The most ancient civilizations in the world. Ancient civilizations of the world: list, review and interesting facts What is a global civilization

The current stage of civilization development, characterized by the increasing integrity of the world community, the formation of a unified generallylanet civilization. Globalization is primarily connected with the internationalization of all social activities on Earth. This internationalization means that in the modern era, all of humanity enters a single system of socio-economic, political, cultural and other relations and relations.

The growing intensity of global relationships contributes to the dissemination throughout the planet those forms of social, economic and cultural life, knowledge and values \u200b\u200bthat are perceived as optimal and most effective to meet personal and social needs. In other words, there is an all increasing system of sociocultural life of various countries and regions of the globe. The basis of the unification is the creation of a generallylanet system of public division of labor, political institutions, information, communications, transport, etc. The intersalizational dialogue is a specific tool for socio-cultural interaction.

In cultural studies, some of the most general principles of the inter-civilization dialogue are recorded:
1) the assimilation of progressive experience, as a rule, occurs when the intercivorization features of each community, culture and mentality of the people are maintained;
2) each community takes from the experience of other civilizations only those forms that it is able to master within their cultural possibilities;
3) the elements of another civilization transferred to another soil acquire a new appearance, new quality;
4) As a result of the dialogue, modern global civilization acquires not only the form of a holistic system, but also internally diverse, pluralistic character. In this civilization, the homogeneity of social, economic and political forms is combined with the cultural manifold.

Researchers also note that in this dialogue at the present stage, the Western influence prevails and, consequently, the basis of the dialogue is the values \u200b\u200bof Western technogenic civilization. However, in recent decades, the importance of the results of the socio-economic and cultural development of Eastern and traditional societies becomes increasingly noticeable.

Narker pre-industrial, industrial and post-industrial types of civilization.

Dopduxional ("Traditional") Civilization (covered all countries to approximately the XVII-XVIII centuries) developed on the basis of agrarian and handicraft production with the predominance of manual labor instruments. The main energy source was the muscular power of a person or an animal.

The form of a social organization is a community, within which the relationship of rent - tax, personal dependence of the employee from the owner of the means of production (feudal or state). Culture was based on the sustainable traditions of the social hierarchy. The person followed the stereotypes of group behavior, honored the power, was more oriented not to external transformations, but on the internal self-control, self-regulation.

Industrial activity becomes the leading sphere of society. Based on Industrial ("technogenic") civilization It is a machine-technological type associated with the energy of a variety of forces of nature, scientific information programs.

Specialization of production occur, synchronization of social processes based on centralization of management, standardization and maximizing material and spiritual needs. Forms of social organization are based on private ownership of the means of production, economic independence of the manufacturer, market competition, political pluralism. This civilization is characterized by a dynamic type culture, focused on the active development of external reality, the search for new, criticism with respect to the susceptible socio-cultural regulators.

Anticipation of such ("Information") civilization Contained in Marxism, Russian Sosmists (N. F. Fedorova, V. I. Vernadsky) Humanists of the XX century. (Ethics of non-violence L. I. Tolstoy, M. Gandhi). Such civilization was distinguished by the special energy power of information that promotes the creation of fundamentally new tools and technologies, liberating all spheres of human activity from the routine. Subject to the approval of the forms of life based on sustainable democracy and the culture of a new type, - global, planetary, with its ideals of spaceship, communications, mutual understanding, information technology is able to give an effect. Stages of ecotechnological development are:

1) society with mining technologies;

2) the domination of agrarian and craft technologies;

3) priority of industrial technologies;

4) Society with service technologies.

Intellectual technology makes it possible to plan technological development. Professional differentiation protrudes instead of class. Knowledge becomes a phenomenon of post-industrialism. Instead of material incentives for work (as the main), motives associated with increasing demands on creative labor content, environmental and interpersonal culture, are put forward to the fore. The post-industrial society mainly solves the problems of material, well-being and social security of man.

To judge the ancient civilizations, it is necessary to know the framework of this historical period of human life on the planet. And also something that prepared for this transition of previous generations. The framework of the ancient world is opened from the prehistoric period (primitive-free system) before the start of the Middle Ages in Europe. In India and China, they were others.

So, Europe (Greek and Roman history) in classical antiquity or antiquity. The beginning of it was supposed in 776 to our era (another version - on the basis of Rome in 753). The end of antiquity is the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476 years of our era), according to other standards - from the emergence of the Islam religion (622), or the beginning of the board of Karl the Great (742 or 748). At least, from his behalf, the word "king" went to walk around the world - from Latin Carolus.

Prehistoric time was not fruitless in the geopolitical sense, improving the instruments of labor. The process received powerful development in bronze and iron centuries. Recall that the Empire of Persians "stamped" by the Iron Age. Below will present it, as well as the most ancient civilizations of the world (list). But before you will get acquainted with the concept of "empire."

What is the empire?

Any public education is based on a specific pattern, which must answer a number of important points. The presence of capital (title) people or nation, the boundaries of the territory, the main bodies of managing the whole life, structures capable of reliably protect the people.

The country can stand in power the emperor, but it does not become an empire from this. The state is even very large, differs from the Empire. The empire must be multinational and combining many cultures, the advantages of a separate part for use throughout the Empire, even if they are on different steps of human development.

Yes, empires have a negative character. But history shows that it is such supranational formations that give a gigantic impetus to progress. Even in the Middle Ages. In such cases, all the achievements of the mind of many nations of the Empire will increase, and they "on the head" are higher than in those countries that are limited to their territory.

Persia: Ancient Civilized Empire

And in the 21st century, Persia is synonymous with Iran. In general, the word "Iran" is the modern name of Ariana, the countries of Arii. That was the second name of the Persians. In the sixth years before our era, few people knew about the tribes of Persians. Even where they were located, - in the Middle East, and where they thoroughly created their ethnic house. At the same time remained a long riddle and for the historists of all times the most ancient civilizations of the world, the list of which is as follows:

• Mesoamerician civilization: Maya, Aztec;
• Civilizations of South America: Chivna, Naska, Incas;
• Creit-Myna (Minoan);
• Ancient indium;
• Ancient phane;
• Ancient China;
• Celtic, Scythian;
• Ancient Assyria;
• Babylonian kingdom;
• Hatt;
• Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.

But back to the story of Persia. Sources characterized the Arius almost with gigantic people, with great physical strength and endurance. After all, they constantly had to fight with a wild climate, and with wild peoples who did not give peace. It forced Persians to constantly migrate on mountain and steppe arrays.

Persipolis -Stuary of ancient Persia. Open-air museum

But as soon as they rallied as the people, left nomads and began to create a state, they woke up the qualities that prevailed all the Middle Ages in the entire civilized world. Luxury in clothes, jewels in jewelry, food from nozorovskaya in the literal sense of the word. The fish was taken from the distant seas, fruits from the territories of the current Syria and Iraq.

A polygamy was developed and even marriage to close relatives, on concubine, as it was in ancient Egypt.

Soon rising from the knees Persians stood on the path of conquest. It was the beginning of the creation of the Persian Empire - one of the most ancient unstable state entities. The first were captured by the territories from Araks to Elbrus, who lived there, the peoples of the Midius were submitted under a hostile on Natius. Nimi followed hiking and increment of new lands. The Persian king Cyrus was able to create a powerful army's powerful at that time and prepared it to seize the Babylonian territory.

Already before this campaign in the Middle East, everyone saw a new military strength, which had a claim to be called a changing geopolitical structure of this and so restless region.

In order to resign to Persians, non-advisive Babylonians and the Egyptians reconciled. They understood the whole boring danger to both countries. Babylonia and Egypt began to prepare for the reflection of the aggression of the nearest neighbor. But it did not help: Babylon was quickly captured. Cyrus went further to the Asian steppe, where he died.

The two successors - Cambis and Darius - continued the work started. Egypt was attached, which became the military administrative province of Persians (satrapia). Most likely, following the example of Persians and in Roman, and in Ottoman Empires, such captured territories became vassal provinces.

The Persian monopoly spread out thousands of kilometers from the west to the east. Under its beginning, it turned out to be almost the entire world of civilization for the 4th century to our era. According to modern names, these were Middle Eastern, all post-Soviet Asian states, Balkan countries, part of the Caucasus. The hands of the Persians only to Russia did not reach. Their mighty empire broke Alexander Macedonian (Iskandar). Once the Persians captured and burned the Greek Athens, now the commander dismissed the Iranians for it: the peresopol burned.

Cultural heritage of the Empire

Iranians benefited from the capture of Babylonia, having adopted the achievements of the Mesopotamian civilization. Craftsmen quickly mastered the methods of processing bronze and making from it various items for the army and life. Archaeologists turned the ancient cities, studied artifacts and appreciated the content.

The conquest of the Greek-Romans of Persia has become a disaster for her. The empire got used to rules, and not leaving. Built by the conquerors of the city became alien to Persians and by architecture, and on religion. But after the expulsion of the Greeks, Greek motifs continued to act. The same as it was during the Greeks was erected. Coins minted with Greek inscriptions. Traditions of local culture are forgotten.

Like the commandment of the Iranian Priest and the Prophet of Zaratuchtra: not to worship the idols, but only the symbol of the Divine - the restless flame. Later, Greek architecture here was called "dragon buildings."

Greeks, having familiarized themselves with the rules of the administrative device and the government administration of the Empire of Persians, were amazed by their ability to foresee and make it convenient. He considered the organization to high achieve the monarchy of Persians.

The empire shared on the province and satrapy. Everything was subordinate to the collection of taxes at the captured territories. For the funds received, it existed. But at the same time the national and other features of the country were taken into account. The board of local kings and the presence of special people who were given entire cities in life management and possession. Local rules, measurement systems, languages, cultural principles continued to operate.

Only the dynasty of Sasanids tried to revive lost. But it turned out the opposite. All she was through the theological, and all good from the Greeks was destroyed. The sacrifices of fire appear on shifted Athenian sculptures.

But there were also useful beginnings. Palaces, royal parks are erected. Greek parks called Paradis - Paradise. A monumental architecture appears, decorations that have become the predecessors of the Muslim ornament. Iran and the imperial provinces adjacent to him were made of amazing at that time roads - in the mountains, on the valleys. They even laid it to Sinopu \u200b\u200b(Northern Turkey), crossed all small Asia. From the attached Lydia Persians adopted a coherent appeal.

Oddly enough, but the capital of his Empire Persians made the city of KTesifon, built by other tribes near the drooping Babylon (current Iraq).

Improved irrigation: multi-kilometer waterways from durable clay pipes ("Carries") are laid under the ground. Think of steps along this line, wells were equipped for water purification from il. This raised the level of agriculture, the cultivation of cotton and sugar cane, fruits and berries began. Several types of fabrics were manufactured, which were in demand and outside the empire.

The second, Sasanidskaya, the Empire lasted longer than the first, but on the trimmed territory. And also lost their strength in the fight against the Romans and Byzantines. The attackers of the Arabs, distributors of Islam, put the end of the empire.

Epoch of axial civilizations

She originates on the border of the second - the first millennium to our era. The circle completed the collapse of one of the most powerful civilizations of the Middle Ages - the Roman Empire.

Or the era of the new kingdom of Egypt. Pharaohs crossed the boundaries of their country and won the nearest tribal territories, individual cities and even the desert - Libyan. Nubia was an independent territory and supplied slaves to the north to Egypt. The conquerors included her in a normal economy. Nubians, residents of Ethiopia, joined Egyptian culture.

Both Roman, and Egyptian, and the Byzantine civilization at the beginning of their origin were located on a wide coastal strip from Gibraltar to the Yellow Sea and on both sides of the Mediterranean Sea. Inland their care was not because of natural obstacles. The strip lay the ancient civilization of Crete and Mycene, Egypt, Indea and Juno (China). Here were all the conditions for the existence of future empires: ancient, but steady logistics both on the shores and by sea, administration, military education. It was a treasury of all human achievements. Use them, then the state will arise and will develop with everything necessary for its further civilization.

Empire, like the state, and people, passed the same way: birth, development and death. No empire has become immortal. They died from the amount of essential factors. For example, the Roman Empire threatened the solisure to the time. Hundreds of historians have proven various reasons for the fall in this civilization: from the barbaric tribes to the ruling tip, which destroyed the commander. But she died ... from mosquitoes. It was a strong and terrible enemy of the empire who did not know defeats.

Itching and unknown enemy

Only modern doctors, biologists, botany, physiologists with DNA revealed a terrible imperial secret. The enemy is a malaria mosquito, carrying deadly microbes Plasmodium Falciparum. But the Komar himself without Bacill is harmless, and Bacillus without a carrier will perish. Only when the mosquito female will break the blood of a patient with malaria, then becomes a carrier of infection.

Paradox: the troops of both Roman empires have already poured from the tropical fever. And the Romans who knew about the danger, could not be cleaned from her. Wetlands multiplied "Intervents" daily and hourly.

At the dawn of mankind, the southern part of the Mesopotamia, which in the classic era was called Babylonia, settled the very first civilization on Earth. Now this is the territory of modern Iraq, extending from Baghdad to the Persian Gulf, a total of about 26 thousand square meters. km.

The place is characterized by a very dry and hot climate with scorched and weathered, low-grade soils. The river plain, devoid of stones and minerals, the swamps, tightened by the cane, the complete absence of wood - this is exactly that this earth was more than three thousand years ago. But the people, who settled this territory and the world famous to the world, was endowed with a decisive and enterprising temper, an outstanding mind. He turned a lifeless plain into a flowering garden and created what would be called no other than the "first civilization on Earth".

Origin of Suchmers

There is no reliable information about the origin of the Sumerians. To date, scientists-historians and archaeologists are difficult to say whether they were indigenous inhabitants of Mesopotamia or came from these lands from the outside. The second option is considered as the most likely. Presumably, representatives came from the mountains of Zagros, or even Industan. Summers themselves about their origin did not write anything. In 1964, a proposal was made to consider this issue from various aspects: linguistic, racial, ethnic. After that, the search for truth was finally deepened in lingopology, to find out the genetic links of the Sumerian language, which is currently considered isolated.

Suchmers, which were founded by the first civilization on Earth, were never called themselves. In fact, this word denotes the territory, the south of Mesopotamia, the same name was "black-headed".

Language of Sumer

Linguists define Sumerian as agglutinative. This denotes that the formation of forms and derivatives is by adding unambiguous affixes. The tongue of the Sumerians consisted mainly of one-step words, so it was difficult to even imagine how many of them were, - the same sounding, but differ in meaning. In ancient sources, according to the estimates of scientists, there are about three thousand. At the same time, more than 100 words are used only 1-2 times, and the most frequently used only 23.

As already mentioned, one of the main features of the language is an abundance of homonyms. Most likely, a rich system of tones and larky sounds existed, which in the graph of clay plates is difficult to read. In addition, the first civilization on Earth had two dialects. The literary language (EME-GER) was used the most widely, and the priests spoke on the secret adverb (Eme-Sal), which was given from the ancestors and, most likely, not tone.

Sumerian was a mediator and was used throughout the territory of Southern Mesopotamia. Therefore, his carrier was not necessarily an ethnic representative of this ancient people.

Writing

The question of creating writing superiments remains controversial. However, the fact is that they have improved it and transformed into the clig. They greatly appreciated the art of writing and include his appearance to the very beginning of creating their civilization. It is likely that at the dawn of writing history, it was not clay, but another, more easily collapsing material. Therefore, a lot of information is lost.

The very first civilization on Earth BC, to be impartial, created its own letter of writing. The process was long and complicated. The Gazelle shown by the ancient artist is an art or message? If he did it on the stone, in those places where many animals, it will be a full message for his comrades. It says: "There are many gazelles here, and therefore there will be a good hunt. The message could well include several drawings. For example, it is worth adding a lion, and the warning already sounds: "There are many gazelles, but there is a danger." This historical stage is considered the first step towards creating writing. Gradually, the drawings were transformed, simplified and became a schematic character. In the picture you see how this transformation happened. People noticed that it was easier to make an outtrend with a cane stick, and not draw. All rounding disappeared.

Ancient Suchmers - the first civilization on Earth, which has found it consisted of several hundred signs, and 300 were the most used. Most of them had several similar meanings. Floine was used in Mesopotamia almost 3000 years.

Religion of the people

The work of the Pantheon Sumerian gods can be compared with the Assembly, at the head of which was the supreme "king". This meeting was further divided into groups. The main one is known as the "Great Gods" and consisted of 50 deities. It is she who, according to the ideas of the Sumerians, peaks the fate of people.

According to mythology, it was created from clay, mixed on the blood of the gods. The universe consisted of two worlds (upper and lower), separated by the Earth. Interestingly, already in those days, Suchmers had a myth about the World Flood. In addition, we have reached the poem telling about the creation of the world, the individual episodes of which are very closely intersect with the main Christian shrine - the Bible. For example, the sequence of events, in particular, creation on the sixth day of a person. There are hot disputes about such a relationship of pagan religion and Christianity.

Culture

Sumerian culture is one of the most interesting and brightest among the other peoples who inhabid the two-frequency. By the third millennium, she reached his heyday. People lived in the period actively engaged in livestock and agriculture, fishing. Gradually exclusively agriculture replaced handicrafts: a pottery, foundry, weaving and stone production developed.

The characteristic features of architecture are: construction of buildings on artificial mounds, distribution around the indoor courtyard, separation of walls by vertical niches and the introduction of color. The two brightest monumental monument of 4 thousand BC. e. - Temples in Uruk.

Archaeologists found quite a lot of art objects: sculptures, remnants of images on stone walls, vessels, metal products. All of them are made with great skill. What is a magnificent helmet of pure gold (in the photo)! One of the most interesting inventions of Sumerians - printing. They were portrayed people, animals, scenes from life.

Earlynastic period: 1 stage

This is the time when genuine clinies have already been created, - 2750-2600 years BC. e. For this period, the existence of a large number of state cities is characterized, the center of which was a large temple economy. Over the limits there were largest communities. The main productive work was lying on the so-called temple clients who were deprived of ownership. The spiritual and political advantage of society already existed - a military leader and priest and, accordingly, their closest environment.

The ancient people had an outstanding mind and a certain inventive talent. In those distant times, people have already come to the idea of \u200b\u200birrigation, having studied the opportunity to collect and direct Euphrates and Tigger in the right direction. Enriching the soil in the fields and in the gardens of the organica, they raised its yield. But large-scale work, as you know, require a great workforce. The first civilization on Earth was familiar with slavery, moreover, it was legalized.

It is reliably aware of the existence of 14 Sumerian cities in the specified period. Moreover, the most developed, prosperous and cult was the Nippur, where the temple of the Chief God was located - Enlil.

Early Penal Period: 2 Stage

This period (2600-2500 BC) is characterized by military conflicts. The century began to defeat the ruler of the city of Kish, which allegedly caused the invasion of Elamites - residents of ancient state in the territory of modern Iran. In the south, a number of cities-Nomov united in the Military Union. There was a tendency to centralize power.

Early Penate: 3 Stage

At the third stage of the early day, 500 years after that moment when the first civilization on Earth appeared (according to the assumptions of archaeologists), there is an increase and development of state cities, and in society there is a bundle, the growing of social contradictions. In this soil, the struggle of the rulers of Nomov for power is exacerbated. One military conflict was replaced by another in pursuit of hegemony of one city over everyone. In one of the ancient Hummer epos, dating back 2600 BC. E., refers to the union of Sumer under the rule of Gilgamesh - King Uruk. After another two hundred years, most of the state was conquered by the king of Akkada.

The Babylonian Empire shaking the strength of the Shumer to the middle of the second millennium BC. er, and Sumerist has lost the status of spoken even earlier. However, for a few thousand years, he remained as a literary. This is an approximate time when the Civilization of Sumerians ceased to exist as a political holistic formation.

Very often you can find information that the mythical Atlantis is the first civilization on Earth. Atlants who inhabited it are the ancestors of modern people. However, most of the scientific world calls this fact no more than fiction, beautiful history. Indeed, every year information about mysterious mainland is becoming new in detail, but it does not have any historical reinforcement by facts or archaeological excavations.

In this regard, it becomes increasingly the opinion that the first civilization on Earth arose in the fourth millennium to our era, and these were nochmers.

Nilecis

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Everyday life

Agriculture. Crafts

The ancient Egyptians have mastered irrigation (irrigation), so that after the Nile spills, the soil was not too dry and not too wet. Between the defensions they did the irrigation ditches to serve the water of the fields, which were far from the river. They invented a mechanical device called "Shadour" to serve water from the river to the nearest fields.

Most of the population amounted to farmers, working on the fields all year round to provide food to the city. The buffaloes were pulled by primitive plows, plowing the earth and preparing the fields under new crops.

The peasants were grown wheat and barley, fruits and vegetables, as well as flax, from which they made a canvas. The most important event in the year was suffering, because if it happened, the whole people were hungry. Before the harvest scribes recorded the size of the field and the likely amount of grain. Then wheat or barley was cut off with sulfur and knitted into the sheath, which was later stripped (separated grains from straw). A buffalo and donkens started on the felling pad for throat and donkeys so that they trample on the grain and knocked him out of sections. Then the grain was thrown into the air with shovels to clean and separate from the punching.

Strand in ancient Egypt. The collected crop is transported to the current for the throat. Current could be located right in the field or next to the peasant housing. From the grain, grinding it with millstones, make flour. Flat pellet bake from flour. On the river, the fishermen in a papyrus boat caught a non-child fish.

1. Shadour. The counterweight facilitated the raising bucket with water from the river.

2. Reaper cuts ripe wheat with sickle.

3. Magnifying gear.

4. Loading sheaves in the basket.

5. Preparation of bread.

6. Fishing.

In Egyptian cities, everyone needs for life could buy in the bazaar. The money then did not exist, so the townspeople exchanged some products to others.

The scribes strictly followed the harvest assembled, because the grain actually did not belong to the peasant. He had to give the main part of the crop to the Purchase of those who were not engaged in agriculture. If the peasant gave less grain than he was laid, he was punished with sticks.

In Egypt, there were many artisans who had their workshops. Often, the Son went in the footsteps of the Father and also became an artisan. There were the professions of a bricklayer, carpenter, potter, glass affairs masters, leather worker, spinner and weaver, blacksmith and jeweler. Their products went for sale not only to the markets of Egypt, but also to other countries.

The houses of the Egyptians were made of unreleased clay bricks, and outside covered with white plaster. The windows were kept closed so that the house was cool. The inner walls of the dwellings are often covered with bright paintings. The furniture was thoughtful and comfortable. The bed was a wooden frame, braided vine; The head is sleeping on a wooden headboard. On the couches for the seating were pillows stuffed with a goose feather, tables and chests were decorated with inlays.

Favorite entertainment of Pharaohs and no nobility hunting for dangerous game, for example, on leopards or lions.

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Pyramids

Construction of pyramids. The burial of the dead. Mummy

The most famous monuments of the ancient Egyptian civilization are pyramids. They were built about 4500 years ago so that they serve as tumbels for pharaohs. The most famous pyramids in the vicinity of the city of Giza, this is the only miracle of the seven wonders of the ancient world, preserved to the present day. There are 3 pyramids, of which the biggest when building had 147 m in the height.

Ancient Egyptians studied the movement of stars, the sun and planets. They believed that the souls of the deceased kings fall on the sky, to the gods. The pyramids were built, focusing on the polar star, indicating north, so each of the four faces was exactly addressed to one of the parties of the world: north, south, west and east. At the base of the pyramid, the temple was erected, where the priests committed sacrifices of the king's soul. Around the pyramid was built small stone tombs for relatives of the king and its courtiers.

By order of Pharaoh, thousands of people worked for many years over the construction of the pyramid. At first it was necessary to dissolve the construction site. Then in the quarry cut off by each construction block and delivered it on the boat to the construction site. 2.5 million stone blocks went to build the largest pyramid.

Workers' troops have dragged heavy stone blocks upstairs with ramps, rollers and sleds. Some blocks weighed more than 15 tons.

The burial of the dead

Before placing the dead body in the tomb, he should have prepared. All pharaohs and high persons in Egypt were embarrassed, that is, they were protected from decomposition. It was associated with religious beliefs: the soul could remain alive only until the body was preserved. For the embarrassment, people who were called balsamizers were responsible.

After the embossing procedure, the mummy put into the brightly colored coffin. The coffin was placed in a heavy stone box, called the sarcophagus, which was put in the funeral chamber next to the treasures necessary by Pharaoh in the afterlife. Then the tomb was tightly blocked.

The case in which the mummy was was decorated with the image of the deceased so that his soul could recognize his body in the afterlife. Carefully written hieroglyphs and scenes from the book of the dead, the books of magical spells, mummy should help on her way into the afterlife kingdom.

First, the balmers removed all the internal organs (1), with the exception of the heart, and put them in special vessels - cauldron. On the canopate it was customary to depict either the head of the deceased or gods, and these vessels were left near Mumia.

Then the dead body stuck salt, sand and spices (2), rubbed oils, wine and resin into it.

And wrapped with long linen bandages (3). Now the mummy was ready for the burial.

The mummy was placed in the deepest chamber of the pyramid, and the entrance was covered with huge stones. To confuse possible robbers, the pyramids were satisfied with false passes leading to empty cameras, and the entrances in them also bore stones.

As a result of skillful embalming, many bodies did not decompose over thousands of years after the mummification.

Many tombs and treasures buried in them were plundered, but the tomb of Tutankhamon's tomb remained untouched for 3,300 years. This tomb was discovered only in 1922. Archaeologists were amazed by the treasures kept in it: gold, jewels, refined clothes, chariots and musical instruments. The face of Mummy closed a wonderful mask of gold and precious stones.

When Tutankhamon died, he was only 17 years old.

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Education

Hieroglyphs. Pisss

Only children of Pharaohs and sons from no meaningful giving birth to school. Girls stayed at home with their mothers who studied their households, cooking, spinning and weaving. The peasant children also taught at home, from an early age, they had to work in the field, care for sowing and mouth pets. Fishermen also transferred their skills to children.

Many educated boys studied scribe craft. Screws in ancient Egypt were extremely respected. The cities worked as schools of scribes, where teachers were priests and government officials.

A young scribe is practiced in a letter on clay shards. This material has always been at hand. Signs applied with reed style. Pupils should have copied words and texts to learn fast writing.

Futive scribes had to learn reading and writing, and both hieroglyphic and cheetetic. With the help of hieroglyphs, which were symbolic images, it was possible to do both simple records and more complex, for example, to record poetry. However, the letter by hieroglyphs was a slow process, because each symbol was depicted separately. The heeratical letter was a simplified form of hieroglyphic. So writing was easier and faster.

Much attention was paid to running reading, and the disciples often had to read out loud. They had to learn by heart the whole proposals and show that they understood their meaning.

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Gods and temples

Worship of Amon

Some scribes worked in the temples, which in ancient Egypt was a great set. Temples belonged to peasant farms, workshops, libraries and "houses of life", where scribes recorded and copied religious books and other temple documents. The priests enjoyed great honor, many occupied high government positions.

The ancient Egyptians worshiped many gods, and their whole life was permeated with religious rites. There were local deities who worshiped only in a certain city or district. There were nationwide deities that worshiped in major cities and large churches.

Osiris was the God of the Dead. He judged the souls of the dead.

The main gods were the God of the Sun of the Republic of Armenia, the god of the city of Memphis Ptah, the patron of the kings of the mountains, as well as Amon, or Amon Ra, the God of the Sun and the God of Pharaoh, the most important deity of Egypt.

This figure connects the sunny God of RA and God of Heaven Mountain. The sun rests on the head of the falcon.

The temple in Karnak, dedicated to Amon, is one of the most amazing structures. It was built for many years with several pharaohs. The construction was completed only during the reign of Ramses II.

Approximately the temple of Amon in Carnaca looked like this during his heyday with Pharaoh Ramses II.

In the temple complex there were halls for rites, wide passages for the processions, it was served by thousands of servants and slaves. The priests in Karnak treated the most powerful people of the country. It was believed that they have a special relationship with God.

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Asia and Europe

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Ancient China

First settlers. Shan dynasty. Chinese writing

The Chinese civilization originated on the shores of the Juanhe River (Yellow River) in North China more than 7,000 years ago and developed in isolation from the rest of the world. No matter how surprising, to the II century. BC. The Chinese did not suspect the existence of other civilizations. Until that time, the only foreign and eastern nomads were the only alien.

Bones found in China Homo Erectus.(man spinning) . The first inhabitants of China may have happened from him or from later groups of nomadic Homo Sapiens.The Chinese have grown crops on fertile soil along the shores of Juanhe (the land was yellow, which gave the name of the river) and lived in small villages, where the huts were made of clay and branches. Methods of agriculture were gradually improved, people began to produce more products than was required for the proceedings of their own families. The population grew and seized in other places in China.

Town in North China in 4500 BC. In a large hut in the form of a pyramid in the middle of the village, people could get together and talk. The farmers were grown millet from which the flour and hemp, from the fiber of which tipped coarse clothing.

As the Chinese civilization develops, power has moved to ruling families, or dynasties. The first was the Shan dynasty, which came to power around 1750 BC. By this time, quite large cities had already arisen, and the townspeople were engaged in crafts and trade. Craftsmen used bronze, copper and tin alloy to produce vessels for the king and nobility.

In other parts, the bronze age was already in full swing, but the Chinese invented bronze on their own. They did from bronze and the hunting, and combat weapons.

Chinese know loved to hunt rhinos and tigers.

The inscriptions on the bronze vessels of the Song dynasty, found during the excavations, show that even then there was writing in China.

Chinese village in 1500 BC. In the foreground, artisans are paid by bronze.

At the time of the dynasty, the Shang, Song, predicted the future with the help of fortified bones. On the bones of animals by hieroglyphs recorded questions. The dice was heated over fire until they were cracking.

It was assumed that the places for which the crack passed, contain answers from the gods.

During the reign of the dynasty, the country flourished. Simparishes paid taxes in favor of the king and nobility. Craftsmen, in addition to bronze, worked with other materials. For nobility and large officials, they made wooden chariots and jewelry from jade, semi-precious stone.

About 1100 BC. Shan dynasty overthrew the invaders from the Valley of the Wei River, the tributary of the Yangtze. They founded the Zhou dynasty that existed 850 years. These were times when Chinese scientists took up philosophy, teaching about the meaning of life. The most significant Chinese philosopher of that time was Confucius (551-479 BC).

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Mina Crete

Ancient city Knossos

One of the greatest ancient civilizations arose on Crete Island. There was little about her, while the English archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans (1851-1941) in 1900 did not discovered the remains of the majestic palace in the ancient city of Knossos. On the island found another 4 palaces. Evans and other archaeologists made a lot of discoveries, including those discovered murals and clay plates. However, nowhere has failed to find self-inflammation of this mysterious civilization. Therefore, archaeologists decided to call it a mine officer named by the legendary Cretan Tsar Minosa, who ruled in the city of Knossos.

Midway arrived at Crete about 6000 BC. In 2000 BC They began to build palaces. The miners were obliged to trade with all Mediterranean. Large cities arose around the palaces. Many townspeople were artisans who made wonderful pottery and metal products and jewelry.

Rich young women wore dresses with the corsages who lacquered on the waist, and men were loose dressings and caps decorated with feathers.

There is no testimony of wars or riots on the island, so the mines lived, apparently a peaceful life.

Boys and girls were engaged in dangerous sports: grabbed the bull for the horns and tumble through his back.

What happened to Middle? This people disappeared about 1450 BC, and the cause of the volcanic on the neighboring island of Tira could become the reason for this, so the entire island of Crete was under volcanic ash.

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Phoenicians

Mediterranean merchants

Like a mino, the Phoenicians were Mediterranean merchants who were actively producing between 1500 and 1000 BC. They lived along the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea. At first they were called Cananeians, and later by the Phoenicians, from the Greek word "Fiunos" - "Bagry", in the color of the main object of trade, Purpura. The Phoenicians were brave and skillful navigators. They built high-speed warships, accompanying trading ships on travels.

The Phoenicians dominated the Mediterranean for the whole Millennium BC. In 814 BC. They founded Carthage, the city on the territory of the modern Tunisia, which quickly turned into a strong state.

The source of the wealth of the Phoenicians was the natural resources of their country. In the mountains grew cedars and pines, whose wood was sold to Egypt and other countries. From the trees received precious oils, which also walked for sale. The Phoenicians made glass of sand, tibes of thin fabrics and stained them in a purple color, using the dye, which they mined from sea snails.

The famous tire canvas (from the name of the Phoenician city of Tir) was one of the most popular export items abroad.

The Phoenicians invented the alphabet used by merchants during trade. This is Khanannese, as he was called, the letter borrowed the ancient Greeks, and it underlies the current alphabet .

Civilization of Etruscans arose in central Italy about 800 BC.

Famous art and architecture, famous, Etrusks were connected with Greece and with Carthage.

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Mesopotamia

City-state Babylon. Assyrians. Nebuchadnezzar. Science in Babylon

Mesopotamia, fertile land between the rivers Tiger and Euphrates, where Iraq is located today, was one of the first places in which people began to settle communities . The first civilization in these places was created by the Sumerians who won other tribes in approximately 2370 BC. Different groups of conquerors created new cities-states, which over the next 500 years fought for domination over the entire territory.

Then on the throne of one of these cities - the states, Babylon, in 1792 BC. King Hammurapi climbed. He conquered the rest of the city-states, and Babylon began to dominate all the Mesopotamia.

Hammurapi was a wise king and introduced a set of laws, which determined the rights of women, defended the poor and established punishment for criminals. During his reign, Babylon was the capital of the kingdom called Babylonia. To worship, the gods were built multi-tiered temples, zigkults. The most famous zigkurat was the Babylonian Tower.

Zikcurate Hog-Amblor, built in 1250 BC, was the largest in Mesopotamia.

After 6 centuries after the death of Hammurapi (1750 BC), which was founded by the Kingdom of Palo under the onslaught of the militant people of Assyrians.

Assyrians

The lands of Assyrians in Northern Mesopotamia lay at the crossroads of trade routes. Assyrians sought to dominate the entire territory and create a great empire.

After many years of war, the Assyrian Empire started almost all over the Middle East. At the time of the greatest expansion, her ruler was Ashurbanapal, the last great Assyrian king. In his Palace Library in Nineveland, archaeologists have found over 20,000 clay plates, which told a lot about Assyrian laws and history.

One of the characteristic accepts of Assyrian life was a royal hunt, when the king and his retinue went to search for mountain lions.

Nebuchadnezzar

Babylon again found the former power during the reign of Nabopolsar (rules from 625 to 605 BC), who managed to overthrow the Assyrians and restore the former power. His son, Nebuchadnezzar II (rules in 605-562 BC), fought with the Egyptians and conquered Assyiriu and Judea. With it, there were a lot of beautiful zikcurats, palaces, the hanging gardens of semiramides are created, one of the seven wonders of the world.

Babylonians were skilled astronomers. They studied the movement of stars and planets and tried to establish their location relative to the Earth. They believed that the earth had a form of a flat disk hanging in space.

Babylonian scientists are watching stars.

Babylonian mathematics were the first to divide the day for 24 hours, an hour for 60 minutes, and a minute for 60 seconds. This ancient way to measure time is used in our day.

Nebuchadnezzar made Babylon to the beautiful city of that time. The buildings were erected from unreleased clay blocks lined with glazed tiles with art reliefs. Archaeologists who produced at the beginning of the 20th century excavations in Babylon, found that the city was surrounded by a circular wall of almost 18 km long. Unfortunately, they did not find any traces of hanging gardens.

In the urban walls of Babylon there was an 8th gate, and the most beautiful of them were Ishtar gates. These gates, built in honor of the goddess of love and battle and intended for solemn processions, had 15 m in height.

Dragons, whose images were decorated with Ishtar gates, symbolized the Supreme Babylonian Deity, Marduk. Bulls symbolized God of Lightning Adand. These gates stood at the northern entrance to the city of Babylon. They were completely restored, and now they can be seen in the Museum of the city of Berlin, in Germany.

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Europe in the bronze age

Agriculture. Stone monuments

The first products made of copper and gold in Europe were made about 5000 g, BC. However, these metals, well-tested and suitable for jewelry and other products, were too soft to make tools and weapons from them. The bronze age in Europe began with the opening of the fact that copper, being fused with Tin, becomes much harder and stronger. By 2300 BC. Almost all metal products in Europe were made of bronze.

Europeans lived agricultural communities. In the forest in a small area, trees burned and burned. In the purified place, the huts made of clay and straw were built, and wheat were grown nearby.

Approximately 1500 BC. The life of the communities was complicated. Their leaders were no gods nor inaccessible. However, leaders wanted to emphasize their special position. They wore luxury clothes, decorated with gold, and expensive bronze weapons, which served as a symbol of military valve. When the leader was dying, these treasures put together with him in the grave so that they continue to serve him in the afterlife world.

Some ancient European communities engaged in the release of metals lived in fortified settlements. The dwelling of the leader was located in the central part and was surrounded by wooden frequencing and a moat that defended from the enemy invasion.

Agricultural community in 1500 BC. For the processing of the Earth, the peasants were primitive plows, bulls used as a major force. All that was necessary for life in the village, people themselves. If the crop was good, people could exchange it part on other goods, for example, to metals.

By 1250 BC. The use includes bronze swords and helmets. The gunsmiths were so important that their workshops were often covered with the fortress walls, while the peasants lived outside in simple huts.

By this time, the masters had learned to be perfectly managed with bronze. Across Europe has new types of weapons, armor and shields. The need for bronze grew, and along with it and trade. The Scandinavian masters were famous for their skilled work on this metal, and in Northern Europe, they exchanged fur, skins and amber (yellow fossil resin, products from which highly appreciated). Throughout Europe, leaders are the cinema thanks to bronze.

Stone monuments

Approximately 2000 BC. In Europe, they began to build colossal stone monuments to worship the gods. To erect Stonehenge (down below),which is located on the plain Salisbury in South England, it was necessary to drag huge stones through the entire plain with the help of rollers, put them in deep pits, and then ensure that they stood vertically.

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ANCIENT GREECE

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Ancient Greece

Mikets. Trojan war. Cities-states. Military actions of the Greeks

The history of the ancient Greece began with the myzzles, the militant people who created a powerful and rich civilization for about 1550 BC.

The first residents of Greece built simple stone houses and were engaged in agriculture, subsequently they began to trade with the Mediterranean and came into contact with the Minoan civilization in Crete . From the mines they borrowed knowledge, and they themselves became skillful artisans.

However, the miners were a peaceful people, and the mypes are the people of warriors. Their palaces were surrounded by strong walls. Former rulers burned behind these walls in large graves in the form of hives.

Military raids arranged from their fortresses from their fortresses throughout the Mediterranean.

Traditions about Mycets many thousands of years. In one of them, set forth in the epic poem "Iliad" an ancient Greek poet of Homer, talks about the war between Greece and Troy. The Mikhana King Agamemenon went to save the beautiful wife of his brother, Elena, who kidnapped the son of the Trojan king Paris.

In the royal tombs in mycken, 4 post-mortem masks of kings made from gold were found.

Once it was believed that the mask depicted on this illustration belonged to Agamemnon, the Mikaensky king of the Trojan War. Now scientists believe that this mask is 300 years old more and, therefore, it is hardly an image of Agamemnon.

After ten years, the siege of Agamemnon's army finally took Troy deception. Greek warriors hid in a wooden horse (down below),which jubilant Trojans dragged into their city, thinking that the Greeks removed the siege and went home. At night, the Greeks came out of the horse and captured the city.

Military actions of the Greeks

Mycenaean civilization has ceased to exist about 1200 g, BC. After it, a period occurred, which historians are called dark centuries, and about 800 BC. Greek civilization began to develop. Greece was not a single country, she consisted of independent cities-states who fought among themselves.

At the head of each city-state stood a strong rulers of the royal family. Sometimes such a ruler jumped Tiran - so called a man who captured the power is not right. Approximately 500 g. BC. Each city has its own army.

One of the most powerful troops was Sparta, the city-state in the south of the country. By this time, Greece has already entered the so-called classic period. , and the city-state of Athens became a paradise for philosophers and artists. However, the Svetanians have the only worthy occupation.

Greek troops consisted mainly of the young men who trained military business. When the war began, they were called in the army. However, Spartans had a professional army, always ready for battles.

Hiking warrior from the Greek city-state Sparta was called Goplit. On top of a short folded tunic he wore metal armor. Goplites were armed with spears or swords and wore shields.

All Greek troops fought in the phalanges, which were tightly closed ranks of warriors, so that each shield was partially overlapped by a neighbor's shield. The first few rows held a spear in front of them to strike the enemy at a distance. The concurrent system did not allow the enemy to come closely, so the phalanx was very effective combat order.

The Military fleet of the Greeks consisted of ships called trira.

On the Trier there were rectangular sails, which allowed her to move in the wind, but in the battle the vessel was moved due to the rowers. The rowers were located three tiers, one over the other. The ship's nose was a battle raid to punch the board of enemy ships.

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Life in Athens

Acropolis. Religion. Theatre. Democracy. Medicine

In the classical period, art, philosophy and science were bloomed in Greece. At this time, Athens, the city city, reached its highest lift. The city was destroyed by Persians in 480 BC, but then restored. One of the most magnificent structures was the Temple Complex on Mount Acropolis. The center of this complex was Parfenon, the marble church dedicated to the Patron Goggling of the city of Athena.

The main knowledge of the ancient Greece is drawn by us from the works of literature and the art of that time. Pottery often decorated with scenes of everyday life. Sculptors carved beautiful statues, philosophers recorded their thoughts and ideas, playwrights created plays based on real life events.

The ancient Greeks worshiped the many gods and goddesses. It was believed that 12 paramount gods dwell on Olympus, the highest mountain in Greece. The main Olympic God was Zeus.

In each major city there was a theater, and theatrical productions were very popular. The playwrights, such as Sophocles and Aristophanes, composed the plays in which the actors played. The plays were divided into two main types, comedy and tragedy. Many of these plays written then did not lose their popularity and in our time.

Spectators came to the theater for the whole day. Usually they watched three tragedies or three comedies, after which there was a short play, referred to as satiir, which had fun over a serious myth or event.

The public has searched on stone benches in a semiconductor open amphitheater. The actors wore large tragedy or comedy masks so that the audience could better consider them. These masks and today are the symbol of the theater.

Greek athletes trained, preparing for a sporting holiday, which was carried out in Olympia, located in South Greece, every 4 years.

This holiday was the predecessor of the Olympic Games held and in our time.

In ancient Greece, the most important buildings were temples. In each temple they stood sculptural images of God to whom the temple was dedicated.

Ruins of temples on the Acropolis can still be seen in Greece. As the supporting elements of their temples and public buildings, the Greeks used columns similar to those supported by Parfenon. The columns were built by erecting one stone block to another. The top of the column usually decorated with carvings.

In ancient Greece, the people expressed themselves against the rich citizens rule. In Athens, the Board was introduced, referred to as "democracy", which means "democracy". In democracy, every citizen had the right to express his opinion on how the city-state is managed. The rulers were chosen by voting, but neither a woman nor the slaves were considered by citizens and, therefore, could not vote. All Athenian citizens were participants in the city assembly, which convened once a week. At this assembly could act a citizen. Above the Assembly stood advice from 500 members who were set out in lots.

Greeks respected freedom of speech. In the center of the Greek city there was an open space called "Agora", where meetings were held and political speeches were uttered.

Orator pronounces political speech on Agore.

If the people were dissatisfied with some member of the government, then according to the results of the voting, it could be shifted from the position. Athens citizens expressed their opinion, scratching the name of the policy on the shards; Such a shard was called "Ostra."

Medicine

The foundations of modern medicine were also laid in ancient Greece. Hippocrat healer founded a medical school on the island of Kos. Healthcare professionals were supposed to give an oath of the Hippocratic, which said the duties and responsibility of the healer. And in our time, all the doctors bring an oath of hippocrat.

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Alexander the Great

Great campaign Alexander. Science in the era of Hellenism

Alexander Macedonsky was born in Macedonia, mountainous region at the northern borders of Greece. His father Filipp became the king of Macedonia in 359 BC. And united all Greece. When in 336 BC He died, Alexander became the new king. He was then 20 years old.

Alexander teacher was a Greek writer and philosopher Aristotle, who attacked the young man's love for art and poetry. But Alexander was still brave and brilliant warrior, and wanted to create a powerful empire.

Alexander Macedonsky was a fearless leader and sought to conquer new lands. Going to your great campaign, he had an army in which there were 30,000 hiking soldiers and 5,000 riders.

Alexander accepted his first fight with the Persia, the old enemy of Greece. In 334 BC He went by a military campaign to Asia, where he won the Army of the Persian Tsar Daria III. After that, Alexander decided to subordinate to the Greeks of the All Persian Empire.

At first he assigned the Phoenician city of Tir, and then conquered Egypt. Continuing their conquests, he mastered the three Persian Persian Palaces in Babylon, Souza and Persepolis. Alexander Macedonsky took 3 years to conquer the eastern part of the Persian Empire, after which in 326 BC He headed to Northern India.

By this time, Alexander's army has been in campaign for 11 years. He wanted to win the whole of India, but the army is tired and wanted to return home. Alexander agreed, but did not have time to return to Greece. At the age of only 32 years old, he died in Babylon from fever in 323 BC.

The conquest campaign of Alexander Macedonian passed through the Middle East, Egypt, Asia and ended in Northern India.

For Alexander, India was on the edge of the famous world, and he wanted to continue his campaign, but the army began to raise. His favorite horse nicknamed Bucuofal (or Bouquafal), who worn Alexander all this time, fell in a battle with the Indian king sometimes in 326 BC.

When Alexander won some country, he founded a Greek colony in it to prevent possible rebellion. These colonies, among whom were 16 cities with the title of Alexandria, were managed by his soldiers. However, Alexander died, not leaving behind the control plans such a huge empire. As a result, the empire was divided into three parts - Macedonia, Persia and Egypt, and at the head of each of them stood a Greek warlord. The period between the death of Alexander and the fall of the Greek Empire under the onslaught of the Romans in 30 g. BC. known as the ellinism era.

The era of Hellenism is known for its scientific achievements, and the city of Alexandria in Egypt was the main center of knowledge. A lot of poets and scientists came to Alexandria. There, mathematicians, Pythagoras and Euclide, developed their laws of geometry, while others studied medicine and the movement of stars.

In the second century AD In Alexandria (Egypt), Claudius Ptolemy, who studied Astronomy.

He mistakenly believed that the land was the center of the Universe, and the sun and other planet rotate around it.

Without a single ruler, Alexander's empire was gradually captured by the Romans. Egypt existed longer than the rest of the empire, but in 30 BC. Roman emperor Augustus captured him. Queen Alexandria Cleopatra committed suicide with her Roman beloved Mark Anthony.

To the cultural heritage of ancient Greece, to her philosophical thought and art in Europe again turned in the XV century, in the era of the Renaissance, or Renaissance, and since then it continues to influence our culture.

The rocky town of Peter in Jordan was populated by the people who called themselves. Nabotes were under the strong influence of Hellenic architecture.

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ANCIENT ROME

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Ancient Rome

Republic and empire. Roman army. Board in Rome

The Romans occur from the part of Europe, which is now called Italy. They created a huge empire, in magnitude exceeding the empire Alexander Macedon .

The tribes from North Asia began to settle in Italy between 2000 and 1000 BC. One of the tribes that spoken in the language, which was called Latin, skewed on the shores of the Tiber River, over time, this settlement became the city of Rome.

The Romans had several kings, but they caused discontent among the people. The people decided to establish a republic, at the head of which was a leader elected for a certain time. If the leader did not suit the Romans, after the prescribed period they chose the other.

Rome was a republic for about 500 years, during which the Roman army conquered many new lands. However, in 27 BC, after the conquest of the Romans of Egypt and the death of Anthony and Cleopatra The head of state again became a dictator. It was August, the first Roman emperor. By the beginning of his reign, the population of the Roman Empire was 60 million people.

Initially, the Roman army consisted of ordinary citizens, but at the peak of the power of the empire soldiers served well-trained professionals. The army was divided into legions, each of which had about 6,000 hiking soldiers, or legionnaires. The legion consisted of ten cohort, cohort from six centuries of 100 people each. Each Legion had its own cavalry of 700 riders.

Hiking Roman soldiers were called legionnaires. The legionnaire wore an iron helmet and armor over a wool tunic and a leather skirt. He had to wear a sword, dagger, shield, spear and all his supplies.

The army often took place more than 30 km per day. Nothing could confront him. If a deep river was in front of the army, the soldiers carried a flood bridge, connecting wooden rafts together.

Britain was one of the Roman colonies. The Queen of the Bladikka and her tribe of the Izena rose against the Roman rule and returned the British cities captured by the Romans, but in the end, they were defeated.

Board in Rome

When Rome became a republic, his people were convinced - no one should have too much power. Therefore, the Romans were chosen by officials called the masters, which carried out the Board. The most influential masters were two consuls elected for a period of one year; They had to rule in consent among themselves. After completing this period, most masters became members of the Senate.

Julius Caesar was a brilliant commander and a conjunct ruler of Rome. He subjugated a lot of land, ruled the lands of South and North Gaul (now it is France). Returning in 46. BC. In Rome Triumphant, he began to rule as a dictator (a ruler with absolute power). However, some senators envied Caesar and wanted to return to Senate former power. In 44 BC Several senators of Julia Caesar, Julia Caesar, right in the room of the Senate in Rome.

After the death of Caesar, the struggle for power unfolded between the two outstanding Romans. One was the consul Mark Anthony, Beloved Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt. The second was the grand-nephew Caesar Octavian. In 31 BC Octavian declared Anthony and Cleopatre war and defeated them in battle under the excise. In 27, Octavian became the first Roman emperor and accepted the name August.

The emperors ruled Rome more than 400 years. They were not kings, but possessed absolute power. The imperial "crown" served a laurel crown, a symbol of military victory.

First Emperor, August, Rules from 27 g. BC. On 14 g. AD. He returned the world into the empire, but before his death appointed a successor to himself. Since then, the Romans could no longer choose their leaders.

During the flourishing period, France, Spain, Germany, and most of the former Greek empire were part of the Roman Empire. Julius Caesar conquered Gallia, the main part of Spain and the Earth in Eastern Europe and North Africa. With Roman emperors, new territorial acquisitions followed: Britain, the western part of North Africa and the Earth in the Middle East.

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City life

Device of the Roman House

Conquering new lands and expanding the empire, the ancient Romans instilled in conquered peoples their own way. Today you can see many characters of their former presence.

Much Romans borrowed from the ancient Greeks, but their civilization differed significantly. They were excellent engineers and builders and preferred everywhere to feel at home.

The first homes of the Romans were built of bricks or stone, but they also used such material as concrete. Later, the building was erected from concrete and faced with brick or stone.

The streets in the cities were straight and crossed at right angles. Many cities were built for Roman citizens who have moved to the conquered land. Migrants brought with them the seeds of plants to grow familiar cultures. Today, some fruits and vegetables of Italian origin are considered their own in the lands, where the Romans were once delivered.

The peasants from the countryside delivered their products in the city and sold them in the markets. The main market square, as well as the place where the authorities were located, was a forum. The Romans minted coins, and people bought the things they need for money, and not exchanged natural goods.

Ancient Roman city in France. Local lifestyle and architecture of houses were Roman.

Basic information about Roman homes and cities, we are ruins of two ancient cities, Pompeii and Herculaneum, destroyed in 79 AD. The eruption of the Vesuvius volcano. Pompeii were buried under a hot ashes, and the mudflows of volcanic origin were overwhelmed with Herculane. Thousands of people died. In both cities, archaeologists excavated whole streets with houses and shops.

A few hours before the eruption of Vesuviya, people in Herculandum were busy everyday worries.

Rich Romans lived in large villas with several rooms. In the center of Villa was arranged "Atrium", the main hall, over which there was no roof so that there was enough light enough. When it was raining, the water from the hole in the roof was going to the pool, which was called "Implivius". All rooms in the villa were located around the atrium.

The rich people who had city houses bathed in luxury. Their inhabitants knocked food, lying on the couches in front of the low table, where the servants applied. Women and honorary guests could sit in chairs, but everyone else was content with chairs. There were bedrooms, living rooms and libraries. The inhabitants could walk in the courtyard and pray at the altar dedicated to the patron saint of a homely hearth.

The dwellings were completely different. Some people lived in apartments over shops, others - in homes divided into separate rooms or apartments.

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Roman builders

Roads and aqueducts. Roman baths

The Romans were wonderful builders and engineers. They built 85,000 km of roads throughout the empire and many aqueducts to supply the city with water. Some aqueducts were huge stone structures built over the valleys.

Roman roads planned land surveyors accompanying the army in the campaign. The roads did straight as far as possible, and they followed the shortest path. When they decided to build the road, the soldiers together with slaves were digging a wide trench. Then the roadbed was built, laying a layer of stones, sand and concrete into the trench.

Construction of aqueduct and road during the time of ancient Rome.

Roman baths

The rich Romans in the houses had a bathing and central heating. The heating system was under the floor of the house, where the hot air came into rooms through the channels in the walls.

In most cities were public baths, where anyone could come. In addition to hygienic need, the baths served as a place of meetings and conversations. The swimsters were consistently moved from one room to another. In the main premises, Caldaria, the slave rubbed the oil into the body of the visitor. The bathingman first missed in a bath with warm water, and then hit the next room, "Sudimi" (from the Latin word "cracor", meaning "sweat"), where there was a pool with very hot water, and the couple filled the air. The bathingman was washed off, oil and dirt with the help of a device called "Strigyl". Then the bathroom turned out to be in the "tepidarium," where he was slightly cooled before entering the "Frigidari" and plunge into the pool with cold water.

In the interruptions between the stages of washing, people sat down to chat with friends. Many were engaged in power exercises in the gym, "Siferuseri".

Ruins of some baths have been preserved, so, in "large baths" in the English resort town of WAT water still flows through the channels laid by the Romans.

Men went to the bath after work. Women could use baths only at a certain time.

Water for baths and for other needs came across the aqueduct. The word "aqueduct" comes from the Latin Words "Water" and "pull". The aqueduct is a waterwater for supplying cities with pure river or lake water, usually spent at the ground level or in the pipe underground. Aquets, defeated through the valleys, were arched. On the territory of the former Roman Empire, about 200 aqueducts have been preserved to this day.

This is how the Roman Aqueduct Pon Du-Gar in Nimea (France) looks like, built almost 2,000 years ago. The Romans were looking for a river or the lake, lying above the city, and then built the inclined aqueduct so that the water could flow to the city itself.

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Sports

Racing on chariots. Gladiators. Emperor

In the year, the Romans had about 120 nationwide holidays. On these days, theaters attended theaters, went to racing chariots or gladiatorial battles.

Racing chariots and battles of gladiators arranged in the so-called urban "circus" on large oval arons.

Racing chariots were very dangerous sports. Chariot drove their own silent around arena at maximum speed. The rules were allowed to tash other chariots and encounter each other, so the chariots were often turned over. Although the arms endured protective clothing, they often died. However, the crowd adored the racing chariots. This spectacle attracted thousands of people who shined delight, while the chariots were rushed in a circle.

Arena in the circus was oval with a stone barrier in the middle. The audience was sitting or stood on the stands. At the same time, 4 chariots competed, and the audience beat about the mortgage, which chariot would come first. Chariots were supposed to stay 7 times arena.

After the death of the Emperors of Ancient Rome worshiped as gods. Christians refused. About 250 AD Thousands of Christians were thrown into prisons or are given to the ruins of the lions on the circus arena.

In fear of his life, Christians were secretly met in the catacombs (underground burials) to pray together.

In 313 N.E. Emperor Konstantin legalized Christianity.

Gladiators

Gladiators were slaves or criminals who were taught to beat to death in the eyes of the crowd. They were armed with shields and swords or networks and tridents.

The emperor himself was often present on the battle of gladiators. If the gladiator was wounded and asked for mercy, he depended on the emperor, he will live or die. If the fighter fought selflessly, he was left alive. Otherwise, the emperor filed a sign to the winner so that he finished off the defeated.

Emperorators

Some Roman emperors were good ruler, as the first emperor August. For many years of his rule, the world brought people. Other emperors were distinguished by cruelty. Tiberius strengthened the Roman Empire, but turned into a hated tyrant. With his successor, Kaligule still reigned fear. Probably Caligula was crazy; Once he appointed a consul his horse and built a palace for him!

One of the most cruel emperors was Nero. In 64 AD Part of Rome was destroyed by fire. Nero accused of arson Christians and many executed. It is possible that the arsonist was he himself.

They argue that Nero, who was distinguished by vanity and considered himself a great musician, musitized on Lira, watching a huge fire.

> > The first emperor. the great Wall of China

Between 475 and 221. BC. In China was a long period of Troubles. The dynasty of Zhou still remained in power, but the individual Chinese kingdoms became actually independent and began to fight among themselves.

China has gained the unity under the auspices of the martality of Qin, which gradually broke the military power of the warring kingdoms. After many battles, the Chief of Qin in 221 BC Proclaim himself with Emperor Qin Sheuandi, which means "First Emperor Qin". Shi Huangdi ruled a huge empire from his capital Xianyan.

Most people believed in the afterlife. However, it was an unknown area, and many were afraid of what could happen to them in the other world. Shi Juandy was no exception. Soon after became the emperor, he began to build himself a tomb, over which 700,000 workers worked. The emperor wanted his grave to guard the army of 600,000 soldiers made from clay to a natural value.

The soldiers of the emperor Qin were armed with bronze spears, swords and crossbows. An ordinary soldier wore protective armor made from interconnected metal plates. In order for the armor to do not rub the neck, it was wound with a scarf. The hair was collected in a bundle and tied ribbon.

Hundreds of years, the terracotta army of Shi Huangdi rests peacefully under the ground, until some Chinese workers stumbled upon a statue during earthworks. Archaeologists took over the excavations, and in 1974 they found the tomb of the emperor. The armed army, part of which was riders, was well preserved underground and gave us an idea of \u200b\u200bhow the soldiers looked like. Each terracotta warrior possessed his own face, and it is possible that this is the sculptural portraits of real people who made up the imperial army.

Terracotta warriors were once brightly painted. By the time they were found, the paints were blocked.

the great Wall of China

Despite the strength and power of Shi Huangdi and his troops, the empire constantly threatened hostile tribes, among which were Gunns, nomads who lived north of China. These ferocious riders attacked the cities and villages, devastated them and took everything they wanted, and the inhabitants were killed. Shi Juandi decided to build a huge wall along the entire northern border of China to protect the country from raids.

The Great Chinese Wall was built along the ridges of the mountains, to even more impede the invasion.

Millions of workers worked on the construction of the wall, and all stones for construction they brought with them in baskets. Every 200 m stood a tower that served the barracks for her soldiers.

When a threat of invasion appeared on some plot of the Great Wall, the soldiers lit the signal bonfires on it to convene reinforcement. Other soldiers rushed to the rescue, launching the boom enemies from boysnitis and crushing them with stones from the catapult.

In 210 BC Shi Juandi died unexpectedly, and in 206 BC Qin dynasty gave way to Han dynasty. Work on the construction of the Great Wall continued for many centuries. Between the XIV and XVI century. With the ming dynasty, the bulk of the wall was built. By this time, its length reached 6000 km. The height of the wall is 10 m, and the thickness is such that the column of 10 people can be free to move freely in a row. Until now, the Great Wall of China remains the largest artificial construction in the world.

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Empire Han

Great inventions. Han city

Dynasty Han Rules in China more400 years old. For China, it was the era of prosperity marked with outstanding technical achievements. The Chinese invented many things that today seem to be granted to us. One of the most important innovations was the invention of paper, which was first made in 105. AD The first paper was made of wood bark, old rags and fishing nets. Of these, they made a homogeneous splashing mass, which was kept under the press, dried and turned into thin sheets.

In these times, confusion did not have a special importance . It emphasized that the people should rule with wisdom, not forces. With the emperors of the Han dynasty, officials were prescribed to help the people in every way.

Compared to the rapid times of the Qin era during the board of the Han dynasty, life has become ordered.

Government officials traveled around the villages and advised peasants, which cultures are better to grow.

The Chinese first understood the importance of magnetism and more than 2,000 years ago invented a compass. Another ancient invention was stirrupping, which facilitated the control of the horse and helped maneuver during the battle. These and other inventions fell to the West only many centuries later.

Seismograph invented in 132 AD. He was a vessel with eight dragon heads, under which there were 8 toad on the stand. When the vessel shuddered during the earthquake, placed inside the rod swung and opened one of the dragon pastes. From the mouth, the ball was turned out and fell precisely in the mouth of the toad, located downstairs, which showed that the earthquake happened in which side of the world.

Ancient Chinese seismograph, adaptation for earthquake registration.

After the end of the Han era, China turned out to be torn off from the rest of the world. The bulk of our ideas about how the Chinese lived is based on archaeological finds in tombs. The Chinese were skillful artisans and made excellent jewelry and bronze jewelry.

Bronze statuette of a flying horse, an excellent sample of a skillful Han work.

Bronze statues of the harnessed chariots make us judge how they looked. The chariot had two wheels and an awning in the shape of an umbrella . Government officials, inspecting villages ride them. Building models were found in the tombs. Stone reliefs on the walls of tombs depict the daily life of the Hansky China.

Other invention, single trolley (see below)some terms are superior to the fact that we use today.

The Chinese trolley was invented in I B. AD Transferred things were located on both sides of the Big Wheel, so the weight turned out to be balanced. This cart has long handles, and push it easier than modern.

Han city

In the early years of the board of the Han dynasty, the capital was Changan's city. All roads in the city crossed each other at right angles.

In the capital there were several market squares where people bought food, silk, wood and skin. Paschers were entertained street musicians, magicians and narratives. The city was divided into sections, and each section was acquired by a wall. Inside the house section, they were close to each other, fenced from urban fuss.

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Great Silk Path

Han merchants sold Chinese silk to the west. The so-called the Great Silk Road joined the Changan's Han capital with the cities of the Middle East.

The length of the Great Silk Road was 6400 km. The merchants were riding on camels and combined into groups that were called caravans. Caravans were visible silk, spices and bronze products for sale in the West.

On the path of the merchants there were different cities, and to pass through them, permission should be obtained. Before you skip the caravan, the city demanded part of the goods in payment for permission. Thanks to the Great Silk Road, such cities are rich.

The illustration below shows a merchant caravan, departing from China to the west. The Great Wall is seen behind the caravan.

Over the upper camels follow animals loaded by bales with goods for sale. Probably merchants will return back with ivory, precious stones, horses and other goods from the West.

The trade of the East with the West became all animatedly, China's more and more ingenic merchants visited. The merchants returned to Europe and told extraordinary stories about this mysterious country and about wonderful dicks that the Chinese invented.

The merchants wandered over the great silk path of hundreds of years, but approximately 1000 AD. He began to lose his meaning. Cities located along the road became all the most powerful and turned out to be able to control the trading going through them. Caravans have always been threatened by the attack on the side of the robbers or nomadic peoples. At the same time, the journey around the sea became safer and cheaper, and gradually land transported to the sea.

The Great Silk Road flew from Changany to the cities of Central Asia and the Middle East. In the south, he walked along the mountain passes of Tibet, and in the north - in the desert.

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World civilizations

> Early Indian civilization. Maury Empire. Hinduism and Buddhism

Indian civilization is one of the oldest in the world. The farmers began to establish their settlements in the valley of the Indian River Already about 6000 BC. These settlements became the basis of civilization, which began its development about 2400 BC. In both capitals, Harapp and Mohenjo Daro, there were networks intersecting at the right angle of streets built up at home brick houses. Here was my own writing, and this civilization was one of the first to be a wheelchair.

Harapp and Mohenjo Daro flourished approximately 1750 to AD, when suddenly were left by people. Perhaps the cause was incessant floods.

By the III century BC. Most of the Northern and Central India was combined into one empire. By the time the Emperor Ashoka came to power, only one unoccupied state, Kaling, remained. Ashok managed to master Kalinga, however, the price of such bloodshed, that they took possession of guilt. He appealed to Buddhism and began to rule the empire with peaceful methods. His thoughts on how to behave people, as well as the laws introduced by them were engraved on the stones and pillars placed throughout India.

The emperor Chandragupta Maurya enters his capital Magadh at the head of the elephant procession.

Hinduism and Buddhism

When Ashoka joined the throne, there were several religions in India, including Hinduism, who subsequently the dominant religion. Buddhism founded Siddhart Gautama (about 563-483 BC). Before the reign of Ashoki, the number of his adherents was very small, but Ashoka encouraged the spread of Buddhism throughout the empire.

Siddhart Gautama was an Indian prince who was disappointed in life in the palace. He left his house in search of an enlightened lifestyle. One day he sat down under a fig tree (later he began to call it with a tree Bo, or a tree of enlightenment) and began to meditate (concentrate its consciousness). After 49 days of meditation, he achieved enlightenment, that is, liberation from all human suffering. Siddhart began to call the Buddha, that is, "enlightened". He taught people to be peaceful, kind, disinterested and take care of others. He also taught his supporters to meditate to comprehend the meaning of life.

Buddha has gained enlightenment sitting under a fig tree.

When the Buddha died, parts of his body burned throughout India under the dome-shaped structures, which are called "stups".

After the death of Ashoki, Hinduism again became popular. Three supreme gods, Hindus consider Brahma, the creator; Vishnu, guardian, and shiva, destroyer. Sometimes Shiva acts as a god of love. Vishnu appears in many embodiments, including in the form of God Krishna, who is worshiped as a naughty young man and brave warrior.

In Hinduism there are thousands of gods and goddesses. Three supreme gods are Brahma (at the top of the left), Vishnu (at the top of the right) and Shiva (below).

Buddhism and Hinduism became rival religions. Hindus is customary to depict the gods in the form of statues. Therefore, they began to erect the statues of the Buddha in order to give Buddhism great popularity. For many centuries, this rivalry presented with humanity many excellent sculptures.

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Ancient America

First settlers. Ollmeki. Teotihuacan. Peruvian kingdoms. Mochka and Nazk.

Compared to other continents, America was populated relatively late . American civilizations developed regardless of other parts of the world.

The first hunters on mammoths, deer and other large game came to America from Asia 15-35 thousand years ago. Then the ice age came on Earth. Due to the fact that a lot of water frozen, the sea level fell much lower. The current Bering Strait was then land. Approximately 10,000 years BC The Ice Age ended, ice melted, the sea level rose, and America was insulated from the rest of the world.

The forest is not far from the coast of North America in 1500 BC.

After the end of the glacial period, trees began to grow again, forming dense forests. Women gathered berries and nuts, men hunted on deer and other forest animals with copies. The fish in the lakes and rivers were caught with networks from the shore, and in deeper waters - with canoe made from extended wood trunks.

Olmeca

Olmeki lived in a swampy terrain near the Gulf of Mexico. The beginning of their civilization dates back to 1200 BC. It was the people of artists and merchants. They worshiped many gods and built temples in the form of a pyramid. This architectural style was adopted by subsequent Mexican civilizations.

Olmeki traders traveled through Mexico in search of jade for crafts and sold their products. During the wanders, they met with other peoples. These nations were influenced by the art of Olmekov. Olmek civilization disappeared about 300 BC.

Huge stone heads were carved by Olmecs, the first civilization of Mexico. Each head weighs up to 20 tons. They are all unique and are sculptural portraits of Olmek leaders.

Teotiuacan

The next important stage in the development of Mexican civilization was the construction of Teotihuacan, a large city, located 50 km from the present capital of Mexico, the city of Mexico City. In Teotihuakan, there was a cave in which the sun was born in legend. Above the cave in the I B. AD A huge pyramid of the sun was erected, and a majestic city was spread around it. This pyramid can be seen today.

In the period of the highest heyday, its population reached 200.000. It was one of the largest cities in the world.

In 750 AD Theotioacan was destroyed, and all the inhabitants left him. However, this place was the center of pilgrimage.

Peruvian kingdoms

The gigantic pyramid of the sun, built by the people of Mochka in Peru, in South America, Uaka del Sol rose at 41 m above the surrounding plain. There were palaces, temples and sanctuations on her top.

Mochka were wonderful potters and artisans. Their civilization existed 800 years to 800 AD. Their rulers were rich and powerful priests warriors. They went to conquering hiking and managed ceremonies on which the prisoners sacrificed the gods.

Militan's priests wore skillfully made apparels and hats, as well as priceless gold jewelry.

Mechik traded with other peoples who lived in Peru. Among them was Naska. Naska was left on the sandy surface of the desert hundreds of geometric compositions and strange drawings depicting birds, monkeys, spiders and other beings. Display them as you can only with air. Why Nazka made these drawings long before the appearance of aviation, remains a mystery.

Perhaps drawings of Nask were part of a religious ritual.

> African art. Sculptures of the people Nok.

The ancient forms of African art are rock painted images in the Sahara desert, which 8000 years ago was a green fertile plain. Hunters and collectors lived there, but as Sugara turns into the desert, they left this region. Some groups went to the east, where they founded the ancient Egyptian civilization . Others moved south.

The earliest African sculptures belong to the people of Nok in Nigeria. These clay heads and figures are dating 500 BC. - 200 AD. Perhaps they inspired the artists of the later Nigerian civilization of the IFE.

The Nok tribe learned about the hardware about 400 AD, most likely, from merchants who crossed the Sahara desert. Iron was remarkably suitable for the manufacture of axes and agricultural tools. It was paid from ore in clay smelters.

> First settlers. Polynesian sailors. Statues of Easter Island

Oceania includes Australia, New Zealand, Papua-New Guinea and many small islands in the southern part of the Pacific. The people who are now called Australian aborigines probably got to Australia from Southeast Asia about 50,000 years ago. About 40,000 years ago, the immigrants from Asia set up a new Guinea.

Other islands were uninhabited about 5,000 years ago, and in New Zealand, people appeared only 1000 years ago.

Polynesia consists of a variety of Pacific Islands, which are thousands of kilometers apart. The ancestors of the current Polynesians were built by large canoes (in which they were placed before hundreds of people) to open these islands and to raise them. New islands did not open at the same time, you needed the millennium so that they all be inhabited.

Polynesian canoe called "Va" and Caula. "

Australian aborigines were hunters and collectors, however, the inhabitants of New Guinea began to engage in agriculture 9,000 years ago. They grown yams (sweet potatoes), coconuts, bananas and sugar cane.

Australian Aborigines believed in the endless spiritual life, which they called "Eternal Snow." All their art - music, poetry, dance and sculpture - imbued with religious beliefs.

One of their musical instruments was a long wooden tube called Didgerid.

Easter Island is located at a distance of 3700 km from Chile's shores in South America.

About 600 large stone statues are scattered around the island. Who, how and why have them built, remains a mystery.

The first people settled on Easter Island, most likely between 400 and 500 years. They built long flat altars on marine shores, where they made religious rites. Statues are standing on the altars faced by persons to land, but the images of the gods these statues seems to be not. Perhaps these are images of the ancestors of island residents.

The statues were vigilant in the quarries, only their eyes were added when the statues already stood in their places. Today, no one can understand exactly how these huge stone sculptures were omnted to their places.

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Chronological table

About 4.4 million years BC - Australopithek appears, the first bind-like personally.

About 2.5 million years BC. - in Africa appears Homo Habilis.("Skillful man"). It already uses the simplest tools. The beginning of the Paleolithic, or the ancient stone century.

About 1.8 million years BC. - in Africa appears Homo Erectus.("Strong Man"). It uses pointed guns and fire.

About 750,000 years BC. - in Africa appears Homo Sapiens.("Reasonable man"). Later, this person settled on other parts of the world, including China and Indonesia.

About 200,000 years BC. - The first Neandertalez appears.

About 125,000 years BC. - The first modern person appears in Africa, Homo Sapiens Sapiens.

About 60,000 years BC. - The first people in Australia.

About 40,000 years BC. - Homo Sapiens Sapiens.reaching Europe.

About 35,000 years BC. - The first people in America.

About 30,000 years BC. - Neanderthals die off.

About 10,000 years BC. - End of the glacial period (or its last, cold phase). The beginning of the Neolithic, or the new Stone Age. In Mesopotamia appears agriculture. For the first time domesticated some animals.

About 8350 BC. - The foundation of Jericho, the first city in the world surrounded by the walls.

About 7000 BC. - Chatal-Guyuk built in Turkey, apparently the largest city of those times.

About 7000 BC. - The first root roots begin to grow in New Guinea.

About 6500 BC. - Agriculture from Greece and the shores of the Aegean Sea applies up along the Danube River and approximately 5500 BC. It comes to the territory of today's Hungary.

About 6000 BC. - Military appear in Crete.

About 6000 BC. - In Thailand, they begin to grow rice.

About 5000 BC. - In Egypt, the first agricultural communities appear on the Nile River.

About 5000 BC. - Mesopotamia farmers begin irrigation work.

About 5000 BC. - Residents of southeastern Europe make copper and gold objects.

About 5000 BC. - the origin of the Chinese civilization. In India, agricultural communities arise in the Indian River Valley.

About 4500 BC.- In Mesopotamia, the plow is used for the first time.

About 4500 BC.- agriculture applies to most of Western Europe.

About 3750 BC.- Bronze casting appears in the Middle East.

About 3500 BC.- The first writing appears in Mesopotamia.

About 3400 BC.- In Egypt, develop two kingdoms, upper and lower Egypt.

About 3200 BC.- In Mesopotamia, a wooden wheel is used, made of staples bonded together.

About 3100 BC.- Egypt is combined under the domination of the first pharaoh, Menes. The Egyptians are the first people of the ancient world, combined into a single state (other civilizations are individual cities-states).

About 3000 BC.- The spread of copper in Europe.

About 3000 BC.- Large cities appear in Sumer, for example, Ur.

About 3000 BC.- arable farming comes to Central Africa.

About 3000 BC.- Pottery production appears in North and South America.

About 2800 BC.- Construction of Stone Hendja, stone monument in England.

About 2575 BC.- The beginning of the ancient kingdom in Egypt. Mighty pharaohs are sent to all the edges of the treasure expedition. The construction of the pyramids in Giza begins. They become one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Over time, the sole form of government in Egypt collapses, and the civil war continued by the following 100 years leads to the end of the ancient kingdom in 2134 BC.

About 2500 BC.- The emergence of Assyrian civilization in Northern Mesopotamia. Assyrians inherit the religion and the culture of the Sumerians.

About 2400 BC.- Indian civilization arises with two capitals - Mohen-Joe-Doro and Harapp.

About 2370.-2230 BC. - In Akkada, north of Sumer, Sargon I is based on the Middle Eastern Empire, taking control of the Schumer's area and leading war hiking to Anatolia and Syria.

About 2300 BC.- In Europe, the bronze age begins.

About 2100 BC.- Ancient Jews under the leadership of Abraham settle on the land of Canaan on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea.

About 2040 BC.- The beginning of the Middle Kingdom in Egypt. The country is united under the auspices of the Tsar Mouthukotepa from the FIV. About 1730 bC BC. The raids of gixos from Syria begin. Gradually, they submit to Egypt (in Egypt, at least 5 kings-gixos). The average kingdom falls apart in 1640 bC BC.

About 2000 BC- Minoan civilization in Crete. The construction of palaces begins.

About 2000 BC- In Peru begin to make metal products.

About 2000 BC - On the Aegean Sea, marine sailing ships are beginning to walk.

Around 1792 BC. - King Hammurapi joins the throne in Babylon. As the Hammurapi Empire strengthened, Babylon begins to dominate the entire Mesopotamia.

About 1750 BC. - Shang's dynasty comes to power in China.

About 1750 BC. - Summerly Harapp city civilization in the valley of the Indian River.

About 1650 BC. - The formation of the Hett kingdom. Hetta settled in Anatolia (today's Turkey) about 2000 bC BC. Under the leadership of King Khattushili II, they conquer Northern Syria.

About 1600 BC. - Cruel hunger forces the Jews to leave Canaan and move to Egypt.

About 1595 BC. - Hetta ruin the Babylonian empire.

About 1560 BC. - The Fivi Prince Kamos expels Hikosov from Egypt. The period of the new kingdom begins. At this time, Egypt dominates Nubia in the south and over the most part of the lands of Syria and Canaan. Now Pharaohs are buried not in the pyramids, but in relatively small tombs in the valley of the kings.

About 1550 BC. - The beginning of a myxal civilization in Greece.

About 1500 BC. - There are communities under the leadership of leaders in Europe.

About 1500 BC. - In China and in Greece develops writing.

About 1450 BC. - Mina civilization disappears.

About 1377 BC. - Egyptian Pharaoh Ehnaton makes Egyptians worship the one God Athon.

About 1290 BC. - Ramses II (Ramses Great) comes to the throne in Egypt, which is ruled for 67 years. During his board, Hetta go to Egypt's war. The battle of Cadess ended in a draw, but Ramses announces that Egypt won.

About 1270 BC. - Jews leave Egypt (the so-called "outcome") and settle in Canaan.

About 1200 BC. - The Hittte Empire collapses.

About 1200 BC. - Egypt is attacked by the so-called "peoples of the sea." The Army of Pharaoh Ramses III reflects the attack. Part of the "peoples of the sea" settle in Canaan and later becomes known as the "Philistine".

About 1200 BC. - Coloring a Mycenaean civilization in Greece.

About 1200 BC. - Olmeki civilization arises in Mexico.

About 1160 BC. - Pharaoh Ramses III dies, the last great pharaoh of Egypt.

About 1100 BC. - In China, the Shan dynasty is overseas. In her place comes Zhou dynasty.

About 1100.-850 BC. - Dark centuries in Greece.

About 1000 BC. - The Phoenicians expand their influence on the whole Mediterranean. They come up with an alphabetical letter.

About 1000 BC. - King David unites Israel and Judea.

814 BC - In North Africa, in Carthage, the Phoenician Colony is formed.

About 800 BC. - In Italy, the civilization of the Etruscans originates.

About 800 BC. - Greece is based cities-states.

753 BC - It is believed that Rome was founded this year.

About 750 BC. - Homer writes "Ilia", and then "Odyssey".

776 BC. - Greece pass the first Olympics.

671 BC - Assyrians conquer Egypt.

650 BC. - The manufacture of iron products begins in China.

625 BC "Tsar Nabopolsar heads the uprising of Babylonian against Assyria, as a result of which Babylon acquires former power.

563 BC - Siddhart Gautama (Buddha) was born in India.

About 560 BC. - The elevation of the Persian Empire under the domination of King Kira II (Kira Great).

551 BC. - Philosopher of Confucius was born in China.

521 BC. - The Persian Empire under the leadership of Tsar Darius I (Darius of the Great) expands. Now she extends from Egypt to India.

510 BC. - The last king of Rome Tarquinia is expelled, and Rome becomes a republic with two estates - patricians (aware) and plebeians (employees).

About 500 g. BC. - The beginning of the classical era in Greece and Democratic Board.

About 500 g. BC. - The beginning of the NOC culture in Nigeria, in Africa. It is believed that the first samples of the African sculpture were created by the people of Nok.

490 BC. - Persian invasion of Greece and raid on Athens. Persians suffer defeat in the battle of the marathon.

About 483 BC. - Die Buddha.

480 BC. - Persian fleet suffers from the Athenian in the battle of Salamine.

479 BC. - Greeks win Persians in the battle of payment. This victory marks the end of Persian invasions to Greece.

479 BC. - Confucius dies in China.

449 BC - The Greeks conclude the world with the Persia. Athens begin to flourish under the leadership of a new political figure, Pericla. Parthenon is built.

431-404. BC. - Between Atina and Sparta there is a Peloponnesian War.! Sparta wins, which is trying to establish an empire.

391 BC - Galla attack Rome, but they are satisfied with golden spill and retreat.

371 BC - FVAN commander Epaminond inflicts defeat to Spartans. This entails the end of Spartan domination.

338 BC. - Philip becomes king of Macedonia, the area in Northern Greece.

336 BC - Philip is killed, and the king of Macedonia is his son Alexander.

334 BC. "Alexander Macedonsky invades Persia and won the victory over Godieim III.

326 BC - Alexander conquers Northern India.

323 BC. - Alexander Macedonsky dies in Babylon. In Greece begins the Ellen's era.

322 BC - In India, Chandagupta Maurya bases his empire.

304 BC - Ptolemy I, the Macedonian ruler of Egypt, based on the new pharaoh dynasty.

300 BC. - Olmek civilization disappears in Mexico.

290 BC. Rome completes the conquest of central Italy, won over the Western tribe of the Samutor.

290 BC. - In Egypt, in Alexandria, the library was founded.

264 -261 BC - The first Punic war with Carthage brings control over Sicily to Romans.

262 BC. - Ashoka, Indian king (years of government 272-236), turns to Buddhism.

221 BC. - Qin dynasty begins to edit in China. Shi Huangi becomes the first emperor. The construction of the Great Wall of China begins.

218 -201 BC. - The second Punic war. Carthaginsky commander Hannibal invades Italy by making a transition through the Alps with 36 elephants.

210 BC. - Shi Huangdi dies in China. The era of the Han Dynasty begins.

206 BC - Spain becomes the Roman province.

149-146 BC. - Third Punich War. North Africa becomes the Roman province.

146 BC - Greece conquers Rome.

141 BC - The Chinese emperor in Di spreads the power of the Han Dynasty on East Asia.

About 112 BC - Great Silk Road from China to the West is opened.

About 100 g. BC. - Mochka civilization is born in Peru.

73 BC. - Gladiator Spartak heads the uprising of slaves in Rome and dies in battle with the Roman army.

59 BC. - Julia Caesar elects the Roman consul.

58 -49 BC - Julius Caesar conquers Galov and invades the British Islands twice.

46 BC - Julius Caesar becomes a dictator of Rome. The queen of Egypt becomes Cleopatra.

44 G. BC. - Julius Caesar jacket Bruta and a group of senators.

43 BC. "Mark Anthony and Octavian, a nephew Caesar come to power in Rome.

31 BC - Octavian won the victory over the army of Anthony and Cleopatra in the battle at the excise.

30 BC - Death of Anthony and Cleopatra.

27 BC - Octavian becomes August, the first Roman emperor.

About 5 g. - The birth of Jesus Christ, the founder of Christianity.

I century AD - The city of Teotihuacan is being built in Mexico.

14, AD. - Augustus dies. The Roman emperor becomes his parasian Tiberius.

About 30 g. - Jesus Christ will be crucial in Jerusalem.

37 AD - After the death of Tiberia, the Roman emperor becomes Caligula.

41 AD "Caligula is killed by Emperor Rome, his uncle Claudius becomes.

54 AD - Claudia poisoned by his wife. Her son Nero becomes the emperor.

64 AD - The fire destroys a significant part of Rome.

79 AD - Pompeii and Herculane destroyed in the eruption of Vesuvius volcano.

117 AD - The Roman Empire is greater than ever. The emperor becomes Adrian.

About 300 g. - The rise of the Indian hoopuel civilization in North America.

313 AD - Emperor Konstantin declares Christianity from the official religion of the Roman Empire.

330 N.E. - Constantinople becomes the capital of the Roman Empire (now the city of Istanbul in Turkey).

400 AD - Fallows appear on Easter Island.

410 AD - Varvara-Westges invaded Italy and capture Rome.

ANCIENT EGYPT

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Ancient Egypt

The beginning of the ancient Egyptian civilization. Ancient, average and new kingdom. Nilecis

One of the greatest civilizations arose on a narrow strip of fertile land along the banks of the Nile River in Egypt.

Ancient Egyptian civilization existed 3500 years and created many of the wonderful monuments of ancient culture.

The first Egyptians were the wandering hunters who came from the desert and settled in the Nile Valley. The grass grew well on this soil, which provided sheep pastures, goats and cattle. Floods guaranteed fertility, but they were a disaster when the river was poured at an unsuitable time of year and destroyed all crops. The peasants learned how to regulate flooded water, remove the dams and the construction of the ponds, in which water reserves were kept in case of drought.

There was time, the villages became cities, and people developed a board system. Craftsmen learned to handle such metals as copper. The potter's circle was the very valuable invention. Trade developed, and the welfare of Egypt grew.

About 3400 BC. Egypt consisted of two kingdoms, upper and lower. Approximately in 3100 BC. Less, the king of Upper Egypt with the capital in Nechem, conquered the Nizhny Egypt and became the first pharaoh of the united Egypt. The history of the country is divided into three main periods: the ancient kingdom, the mean kingdom and the new kingdom. During the ancient kingdom (2575-2134 BC), the faith in the afterlife was a significant part of religion. It is in this era that the pyramids were built .

In ancient Egypt, the pyramids served as tombs of kings, or pharaohs. For their time, they were a miracle of engineering art. Many pyramids have survived to this day.

At the time of the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 BC), Egypt traded with other lands and conquered Nubia in the south. The new kingdom (1560-1070 BC) with the capital in the city of Fiva became the golden age in the history of ancient Egypt. Pharaohs conquered land in the Middle East and made the country prosperous. The riches of ancient Egypt attracted the attention of other rulers. Under the blows of the troops of Assyria, Greece, Persia and, finally, Rome he fell in 30 g. BC.

Egypt often has come and with its neighbors, and with more distant countries. Pharaohs with the troops went to the conquest of new lands and returned home loaded by riches produced in the campaigns. Most prisoners became slaves. Rich to know was used to upward the grandiose structures, often in the glory of Pharaoh's victories. Two temples in Abu Simbel were built by Pharaoh Ramses II (Rules in 1290-1224. BC) In honor of his victory over the hitts that came from Syria.

At the entrance to a large temple are carved by the colossal images of a sitting king.

The small temple is built in honor of the king's wife, Queen Nefertari.

This is the Bust of Queen Nefertiti, the wife of Ehnaton (the years of the Board 1379-1362 BC).

The royal spouses wanted the Egyptians instead of many gods worship only one aton, the God of the Sun. After their death, the people returned to multi-grade.

Nilecis

The main transport in ancient Egypt was vessels that went along the Nile River. The boats were built from papyrus, cane, growing on the banks of the Nile. They moved with wooden cheerful or long poles. Later the sizes have increased, and rectangular sails began to put on them.

Thanks to numerous models, picturesque and sculptural images, as well as the finds of genuine burial boats, we clearly imagine the ancient Egyptian river vessels.

This vessel refers to the period of the new kingdom. It is equipped with one sail and two large steering oars and probably it was intended for a royal family or served for ritual purposes.

The entire period of the existence of humanity, after it came out of his early stage of development and left the cave prettyly boldly by the time, can be divided into certain stages, each of which will be a long-term community of countries and peoples united by common social, cultural and peoples and peoples Economic features. Such a separate historical segment is called civilization and carries in itself only one inherent features.

Civilization as universal historical progress

In the teachings of the most progressive representatives of the XIX century, the theories of universal historical progress were dominated. At the same time, individual traits of the development of individual societies associated with the peculiarities of their race, habitat, climate, religious and other factors were not taken into account. It was assumed that all of humanity was involved in the unified history of civilizations of its individual groups practically moved to the background.

However, by the end of the century, such historical optimism went to the decline, and gave way to doubts about the reality of universal historical progress. They appeared, and acquired a large number of followers of the theory, binding the development of individual groups of people with the geographical characteristics of areas of their residence and the degree of adaptability to them, as well as with prevailing religious views, traditions, customs, and so on. The concept of "civilization" has acquired a more modern meaning.

The value of the term

For the first time he was introduced by such thinkers of the XVIII century, like Voltaire, A.R. Turgo and A. Ferguson. There is a term from the Latin word "Civilis", which means "civil, state". However, in that era, he indulged in a somewhat different, narrower meaning than now. The whole from the stage of wildness and barbarism without separation into individual stages was designated as civilization.

What is civilization in the understanding of modern people, well expressed English historian and sociologist Arnold Toynby. He compared her with a living organism, able to continuously reproduce himself and pass the way from birth to death, overcoming the stage of birth, growth, flourishing, decline and death.

New approach to understanding the old term

At the beginning of the 20th century, modern civilization began to be considered as the result of developing it separately taken local entities. In the field of view, scientists have fallen features of their social systems, characteristic features of people inhabiting those or other regions, as well as their interaction in the context of world history.

The stage of the formation of civilization is common to all of the peoples without exception, but flows everywhere everywhere. Acceleration or slowing down its pace depends on a large number of reasons, among which the most important wars, natural disasters, epidemics and so on. A common feature of all civilizations, their starting point is considered to be the transition of ancient people from hunting and fisheries, that is, the consumption of the finished product, to its production, namely agriculture and cattle breeding.

Subsequent stages of the development of society

The second stage, which includes the history of civilizations, is characterized by the occurrence of pottery and writing in its early and sometimes primitive forms. Both also testifies to the active progress in which a specific society is involved. The next stage that global civilizations pass is the formation of urban culture and, as a result of this, further intensive development of writing. Based on how quickly the development of these and a number of other factors, it is possible to conditionally allocate progressive and backward peoples.

So, all of the above gives a general idea of \u200b\u200bwhat civilization is, what historical progress and what is its main signs. However, it should be noted that in the scientific world there is no single point of view on this question, as each scientist contributes its own, purely personal features in his understanding. Even in the matter of dividing civilizations to agrarian, industrial, as well as guided by their geographical position and features of the economy, there are different points of view.

The appearance of ancient civilizations

One of the controversial issues is an attempt to establish chronology of the nucleation of the most early known science of civilizations. It is believed that they were cities-states of Mesopotamia, which appeared in the valley and Euphrate about five thousand years ago. This historical period includes the origin of the ancient Egyptian civilization. A few later, the features of civilization adopted peoples who inhabited by India, and in about a thousand years she appeared in China. The historical progress of the peoples who lived in the period in the Balkans, gave impetus to the appearance of ancient Greek states.

All the world arose in the valleys of large rivers, such as Tiger, Euphrates, Neal, Ind, Gang, Yangtze, and so on. They were called "River", and in many ways their appearance was due to the need to create numerous irrigation systems in the cultivated territories. An important factor was climatic conditions. As a rule, the first states appeared in tropical and subtropical zones.

Similarly, the development of civilization in the seaside districts. It also required the organization of joint actions of a large number of people, and the success of the navigation contributed to the establishment of cultural and trade relations with other peoples and tribes. It began to played such a significant role in the whole world development and not losing its relevance.

War between man and nature

The main global civilizations of antiquity developed in the conditions of the unceasing struggle with natural cataclysms and difficulties caused by the terrain landscape. As the story testifies, people did not always come out by the winners. Examples of the death of whole peoples who have become a victim of the swirling elements are known. It is enough to recall the critical mixing civilization, buried under the ashes of the volcano, and the legendary Atlantis, the reality of the existence of which is trying to prove many prominent scientists.

Types of civilizations

Typology of civilizations, that is, their division on species is carried out depending on which sense is invested in this concept. However, there are such terms such as river, marine and mountain civilizations in the scientific world. These include an ancient Egypt, a number of states of Decolumbovaya America, respectively. Also in a separate group, continental civilizations are made, which, in turn, are divided into nomadic and settled. These are only the main sections of typology. In fact, each of the listed species has many more divisions.

Historical stages of societies

The history of civilizations shows that it was originating and passing the period of development, often accompanied by the invasion wars as a result of which, oddly enough, the management system and the structure of society are improved, they reach their heyday and maturity. This stage is in itself a certain danger due to the fact that, as a rule, the process of rapid quality development is inferior to the preservation of conquered positions, which inevitably leads to stagnation.

Not always is aware of this by society. More often, it perceives such a state as the highest point of its development. In practice, it turns into a political and economic crisis, the consequences of which there are internal universities and interstate clashes. As a rule, stagnation penetrates such areas as ideology, culture, economics and religion.

And finally, the consequence of stagnation is the destruction of civilization and its death. At this stage, there is an exacerbation of social and political conflicts, which, against the background of the weakening of power structures, has disastrous consequences. For rare exceptions, all former civilizations passed this thorny path.

The exception can only be the peoples and states that disappeared from the face of the Earth by virtue of purely external causes dependent on them. For example, the invasion of gixos destroyed the ancient Egypt, and the Spanish conquistadors put an end to the Mezoamericians. However, even in these cases, conducting deep analysis, it can be found in the last stages of the life of disappeared civilizations signs of all the same stagnation and decay.

Consultability of civilizations and their life cycle

Carefully looking at the history of mankind carefully, it is impossible not to notice that the death of civilization is not always the destruction of the people and its culture. Sides the process, in which the decay of one civilization is the origin of the other. The most striking example is the Greek civilization, giving way to Roman, and the modern civilization of Europe came to replace it. This gives reason to talk about the ability of the life cycle of civilizations to be repeated and self-reproduced. This feature is based on the progressive development of humanity and does not give hope in the irreversibility of the process.

Summing up the description of the stages of the development of states and peoples, it should be noted that the above periods take place not every civilization. What is the natural course of history, for example, in the face of natural cataclysms capable of changing his current in the blink? It suffices to recall at least a mineral civilization, which was in the heyday stage and destroyed by the Santorin volcano.

Eastern form of civilization

It is important to take into account the fact that the features of civilization are often dependent on its geographical location. In addition, the national features of people constituting its population are of great importance. For example, the Civilization of the East is full of unique, inherent in her features. This term covers states located not only in Asia, but also in Africa, and in the open spaces of Oceania.

Eastern civilization in its structure is heterogeneous. It can be divided into Middle Eastern Muslim, Indian-South Asian and Sino-Far Eastern. Despite the individual features of each of them, they enter into a lot of general devils, giving reason to talk about a unified Eastern model of the development of society.

In this case, such characteristic features are common as the boundless power of bureaucratic tops not only over the peasant communities, which are in its subordination, but also on representatives of the private sector: among them artisans of usurists and all sorts of merchants. The authorities of the Supreme Ruler of the State is considered to be given from God and is consecrated by religion. Almost every Eastern civilization has these features.

Western sample of society

A completely different picture is submitted to the European continent and in America. Western civilization is, first of all, the product of the assimilation, processing and transformation of the achievements of the previous ones in the history of cultures. In her arsenal, religious impulses borrowed from Jews inherited from the Greeks philosophical latitude and a high degree of a state organization based on Roman law.

All modern Western civilization is built on the philosophy of Christianity. On this basis, since the age of the Middle Ages, human spirituality was formed, which took place in his highest form, called humanism. Also the most important contribution of the West to the development of world progress is the science that has changed the whole course of global history, and the implementation of political freedom institutions.

Western civilization is inherent in rationality, but, in contrast to the eastern form of thinking, it is characterized by a sequence, on the basis of which mathematics was developed and it became the basis for the development of the legal foundations of the state. Its main principle is the dominance of personal rights over the interests of the team and society. On all over world history, the confrontation between the civilizations of the Eastern Sample and Western.

Phenomenon of Russian civilization

When in the XIX century in countries inhabited by Slavic peoples, the idea of \u200b\u200btheir association on the basis of ethnic and language communion was born, the term "Russian civilization" appeared. He used particularly popular among Slavophiles. This concept sharpens attention on the original features of Russian culture and history, emphasizes their difference from the cultures of the West and the East, puts their national origins under their corner.

One of the theorists of the Russian civilization was the famous historian and sociologist of the XIX century N.Ya. Danilevsky. In his writings, he predicted the West, in his opinion, the apogee of his development, a close sunset and dying. Russia, in his eyes, was a carrier of progress, and it was she who belonged to the future. Under its beginning, all Slavic peoples were supposed to come to cultural and economic flourishing.

Among the outstanding literature figures, Russian civilization also had its hot supporters. Enough to remember F.M. Dostoevsky with his idea of \u200b\u200bthe "people-God-head" and opposition to the Orthodox understanding of Christianity Western, in which he saw the arrival of the Antichrist. Also, it is also impossible not to mention L.N. Tolstoy and his idea of \u200b\u200bthe peasant community, fully relying on the Russian tradition.

Over the years, disputes do not subscribe to which civilization is Russia with its bright identity. Some argue that its uniqueness is only an external, and in its depths it is a manifestation of global processes. Others, insisting on its originality, emphasize the Eastern origin and see the expression of East Slavic community. Russophobes generally deny the uniqueness of Russian history.

Special place in world history

Leaving aside these discussions, we note that many prominent historians, philosophers of theologians and religious figures as our time and past years, weighing the Russian civilization at a completely definite place, highlighting it into a special category. Among those who were the first to emphasize the uniqueness of the paths of their fatherland in world history, there were such outstanding personality as I. Aksakov, F. Tyutchev, I. Kireev and many others.

The position, so-called Eurasians deserves attention on this issue. This philosophical and political direction appeared in the twentieth years of the last century. In their opinion, Russian civilization is the mixing of European and Asian traits. But Russia synthesized them, turning into something original. In it, they did not boil to a simple rack of borrowing. Only in such a coordinate system, the Eurasians argue, and one can consider the historical path of our Motherland.

Historical Progress and Civilization

What is a specific civilization outside the historical context caused by its form? Based on the fact that it cannot but be localized in time and space, it is necessary for a comprehensive study, first of all, to draw up the most complete picture of the historical period of its existence. However, history is not something static, immobile and changing only at some certain points. She is constantly in motion. Therefore, any of the world civilizations under consideration is similar to the river - with the similarity of its external outlines, a newly new and every moment filled with other content. It may be full, carry their waters for a long millennium, and can be thrown and disappear without a trace.