about Two lines (again two!) - 51 and 52 shifted to the right, and on l. 38 lines 7 and 8 shifted to the left. Nidhem also discovered several cases of a new set, and two lines were overflowed in each of them.

The German historian of the Printing Technology Claus V. Gerhardt suggested that Johann Gutenberg, Printing Catholicon, used paper matrication technique for casting dual lines. The complexity is that it was previously believed that this method appeared only in the XIX century.

Hand-made typographic machine

Fragments of manual printed mill as if found in the house "Tsum Yungen"

The prints from the printed form, packed with paint, as already mentioned, knew how to receive to Gutenberg. To do this, the shape of the paper was put on the form and put it with his edge of his palm or a plank- reber.Gutenberg for the first time mechanized this process, building a typographic (or printed) mill. As he looked, now it is difficult to say. True, in the pre-war years in the German museum of the book and font in Leipzig, Stan Gutemberg was exposed, partially reconstructed, and partly, as approved, genuine. The story of the mill is such. At one time, Abbot Johann Trittemy (Johannes Trithemius, 1462-1516) argued that Johann Gutenberg lived in the house "Tsum Yungen". The descendants honored the memory of the Great Inventor: In the XIX century, the beer was opened in the house, which was called "Gutenberg". On May 22, 1856, the owner of Beer Balthazar Borzner, flattening an earthen floor in the basement, about 5 m from the level of the bridge found the ancient Roman coins, fragments of ceramics, chimney ties and several oak beams. At one of them, a carved inscription: J McDXLI G. The record was decrypted as the initials of Johann Gutenberg and an indication for the year 1441. The beams themselves were considered parts of the typographical machine. Dresden Collector Heinrich Klemm (Heinrich Klemm, 1819-1885) has soon acquired a find for a considerable amount. Over his order, there were no details of the mill were replenished.

Subsequently, when the Collection of the Terminal was based on the German Museum of the Book and Font, open in July 1885, the machine entered the exhibition. It was a relatively small construction structure, on the sides of which massive oak beams are vertically installed. Between them - horizontal crossbind with a labeled inscription. In the crossbar - a hole for the screw, on which the bell-shaped part with a lever for rotating the screw is strengthened. Directly on this part - the board for pressing the sheet to the set form installed on the table.

The standard cannot work in this form, because the board must be connected to the screw moving. Otherwise, when rotating the screw, it should also rotate, and vertical beams interfere.

Reconstructed Stan, not thinking over the meaning of his work. But that's not the point. In the XV century The number 400 wrote by Roman numbers is not as done now - CD, and thus: CATSS. Yes, and the name of Johann began not with the letter J. A C. I. In 1441, Gutenberg lived in Mainz, but in Strasbourg. It immediately alerted the Mainz patriots. It turned out that typography in general, and the typographic camp was in particular invented not in Mainz. And how could this camp could be in the basement of the house "Tsum Yungen". To assume that Gutenberg brought with him the machine from Strasbourg, naive. So simple design, he could construct and secondary. Therefore, the whole story with the finding part of the mill was considered fraud, so often invading gutenbudge.

Reconstruction of the printed mill of Johann Gutenberg. Gutenberg Museum in Mainz

Think about what the task was to stand in front of Gutenberg when he was going to mechanize the printed process. To get an impression with a typical form, it first needs to be covered with paint. Next, you should carefully impose a blank sheet of paper to the set. The sheet is needed tight and, which is especially important, to evenly press the form - this is the third operation. Finally, you should remove the finished print from the set. Apparently, the first, second and fourth operation of Gutenberg carried out manually. It was mechanized only to obtain an impression that happened under greater pressure.

According to experts, the specific pressure in this case should be 8.2 kg / cm 2. The total pressure when printing, for example, the 42-line Bible, the main edition of Gutenberg, can be determined by the formula: Q \u003d Pf.where r - Specific pressure, A F. - Form area.

Substituting the corresponding values \u200b\u200bfor the 42-line Bible, we have: Q. \u003d 8.2 x 19.9 x 29.0 \u003d 4518.2 kg.

Get the pressure of four and a half tons, manually pressing the sheet board to the set, it is impossible. The printed camp of Johanna Gutenberg allowed it to do, applying a relatively slight effort to the lever, leading to the rotation of the pressure screw. It was a great achievement, because it gave a significant time gain and reduced the laboriousness of the workflow.

Thinking over how to mechanize the operation of obtaining printed printing, Gutenberg as a primary can use the mechanisms that have already existed by that time to create a pressure between two horizontal planes. The first of these mechanisms is the press that was used in winemaking.

Press for winemaking

Grapes laid on the table with a drain, under which they put a barrel W. On the sides of the table were two massive vertical beams F. and FROM, in the grooves of which the horizontal board was moving TO. Pressure was created using a screw spindle AUwon in the nut fixed in the horizontal crossbar FROM Between two vertical beams. Spindle rotated with the wheel attached to it, which was driven by a rope Z, wound on the gate.

Press papermade production

A similar design had a press for crimping wet stop paper in paper producing. HERE STOP. F. placed on horizontal crossbar E.fixed between vertical beams AU. The clamp was carried out by a movable horizontal board. SNshown by the pressure screw QX. Screw rotated not shown in the drawing by the lever, which was inserted into the hole in the box R. The screw could be fixed in a certain position using a snoring mechanism.

Neither in winemaking nor in paper producing was not set the task to ensure the mechanical climbing of the pressure board after pressing. Strict parallelism of the board to the surface of the table in these cases was not required. To solve these tasks was to have Johann Gutenberg when building a typographic machine.

Strict parallelism of horizontal planes with technical means XV century could hardly be provided. The inventor of European typography decided to go on another path. Uniformity of the on the entire surface of the printed form, it provided with a soft material - tissue or parchmen, which was placed between the pressure plate and a sheet of paper lying on a lubricated paint form. The material, as it were, the non-parallelity of the planes and their irregularities. Such material was subsequently called decilla.

Apply a sheet and decol to the shape under the pressure plate, and to apply in this position the paint on the form is inconvenient. So, it was necessary to take care of the creation of a device that could periodically move the shape under the stove and back. To do this, the form was installed not directly on the table, but on the movable carriage. We see such carriages already on the engraving 1499 and on the images of the printing machine on the publishing and typographic brands of the beginning of the XVI century.

Finally, it was necessary to come up with a mechanism that would provide an accurate imposition of a sheet into a typical form. The open position carriage, equipped with a mechanism for overlaying sheets, is first depicted on the Engraving from the Swiss Chronicle, printed in Zurich in 1548 Christopher Froshauer.

Hand-made typographic machine.
Engraving from the "Swiss Chronicles". Zurich, 1548

We see here a wizard that two leather pads stuffed paint on the printed form placed in the carriage. The latter is strikingly attached a frame on which the decol is stretched. The second worker takes off this frame already printed sheet. In the future, a blank sheet of paper will be put in its place. To the decorate frame, again on the hinges, the frame was attached, which predicted the fields of the print from the paint from entering them. The frame holds this in the desired position attached to its bottom of the protrusion, resting in the table of the typographic machine. On the engraving of IOSTA Amman 1568. For this purpose, a string is served in the section, installed on the floor of the printing house.

In typography. From engravings I. Amman. 1568

Was there a mechanism for the overlay of sheets in the mills stood in the printing house of Johann Gutenberg? We think that yes, and that is why. For the accuracy of the overlay of the sheet on the decorate frame, the needles were installed on which the sheet was heated. Such needles, as well as holes formed by them in a paper sheet, are called paragraphs.So, in the editions of Johann Gutenberg, including in the 42-line Bible, there are points. Their different amounts are accommodated in different places. This allows gutenbeeds to determine how many typographic machines stood in Gutenberg's workshop.

At the beginning of the XVI century. Picture mill images are found on publishing stamps of IOSost Badia Ascene (1509), Petrus Caesar (1510), Jacob de Breda (1515), Wang Dirgon Barne (1512), Olrhřich Velensky (1519). On all these engravings, the handle is depicted to move the carriage under the pressure plate and back. Typographic mills during these years draw great artists Lucas Cranes (1520) and Albrecht Durer (1525). We, of course, we cannot demand from these engravings of technical reliability.

Typographic mill in Figure L. Kranakh 1520

Typographic Still in Figure A. Dierer. 1525

The first technically competent description of the hand-held typographic mill, accompanied by engraving, we will find in the book of the architect of the Italian city of Padua Vittorio Zondka (1568-1602) dedicated to various mechanical devices. The book saw the light in 1607

Typographic mill. Engraving from the book of V. Zondka. 1607

This is how the ceiling design is described:

"Screw a must be cast out of copper, because it is better and cleaner. It can be done from iron, but it's not so good; he must have a tetrahedral (Screw. - E.N. ) slicing. Screw enters the nut(on engraving it is not visible. - E.N. ), also made of metal, and it does not produce a screw for cross (i.e., for a horizontal transverse beam. - E.N. ). The pressure plate is also cast from non-ferrous metal to be smooth, for it should be smoothly pressed on the font. It will be worse from the iron, for with the help of the hammer it is difficult to make such a smooth ... if they want to make a pressure plate of wood, then you need to take olive wood. Below on the screw hangs a four-grained iron box D, which with a cord raises the pressure plate up. This designer has a quadrangular shape so that the screw is better pressed its conical (devoid of cutting. - E.N. ) Part of the pressure plate ... the box is attached to(devoid of cutting. - E.N. ) C. asti screw with a pin ... so that when the screw of the tank is rotated(reciprocally down and up. - E.N. ). At an altitude of 2.5 feet(73 cm - E.N. ), at which a person is convenient to work, the table E is installed, ... occupying the space between the racks with the whole design. A carriage is moving on the table, in which the font is concluded (i.e. printing form. - E.N. ).

The worker moves the carriage back and forth the handle with the help of a cord wound on the drum N. At the bottom under the carriage attached several iron strips and a few of the same - F - on the table by which the carriage, lubricated with oil, easily slides. After the worker makes the push lever in motion to itself and back, it is with a handle(In Engraving, the Printer keeps her left hand. - E.N. ) moves the cart to the right, opens the frame like the window (Open and closed carriage E is depicted at the bottom right. - E.N. ), Removes from there the printed leaf, takes with both hands filled with wool Mats M, lowers them into typographic paint from tube soot, flaxseed oil and resin, one or twice hits them with each other (more precisely, rubbing the paint with the rotational movement of Mats. - E.N. ), then stuffing the paint font, imposes a clean sheet, closes the carriage, shifts it to the left, pulling the lever in and rotating the screw A, shifts the pressure plate down and repeats the printing " .

Before the typographic mill on the floor, Engraver, illustrated by the book of Vittorio Zondka, depicted separate parts of it. Left below - a shot D. and entering it screw FROM with a conical push part. Left at the top - the carriage in the closed state and under it the mechanism handle to move the carriage. This mechanism N.separately depicted in the lower central part of the pattern. We see the drum equipped with a handle and a scrambled cord, the ends of which are attached to the carriage. Near Matza lie M.. To the right of them - frame for a set form. The frame is installed in the carriage E,which we see in the right part of the engraving.

The principle of operation of the manual typographic machine we explain the kinematic scheme.

Cinematic scheme of hand typographical machine

A typical form is enclosed in a frame installed on the carriage 1 which has the ability to reciprocate along the table 2. A decorate frame is attached to the carriage ( tympanum) 3 , and the latter - the frame ( frasket) 4 , Protecting print fields from paint. The declared frame is tightened with a leaf of a parchman leveling when printing the magnitude of the onset. On the frame, the needles are fixed, for which a sheet of paper is enshrined. After that, a fraction is lowered to the decolar frame, and then the decoble frame with a fraction is applied to a typeset form and with the help of the handle leads to rotation cylinder 5 . Last with cords 6 Moves the carriage under the pressure plate ( crucible) 7 . Tigel is suspended on cords 8 to box 9 (in Russia it was called a nut), which is movably installed on a cylindrical ledge 10 rigidly bonded with screw 11 , When moving the push lever ( cookies) 12 screw, shifting in the nut 13 , its lower devoid cutting conical part 14 Suppress the crucible to the sheet lying on top of the packed printing form. When reverse motion, the lever of the box is shifted up and raises a curtain suspended on the cords. Then the carriage, rotating using the drum handle 5 , remove from under the crucible, reveal it and remove the finished impression.

The design of the manual typographic mill, developed by Johann Gutenberg, was very rational and practical. Therefore, without fundamental constructive changes, he served mankind long enough. The reasons for this recently analyzed the leading German historian Claus V. Gerhardt in the article with a very characteristic name: "Why Guhetenberg press was replaced by the best system only after 350 years

Ink

The composition of the paint became one of the components of the invention of Johann Gutenberg. Apply the paint that was used in the printing of sheet engravings and all-gravified books, it could not, for the paint was on the metal surface otherwise than on a wooden. An experienced way should be selected new components.

It must be said that the publication of Johann Gutenberg, and above all, the 42-lower case Bible is striking us with black-black, slightly flashing text stripes that seem printed only yesterday.

The first printers made paint from soot, which was mixed with flaxseed oil - Olifa. All sorts of additives played an important role. This became known relatively recently - in the 1980s as a result of research conducted by the Interdisciplinary Research Group of the University of California in Davis (USA). A group under the leadership of Richard N. Schwab, Thomas A. Kakhill and Bruce A. Kuzco. In 1982-1986 Integratedly studied old-line editions, published in Mainz and Bamberg, and among them and the 42-lower case Bible.

Among additives, copper, sulfur and lead were found among additives. Metal components are quite characteristic of the material that was used by the inventor of typography. In the paint of other early editions they are not found. The exception is only the 36-lower case Bible; This indirectly proves that she is the work of Gutenberg.

Nothing is known yet, in what form and how these components were added to the paint and whether it was deliberately related or not. According to the Researchers of the University of California, it is the lead that is responsible for the unusual brilliance of the text bands of Gutenberg publications.

Notes

1. Quote. by: Lichtenstein E.S. Word about the book. Aphorisms. Reception. Literary quotes. M., 1984. P. 68-69.

2. Vernadsky V.I. Selected works on the history of science. M., 1981. P. 82.

3. Nemirovsky E.L.New ways of printing. M., 1956. P. 141- 144.

4. Vernadsky V.I.Decree. op. P. 88.

5. Hunter C.R. The Script of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro and Its Connection with Other Scripts. L., 1934.

6. Wiesemann D.J. Cotter Und Menschen Im Rollsiegel Westasiens. Praha, 1958.

7. Fedorov-Davydov G.L. Coins are told. (Numismatics). M., 1963. P. 21.

8. Spassky I.G. Russian coin system. Historical and numismatic essay. L., 1962.

9. Hamanova P. Z Dejin Knizni Vazby. Praha, 1959. S. 21.

10. Loubier H. Der Bucheinband In Alter und Neuer Zeit. Berlin; Leipzig, 1926.

11. Molchanov A.A. The mysterious writers of the first Europeans. M., 1980. P. 21.

12. Bekshtrem A. Mysterious disc // Magazine of the Ministry of Folk Enlightenment (SHMNP). St. Petersburg., 1911. No. 12.

13. Molchanov A.A.Decree. op. P. 52.

14. CICERO, MARCUS TULLIUS. De Natura Deorum. De diuinatione. De Fato. De Legibus, etc. Cum Additione Raphaelis Zovenzonii. , 1471. LIB. II. Cap. twenty.

15. Ruppel A. Die Technil Gutenbergs und Ihre vorstufen. Dusseldorf, 1961. S. 13-14.

16. IBID. S. 14.

17. Vernadsky V.I. Decree. op. P. 92.

18. QUINTILIANUS, MARCUS FABIUS. Institute Oratoria / Red. Omnibnus Leonicenus. : Nucolaus Jenson 21 V 1471. LIB. 1. CAP. 2. PAR. 21.

19. Hupp O.Die PRUFENINGER WEIHINSCHRIFT VOM JAHR 1119 // Studien Aus Kunst Und Geschichte. Freiburg, 1906. S. 185 FF.

20. Lehman-Haupt H. English HoiztempelarPhabete Des 13. Jahrhunderts // Gutenberg-Jahrbuch. Mainz, 1940. S. 93-97.

21. Bock F. Die Einbande Des Nurnberger Dominikaners Konrad Forster // Jahrbuch Der Einbandkunst. 1928. BD. 2. S. 14-32.

22. Kyriss E. Nurnberger KlostereinBande der Jahre 1433 BIS 1525. Dissertation. BAMBERG, 1940.

23. Kyriss E. SchriftDruck VOR Gutenberg // Gutenberg-Jahrbuch. Mainz, 1942. S. 40-48.

24. Stromer W. GESPORNTE Lettern. Leitfossilien des Stempeldrucks (CF. 1370-1490) // Gutenberg-Jahrbuch. Mainz, 1996. S. 61-64.

25. Bock F. Op. CIT.

26. Hussing M. Neues Material Zur Frage Des Stempeldrucks VOR Gutenberg // Gutenberg-Festschrift. Mainz, 1925. S. 66-72.

27. Stromer W.Vom Stempeldruck Zurn Hochdruck. Forster Und Gutenberg // Johannes Gutenberg. Regionale Aspekte Des Fruhen Buchdrucks. B., 1993. S. 47-92.

28. Forrer R. Die Zeugdrucke Der Byzantinischen, Romanischen Und Spatern Kunstepochen. Strassburg, 1894.

29. Bachmann M., Reitz C. Der Blaudruck. Leipzig, 1962. S. 5.

30. Yakunina L.I.Russian printed fabrics of the XVI-XVII centuries. M., 1954. P. 15.

31. Kunze H. GESCHICHTE DER BUCHILLUSTRATION IN DEUTSCHLAND. DAS 15. JAHRHUNDERT. Leipzig, 1975. S. 83-84.

32. IBID. S. 83-84.

33. Channini C.Book of art, or treatise on painting. M., 1933. P. 119-120.

34. Pow-Key Sohn. Early Korean Printing // Der Gegenwartige Stand Der Gutenberg-Forschung. Stuttgart, 1972. S. 217.

35. Loehr M. Chinese landscape woodcuts. Cambridge, 1968. P. 1.

36. Goodrich L.c.Two New Discoveris of Early Block Prints // Der Gengenwartige Stand Der Gutenberg-Forschung. Stuttgart, 1972. S. 214.

37. Liu Gotsun.Story about the Chinese book. M., 1957. P. 49.

38. Grivnin B.c.The history of development and the current state of book publishing in Japan // Book. Research and materials. 1961. Sat. 4. P. 287-314.

39. Akihiro Kinoshita, Keiichi Ishikawa. Early Printing History in Japan // Gutenberg-Jahrbuch. Mainz, 1998. S. 31-32.

40. Liu Gotsun.Decree. op. P. 46-47.

41. Flug K.K. The history of the Chinese printed book of the Sun era X-X111 centuries. M.; L., 1959. P. 29-30; Carter th.f.The Invention of Printing In China and Its Spread Westward. L., 1925. P. 25.

42. Quote. by: journal asiatique. P., 1905. Vol. 5. P. 5-75.

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45. Neruda P.Ode typography / / Song of the book. Anthology. Minsk, 1977. P. 108-109.

46. Keenan E.L. Paper for the TSAR: A Letter of Ivan IV of 1570 // Oxford Slavonik Papers. 1971. Vol. 4. P. 21-29.

47. Bucher.GESCHICHTE DER TECHNISCHEN KUNSTE. BD. 1. S. 370.

48. Linde A. GESCHICHTE DER ERFINDUNG DER BUCHDRUCKERKUNST. B., 1886. BD. 34. S. 678.

49. Botto S.Chroneken Von Der Sassen. Mainz, 1492. 6.111. Bl. 284 r.

50. Linde A. Op. CIT.

51. IBID. S. 679.

52. SACKS H.Eygentliche Beschreibung Aller Stande Auff Erden, Hoher VND Nidriger, Geistlicher Und Weltlicher, Aller Kunten, Handvercken und Handein. Franckfurt am Mazn, 1568. BL. .

53. Schmidt W. Beitrag Zur Geschichte des Hoizschnittes. Munchen, 1886. S. 14; Linde A.Op. CIT. S. 678.

54. Kristenler P.The history of the European engraving of the XV-XVIII century. M., 1939. P. 29.

55. Description Engravings: Schreiber W.L. Manuel De L "AMATEUR DE LA GRAVURE SUR BOIS ET SUR METAL AU XV Sieckle. B., 1891. Vol. 1. № 1395, 1677.

56. Kunze H.GESCHICHTE DER BUCHILLUSTRATION IN DEUTSCHLAND. DAS 15. JAHRHUNDERT. Leipzig-, 1975. S. 100.

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58. Friedlander M.J.Der Holzschnitt. Berlin; Leipzig, 1921. S. 18.

59. Heinecken k..h. von. IDEE Generale D * Une Collection Complete D "Estampes. Leipzig; Vienne, 1771. P. 250.

60. DIBDIN TH.F. Bibliotheca Spenceriana; Or a Descriptive Catalogue of The Books Printed in the Fifteenth Century. L., 1814. Vol. 1. P. I-IV.

61. Kristenler P.The history of the European engraving of the XV-XVIII century. M., 1939. P. 11.

62. CIET. by: Chen Yansyao. Lou Xin and a wood engraving. M., 1956. P. 46-47.

63. Suru M.V. Playing Cards of Past and Present // Gutenberg-Jahrbuch. Mainz, 1938. S. 38.

64. Rosenfeld H.Zur Geschichte der Spielkarten. // Die Schonten Deutschen Spielkarten. Leipzig, 1964. S.37.

65. Reisig O.DeutscheSpielkarten. Leipzig, 1935. S. 35.

66. Schulze K. Spielkarten Aus Fiinf Jahrhunderten // Sachsische HeimatBlatter. 1967. N 3. S. 105.

67. CARY M.M.Playing Cards of Past and Present. S. 39.

68. Schreiber W.L.Dart Dar Hoizschnitt Als Vorstufe Der Buchdruckerkunst Behandelt Werden? // Zentralblatt Fur Bibliothekswesen. 1895. BD. 12. S. 201.

69. Kunze H.GESCHICHTE DER BUCHILLUSTRATION IN DEUTSCHLAND. DAS 15. JAHRHUNDERT. Leipzig, 1975. S. 115.

70. Kocowski B. Drzeworytowe Ksiazki SReniewiecza. Wroclaw, 1974. S.16.

71. Fischer S.Beschreibung Typographischer Seltenheiten Und Merkwurdigen Handschriften, NEBST Beitragen Zur EfrindungsGeschichte der Buchdruckerkunst. Nurnberg, 1801. LFG. 3. S. 86.

72. Heinecken K.h. IDEE Generale D "Une Collection Complete D" Estampes, Avec Une Dissertation Sur Vorigine De La Gravure, Et Sur Les Premiers Livres Damages. Leipzig; Vienne, 1771. P. 257.

73. Bakhtiars A.A.Johann Gutenberg. His life and activities in connection with the history of typography. SPB., 1892. P. 22; The same // Guugenberg. WATT. Stephenson and Fulton. Dagerr and Nieps. Edison and Morse. Bibliographic narrations. Chelyabinsk, 1996. P. 29.

74. Linde A.Op. CIT. BD. 1. S. 5-9.

75. Zapf c.w. AELTESTE BUCHDRUCKGESCHICHTE VON MAINZ VON DERSELBEN ERFINDUNG BIS AUF DAS JAHR 1499. ULM, 1790. S. 21.

76. Quote. by: Linde A.Op. CIT. BD. 1. S.6.

77. MapinPoavich B. Bibliography about our Cyril Staff, Stacpara and the Book of the XV, XVI and XVII Table. Cetina, 1991. KN .. 4. P. 225-235.

78. Quote. by: Schaab S.A.Die Geschichte der Erfindung der Buchdruckerkunst. Mainz, 1830. BD. 1. S.IV.

79. Manni D.Delia Prima Promulgazione de Libri in Firenze. Firenze, 1761.

80. Collection published to the 400th anniversary of a typography in Florence: Quarto Centenario Cenniniano. Firenze. 1871.

105. Heat L.P.Ivan Sumy is a typography inventor / / Stalinist printer. 1949. March 29. № 4. P. 3-4; Sidorov A.A. On the issue of Ivan the Sildren and the invention of typography // ibid. 1949. Apr 30. № 7. P. 4.

106. Klaproth J.h.Lettre A M. Le Baron Alexandre De Humboldt Sur L "Invention De La Boussole. P., 1832. P. 131-132; Browne E.g.Persian Literature Under the Tartar Dominion. Cambridge, 1920, P. 176-178.

107. Spafar N.G.The description of the first part of the Universe, called Asia, in it consists of a Chinese state with other cities and provinces. Kazan, 1910. P. 25.

108. Jixing Pan.A Comparative Research of Early Movable Metal-Type Printing Technique in China, Korea and Europe // Gutenberg-Jahrbuch. Mainz, 1998. S. 40.

109. International Symposium on the Printing History in East and West // Gutenberg-Jahrbuch. Mainz, 1998. S.24.

110. KAPR A.. Schrift- und buchkunst. Leipzig, 1982. S. 99.

111. Hamanova P.Z Dejin Knizni Vazby OD Nejstarsich Dob Do Konce XIX. Stol. Praha, 1959. S. 15.

112. Schunke I. EINFUHRUNG IN DIE EINBANDBESTIMMUNG. Dresden, 1977. S. 11-12.

113. Simoni P.Assembly of salary images on Russian liturgical books of the XII-XIV centuries. St. Petersburg., 1910.

114. Wokova T., Piselskaya A.Facial manuscript of the Assumption Cathedral. The gospel of the early XV century from the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. L., 1969.

115. Kyriss E.Der Verzierte Europaische Einband Vor Der Renaissance. Stuttgart, 1957.

116. Hamanova P. Op. CIT. S. 19-25.

117. Kyriss E. Verzierte Gotische Einbande Im Alten Deutschen SprachgebiIt. Stuttgart, 1954.

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119. SACKS H. EIGENTLICHE BESCHREIBUNG ALLER STANDE AUFF ERDEN. Frankfurt am Main, 1568. IBID. FaksimilrReproduction. Leipzig, 1966.

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121. Quote. by: Stroyev P.M. Description of old-line books of Slavic, located in the library of Ivan Nikitich Tsarsky. M., 1836. P. 434.

122. RGAD. F. 1182. 0P.1. Kn. 3. L. 94.

123. RGAD. F. 1182. OP. 1. KN. 3. L. 95.

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125. RGAD. F. 1182. 0P.1. Kn. 8. L. 137.

126. Varbanese, N.V. Johann Gutenberg and the beginning of a typography in Europe. The experience of the new material reading. M., 1980; Nemirovsky E.L.Johann Gutenberg. About 1399-1468. M., 1989; Ruppel A.Johannes Gutenberg. Sein Leben und sein. WERK.3. Auflage. Nieuwkoop, 1967; KAPR A.Johannes Gutenberg. Personlichkeit und Leistung. Leipzig, 1986. Clearing a bibliography: MCMURTRIE D.C.The Invention of Printing. A bibliography. Chicago, 1942.

127. Zulch W.x., Mori C. Frankfurter Urkundenbuch Zur Fruhgeschichte des Buchdruck. Frankfurt am Main, 1920. S. 16.

128. Carter H. A View of Early Typography. Oxford, 1969. P. 21. Fig. nine.

129. Quote. by: Kohler J.D. Hochverdiente Und Aus Bewahrten Urkunden Wohibglaubte Ehrenrettung Johannes Gutenbergs. Leipzig, 1741. S. 43. Wed Schaab S. Op. CIT. BD. 1. S. 155.

130. Serarius N.Moguntiarurn Rerum. LIBR. V. Moguntiae, 1604. P. 159.

143. Nemirovsky E.L.Ivan Fedorov. About 1510-1583. M., 1985. P. 224.

144. REED T.B.A History of the Old Russian Letter Foundries. L., 1952. P. 18-20.

145. Biringuccio V. De La Pirotechnia. Libri X. Venedig, 1540. Text of casting a liter on l. 13806. The second edition of the book saw the light in 1550. Also a new German translation: Biringuccios. Pirotechnia. EIN Lehrbuch Der Chemisch-Metallurgischen Technologie Aus Dem 16. Jahrhundert. Braunschweig, 1925. S. 144.

146. Schmidt-Kunsemuller F.A. Gutenbergs Schritt in Die Technik // Die Gegenwartige Stand Der Gutenberg-Forschung. Stuttgart, 1972. S. 131.

147. MOXON J.Mechanick Expercises; Or The Doctrine of HandyWorks, AppLied to the Art of Printing. L., 1683. Vol. 2.

148. Cessner Ch.f.Die so nottig als nutziiche Buchdruckerkunst und Schriftgiessery, mit ihren Schriften, Formaten und alien dazu gehorigen Instrumenten abgebildet, auch klarlich beschrieben, und nebst einer kurzgefassten Erzahiung von Vursprung und Fortgang der Buchdruckerkunst, iiberhaupt, isonderheit von den vornehmsten Buchdruckern in Leipzig und andern Orten Teutschlandes IM 300 JAHRE NACH ERFINDUNG DERSELBEN ANS LICH GESTELLT. Leipzig, 1740-1745.

149. La Danse Macabre. Lyon: 11/18/1499 / 1500. Reproduction: Kunze H. Das Grosse Buch Vom Buch. B., 1983. S. 73.

Johann Gutenberg (approx. 1397-1468)

The first book of mankind is considered to be talked - the stones on which the Ten Commandments of Moses were inscribed.

Gutenberg made attempts to invent a device that would allow to replicate books. The letters were cut into solid material, for example on a wooden plate, painted, and paper was superimposed on top. This method was called embossed. Basically, before the Middle Ages, the monks in the monasteries were engaged in the penis.

Gutenberg's parents were wealthy people, they entered the Mainza Board - Burgomistratus. Presumably, Johann listened to lectures at the University of Erfurt. At about 20 years, he went to Strasbourg. In someone else's city, he had to be not easy, the noble origin did not give any privileges. His ancestors in Mainz in ancient times printed their own coins, made jewelry, so the young man began to study the jewelry. He quickly became a good master, outlined mirrors, ornamental stones came out of his hands.

In the same place, Johann saw the printers worked, painstakingly cut the letter in the stoves. Taking one of the boards, he looked at it for a long time, trying to imagine how to simplify the process. At first, as evidenced by the chronicles of the time, he cut the boards, allocated phrases, words and gradually reached the manufacture of a separate letter. Now it remained to make a lot of alphabet letters, decompose them in cells - and the typographic set is ready. This was invented a typical font.

A small German town of Mainz is considered a tiptop of typography. In it in 1397, according to other information - at 1400, Johann Gutenberg was born, the inventor of the printed machine. Before this device appears, the book was considered a huge heritage, rare and highly appreciated. The production of one copy of the book was spent months, sometimes years of labor correspondencers, artists. To have a library in the property could afford only a very rich man.

Unfortunately, wooden letters quickly failed. I needed another, more durable material. Meanwhile, Johann returned to Mainz. Seeing the material for the font, he stopped on the tin and began to cast it in the form of letters - liteers. It was the second invention! A prominent citizen of Johann Fast responded to his proposal to create a book printing machine, who had to taste the idea to receive income from printing books. The contract was signed by the notary, the money was allocated, and Johann took up work.

On August 24, 1455, Gutenberg imprinted the Bible in Latin in two volumes. Capital letters in the book by tradition were given by hand. It was the first publishing publication printed. But neither Gutenberg did not manage to make money on it, nor his companion Fusta - the new books did not receive the demand for which they expected.

The Fast filed to Gutenberg to the court, and by the court decision, he returned all his property to him. Mainza appeared typography of Fust and his new companion of Schoffer.

But Gutenberg did not lower his arms, he got into debts, created another typography and imprinted the grammar textbook of the Latin language, released calendars, psalrty - only about 50 books. But during his lifetime, he did not receive any awards and recognized and died quietly in unmanned.

His adulsion of Fusta suffered a sad fate - in Paris on denominations of monks who considered the typographic printing of the Satanic business, he was put in prison, where he spent the rest of his days.

And only in 1804, with the support of Napoleon across Europe, they began to collect money for the monument to the primitive Gutemberg. Since that time, his name entered the story.

Johann Gutenberg

Johann Gutenberg (Heinzfleshi) was born in the noble family in Mainz not earlier than 1394 and no later than 1399. The date of birth of Gutenberg for the anniversaries is conditional to be considered on June 24, 1400. He was famous, and hereditary, jeweler, knew how to grind precious stones, cast decorations from noble metals, making gold frames to mirrors. It would seem that you earn how much you can and rejoice in life. But Gutenberg had a dream. He wanted to print books.

Printing Machine Guenberg

In 1440, Gutenberg produced a real revolution in a print case, inventing a moving font - separate listers that allowed to recruit a variety of texts. The very first printed book is the so-called "Sivallin Book" (poem in German), the exit to the light of which researchers belong to approximately 1445. Hence the invention of typography can be dated no later than 1445. The work was followed by the strictest mystery: the invention undermined the basis of the activities of the correspondence, capable of going to everything, just to preserve their craft. The clergy was to fear, in whose hands was a monopoly on reading and on the letter. In addition, the news of the new method of manufacturing books would immediately lead to the fall of their value. Therefore, Gutenberg's books, as, however, and all the first books, imitated the gothic manuscripts, they were even given for handwritten.

Until 1456, practically no material support from the part, he cast at least five different fonts, printed Latin grammar Elia Donat (several sheets had reached us and stored in the National Library in Paris), several papal indulgences and two Bibles, 36 - Strong, and 42-line. After that, Gutenberg, by the court decision, was forced to give a typography of an unscrupulous companion, a person who practically did not sponsored the activities of the bookprint, but she tried to squeeze out of the printing house of Gutenberg any possible extra penny for himself.

Gutenberg had to start the case from scratch. In 1460, he managed to release the essay of Johann Balb from Genoa called "Catholicon" (Latin grammar with a dictionary). Gutenberg died in 1468 not the most fortunate businessman, but by a person, forever changed the history of the world due to the invention of typography. His invention quickly spread throughout Europe. Already by 1500, the printing houses worked in more than 200 cities of various countries, the total number of printing houses approached 2000.

Page from "Catholicon"

There are currently no reliable images of Gutenberg. All his portraits belong to a later time and are the fruit of fantasy artists.

In addition to the Gutenberg font, other inventions belong: press for printing a liter; thick black opaque typographical paint, convenient for applying dozens of tiny liter; The alloy for casting individual font elements is not too soft, but not too hard, thanks to which the font was not fraught, but durable; A glorious manual device that has provided the standard literature and the mass of its manufacture. The device was a hollow metal rod with a removable bottom wall made of soft metal, on which the drawing of the letter was knocked out with a solid stamp - Punson. The font was cut off with the smallest tools (this is where Gutenberg was useful for the messenger of the cutter!). The inventive genius of Gutenberg gave life and grid (since then, all modular font elements were placed and limited to the space of the frame), and various types of font due to the operating possibility of mechanical playback of letters. Thus, the grid and font, two main components of graphic design, are applied for more than 500 years!

Thus, Johann Gutenberg belongs to the honor of creating the entire typographic process as a whole. For the XV century, its invention was more than innovative, and the letter was the first standard part in the history of world technology.

The famous work of Gutenberg is the printed 42-lower case Bible (so-called Mazarini Bible). This only book, reliably published by Gutenberg, was printed in Mainz around 1450. Its design dates back to handwritten biblical texts that have been bought in those times. This was reflected, first of all, in dividing the page for two columns and in the forms of a Liter in the style of a German "black", or a gothic letter. The elements of the enveloping plants drawn from hand were added later - to enhance decorativeness. The design imitates the handwritten style, but it is transformed by the means of graphic design - by using an ordered, unified font placed within the mesh borders.

Turn Bible Gutenberg.

Hans Gunsflash, or Johann Gutenberg, was born in recent years of the XIV century in the major German city of Mainz in the second marriage of the Mainz Patricia Friel Gensfleysh and Nepataritsianki - Daughter of the Virih Tsum Gutemberg. Freile and Elza had two sons and daughter - it was the younger son who received the name Johann (naturally, the General Shefflesh). Later, as a result of many life peripetias, he took the name of the generic estate of mother - Gutenberg as a surname - and forever entered the story as the inventor of a fundamentally new way of printing.

The Gensflashie had a hereditary privilege of coin chasing, so the Johanna's interest to jewelry work, manifested with him since the youngsters, is clear.

In the XV century, the revolutionary movement of workshops was particularly worried. In Mainz, it took place when Johann was still a boy (1411) and boys (1420).

During the rebellion of workshops, some members of the genus of the genusflash and family families were forced to leave Mainz. This fate has suffered and family Johann. According to another version, the family moved to the neighboring Strasbourg for the reason that the city consisted in the feudal distribution with his suzeraine, Bishop Nassau.

In culturally, a significant difference between these two Rhine cities was that Mainz was the center of one of the most important archbishops, whereas in Strasbourg, church influence was weaker. But Strasbourg was known for the more successful development of humanistic movement. This played a role in the formation of the future of the great inventor, given that in the XV century the development of human society approached the period when typography became simply necessary both for the further progress of society and for processing the ever-increasing amount of information.

It is not known to reliably about the children's and youth years of Johann. Not even a year of his birth was not installed, since the baptism records were not found. It is considered that he was born between 1394-1399, and his birth is observing the day of John the Baptist - July 24, 1400.

There are no reliable information about his teaching and education, although the knowledge of Latin, at least passive, he possessed, and therefore he studied in the parish, city or monastic school. In addition, Johann thoroughly knew the jewelry business and had the title of Master, without which he would not have the right to train, and Gutenberg professionally trained in Strasbourg jewelry technique of his students.

Certain biographical information about the life of Gutenberg starts only from 1434, and the first reliable document indicates that at that time Gutenberg lived in Strasbourg. He was golden master. Gootenberg connected with outstanding technical abilities, and others connected with this main occupation - for example, grinding stones for jewelry. Its the first printed experiments are dating 1440, these were "Latin grammar" Elia Donata, astrological calendar, papal indulgences.

In 1444, Gutenberg leaves Strasbourg and returns to Mainz, where it is accepted for preparing for the printing of the full Bible in Latin.

In his native city, Gutenberg brought a fully developed idea of \u200b\u200bthe invention of typographical printing, and in 1445 or in 1446 he began continuously typing books.

To Gutenberg, the most perfect samples of European printing craft were folk paintings, often with several lines of text explaining their content. The technique of making these paintings is this: paint pissors made on a wooden (usually pears) drawing and signatures. All parts of the blackboard free from the drawing were deepened, cut out, and the drawing became convex. The board was covered with paint, put a sheet of paper on it and put it with a tree. Ottisk.

Of course, with such primitive technical means, there was nothing to think about reproducing books with streamlined text, because the cutting and printing and printing process would be scary long and expensive. In addition, the wooden font quickly was worn at repeated embossed - after the manufacture of only a few copies it would have to start a difficult case cutting text on the boards.

Compared to all existing to Gutenberg, ways to transfer information advantage of typography were to:

Significant facilitating the manufacture of printed form, which was compiled from pre-prepared technical elements and parts;

The possibilities of repeated reuse of them;

General to simplify and facilitate the entire process of accumulation and transmission of information.

The essence of the invention of the printing house was technically concluded that, laying out a letter to composite elements (letters, punctuation marks, etc., including a blank material), to ensure the most rational method of unlimited production of each literature and the possibility in any sequence to be a printed form. This required standardization and interchangeability of a liter on the kebul (litera height) and the growth (leg length).

The main problem was the method of font production. To do this, it was necessary to create a constant sample of each literature - mirrored and convex engraved Punson, with which the form (matrix) for casting was minted. Providing the casting in the same Kehele and the growth of a solid tool due to different height and width of the alphabet letters was obliged to have sliding walls. Therefore, it should be invented by different metal compositions: solid and non-typical for Punson and softer - for the matrix. The alloy for the font was required as a lightweight (so that he takes the shape of the thinnest lines of the letter), and sufficient hardness, but without fragility (so that he maintained pressure, not deforming and not breaking down, and at the same time she also did not tear the paper). For printing from the metal, a different - fat - the composition of the paint, which is suitable for water paint suitable for xylography. The dissyguing mechanization was also necessary - a printing mill, not counting already delivering solutions (for example, a method for securing paper when printing).

Gutenberg has created the first typographic equipment, invented a new way of making the font and made a gradious form. From the solid metal, stamps were made (Punsons), carved in the mirror image, which were then pressed into a soft and militant copper plate. The matrix was obtained, she was also flooded with a metal alloy developed by Gutenberg, which included tin, lead, antimony. The essence of this method of manufacturing letters consisted that they could be cast in any quantity.

Gutenberg, obviously, belonged to the introduction of the first set of office (an inclined wooden box with cells, which placed the letters and punctuation signs), and the largest innovation in printing - the creation of a printed machine. Gutenberg's printing press was extremely simple - the screw press, the whole made of wood, its performance was small.

But the typography has deprived the earnings of the copist monks, so they did not cost anything to declare the creation of the inventor of the devilishman, and His dealership of Satan. The fact that such a persecution was quite real for Gutenberg, proves burning in the Cologne of the first copies of the printed Bible, as the hands of Satan's hands.

Around 1445, the so-called "Seville book" was published from under the Gutemberg printed Machine - an old poem in German. Currently, it is not known in any specimen, and until the end of the XIX century, no one suspected its existence. In 1892, a small block of paper was discovered in Mainz - everything that remained from the book, which had about 74 pages, 28 lines in each. In its content, this piece of paper got the name "Fragment of a terrible court" and is stored in the Museum of Gutenberg in Mainz. Also Johann was printed by an astronomical calendar for 1448, that is, there are every reason to believe that he was printed no later than 1447.

The first printed production of Gutenberg was small brochures and one-colors; For larger work, he did not have capital and had to look for it from others. Therefore, at the beginning of 1450, Gutenberg joined the community with a rich Mainz Burger Johann Fust, who lent the Cash. At the same time, the project of the capital edition began to master the thoughts of Gutenberg - the plan for that time was grand. It was assumed to publish the full text of the Bible in Latin. It was for this work that Gutenberg had to hold large amounts of money from Fust. There is information that an independent workshop was equipped for the Bible printing.

In 1450-1455, Gutenberg printed its first Bible, called 42-line, since 42 lines of text in two columns are scored on each page. In the book of 1282 pages, all artistic elements are illustrated by hand. Part of the circulation was performed on paper, and part is printed on parchment.

For a long time, Gutenberg's Bible was revered as the first printed book in general, because the publication, which was previously, in its volume, rather deserved the names of the brochure. In addition, this is the first book that has reached us entirely, moreover, in a rather large number of copies, while all previous preserved only in fragments. In terms of its design, the 42-lower case bible belongs to the number of beautiful books, and as for its value in the XIX - early 20th century, then for any other book they did not pay such fabulous amounts. Unfortunately, after the printing has begun, there was a gap between Gutenberg and a fust, as a result of which Gutenberg was eliminated from the work of the second typography. In the midst of work on the Bible Fust demanded the return of the loan. Due to the impossibility of paying the lion's part of the debt, a trial arose, ending for Gutenberg tragically: he lost not only the premises, but also a significant part of the equipment for its first typography. As part of the lost, the matrices of the first Gutenberg font were lost; Although the font itself, he has already been strongly shot down, remained the property of Gutenberg.

By the way, Johann Gutenberg reproduced the mechanical way alone, and all sorts of decorations and illustrations were drawn in ready-made prints. In 1457, Peter Shefficient (approx. 1425-1503) on the psaltry pages managed to reproduce multicolored initials - initials and their publishing sign. Together with Gutenberg, they were going to improve the book print.

The brilliant creative intent of Gutenberg and Schaffer was finished, apparently, in one sperm, and the profit from the release of the Bible flowed into the pocket of Johann Fust. But the most severe blow for Gutenberg was that the secret of printing ceased to be a secret, and thus he lost the monopoly of the application of the process invented. Under the established conditions, Gutenberg could not withstand the competition of his rich opponent and, having released several small books, stopped the case. He managed to resume printing only for a short time in 1460-1462, but after plotting and fire in Mainz, on October 28, 1462, Gutenberg no longer performed in the role of Printedry.

At the beginning of 1465, Archbishop Mainzsky (Bishop Nassau) as a reward for merit in a typography case included Gutenberg to his court state, which at the time was equal to the appointment of a pension.

Johann Gutenberg died on February 3, 1468 and was buried in Mainz in the Church of Franciscans.

Franz Mering wrote: "A long and fierce dispatch about the valid inventor of a typography will never be resolved ... Gutenberg made the last decisive step in this direction ... And it doesn't diminish his merit at all ..."

The invention of the Johann Gutenberg mechanical printing facilitated:

The spread of the book as the basis of knowledge, so necessary humanity for the development of society;

The formation and improvement of national and international literature;

Development of literacy in general, education and culture.

"The wonderful art of typography was invented in Mainz. This is the art of arts, science science. Its extreme productivity allowed to rescue the treasures of knowledge and wisdom from the darkness to enrich and enlighten the world. " (V. Rolevinka, 1474).

"We can and should start the story of our scientific worldview from the opening of a typography" (V. I. Vernadsky).

"More than gold changed the world lead, and more that in typographic lites, rather than the one in bullets" (Mr. X. Lichtenberg).

Pook printing - "The second redemption of the human race" (Martin Luther).