Features of the formation of European ethnic groups. National Composition of Foreign Europe

The peoples of Europe are one of the most interesting and at the same time complex themes in history and cultural studies. Understanding the peculiarities of their development, life, traditions, culture will better understand the modern events that occur in this part of the world in a wide variety of areas of life.

general characteristics

With all the diversity of the population living in the territory of European states, we can say that, in principle, all of them passed one common path of development. Most of the states were formed on the territory of the former Roman Empire, which included huge spaces, from German lands in the West to Gallian regions in the East, from Britain in the north to North Africa in the south. That is why we can say that all these countries, with all of them incurrence, are nevertheless formed in a single cultural space.

The path of development in the early Middle Ages

The peoples of Europe as nationality began to develop as a result of the great resettlement of the tribes, which covered the mainland in the IV-V centuries. Then, as a result of mass migration flows, a fundamental transformation of the social structure occurred, which existed during the centuries during the ancient history period, and new ethnic community took shape. In addition, the formation of nationalities had an influence and movement that was founded on the lands of the former Roman empire their so-called barbaric states. In their framework, the peoples of Europe are approximately in the form in which they exist at the present stage. However, the process of final national design fell for the period of mature Middle Ages.

Further folding of states

In the XII-XIII centuries, in many countries, the process of forming a national self-consciousness began. It was the time when the prerequisites for the residents of states began to identify and position themselves precisely as a certain national community. Initially, this was manifested in language and culture. The peoples of Europe began to develop national literary languages \u200b\u200bthat determined their belonging to a particular ethnic. In England, for example, this process began very early: already in the XII century, the famous writer D. Choseer created his famous "Canterbury stories", which laid the foundation of the national English language.

XV-XVI century in the history of Western European countries

The period of late Middle Ages and early new time played a decisive role in the formation of states. It was the period of the formation of monarchies, the design of the main bodies of the department, the formation of ways to develop the economy, and, the main thing - the specificity of the cultural appearance was formed. In connection with the specified circumstances, the traditions of the peoples of Europe were very diverse. They were determined by all the prior development. First of all, the geographical factor, as well as the features of the folding of national states, which finally took shape in the era considered.

New time

The XVII-XVIII century is the time of turbulent shocks for Western European countries, which survived a rather difficult period in their history in connection with the transformation of the socio-political, social and cultural medium. It can be said that in these centuries, the traditions of the peoples of Europe passed the durability test not only, but also revolutions. In these centuries, states conducted the struggle for hegemony on the mainland with varying success. The XVI century passed under the sign of the domination of the Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs, the next century - under the explicit leader of France, which was facilitated by the establishment of absolutism here. The XVIII century shaved her position in many respects due to the revolution, wars, as well as a domestic political crisis.

Expansion of spheres of influence

The next two centuries were marked by serious changes in the geopolitical situation in Western Europe. This was due to the fact that some leading states rose on the path of colonialism. Peoples living in Europe have mastered new territorial spaces, primarily north-American and oriental lands. This significantly affected the cultural appearance of European states. First of all, this applies to the UK, which has created a whole colonial empire that covered almost polim. This led to the fact that it was English and English diplomacy who began to influence European development.

Another event was greatly reflected in the geopolitical map of the mainland - two world wars. Peoples living in Europe were on the verge of destroying as a result of devastation, which caused her fighting. Of course, all this affected the fact that it was the Western European states that influenced the beginning of the process of globalization and the creation of global bodies for the settlement of conflicts.

Modern condition

The culture of the peoples of Europe today is determined in many ways to erase national borders. Computerization of society, the rapid development of the Internet, as well as broad migration flows set the problem of erasing national original features. Therefore, the first decade of our century passed under the sign of the question of the preservation of the traditional cultural appearance of ethnic groups and nationalities. Recently, when expanding the globalization process, there is a tendency to preserve the national identity of countries.

Cultural development

The life of the peoples of Europe is determined by their history, mentality and religion. With all the variety of ways of cultural appearance of countries, one general development will be distinguished in these states: this dynamism, practicality, purposefulness of the processes that occurred at different times to science, art, politics, economics and in society in general. It was on the last characteristic feature that the famous philosopher O. Spengler pointed out.

The history of the peoples of Europe is characterized by early penetration into the culture of secular elements. It determined such a rapid development of painting, sculptures, architecture and literature. The desire for rationalism was inherent in leading European thinkers and scientists, which caused a stormy growth rate of technical achievements. In general, the development of culture on the mainland was determined by the early penetration of secular knowledge and rationalism.

Spiritual life

The religions of the nations of Europe can be allocated in two large groups: Catholicism, Protestantism and Orthodoxy. The first is one of the most common not only on the mainland, but throughout the world. At first, she was dominant in Western European countries, but then, after the Reformation that occurred in the XVI century, Protestantism originated. The latter has several branches: Calvinism, Lutheranism, Puritanism, Anglican Church and others. Subsequently, on its basis, individual generality of a closed type arose. Orthodoxy is distributed in Eastern Europe. It was borrowed from the neighboring Byzantium, where he penetrated on Russia.

Linguistics

The languages \u200b\u200bof the peoples of Europe can be divided into three large groups: Romanesque, German and Slavic. To the first owned: France, Spain, Italy and others. Their singularities are that they have formed under the influence of the eastern peoples. In the Middle Ages, these territories were subject to the invasion of Arabs and Turks, which undoubtedly affected the folding of their speech features. These languages \u200b\u200bare distinguished by flexibility, sonicity and singer. No wonder it was in Italian that most operas are written, and in general, it is he who is considered one of the most musical in the world. These languages \u200b\u200bare easy to perceive and learning; However, the grammar and the pronunciation of French can cause some difficulties.

The German group includes the languages \u200b\u200bof the Northern Scandinavian countries. This speech is characterized by the hardness of pronunciation and expressive sound. They are more complicated for perception and learning. For example, German is considered one of the most difficult among European languages. Scandinavian speech is also characterized by the complexity of building proposals and rather difficult grammar.

The Slavic group is also quite difficult to master. Russian is also considered one of the most difficult to teach. At the same time, the opinion is generally recognized that it is very rich in its lexical composition and semantic expressions. It is believed that it has all the necessary speech funds and language turns to transfer the necessary thoughts. It is indicative of the fact that it is European languages \u200b\u200bat different times and centuries considered world. For example, at first it was Latin and Greek, which was associated with the fact that Western European states were already mentioned above, formed on the territory of the former Roman Empire, where both were in the go. Subsequently, the Spanish was very popular due to the fact that in the XVI century, Spain became a leading colonial power, and her language spread to other continents, primarily in South America. In addition, it was due to the fact that the Austro-Spanish Habsburg was leaders on the mainland.

But subsequently, the leading positions occupied France, which also also entered the path of colonialism. Therefore, French has spread to other continents, primarily for North America and North Africa. But already in the XIX century, he became the dominant colonial state, which determined the main role of the English language around the world, which is preserved in our. In addition, this language is very convenient and simple when communicating, its grammatical structure is not as complicated, as, for example, in French, but in connection with the rapid development of the Internet in recent years, English has greatly simplified and has become almost conversational. For example, many English words in Russian sound entered use in our country.

Mentality and consciousness

The peculiarities of the peoples of Europe should be considered in the context of their comparisons with the population of the East. This analysis was held in the second decade of the famous cultural scientist O. Spengler. He noted that for all European peoples, it was characterized by a rapid development in various centuries of technology, technologies and industry. It was the last circumstance that determined, in his opinion, the fact that they very quickly stood on the path of progressive development, began to actively master new lands, improve production and so on. The practical approach has become a key to the fact that these nations have reached great results in the modernization of not only economic, but also of social and political life.

The mentality and the consciousness of Europeans, according to the same scientist, the time immemors were aimed at not only to explore and know the nature and surrounding their reality, but also to the active use of the results of these achievements in practice. Therefore, the thoughts of Europeans have always been aimed not only to receive knowledge in its pure form, but also to use them in the conversion of nature for their needs and improve the conditions of being. Of course, the above-mentioned path of development was characteristic of other regions of the world, but it was in Western Europe that he manifested itself with the greatest fullness and expressiveness. Some researchers associate such business consciousness and the practically directed mentality of Europeans with the peculiarities of the geographical conditions of their residence. After all, the majority of European countries are small in size, and therefore, to achieve the progress of peoples inherent in Europe, we went to. E. Due to the limited natural resources, they began to develop and master various technologies to improve production.

Characteristic features of countries

The customs of the peoples of Europe are very indicative to understand their mentality and consciousness. They reflect them and priorities. Unfortunately, very often in the mass consciousness is formed an image of a nation for purely external attributes. Thus, labels are superimposed on this or that country. For example, England is very often associated with reference, practicality and exceptional businesslikeness. The French are very often perceived as a cheerful secular and open people, relaxed in communication. Italians or, for example, the Spaniards are very emotional nation with a rapid temperament.

However, peoples inhabiting Europe have a very rich and difficult story that put a deep imprint on their life traditions and life. For example, the fact that the British are considered houses (from where I went to say "My Home - My Fortress"), undoubtedly has deep historical roots. When fierce internecine wars were followed in the country, apparently, the idea that the fortress or the castle of some feudal was a reliable protection. In the British, for example, there is another interesting custom, which also goes back to the era of the Middle Ages: In the process of parliamentary elections, the defeating challenger literally makes his ways to his place, which is a kind of reference by the time a fierce parliamentary struggle. Also still preserved the custom sitting on a bag with wool, since it was the textile industry that gave impetus to the rapid development of capitalism in the XVI century.

The French still has a preserved tradition to desire to especially express their nationality. This is due to their turbulent history, it applies to the XVIII century, when the country has experienced a revolution, Napoleonic Wars. During these events, people felt their national identity particularly sharply. The expression of pride for their fatherland is also a long-time French, which manifests itself, for example, in the execution of "Mosselease" and today.

Population

The question of which peoples inhabit Europe seem to be very complex, especially due to the turbulent migration processes recently. Therefore, in this section, it should be limited to only a small overview on this topic. When describing the language groups, it has already been said about which ethnic groups inhabited mainland. Here it is also necessary to designate a few more features. Europe became the arena in the early Middle Ages. Therefore, its ethnic composition is extremely PEST. In addition, at one time the Arabs and Turks dominated on it, which put their imprint. However, it is still necessary to indicate the list of Europe's peoples from the west to the East (only the largest nations are listed in this series): Spaniards, Portuguese, French, Italians, Romanians, Germans, Scandinavian Ethnic groups, Slavs (Belarusians, Ukrainians, Poles, Croats, Serbs , Slovenians, Czechs, Bulgarian Slovaks, Russians and others). Currently, the question of migration processes that threaten to change the ethnic map of Europe are particularly acute. In addition, the processes of modern globalization and the openness of the borders threaten the erosion of ethnic territories. This issue is now one of the main policy in world politics, therefore, in a number of countries, a tendency to preserve national and cultural isolation was designated.

The largest Peninsula of the mainland Eurasia - Europe has long been made to allocate into a special part of the world. The reason for the selection is not at all geographic, because there are no such natural frontiers - a marine strait or watershed - which would justify it. Etymologically, the name denotes just a geographical landmark: the Greek europe (from the Assyrian Ereb) denotes the "Western country", in this case - West Eurasia. Only a large role of the peoples of the Western Peninsula Eurasia in the world culture and history of the peoples of the Earth, the enormous influence of the civilization of the Russian, German and Slavic peoples of Europe in the development of the entire humanity is based on the recognition of Europe by part of the world.

The land of Europe has repeatedly changed the outline, but always characterized by a strong stench of the sea coast and a great accessibility for settlement from both the coast and land from Asia. Three-quarters of the European Sushi with 9 /U of the modern population and economic potential are no further 300 km from the sea. The most depths are removed from the sea only 600 km and almost everywhere are connected to the sea by shipping rivers.

A lot of units are accepted within the borders of Europe, which are based on modern or past socio-economic, ethnic, geographical, anthropological and confessional criteria.

So, when they talk about different social systems - capitalist and socialist- in modern Europe, it is customary to divide it on the Western and Eastern-Eastern border of Finland, Germany, Austria, Italy and the Northern border of Greece and Turkey. In the Soviet Union, there is also a concept of foreign Europe. It includes all European countries in addition to the European part of the USSR.

For 1 millennium BC. e. The ethnic concept of "Celtic Europe" is adopted, spreading to most of the foreign Europe, and from the middle of 1 millennium N. e. up to 20 V. Dynamic ethnic concepts - roman-speaking, German-speaking, Slavic-speaking parts of Europe. In the names "Blonde", "Shaten", "Brunette", relating to the indigenous population of Europe and characterizing the degree of pigmentation of their hair, the most generalized definition of the inhabitants of this part of the world from the north to the South of the anthropological groups of the European-like large race are laid. According to a confessional criterion with 3 V. AD Christian Europe often contradicts Europe's pagan, from the 14th century. - Muslim; The Christian Europe itself is divided into Catholic and Orthodox, from 16 V. - on Catholic, Protestant, Orthodox and Muslim.

Europe is the smallest after Australia part of the world. Its square together with the islands is 9.7 million square meters. km (7.1% of the Sushi area of \u200b\u200bthe whole world). The territory of foreign Europe is 5 million square meters. km, or 3.6% of the land area of \u200b\u200bthe whole world, the population is 480.5 million people (1978), or 12% of the number of humanity, its average density is 96 people per 1 square meter. km - significantly surpasses the average population density in any other part of the world or on average on the planet (27 people per square meters. km). For the development of the economy, foreign Europe occupies one of the leading places in the world. It accounts for a third of global industrial production.

Ethnic characteristic. 58 peoples live in foreign Europe. This number did not include representatives of almost fifty nations - immigrant minorities, which found themselves in this part of the world after the Second World War in the situation of foreign, or "guest", workers and partly naturalized there.

96% of the population of foreign Europe, which occupies about the same part of its territory, speaks in the languages \u200b\u200bof the Indo-European family. The most significant of this family both by the number of peoples and for the total number is the German group. It consists of 17 nations and amounts to 177.7 million people. The second largest Romanesque band. It includes 15 peoples, and it has 177 million people. The Slavic Group is represented in foreign Europe with 11 nations with a total number of 79 million people. The Celtic group is not a few (4 people) and unites 7.4 million people. The Indo-European family includes Roma (0.9 million). Greek and Albanian groups are respectively the Greeks (9.5 million) and Albanians (4 million). Three people in foreign Europe belong to the Finno-Ugric Group (18 million people) of the Ural Language Family: Finns in their own national state, as well as in Sweden (as the largest national minority there is 2.5% of the country's population), Saama, Or the blades, in the north of Norway, Sweden and Finland, as well as Hungarians (Magyars) in their national state and as national minorities in neighboring with him. Two people of foreign Europe are part of the Turkic Group of Altai Language Family: Turks within the European part of Turkey and as a national minority in Bulgaria and Gagauz in Bulgaria. The Semitic Group of the Semitian Hamitsky Family is represented in foreign Europe with a small population of Malta. In a special language not included in any linguistic family, they say basks - the people inhabiting the northwestern part of the Pyrenean Mountains.

Anthropological composition. Another 17 century. The anthropological peculiarity of the peoples of Europe was attributed to Francois Bernier to one common as for the peoples of anterior Asia and North Africa, a European-like racial type. In all subsequent classifications, anthropologists identify this type as one of the three or four large human races of land called Caucasian, Caucasian, or Belaya, unlike the non-Neroid, Mongoloid and Australoid.

From the end of 19 century. Several detailed schemes of large races appeared, in particular, the European-like large races that took into account the pigmentation and geographical variations of individual features. The noted in some way in southern Europe, especially in the south of France, some features of the blacks are a consequence of the fact that the EuroFrick type was a development stage, common both for innoors and for Europeoids itself. A peculiar position among the European views is occupied by Saama, or blades. These northern European views are distinguished by dark pigmentation, the lowest growth in this part growth, a wide face, a round head, deep landing of the eyes and a concave nose back profile. The complex of these signs together with some mongoloid characterizes the bladium type.

Greeks. A reliable beginning of this ethnos on the lands of modern Greece is ancient in Europe. Creit-mycken texts, as proved by the latest studies, belonged to one of the ancestors of the Greeks - Ahaeis and treated 3-2 millenniums BC. e. The period of the turbulent economic and cultural development of the ancient Greeks was 8 - 5 centuries. BC e. It was then that crafts were blooming, trade and the so-called great Greek colonization occurred - the device of numerous colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean, Black and Azov seas, a total cultural unity was established, the total ethnic self-rinking - Ellina and the name of Motherland - Ellad. Antique civilization played an outstanding role in the development of the entire subsequent culture of Europe and the Middle East. The Romans called the Ellinov-Colonists of the Southern Italy Greeks, and through the Romans this ethnonym spread among the European, and then other peoples.

But modern Greeks go back not only to the ancient Hellen. In 6 -8 centuries. AD In the Balkans, including on Peloponnese, the Slavs were detained. It is like the Slavic ethnic element that they remained on the northern outskirts of modern Greece (Macedonians), the rest were assimilated by Ellini, although their stays stayed in toponymy (for example, Mount Helixson in Besotia is now called a charter). At 13 - 14 centuries. Albanians were settled in northern Greece, and some of them were also assimilated by the Greeks. The descendants of the local population, or Thracians, whether the Celts, are Greek whale (Aromunes), novels in the second half of the 1st of the early 2 millennium AD. Capture of Greece by Turks-Ottomans at 15 V. Called the struggle of the Greeks for liberation and contributed to the awakening of their national self-consciousness.

Now the Greeks live not only in their homeland and in Cyprus (Cypriots, 0.5 million people), but also in many countries of the Mediterranean, in other European countries, both Americas, in Australia.

The most characteristic economic classes of Greeks since ancient times - growing grapes, olives and almonds, distant sheep and breeding goats, pottery and rope. The cultivation of grain does not satisfy their own demand. In the postwar years, the importance of high-pressure subtropical crops, cotton, and fisheries, marine trade has increased. The basis of the food of the Greeks is the beans flavored with lemon, olive oil, garlic, parsley, as well as sweet pepper dishes, eggplant, tomatoes, pickled olives, Turkish pilaf, cheese and sour milk.

The development of traditional settlements is crowded, at home is built from the unprocessed stone of single and two-storey, in the latter case the cattle is placed on the first floor, the second serves housing. Windows and verandas of houses are treated for sunny side. The residential premises are heated with roasting with coals. Popular men's suit is better preserved among the population of the islands: black or blue sharovar, white shirt, vest with a lot of buttons, red or black Kushak, Red Fez, sometimes with a black tassel, woolen raincoat. Women's costume: a long white shirt of Tuni-Course, with wide and long sleeves embroidered with a wide long skirt, a sranfana version is found.

After the centuries-old challenge the Turks of the Greeks received the national sovereignty in 1830 with the active assistance of Russia. An important role in this struggle, as in general in the public life of the modern Greek Republic, played the Orthodox Church.

Christianity propagating in the country from 2 V. n. e. Almost all the believing population adheres to, only a small number of Greeks on the island of Rhodes and Frakia professionals Islam.

Greece still remains an agrarian country with a fairly significant development industry.

Albanians. Their self-attacking is shchipatar, etymology, "saying clear." They originate from the ancient aboriginal population, the Balkans - Illyrians or Thracians. Already in 4 c. BC e. The first state entities of the Illyrian-Thracian ethnic groups on the west coast of the Balkan Peninsula are known, which for the two subsequent centuries were subordinated to Rome and populated with Roman colonists. The population of the southern part of the Illyrian-Thracian territory, in particular the land of the current Albania, culturally and economically more developed thanks to the close relations with Ellosa, it retained its language. From 6 c. Slavs settled in Albania. They are assimilated, but their traces of their stay here are universally preserved in toponymy.

At the end of the 12th century The first Sovereign Albanian State - Arbury state appeared on the documents. At the end of the 15th century. Albania was captured by the Turks. From the 16th century Islam spread in the country. The centuries-old wrestling for independence, especially in the partisan war at the beginning of the 20th century, contributed to the formation of a single Albanian nation.

Traditional and main occupation of Albanian peasants - distilted sheep. In agriculture prevailed the grain direction: barley, rye, oats and wheat were grown in the mountainous regions, in the valleys - millet. From 17 century Corn cultivated, from 19 V. - Potatoes, in 20 century. - Also cotton and sugar beet. In the coastal strip, horticulture (olives, fruits and grapes) and winemaking are long developed. It is known that even at the end of 1 millennium. e. In Albania, dozens of crafts were highly developed: the manufacture of gas-based products, weapons, ornamented silver, silk fabrics, silver cast buckles, etc. Now, most of the masters of handicrafts are combined into production cooperatives. Of particular importance were kept those crafts that are associated with folk clothes or objects of life: sewing white fez for men, covered with gold sewing elegant velvet velvene bridesmaid, tank mistless or pile carpets of bright colors with geometric or stylized floral ornament.

Rural settlements of Albanians are three types: scattered, crowded and regular (modern). In Albania, there are the same types of traditional dwellings as in other countries of the Balkan Peninsula. Common two-story houses with a veranda along the upper, residential floor, lower floor - hlev and other shopping facilities. In Northern Albania there are two- and three-storey houses-towers from the raw (or processed only on the corners) of a stone with braces. In lowlands, in part in the swampy places, there are plentine single-storey houses, plastered clay.

Among the believers of Albanians, more than 2 / s make up Muslims (of which 2 / s Sunni and

Uz - Shiites) who live mainly in the central regions of the country - both in villages and in cities. About a quarter of believers - Orthodox, they inhabit mainly the south of the country. The rest, a little more than 10% of believers, are Catholics living in the north of Albania.

Romanesque grouppA is represented by 15 peoples: the Italians (in the world - 65 million, of which 85% in Italy), Italy Schools (230 thousand), Friely (400 thousand), Romanesk (50 thousand), Ladins (14 thousand), Corsicans (280 thousand), Catalans (7.2 million), Spaniards (27 million), Galicians (3 million), Portuguese (10.7 million), French (44 million), Francischwearts (1 million .), Wallona (4 million), Aromunes, or Whane (225 thousand), and Romanians (19 million).

All 15 now the novel-speaking peoples in the origins of ethnogenesis spoke in other languages, including partly and the ancestors of Italians. In 8-3 centuries. BC e. The Romans gradually subordinate to themselves and assimilated related Italian tribes on the Apennine Peninsula, as well as non-invo-European ethnic groups - Etruscov, or Tirsen, then in the north-east of Italy, the Illyrian tribe of Venetov, in 1 c. n. e. - Numerous Celtic tribes in the valley of the software river, and in the north-west of the country of Ligurov. In the south of the Apennine Peninsula and on O-Wax, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica Romans conquered the multi-dating peoples - nipides, Carthaginians, Sikanov, immigrants from Eldlas - and novels them, although the Greeks retain the remnants of their own language to 15 V.

In 3 c. BC e. Romans managed to capture the Pyrenean Peninsula with its multilingual tribal composition. South and East occupied Iberian tribes, North - Basque, West (current Galicia and Portugal) - Celtic tribes, in the center of the peninsula in the contact zone with Iberian - mixed, Celt-Iber.

The territory of Gaul and Belgium was just as ethnically difficult. The sedimentation of the lamps were settled by the sedimized lamp, later the liguras, Phoenicians, Greeks. The central and northern regions inhabited Celtic tribes, Galla. After the conquering hikes, Julius Caesar (58-51 BC), Roman colonies based on the site of the ancient settlements of the indigenous population, became the foci of the ro-tenantization of these ethnic groups, which moved to local folk dialects of the Latin language.

The process of nomanization is uneven, but quite intensively passed until the end of the existence of the Roman Empire (5th century) both on the lands of the current France and Belgium and all ethnic groups of the Pyrenean Peninsula. A significant role in the cementation of these ethnic groups in the novels of the nations has played from 3 V. n. e. The Christian Church of Rome, the official language of which was always Latin. So the languages \u200b\u200bof Wallonov (in Belgium), French, and on the Pyrenean Peninsula, Catalans, Galicians, Portuguese, began to develop.

In 1 c. BC e. The Romans subjugated several multiliate tribes in the center of the Alps (these were RTF related ethruscas) and north of the Adriatic Sea (aboriginal EVGA NEW, Illyrian Venetov and Kalatrakaya Karns). Within the five subsequent centuries, the Romanization laid the beginning of three reorganic peoples - Romanes who live in Canton Greubyundden in Switzerland, Ladadium (in the same place in the Dolomite Alps in Italy), as well as Friuria - in the province of Udine in the northeast of Italy.

In 146 BC e. Rome completed the conquest of Greece. However, Greek has surrendered thanks to the high culture of Ellin. Moreover, Greek language has found widespread in Italy as a language of culture and science. But some local ethnic groups of the Balkan Peninsula have rated. Already mentioned Aromans also live in Albania and Yugoslavia. Ethnonym Aromon from Byzantine times has a more common, albeit somewhat dismissive in the etymology - womb ("coarse, non-chromium") or crow ("chrome mooring") as a hint of a bad knowledge of the language of Byzantines - Greek.

Romanization was also subject to ethnic and north of the lower Danube - in Dakia, which the Roman Emperor Tray captured at the beginning of 2 V. AD Here lived the Thracian tribes of Daci or Dakicheets. An important role in the nomanization of the province was played by Roman legions and auxiliary cohorts. From where legionnaires were named, they themselves came novels over many decades of service and involuntarily promoted the nomanization of the local population. These Dicks, who, served in Roman legions on a foreign land, settled in Roman legions as land owners, artisans, merchants. Even in the postime period (after 271, N. e.) At least 50 settlements in Dakia retained their Dako-Romance.

Unlike novels-speaking Catholics and Protestants in Western Europe, Aromunes and Romanians - Orthodox.

Traditional Italians - Gardening, Grain Management and Livestock. Viticulture and on its base winemaking are in the first place both in antiquity of the industry themselves and their prevalence almost throughout Italy. Italians occupy the third place in the world after the United States and Spain for the production of citrus fruits, apples, pears, olives are grown from other garden crops. Ancient origins have vegetable growing (legumes, onions, garlic), now in the countryside, potatoes, tomatoes, melons and cabbage, sugar beets, tobacco and hemp are also grown. In the highlands, the Italians are engaged in distant sheep, in the valleys and the foothills of northern Italy are breeding cattle.

The Italians are popular with pasta dishes (in Italian - "Pasta"). Usually, the first dish (minerace) is supplied to the pasta, arched by tomato sauce or oil and cheese, sometimes - with a frolish meat. There are many spices and seasonings in food. Rustic Minenes - Zuppa (bean soup and vegetables with a bread-tired bread). Wheat bread, sometimes corn flour. It is also prepared to the Polenta - a type of corn cereal, Mamalygi, which is served on the table sliced \u200b\u200bby slices. Vegetable salads, fried vegetables, fruits, cheeses are common. The indispensable affiliation of lunch - grape wine, very popular coffee.

More than half of the Italians live in cities. Italian cities are the most ancient in the European part of the world after Phoenician and Greek. Some cities in Italy are founded in Dorim time: Greeks - Naples, Etruscia - Bologna, and most - in the ancient time (Rome, Genoa, etc.).

The modern Italian city is not only an administrative and cultural center, it is primarily the focus of the industry of a wide variety of industries. Italy is a developed industrial-agrarian country (6th place in terms of industrial production in the capitalist world).

Rural settlements of Italians - three types. In the Alpine zone in the north, partially in the center and in the south of the country are large villages and villages with a linear or radial layout. On the plains - the farm. A peculiar type of settlement in central foothill areas is a vertex on the hills, resembling a fortress at the location and appearance.

For rural estates, four types are characterized - two suggest the location of residential and economic buildings under one roof, in two other buildings are separate rooms. The first type of Latin, occurs throughout Italy. This is a two-storey stone house under a double tiled roof. The outer stone staircase with a platform at the top leads to the second floor, and the house itself is divided by vertical into two parts. In one half, the kitchen is located at the top - living rooms, in the second - there is a halby. The second type is alpine, distributed in the northernmost parts of Italy. The two-storey house consists of a stone first floor and a log cabin. Around the walls of the second floor stretches the open gallery with wooden railing and carving on the tree on the pillars, making facing gallery, cornices and platbands. The house is a vertical separation, as in the Latin house. The third type - the court, a closed rectangle formed by stone residential and economic buildings, in the center - the yard with a current for grain thread. The fourth type is Apenninsky, suggests a separate location of residential and economic buildings, and the entire estate is fenced with a hedge. The last two types of estates will go up to the ancient Roman villas and are found in small engines in novel-speaking Europe. Archaic dome-shaped stone buildings are preserved in Italy - Trulli. Their walls are closed; Inside - the only room without windows.

Although folkwear in the village is displaced by a pan-European suit, but in some places it is preserved pretty steadfast. Male Italian people's suit: Pantaloni (short, below the knees, pants), Kamiech (white, sometimes embroidered tunical shirt with stitched sleeves), Jacca (short jacket) or punching (sleeved), hat or beretto (bag-shaped headdress). Female Folk Suit: Gonna (Long Wide Skirt, Grebium (Apron), Kamiech, Corsetto (short blouse to waist, with lacing), Jackett or Jubetto (Swing Outerwear - to Hips or Shorter), Fazcoletto (head shawl). In Alpine areas walk in wooden shoes with iron spikes, so as not to slide on the stones, and with leather socks or wear Caugh (soft sandals from undergraded skin, tied to the leg over stocking or ports with long belts, - antique shoes).

The overwhelming majority of the believers of Italy - Catholics.

Retoromans are close to the Italians and Itan-Huswilders in traditional classes and material culture. Ladinov and Romanes are common in the Alpine style of manor, Friurov - Corte, as well as the Alpine Country Variant, extensive galleries, arcuate porticoes, the staircase on the second (and on the third) floor, more often internal. There are two characteristic dishes in Friurov: Broatada (turnip, weathered in grape squeezes and rubbed on a grater) and dumplings with cottage cheese and raisins.

France is a developed industrial country with highly productive agriculture. In the rural areas, the French are engaged in animal husbandry, poorerity and viticulture. Cattle can be contained almost all year on open pastures, broken into areas with pens. In the highland regions of the Alps and Pyrenees, distant animal husbandry is maintained.

Wheat, Oats, barley, to a lesser degree of rye, corn and rice - the main field cultures of the French peasants. Almost everywhere in France, except for the North and North-West of the country, viticulture has long been developed and on its base winemaking. The French occupy the first place in the world of oyster fishery (in the Atlantic).

The French national cuisine has long been famous for a variety of dishes. In the food there are many vegetables and rootepodes, popular cheese. Among meat dishes, the meat of rabbits, poultry, in the south - pigeons occupies a significant place. Traditional national dish - Bifstex with potatoes in boiling vegetable oil. Luke soup with potatoes and onion soup, refilled by cheese, popular throughout the country. In Provence, a buoyabez soup from various types of fish, arched by pepper, is there a favorite kushany - snails with gray bread, grated garlic. The South Table is diversified by Olives. Twice a day, dry wine is necessarily served to the table. For the consumption of dry wines, the French rank first in the world.

Two thirds of the French lives in cities, many of which go back to Roman time.

Rural settlements of the French are represented by two zones: a landing zone of a street or ordinary plan-in Northeast France, a cumulative plan - in the mountainous areas of the Mediterranean coast, and the farm area - on the rest of France. There are four types of traditional manor. French type is common in most of the country. This is a one-story building in which residential and shopping premises are combined under the same roof, elongated in a line parallel to the street. The type of court prevails in the northeast and along the middle of the Seine, Alpine - in the Alps and Pyrenees, and in the south of France and on the island of Corsica - the type, most of all resembling Latin.

The folk costume was supplanted by the French with a pan-European previously all in Europe, century ago. The male costume consisted of pants (in the 18th century - short, trimmed with woolen garters under the knees, from the end of the 18th century - long and narrow), shirt, vest, cervical scarf, fetal or straw hats. Last century, a blouse is spread. The suit of modern working- overalls or special equipment, on the head - the kepper or takes. In general, the French female costume resembles Italian.

According to religious affiliation, most believers in the country are Catholics. About 1 million French - Protestants.

The public life of the French is distinguished by high political activity, especially the working class, which has passed a great school class struggle. A large role in the political and cultural life of the country is played by the French Communist Party.

Wallona make up 40% of the population of Belgium and live in her south-eastern half. They have long been known as the craft people. In later, the Middle Ages Wallon-artisans found demand in European countries, forming in some (for example, in Sweden) earth colonies and making up an ethnic minority. And now in the most developed industries of Belgium (coal, metallurgical, engineering, chemical) are busy predominantly Wallon. Agriculture attracted a minor part of the people, mainly for year-round focus on open pastures of large, meat and dairy cattle. The proximity and delicacy of the settlements of the urban type spawned a narrow specialization of farms (garden-green, poultry farm, pig).

Most of Wallonov lives in small cities and workers' settlements, no more than 15 thousand people. Similar villages, small towns, sometimes the villages form a chain of merging with each other and stretched to tens of kilometers of settlements. Such a chain of settlements stretches along the r. Samra in the coal pool Mons - Charleroi, and then along the r. Maas, from Namur to Liege, that is, from the border of France to the Border of the Federal Republic of Germany, across the entire Belgium.

For rural settlements, Wallonov is characterized by small villages of street or cumulus type, and in Ardennes - large villages. Traditional past buildings - frame, in Ardennes - stone, modern - bricks. Hangle lowned roofs are tiled or slate. Walloon houses are not accepted not to flash, and the decoration of red brick houses is provided with a construction - layer in the walls of a white limestone brick layer and placing a white stone. Valleons traded three types of estates: a closed type, resembling the court in Italy; Walloon, similar to Apenninsky in Italy; In Ardenna- Alpine type.

The peoples of the Pyrenean Peninsula have long been famous for skilled grapes and winemakers. And now almost half of the Portuguese and Galicians and about 40% of the Spaniards and Catalans are busy in agriculture, we will take Spain in the first place in the world in the production of olive oil, on the second in the area of \u200b\u200bvineyards and on the third - on the collection of grapes and the production of wine, and the Portuguese - In the first place in the world in the production of wine per capita.

The culture of Olive, brought by Ellity, was given in the peninsula. Spaniards and Catalans give half of all its global products. Similar to the importance in the economic classes of Spaniards and Citarlan Catalonians, according to which Spain ranks first in the world in the world and second after the United States to collect, figs and almonds - second place in the world after Italy.

Despite the arid climate of the two thirds of the peninsula, the grain farming has long been developed here. Grow wheat and other cultures. The irrigation system has an old tradition. There is a norion introduced in the century of the Arab domination in the century, the wheel with heels for scraping water from a reservoir driven by a donkey or horse. In the province of Valencia, it acts and today is a water tribunal - a relic of customary law. Water Tribunal Allows all disputes of the owners of irrigation canals, arising from the use of water. Sentences are not subject to appeal.

Already in the Roman era in Spain and Portugal on irrigated meadows, large horned cattle. The bull was revered by the peoples of the Pyrenean Peninsula with sacred animals. Breeding cattle and now one of the most important practices of Portuguese in the north of their countries, Galicians and Spaniards. From ancient times, the population of the peninsula bred goats, using their milk, meat and wool. Merino sheep were delivered by the Arabs, and after reconquitors, the sheep was spread in all areas of Spain and Portugal, except coastal. Castilic products from wool are known all over the world. On the life of sheep and goats, Spain is inferior in foreign Europe only England (in meat breeds) and Greece (for dairy rocks).

Fisheries has very ancient origins on the peninsula, especially in Portuguese and Galicians. In ethnographic literature, it is even found that Portuguese fishermen is the descendants of the Phoenician colonists, and Portuguese fishing vessels with highly raised curved noses and a traditional pair of huge eyes on the nose of the vessel, as it were, confirm this assumption.

Almost all cities of the Pyrenean Peninsula of Very Ancient Origin. Many of them rose on the site of ancient viper or Celtic fortified settlements, whose layout of which is currently visible in the centers of some cities (Spanish Sevilla, Sagunto). Spanish Cadiz (Gades) is founded by the Phoenicians, Spanish Cartagena (New Carthage) - Carthageanians, Catalan Barcelona - Hellenes, with the Romans, many villages have become beautiful cities (Spanish Merida, Catalan Tarragona, etc.). The features of the Moorish style are many southern cities of the peninsula, including Cordoba and Granada.

Neorobic settlements of the peninsula are folded into four types, in accordance with the main profession of residents, and sometimes with the borders of ethnic groups. So, along the Atlantic and

Mediterranean coasts stretch the fishing villages of a semi-region type located on the site of the villages of ancient times. The farm type is characteristic of Galicians. It is known that the Portuguese still had the northern regions in antiquity from the southern: and now the farm prevail, and the remaining portuguese, as in the Spaniards and Catalans, are the village of street type.

Rural residents of the Pyrenean Peninsula are represented by family types. Some of them have an analogy with Italian. The territorially, these types conventionally correspond to climatic zones and deserve a partly influence of cultures of different ethnic groups. In the wet zone, counting from the west of Northern Portugal and Galicia to the east to Navarre, two types of estates are common: Galician (Galicians, Asturians and Northern Portuguese) are an analogue of Apennine in Italy, as well as Basque (see "Basks"). In the central strip, counting from the west of Southern Portugal to the northeast to the middle of the Pyrenees mountains, the global version of the type of court is common. Four types of estates are characteristic of the south and east of the Pyrenean Peninsula, from Andalusia to Catalonia. The first is the Levant Barracca, the type of chatter from the reed braid, an incelave clay, with a high steep, without a pipe with a row roof, covering the wall outside the wall is hardly to the ground. The second is the Andalus court, carrying traces of the traditions of Romans and partly the Arabs. The third - Andalus terrace, with earthen or global walls and a flat roof, is common in the Spaniards of Andalusia and Murcia and Catalans of Valencia and Catalonia, in the places of the former domination of Arabs. The fourth is the Andalus Cortico, in general schematic traits similar to the Italian type court, it is distinguished by the fundamental nature of the stone buildings forming a closed courtyard in which the gate leads through the tower, household buildings are located inside the courtyard.

The variants of the People's Costume of the Spaniards have been preserved in everyday life only in some areas, and in the most generalized form, women's suit is represented by a wide assembly skirt with a front blouse, a corsage or a short wool jacket of Manteon (Manton, bonded on the chest shawl), on the head - shawl or sombrero. Composition of a male suit: pants (narrow and slightly lower knees dark pants), Kamis (white linen shirt), Chalco (vest), short woolen jacket on buttons, Fakh (cushion from bright fabric), Monter (twin hat "Spaniard") or sombrero. Outerwear: Capas (Dark Cloak), Plunched Cape, Plaids. Sapatos is worn on the legs (leather oscillating shoes) or abackas (raw boots), and in crude weather, wooden almadineas put on top.

Catalan dresses like the Spaniards, besides, they wear a barrectin (a hat of the Frigian cap type), Galician clothes are more adapted to raw climate, they prefer dense tissues (cloth and flannel of dark tones or skin), and in the rain you wear a koros (long straw raincoat -Kolpak, swallowing in front). Portuguese clothing Unlike Spanish is characterized by greater brightness - for example, lovers of apron color - red, yellow, green

Believers Spaniards, Catalans, Galicians, Portuguese -Catrolles. Many Sangered Church Holidays have pre-Christian origin (Celtic origin of the May tree - Maos, as an ancient origin of the carnival with "Africa of flowers" in Murcia, comic funeral of Sardinics in Madrid and other cities, fairs, fareering, Valencian Fallas with burning stuffed giants). The long-standing roots on the Pyrenees has love for Corrida - the battle of bulls.

Basic. Their self-setting is Euscaldunak, "Talking BasqueSki". These are the descendants of the ancient pre-European population, which is isolated by language position. Live in the northern part of the Pyrenean Peninsula on both slopes at the junction of Cantabrian and Pyrenean mountains, most in Spain, smaller - in France. The number of baskov is about 1 million people. Traditional classes in the mountainous areas - distilted sheep, on the plain and in the foothills - meat-dairy animals, as well as grain farms, gardening and viticulture. From the 14th century Because of the monkeying part of the peasantry, the role of fisheries increased, workers' hands and for maritime commercial ships were released. The mining of the iron ore (now the mining and metallurgical industry) and blacksmithic studies have been developed from the folk crafts.

Characterized by the farm type of settlement in the countryside. The village around the Church and Administrative Building is a relatively recent phenomenon. The Basque dwelling type is a two-way or three-storey house, rectangular in the plan, under one common with the economic buildings of the duplex roof, stands in the center of the estate, surrounded by arable land, garden and vineyard. The lower floor is from a major dyed stone, plastered, upper - frame design, sometimes the entire home framework.

The Basque folk costume is worn only on carnivals. However, a purely Basque National Headdress - takes not only the male headdress of the Basque of any age, but also spread among other peoples on both sides of the Atlantic.

Spanish basks received regional autonomy in 1980.

Maltese. This is the only seven-time people in Europe, inhabiting two islands (Malta and Gozzo). He developed from many consistently arriving on the island of multi-tech ethnic groups. Material traces of the first settlers remained from neolithic in the form of burial grounds and collapsy stone buildings. The most close to the Tunisian dialect of the Arabic language Maltese still be traces of the Sicilian dialect of Italian, as well as English, because from 1900 to 1964. The island was a British colony, since 1964 became a sovereign state. Maltese residents are more than 360 thousand people, they have the largest population density in Europe - more than 1 thousand people per 1 square meter. km.

Agriculture is carried out on tiny, terraced sections, centuries left in stony mountains under countryside (potatoes, onions, garlic, beans, peas, pepper) and grain (wheat, barley) culture, as well as vineyards and gardens. Lack of pastures limits animal husbandry to home (donkey, mules, pigs, sheep, goats). They cultivate the land in the old manner - hoe. The climate and natural fertilizers allow you to shoot a year 2-3 crops per year. Maltese residents from the Middle Ages glorified crafts: the release of silk and cotton lace, straw weaving and filigree works.

Houses are stone, with an indispensable gallery in front of the facade. Black color prevails in clothing.

Religion - Catholicism plays a very large role in the life of Maltesers.

The democratic government of Malta takes measures to develop the economy, primarily the port and ship repairing economy, the elimination of remnants in public and private life.

German group. 17 peoples of foreign Europe speak languages \u200b\u200bor dialects of the German language group. These are the Germans (60 million in Germany, 17 million in the GDR and 2 million in Western Berlin), Austrians (7.2 million), Her-Mananosvizers (4 million), Luxembourbles (300 thousand), Alzatsy (1.4 million), Larringans (200 thousand), Flemish (7 million in Belgium and France), Dutch (11.6 million), friezes (410 thousand), Danes (5 million), Swedes (8 million), Norwegians (4 million), Icelanders (220 thousand), F-Reretsy (40 thousand), British (44 million), Scots (5 million) and Olsters (1 million).

The peoples of the German Group inhabit the land of Central, Western and Northern Europe, including the islands of the North Atlantic. In the middle of 1 millennia BC e. The Germans occupied the earth only in the north of modern Germany and GDRs, as well as Scandinavia. In 2-3 centuries. n. e. The German tribes began to break into the limits of the Roman Empire, and in 5 - 6 centuries. They settled the entire Western Roman Empire right up to North Africa. After the collapse of the Empire of Karl the Great (843) on the lands between the Rhine and the Elbe and the Upper Danube, the German nation began to be formed by the Bavari, Aleasans and other tribes. On the Yutland Peninsula and nearby Islands were formed by Danes, on the Scandinavian Peninsula - Swedes and Norwegians. On the coast of the North Sea, a Dutch nationality was formed, in the Netherlands, in the north-west of the Federal Republic of Germany and on the Friesian islands adjacent to the mainland, in Northern Belgium - Flemish close to the language to the Dutch.

In 5 -6 centuries. The German tribes of the Angles, Saksov and Yutov won a significant part of the British islands with their Celtic population, and then Ireland was subjected to the raids and Norwegians who were accompanied by their colonization in East England. As a result of these complex processes, new peoples were formed: the British, the Scots and many centuries later, Olterians. Romanesque roots in English arose from the effects of the Romans into the language of the Celts and the Normanov themselves, who in the time of the conquest of England in 1066 managed to almost lose their tongue and said, after a long stay in Normandy, in the Old-Manzuz.

Severogrertsents, Danish Islands and the Scandinavian Peninsula in the "Viking Epoch" (from approx. 800 to 1050), captured and colonized the islands of the North Atlantic. At the same time, the immigrants from Norway gave rise to new ethnic groups - Faroezham and Icelanders, whose language is very close to the ancient Yellow.

Traditional classes of German peoples - animal husbandry, mainly breeding cattle, and farming. In Mountain Scandinavia, Switzerland, Austria, Scotland and in the south of Germany, animal husbandry has always been an outdated-stalk (distinguishing of livestock for summer pastures in the mountains with a stall content in winter in the village). In Iceland, shepherdies traditionally developed on the spotlights, in Iceland, in addition, food hide. Agriculture was gained greater development in Germans and Austrians, where grain crops give high yields and their cultivation is of great importance in the farm. Due to the high equipment of agriculture, electricity and the use of chemicals, Germans, Danes, partly the Dutch are now the highest wheat yields, rye, potatoes. Other German peoples are often engaged in agriculture as an exemplary farm, growing fodder crops, fishing from the German peoples earlier than all the Dutch. They still in the early Middle Ages began to apply salre salmon. Fisheries from Scandinavians, primarily in Norwegians, Icelanders and Farerians, has acquired a commodity only from 19 V.

More than two thirds of the Germans now live in cities. The traditional type of settlement of the Germans, about which still wrote Tacitus (1 century n. Er) and which was preserved to the new time on the German lands, are large cumulative villages with randomly located courtyards and curves streets. Only in the east of the GDR there are circular settlements with the central square, apparently inherited from the Slavic population assimilated. In the West and south of Germany, partly from the Swedes, Danes and Farhetsev meets a farmer type of settlement. Almost exclusively a farm type is common in friezes, Flemis, Dutch, Norwegians and Icelanders.

Traditional for the Germans, Flemis, Frizes, Danes and South Swedes, residential construction equipment - frame, or frame, so-called torch. The logged buildings are distributed in forest areas in the south of Germany, the East of the GDR, the Norwegians and Swedes, in part among the Austrians and Germanosvice. Stone and brick houses were built first only in cities and in some places in the villages on the Rhine and in the Upper Bavaria. Local features that persist in the material culture of the Germans are especially clearly detected in the types of housing. In the past, they were associated with regional division, from here and the names of traditional types of houses and estates - Saxon, Franconian, Aleansky, etc.

In the northern half of the Germany, in Denmark and Holland, the Saxon or Frisian house-yard prevails - a large rectangular frame building with residential and household premises under one roof, steep, more often than four-tie, straw, later - tiled. All the severity of the roof lies not on the walls, but on the internal pillars. The indoor yard - huzno occupies the middle of the house, in front of the entrance there is a focus with a hanging boiler.

In the middle part of the Federal Republic of Germany and in the south of the GDR Ras-space Frame Franconian or South Obolimburg type. Outside the actual German lands, he is found in Switzerland, Austria, Belgium and partly in Holland. Residential house and household buildings span from three or four sides by the courtyard of the manor. In addition to open focus, the furnace is arranged in the residential room. The border between the Saxon and Franconian types of the estates coincides with the border between the Lowernesec and Mediterranean dialects.

In the southwest of Germany (Land Baden -Vürttemberg), the concentrate Aleansky type of manor is common. Log, residential and shopping premises constitute a continuous building under one roof and are located or P-figuratively, boding the courtyard of the estate from three sides, or a rectangle, forming a closed courtyard inside it. The last breeding is schematically similar to the Italian type of estate court.

For the upper Bavaria, the Alpine Type of Manor is characterized, also in Western Austria, Switzerland, Northern Italy, North-West Yugoslavia.

The estate of the Norwegians, as well as the Swedes of forest areas, consist of a concentrating two-or three-story residential building and a variety of economic buildings. The planning of the estate depends on the conditions of terrain. On the plain, individual rooms form a rectangle around the potted courtyard. At the mountainside, the buildings were located in the "cattle row" (below the slope) and "clean" (above the slope). The most archaic forms of residential and economic buildings in Iceland and the Farerahs. They are built from stone (tuff, basalt), turf, floating or bridal timber. The gaps between the boulders are paved by the turf. On top of the stone walls of the house are trimmed by boards. The roof is duplex, from beered and boards, on a rafter clawholder cladder. The art carving of the tree is developed from Norwegians, Swedes, Germans, German-Swiss, Austrians (platbands, support pillars of housing and warehouses, utensils).

The first information about the clothes of Germanians belong to the beginning of our era. Men wore a shirt with seamless sleeves or sleeves, consisting of two tissue tissues, cross-shreds, long pants, shoes (the same for men and women) served a leather sole with blades of belts. The native women's shirt also consisted of two cloth, which fastened with scrappers above the shoulders. Later, sleeves were sewn up to this dress. Then it was known - the upper clothes - a raincoat with a hood.

The German peoples have a lot of regional costumes. But unlike more southern peoples, corsage, sweaters, skirt, apron always sewed from warm, heavy woolen fabrics. A resident of Hesse (Germany) and now put on a few short, with the assemblies of the skirts (the number of them before reaching 20, and this stressed his prosperity), from which the edge of a white shirt is speaking, black corsage with sleeves to the elbow and a small red hat. The traditional costume of Franconia women is designed in red and brown colors and consists of a skirt, a motley apron with a zigzag pattern, sweatshirts with quilt, assembled assemblies on shoulders, a lifting with a wide neckline. Women's suit of Germanoshvian Catholics Canton Appenzel in Switzerland - a dark or red skirt and apron, black corsage with silver decorations, a jacket with lush sleeves to the elbow, a headdress of white and black lace in the form of two large wings, a lace shoulder brazer with the image of the Edelweiss Mountain Flower . Up to 150 species of female regional clothing have been preserved in Norway, in which women dress up for a holiday.

Currently, the folk suit in all German-speaking peoples is ousted by the pan-European urban type and remains only for special cases (holidays, choirs, etc.). Nevertheless, some details (choice of color, ornament, decorations, etc.) are preserved, especially in women's rustic clothes, fast enough.

These are the most ancient types of crafts among German peoples, like knitting (including sweaters, mittens, socks, decorated with geometric and zoomorphic ornament), rope, weaving, manufacture lace and embroidery, are widespread and today.

Celtic group. Four people represent this once numerous linguistic group. Irish people live in the British Islands (3 million people in the Irish Republic and 500 thousand in Olster on the same island of Ireland), Welsh (700 thousand in Wales) and Gala (90 thousand in Scotland and the Hebrid Islands), and on Peninsula Brittany in France - Bretonians (1.1 million people). Only the Irish Republic of the Irish Republic have their national state. The struggle for cultural autonomy is acutely worth the Bretonians and especially in the Irish of Olster, who are opposed by the extremist organizations of Olterstsev - descendants of mixed English and English families.

Traditional classes of these four celian peoples by the end of the late Middle Ages, and Irish before the middle of the 19th century. - agriculture and animal husbandry. They grown barley, oats, wheat. Gradually, the main role was to play animal husbandry, and halov, primarily sheep, then breeding cattle. In Irish, Welsh and Bretontsev on the first plan, large-horned cattle. Agriculture at the Celts is aimed at the cultivation of foded crops (root crops, oats).

Bretons in the coastal, most developed areas also engage in the cultivation of vegetables for export or for the canning industry (cauliflower, peas, artichokes, etc.). One of their oldest activities is also developed - fishing (Tuna, Sardin, Macrel), and after the war, the collection of algae and oyster fishery increased sharply. The Celts survived old crafts - woolen and leather. Irish are engaged in, as in the old days, crafts from straw, hay and cane. Galy remains crafts crafts - jugs and tea sets. Bretons produce handicraft furniture of old models; Brettonies are famous for their art embroidery and lace.

The traditional food of the Celts is not distinguished by a variety. At the Celts of the British Islands, it consists of cereal (especially Porridge - liquid oatmeal), in the Galov and Irish of Fish and Dairy dishes, predominantly soups; Huggis is popular - Banjee or calf soup, welded with oatmeal, with pepper and onions. Solonin and herring are common. National alcoholic beverages - beer (el) and whiskey. Food of the southern Brettonians is more diverse, they use more vegetables and fruits.

One of the oldest cities of Celts - Dublin is founded by Anglonmann in 12 V. Rural settlements of farms are prevailing in the last one and a half century. It is archeologically confirmed that the ancient Celts of the house was built from stone. In the Middle Ages, as evidenced by archeology and written sources, they spread at home with the pttenie walls, culminated clay. From the 18th century There are houses, both stone - in mountain and coastal areas, and shouldnaren - in plain, swampy places.

Stone houses of Bretons, built of granite, wide, squat, with a steep, low-descending roof, are similar to the stone houses of Halles, Irish and Welsh. The originality of the interior of the residential house was wooden high with sliding doors of the beds-cabinets in the form of an open boxes.

Traditional costumes in the go on folklore holidays, their many especially in Bretonians (66 species of only women's costume). In a suit of older women in different parts of Brittany, the most common black color of clothes (long wide skirt, stockings, knitted sweaters or wool cape) and shoes, even wooden sabot. In young broonts, a long wide skirt and corset with sewage sleeves (and skirt, and the corset is thickly covered with embroidery), a long white apron and a white lace cape. In a men's suit, narrow short pants were worn in Eastern Brittany (as in the rest of Roma-on-old Western Europe), and in Western Brittany-wide pants of one of two types: or long with folds collected by belt, or short with folds fixed with cord Both the belt and the knees. Jacket with a deaf gate and two rows and buttons, sleeved over and hat completed the outfit.

Irish wore a long, up to the ankles, a very wide skirt of red, blue or green, adjacent in the waist, a bright sweater with long narrow sleeves, a round neckline and thick assemblies around the neck. A dark corse was put on the shirt. A bright checkered or striped apron was put on top of the skirt, on the shoulders - shawl with color border along the edge and a long fringe. Cape raincoats with hoods protected against bad weather. Still a century ago, Irish had a custom to wear children of both sexes in a short red skirt on a canvas brazier, knitted shirt and brown jacket. Only after the first communion on the boy put on pants, usually short.

Male People's Dress of Irish and Galov within 14 - 15 centuries. It was similar, the flaxed shirt of the saffron color reached his knees, and the neck and the waist was collected in dense folds. The gules pounced over the plaid, which up to this day remained a characteristic feature of the Scottish costume. The costume of Galov-Highlanders consisted of a plaid skirt to the knees - Kilt, a linen white shield with a postponed collar, a short jacket with challenges and without a collar, knitted stockings with a checkered color and coarse leather shoes with large metal buckles.

Believers and three quarters of the Irish Island of Ireland are confessing Catholicism. Welsh and Gala, as well as part of the Irish relate to different Protestant churches or sects (Anglican, Presbyterian, methodologists, Baptists).

Finnougan group. Three people of foreign Europe represent the Ural family of languages: Saami, or blades (50 thousand), Finns, or Suomi (5 million), and Hungarians, or Magyars (13.4 million).

Saama is the only reindeer people of foreign Europe. Some of them still leads a half-hour lifestyle with herds of deer, the second is busy fishing on lakes and rivers or coastal sea. Seduced Saama in non-Bolovsky villages are breeding large meat-milk cattle, grow feed herbs for it, as well as potatoes for its own power supply. Crafts are developed: sewing fur and cloth, skillfully decorated fur and colored pieces of cloth, weaving baskets, bone carving, embroidery, manufacture of rugs. Most of the products are coming to satisfy the demand of the indigenous population, but they also buy foreign tourists and museums.

Folk costume - a kind of arctic clothing - is common and understood, especially in reindeer breeders. Male: Long, to the knees of a blouse made of coarse tissue with a cut at the gate, narrow cloth pants, a fourhow cap (at the Swedish) or a cap-Ushanka (from Norwegian Saami). Female: deaf long shirt and cloudy (or summer-sensitive) dress, straight, on a small coquette. Shoes for men and women: soft fur boots made of deer skins fur inside, with bent socks. Winter clothes - Malitsa (fur bag with a hood and sleeves), it is rocked to preserve heat.

As with most believers of the peoples of Northern Europe, the Lopards have spread Christianity (Lutheranism). Saama do not have their statehood, and the rights of cultural autonomy are carried out through the Sami councils, the deliberative bodies in the parliaments of Norway, Sweden and Finland, as well as through the Community Council at the Inter-Parliamentary Northern Council of these States

The ancestors of the Finns appeared on the territory of the current Finland apparently two waves in the Neolithic era - at 3 - 2 millennia BC. e. From the East and from the South-East, pushing to the north of the protoloparian population. The prolonged and strong impact of Swedish culture led to the existence of a stable ethnographic border between the West and the East - from the city of Kotka through the center of the country on Rahe and Oulu.

Half Finns live in cities. For the countryside, the settlement of the villages in the south-west, farms - in the east. The log houses consist of many buildings - residential and economic, and are not fundamentally different in planning from Norwegian or Swedish.

For a traditional female suit, a tunic-shaped shirt, skirt, a colored bodice, apron and a cape with a lace trim, in the southeast - a rowed headdress, for men - pants to the knees, caftan, ornamented wool stockings, postal, or lapties.

Despite the harsh, indoor and polar conditions, agriculture (bellying and agriculture, to the late Middle Ages - housing) - the original occupation of Finns. But grain (oats, rye, barley) never secured the needs of the population, so the main thing was the breeding of large meat-dairy livestock. For him, the fodder crops are grown on two thirds. Fisheries, like a river lake, and sea coastal, has always been an important help. Frequently developed forestry has now turned into a powerful branch of the economy.

Believers are the advantage of Lutheran.

Hungarian ancestors lived in South Ural. Current Huns and Avars, they are in the middle of 1 millennium. e. Founded in the Black Sea region, and by the end of 110 V. Reached to modern Hungary. According to the language, they are related to the living on the lower Ob to the USSR, the peoples of Khanty and Mansi.

Although the Hungarians arrived in the middle of the studnier with their cattlemen, here on fertile lands they also became farmers. Perhaps learning this branch of the economy from Slavs. In any case, agricultural terminology of Hungarians - Slavic.

The main cultures are grain, especially wheat. Viticulture and winemaking well developed, river fishing and multifaceted animal husbandry (large cattle, sheep, pigs, horses). Very developed traditional handicraft production: speed, cloth, felt, pottery, tissue, shoe.

Hungarian food is diverse: flour (noodles, dumplings), vegetable (products from cabbage, legumes, onions, garlic, tomatoes, etc.), meat (especially pork) with sharp seasonings, fruits. Drink vinewine.

More than half of the Hungarians - rural residents. In rural areas, either a farm predominate - west of the Danube, east - huge villages of the correct layout, in Pushte (steppes). Building material of dwellings and household buildings - clay and reed. The estates are fenced with a fence, a shoulder or natural green hedge and there are two types: in one economic premises are partially attached or all under one roof with housing; In the other - all the rooms are built separately. Residential building - single-storey, inside - three-part (kitchen, room, pantry).

Men's suit: narrow cloth trousers (in the east) or very broad canvas (in the west), short crack shrush, usually with wide sleeves, short vest, trimmed with braid and lacing, high black boots, straw or felt hat. Women's suit: a very wide skirt in the assembly or pleated, worn over the lower skirts, Prussic (bright sleeveless, adjacent in the waist and decorated with lacing, metal loops and embroidery), apron, cape or handkerchief, high boots from colored leather or lumps (shoes from Velvet and leather, decorated with bright embroidery, without a back). Girls are tied up with a wide motley ribbon with a bow.

Two thirds of believers of Hungarians - Catholics, about a third - Protestants (Reformats).

Celts can safely be called the core of the formation of almost all title nations of Central Europe. For a half thousand years before the Nativity of Christ, the Celt tribes were concentrated only in the eastern part of France, in the adjacent part of West Germany, South Belgium and Northern Gelving, or Switzerland. But already in the 4th century BC, the Celts began to quickly spread throughout the European part of the continent.

They reached the territory of modern Poland and Western Ukraine. Their raids remember the Balkans and Apennins. With his ferocity, they made a huge impression on the inhabitants of Iberia (this is the current Spanish Kingdom), and on the Saxons who inhabited the British Islands. They reached the territory of modern Scotland, Ireland, assimilated and cool changed the globalization of the population of all of the above territories.

History of origin

Celts are not aliens from distant continents. These are the tribes related to each other who lived in the Rhine Valley, in the upper day of the Danube, in the upper reaches of Seine, Maas and Loire. Romans, sincerely surprised by their views and manners, called their gallas. Here you have toponymika famous words: Gallic rooster, Galicia, Gelving, Galit.

But the word "Celt" has several artificial origins. He was offered Lloyd in the 17th century. Linguist involved in the study of the language similarity of different historical and ethnographic regions of the UK, noted the similarity between them. He also gave them the name "Celtic Group", which was getting closer, becoming the name of the nine for all ethnically homogeneous peoples, even before our era, "sprawling" throughout Europe. The southern part of the continent of expansion did not succumb, although it was pretty frightened by such aliens.

Religion

Celts are one of the most famous pagans, the sacred traditions of which today are actively recovering and theatrilizes. The Celts had an extensive pantheon of divine creatures: Taranits and Ezus, meadow and refmember, brigandy and cerenun. But a single supreme deity, such as Zeus, one, Perun or Jupiter, had no. He was replaced by a world tree. In 98%, so called the most empty and powerful oak in, near the settlement of the Celts, Grove.

Oak served the priests-druids. They avoided human casualties, but in case of acute necessity, a root system of the head oak of the human heating washed. The priests were engaged in rites and cults, the formation of the children of the tribe. In addition, the priests belonged to the last word on any trial.

The average of the Celts believed in the afterlife, therefore accompanied the deceased of the many necessary objects, from plates and weapons to wives and horses. But the enemies were usually cut off their heads, because they believed that the man's soul lives in his head. In the course of hostilities, they cut off and collected the heads of enemies, hanging them to the saddle. Bring home, nailed over the entrance to the dwelling. The most valuable enemies of the heads were preserved in tanks filled with cedar oil. In scientists circles circulates the thought of the fact that these heads were participants or subjects of religious cults.

Public device

The Celt tribes lived as typical tribal societies with a pronounced patriarchal character. At the head of the communities stood priests and leaders who constantly dragging the "blanket" of power. The ship authority nominally was in the hands of the head of the clan. But very often he listened to the opinion of the Bregon. This is the lowest division of priests-druids, which was engaged in interpreting laws and followed compliance with all required rites.

Male warriors were the basis of the Society of Celtic tribes. They are them, father or eldest son, received a redemption for her daughter when she got married. By the way, in local laws, she could do this no more than 21st times. In case of divorce, women could pick up all their property.

The Celts had a very developed system of fines and redemptions. For example, for the murder of one man, the culprit was to pay the relatives of "7 slaves". Live slaves were the main monetary unit of the Celts. In extreme cases, they were replaced by cows. There were fines for the beatings, injury, for injured, for killing from ambush or unintentional deprivation of the life of a member of the clan. The amount of payments was adjusted depending on which status in society was occupied by the affected Celt. What he was richer, the more "cost" his death's killer.

The first Celts lived in dugouts, caves and, half of the blurred in the ground, shalyas. Later, they began to build stone fortifications - fifumes. These are examples of the first European fortresses. With the development of civilization, they turned into entire fortifications. Celts-men were engaged in hunting, war and fishing. But the abundance of slaves allowed individual clans to engage in agriculture, with quite effective. Celts perfectly mastered the skill of melting and metal processing, cowrs and supported trade relations with a majority, even unproved European peoples.

Celts are considered among the most ferocious and rigid warriors of the European continent. The vast impression on opponents was made by the invasions of almost naked people painted into blue paint and with heads, asked lime. To hit opponents not only as a view, but also sound, they shouted and drowned in special pipes, which were called Karniksi, and were similar to the heads of wild animals. They had helmets on their heads, in which the roasted feathers were stuck. By the way, the Romans, who first saw the Celts on the battlefield, which is why they called them galls, that is, roosters.

Having understood and installing the hierarchy within the Prielli territory, the Celts loudly declared themselves to all of Europe, attacking the mass for 600-tons to Christ Christmas. This is today's Marseille and the former Greek colony. Blue naked people with tattoos and cock feathers on the head, screaming and smelling, like lions, bears or boars, made an oppressive impression on the opponents, sowed horror and panic, so easily won.
After 200 years, after such bright episodic skids, the Celts managed to capture Rome. At the same time with this event, the eastern groupings of the Celts began to move along the Danube, the Balkan Peninsula, to the northern part of modern Greece. The same time is given attempted the odious leader of the Celts, Brenna, plunder the temple of the Apollo Delphic and cut off the head of the Sunny God. But the thunderstorm began to go down superstitious barbarians, giving Delfam the opportunity for a couple of centuries to admire their temple.

King Nicomed First (281-246 BC), dried on a shaky throne of Viphini in Malaya Asia, invited a group of Celts, literally 10 thousand people, with wives, children, cows and slaves, crossing the Bosphorus and support him in dynastic wars . It was these ten thousand mercenaries that became the basis of Galatia, the state, four hundred years existed on the expanses of the modern North-West Turkey.

Thus, the Celts were very successfully settled on the mainland of Europe and securely secured on the British Islands and in Ireland. In those places where they opposed the empire, the Maner Roman, the migration military maneuver did not pass. Therefore, the south of Iberia, the Apennine Peninsula and the coastline of the Balkans remained, unprofitable by barbarians. In these parts, they were allowed to conduct only trading operations and sometimes exercise in the art of sudden raids and primitive blitzkrigs.

Today, Irish and Cornhouses, Bretonians and Scots, Welsh, East French, Belgians, Swiss, Indigenous Residents of Bohemia and Western Germans are considered to be their ancestors of the Celts.

Thracians

Famous for the whole of Europe, Thracians made two of their tribesmen: singer Orpheus and Buntar Spartak. The place where this ethnos was formed and lived, Xenofan and Herodotus named the Balkan Peninsula. Thracians occupied the territory from the ridges of Pota and Dinar Highlands to the old Planina and Rhodope inclusive. They were recorded in the western part of Malaya Asia, on the territory of the modern Turkish ulus Anatoly. But for the Carpathian arc, an ethnos, who gave the world of the legendary musician-butterfly did not spread.
Due to the fact that now the dead language of the Thracians refers to the Indo-European language family, it is assumed that the representatives of the ancient people themselves came to the Balkans from South Asia. One of the large-scale stops of the ancestors of the Thracians, who left there a number of characteristic artifacts there, were their long-term parking on the territory of modern Ukraine. In the very center of the state, tulip-visual vessels, scales, agricultural equipment made from bronze, but using silicon inserts, were found in the Belogrudovsky Forest of the Cherkasy region.

"Fasting" in the 11th-9th century BC on the Podolskaya hill, in the Dnieper, southern Bug and Dniester interference, the ancestors of the Thracians migrated for the Carpathians, to the Balkans, to form in this grace area to be formed into a single ethnic monolith.

Religion

Thracians were pagans who believed in the beasts, in the gods - the tamers of natural elements. According to them, the soul of the deceased man moved into the world of ancestors and led there, similar to earthly. To facilitate the existence of a tribesman in a different world and keep his body from cropping people and a beast, Thracians were built for their dead dolmens, or stone tombs. For richer people, real "postal palaces" were created. They had a spacious burial chamber, a corridor-dromos and a run-up, in which the potential violators of the tranquility of the body were waiting for unpleasant surprises, such as a collapsed ceiling or snake nests. For poorer fellow tribesmen, individual small funeral chambers chopped in surrounding limestone or mergel rocks.

During the formation of sacred beliefs, there was an alternation of the importance of female goddesses responsible for fertility, water, land, and male images represented by gods, lords of hunting, lightning, wars and kuznetsov. Periods depended on what the Thracians were currently engaged in. They lived on the fertile lands of Ukraine and the Balkan Peninsula, occupying agriculture, women's goddesses became more important. During the periods of relocation and searches for new lands, when new territories had to beat, the gods-men went out. By the way, it was at this time that the role of priests decreased. But, as soon as the Thracians found more or less stable refuge, the priests recruited again.

The gods were sacrificed to the gods of agriculture or hunting results, traces of human sacrifices today were not found

Public system

Thracians in the period before our era are canonical representatives of the primitive-commodity system. They lived with fragmented tribal groups, with a mandatory leader and the main sorcerer. The status of a member of the community directly depended on its wealth, the more horses, cows and food reserves there was a man, the more tribesmen listened to his opinion. Women in rights did not join. But, to the main relocation to the Balkans among the Thracians, polygamy was common, just depended on the status of the "husband". The richer was a man, the more wives he could take on its content.
Thracians actively used the work of slaves. The slaves became both prisoners of war and stratum tribesmen.

By the beginning of our era, Thracian society was divided into clear classes: princes, warriors, free people engaged in agriculture, trade or crafts, and slaves. With special talents or good luck, a transition from one social category to another was observed.

The settlements of the Thracians were distinguished by geographical basis. Those peoples that were grouped on the territory of modern Bulgaria, Slovakia, surrounded by forests and hidden behind the mountain ranges, built unaffected villages and considered mountain rivers, thickets and ridges with the best elements of fortification.
The southern Thracians, who lived on the coast of the Adriatic, Mediterranean, Marble and Pontic Sea, were forced to defend their own, open to all maritime travelers, settlements. Therefore, they strengthened their settlements and built primitive, but effective fortresses.

Wars with other peoples and migration

The flourishing of the Thracian people fell on the 1-5th century of our era. Thracian tribes numbered more than two hundred, so for the convenience of study, scientists shared them into four regional groups.

The first group includes, actually, Frace. This is a historical and cultural region, which occupies the territory of today's Bulgaria and the European territory of Turkey. Another, no less well-known land of a compact residence of Thracians, is called Dakia. These are the lands of today's Romania. The third and fourth region, Mizia and Viphinia were nearby, on the peninsula, small Asia, on the coast of the Marmara and Pontic Seas, only one west, and the other - in the East, ending with the ridges of the Pontic Mountains.
Shortly after the resettlement of the Thracians to the Balkans, the great migrations of the so-called "peoples of the sea" began. It gave them a chance to firmly fasten the sushi plot in them. To the fifth century BC, Thracians were occupied mainly by intrabagable conflicts and attempts to unite under the rule of one leader, a potential monarch.
The result of long negotiations and episodic wars was the emergence of the Odris kingdom, which became the largest state of his time. The last state of Thracians formed to our era is Dakia. Assemmed under his control, all the land, inhabited by this ethnic group, Tsar of the Borebist. He connected a huge territory into a single organism by the power and power of the weapon. This included land from the Southern Bug, the valley of the Carpathians, all Bulgaria, Moravia and the Old Planna.
After the burst was killed by the rebel, the union continued King Dezebeal. For this, he had to fight with the Romans all his life, which did not want the appearance of a single Frace. Emperor Traian spent five years of his life to conquer the kingdom of Deckl. After the defeat of the Thracian troops, the king broke himself with a sword, and the Romans turned Dakia into his colony.
A little later, already in the 5th century of our era, the Celts came to the lands of the Fracians, they knocked out the Romans and formed their own kingdom, Gallese, choosing the city of Tilis for the capital. Over time, the Thracians successfully assimilated with the skifami-plows, so they became the basis for the formation of the southern branch of Slavs: Bulgarians, Slovaks, Chekhov, Yugoslav peoples.

Goths

The peak of influence is ready to Europe fell on 1-8 century of our era. Many Swedish kings and Spanish aristocrats proudly refer to themselves as one of the most significant peoples of Europe. The formation of the ethnos itself occurred in the southeastern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula, even before our era. This is the territory of today's Sweden. Gothic historian of Alanian origin Jordan Crotonsky called this place Skandse. A separate string in determining the locality where the goths were identified as the people, the island of Gotland, a narrow arrow stretched along the coast of Sweden.

History of origin

In the first century of our era, Berig, the charismatic leader and the Northern Moses, gave the start of the European process of "the great resettlement of peoples." Berig and the people loyal to him, on three ships made swimming through the Baltic Sea, landing in the north of modern Poland, in the area of \u200b\u200bGdansk, Sopot and Gdynia. The epic about the motivation of people, swimming and the first steps in Pomorie are described by the historian Jordan in the work of Getika.
Passengers of three ships gave life to three basic tribes: forest tervers, steppe grading and powerful and aggressive hepids. In the meantime, united, they were crowded out from the gracious Pomerania who had already mastered his vandals and ruts. The Union of Three Gothic Tribes took shape in the so-called Volbarian culture.
The fastened roots and vandals began to shift south, to an even more comfortable Mediterranean. The consequences of such a global resettlement felt the Roman Empire. The goths themselves driven by the Chief Film, in the 6th century moved to the south, occupying almost the entire territory of modern Ukraine and Romania, breeding a unique Chernyakhov culture.

Religion

Despite its enormous influence, the modern ethnic European solitaire is ready, accurate information about religion has not been preserved. The main source about them is the work of the historian of Jordan. And since he was the current Bishop of Crotonsky, it deliberately did not pay any attention to the host of the gods of early prepared pagans.
Small but more reliable source considered "Saga about Herver". It is mentioned only by the God of Batalia, Thunder and Liaph - Donar, but does not negate the existence of other divine creatures. The ministers of the cult did not have a big impact on the bulk of the population. They lived separately from the tribe, in the forest of Molvide, among fabulous and mythical beings. There is a version that Ukrainian-Romanian Molfares received strength and knowledge from their Ostrogoths.
Early goths burned her dead, late - neatly laid out in the burial grounds. Next to the dead people, metal decorations, cups, ridges and ceramic dishes were found more than once.
More information is preserved about the sacred preferences of the vibration. In the 4th century, the leader of Fraityiger, seeing much benefit in centralized religion, ordered the Constance of the Second and Archbishop of the Nikomedy Christian Priest from the Byzantine Emperor.
The priest of vulfil, ethnic goth, arrived at the Westgoth leader. It was he who helped to turn the subjects of Fretionern in Christians. The Bishop of Ulfil was the Gothic alphabet and, using them, translated the Bible into his native language. In the 6th century, all Westges filed by the King of Rekkreda moved into Christianity.

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The powerful Gothic people did not have a permanent leader, only situational leaders appeared, whose influence was lost after raid, promotion or hostilities against the enemy. In peacetime or episodic calm, the entire Gothic people were divided into childbirth. At the head of everyone stood their leader, jealously defended the authority and land.
The leaders of the largest births could enter with their tribesmen in vassal relationships. One, Sayonam or Druzhinnikam, the leaders issued a weapon. Others, Boucellia or Boyar, received weapons and decent land. The leaders had unlimited power, and especially in the battle and preceding him period.
Initially, in those days, when the goths only stepped into the Polish land, the leader was chosen by the meeting of free people. In the period from the first to the seventh century, the right of swallowing and elected law was constantly replaced by one of the other, causing instability in society, interdic and intrarodular labels.
Women's early women were more rights than those who could enjoy the ladies of the 5-8th century. The people enjoyed the work of slaves, the benefit that the war properly supplied free labor.

Wars with other peoples and migration

The basis of power and expansion was prevented in an ideal military organization. The main structural unit of the troops was considered a dozen fighters. They ruled the dean. From dozens folded hundreds. She obeyed the centientaria. From hundreds folded thousand, at the head of which Milleniria stood. But Millenriya did not plan to Millenia, but only obediently performed orders who came from the leader, the leader, later the king, or his monarcho-substitute - Duki. In battle actions, late goths were willingly replaced by the infantry of the Connection.
The tribes are ready already in the 3rd century broke into two parts. During an active, combat displacement from the territory of modern Moldova, then Dakia, Romans, the Great People went to different directions.

The first is the eastern branch. They are descendants of Greytunov - people of endless steppes, or isgotes. They took up the dense development of the territory between the Dnieper and the Dniester within the borders of modern Ukraine, the Transnistrian Moldova, the inventive part of Romania and a small part of modern Russia represented by the Taman Peninsula. Herodot historian traveling along the Northern Black Sea region was surprised by the beauty, freedom and military art of the Gothic women. His Amazons, who became a legend, he "settled" here, in the interfluent Dnieper and Dniester. From their positions, the Goths were fastened to the subsequent invasions of Gunov.

The second branch is the heirs of terving. They are Western Goths or Westges who moved to the West.
The Bosphorus took place and came to Greece, where the defendant of the Halkidiki Peninsula and the attack on Frace were noted. We visited Corinth and rushed at the horses in Athens. In the Balkans, after the skirmish with Westges, Mark Azeri escaped, leaving the earth of modern Serbian enemy. A little later, the goths caught up with the Romans, and once again broke their army with Andrianopol. The last chord, before walking the victorious march throughout the Apennine coast, was the destruction by the troops of Alarich Rome.
After this wavestgot in the 5th century AD. We invade Iberia, Gallias and everywhere they base their kingdoms. Then they had to defend their lands from warlike francs, African Arabs and the strengthened troops of Emperor Justinian. Until the 9th century, the goths were completely assimilated with the local population. They remained only beautiful legends, linguistic bases of a number of modern languages \u200b\u200band unique jewelry artifacts, such as treasured crowns found in Toledo and Jaen.

Etruscan

Etruscan is the people who once lived in the central part of the Apennine Peninsula. This is today's Tuscany, Lazio, Umbria and Emilia-Romagna. Much of the fact that today is considered invading Roman traditions, inherited by the Romans from Etruscans. For example, gladiatorial battles or Saturnia in masks, culture of ablution and Caoufur in terms, funeral rites and high art of sculptural and mosaic images.

Origin

Already in the 7th century BC, the inhabitants of Etruria, today's central Italy, owned writing and art to transmit forms and emotions with a cutter and brushes. There are two basic versions of the origin of such a highly civilized people. According to the first, the Etruscan lived on the Apennines from the Stone Age, on this land developing, studying and installed, as one of the most advanced peoples of Europe. According to the second version, the ancestors of Etruscans settled this fertile land, migrating here from the east.
Herodota believed that the great architects and sculptors came here with Malaya Asia. By the time he connected this relocation with the completion of the Trojan War. Migrants called themselves tirren or the "children of the sea". At the same time, the name of the Enai, as if he had headed the resettlement of the ancestors of Etruscans to the shores of the Tyrrhenian Sea. Today, most of them take the second, the Troyan-Enece version of the origin of the cultural ancestors of the Romans. An intermediate point of migration of the flow of Trojan refugees was the island of Sardinia. It found a great many early artifacts, similar to those left on the Peninsula Etruscan culture.

Religion

The Great People had a whole premium of the gods, but did not forget to deification and the forces of nature. The main God was TIN belonging to the sky. His wife and assistant were Menrva and Uni, respectively. The deities of smaller caliber included another 16 gods responsible for their Sky Sector and the Earth's Sector. In addition to them, the deities of the third echelon treated perfumes living in plants, rocks, rocks, streams and lakes. Sea of \u200b\u200bthe sea and the owner of the underworld gave separate respect. He was settled, then in Zherle Etna, then in the cratery of stromambol, constantly breathing fire. He seemed to be submitted by Enai in the form of a fiery demon with dancing snakes on his head.
Etruscan respected and served the spirits of the ancestors of their birth. All the gods regularly brought small food and jewelry and souvenir sacrifices, trying to no longer miss anyone and not forget not to nourish.
In special cases, human sacrifices were appointed. In times, heavy for the whole people, the most exalted members of the Society are handled themselves by sacrificing. When the rich and respected people died, the Etrusks forced the prisoners or slaves to fight among themselves, before the first death, so that the blood and soul of the deceased dying the god of the underground kingdom, taking the soul of their deceased.
Moving to Italy, Etrusks began to cremate their dead on fires, the size of which corresponded to the status of the dead man. After that, the dust was collected and laid in the urn. All urns have been buried on specially designated cemeteries - urn fields.
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The entire territory of the Etruscans was divided between the twelve polishes. At the head of everyone stood the king. But the power of the king was like the authorities of the Supreme Priest in Egypt. The kings were engaged in rites and harmonization of moods between the gods and people. The political power, treasury and international, or rather inter-platitan relations were in the hands of the princes that received their position inheritance or elective method.
Only King Lukomon managed to become the king of Etruscan Rome, who gathered in his hands all the powers of the first state of the state. He moved the princes to a lower position. The role of the counselor, boyarin, senator, but no more.
Women had status equal to men. Their position in society was determined by their wealth. All women and men, except for priests, shortly strished hair. The ministers of cults only removed them from the forehead, using a gold or silver hoop.

Wars with other peoples and migration

The son of Grek Demarata, Lukomon (second half of the VII B BC), who became the first real Etruscan king, opened the power of the power and magnitude of the Etruscans. Under it, the Roman kingdom became the center of 12 colonies inhabited by related peoples. At the same time, a permanent, purposeful expansion into the southern regions of the Apennine Peninsula was noted.
After the murder of Lukomon, the power passed to his son Servus Tullia. Servus killed her brother - Tarquinius proud. He gladly tried out a new Roman king. He was tough by the monarch, with Tirana and sadist, so, although he regularly expanded in the borders of the Apennine Peninsula, the territory of his kingdom was captured, and with a shame of Rome from Rome. Etruscan switched from the phase of the monarchy to the phase of the republic.

After this, the Etrusks captured almost the entire central part of modern Italy, received an exit to the ports of the Adriatic Sea and tied out active trading relationships with Greek policies.
Trade with the Greeks did not prevent them from entering permanent military unions, and periodically and fight against them. So they "gave" the Sardinia to Carthaginians, but walked in the Greeks Corsica.
Then the period of military and territorial degradation began. Syracuses selected Corsica and Elbe from Etruscov. Republicans have lost their influence in Latz, lost the roads that joined them with Campania and Basilicat. Rome was lost (Battle for Fiden and Wei) and given by Gallam Bologna. Temporary truce of the Conglomerate of Perugia, Croton and Azretzito with the Romans no longer saved the Great Civilization.
Etruscan became first the Allies of the Romans against a more powerful and terrible enemy, Galov. Then, together, only under Roman banners, they took part in the first and second Punic war, which the Romans started against the Carthaginian. Due to the fact that no Etruscan settlement raised the uprising in a difficult period for the Romans, they were recognized as equivalent to the new owners of their land.
Then the Etrusks were given to Roman citizenship, and they were very organically joined in the Roman Empire, bringing with them a high aesthetic culture and original rites. Gurphiki, long-haired priests predictors lasted longer, as purebred ethrus. Even in 199, it was possible to hear Etruscan speech on the streets of Rome and on the shores of the Tyrrhenian Sea.
The Roman art of this period is called Etruscan-Roman, and the most complete assembly of artifacts, decorations, especially, Fibul, sarcophagus, sculptures and black ceramics can be seen in one of the Vatican museums, in the 9th halls of the "Etruscov Museum".

Vikings

History of origin
Anxiously looked at the water of the Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea inhabitants of the coastal settlements. After all, at any moment, narrow ships with bright sails and raised terrests could appear from there. In a matter of minutes, ruthless warriors scored with them, which burned at home, killed citizens and the lightning times were retracted, taking the most valuable and edible.

Vikings called themselves the people who settled the Scandinavian and the Yutland Peninsula. The most affected by the peoples of Western Europe were called their Normans. And although in our time the word "Viking" is a symbol of fearlessness, courage and heroism, but that in the Scandinavian sagars, which is in European chronicles, the term has a sharply negative color, to designate those who left the native land with the goal of robbery.

But, no matter how they were called, the place of generating legendary warriors is the territory of the modern Norwegian, Danish and Swedish kingdom. The history of the wiking glory began with the edge of Fennosconda, when the Scandinavian tribes, genetic relatives of the Angles and Danes, crowded nomadic Finns to the east, in places that are replete with tops and lakes. The exact time the appearance of the greatness of the Vikings in Scandinavia is blurred, but in Finnmark and Nurmera, artifacts left by hunters and collectors dating from 10-9 thousand years ago were found.

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The ancestors of the people who have become wiking, lived by fragmented groups or funes. 20-30 such groups were enough to create local conflicts, maintaining the excellent combat readiness of all soldiers and the organization of regular quarrels between leaders, kings or blesses in local.
In order to agree to agree on the actions of Yarls, disassemble land claims and questions of superfloor surveillance in each Fulka, a single meeting was created - Ting. There was no permanent center of Ting. Attending at the meeting could anyone free scandinavans. But things disassemble only the group composed of representatives from each Fühlka. The only condition was only that the representative would not directly depend on his Yarl.
Each Fuulk was divided into smaller structural units, hundreds or herads. He managed Hersire, who received a position from his parent. It was they who allowed civil litabys, but the kings were engaged in the "international" politics of their Fühlka, became at the head of the troops during hostilities. And although it was believed that the king had a divine origin, and the tribesmen paid him a tax, the so-called virgin, but as soon as the king began to openly infringe the rights of tribesmen or came against their interests, he could kill or expel him from his native land.
At the head of the Vikings stood the naval and pirassira. The main mass of Normans was free peasants or bonds. They, suffering from the scarce of the local soil, went to distant hikes. They, despair from the native shore, instantly turned into Vikings.
A small part of society was slaves, which were mined during military hikes. It is worth noting that the children of the slave could become a vil or hersir. The ting slaves were not allowed.
Special position was held by Hirdmanna - the squad of the king. They were on the content of the monarch, defended him from the insinuations of the tribesmen and were accompanied on the hunt, and the kernel was the troops.
The boundaries between members of the class groups were not rigid. Thanks to his personal merit, the slave could become a free person. Women occupied a worthy place in society, attended the feasts and could completely inherit the property of the parent. And some Freudis, the daughter of Erica Redhead, even headed the trip to Winland, having interrupted at the end of the mood of all his robs.

Religion

The troubled and militant nature of the Vikings fully corresponded to their gods. All deities of these legendary pagans lived in the majestic fortress - Asgard. Citadel is central to the world of people, in Midgard. The walls and towers of the divine fortification structure reaches the sky, and the thick walls and sheer rocks protect them from enemies of any plan.
The most important god is one. He was considered the Creator of the Universe, he was the best rune instructors and knew all the sagas in the world. He answered war and distributed victory. He was led by a dozen Valkyrie. It was one who was considered the owner of the Valhalla Palace, in which she took the souls who died in battle of Scandinavians. Everyone who honestly died, moved to the palace, where there was a continuous feast, the soldiers told Sagi, sang and danced.
Wife Odin - Frygg, was responsible for marriage, love and childbearing. It was considered a provincial, but preferred not to share his knowledge with people. Defended Asgard, Midlgard and Valgalla from the giants of the God of Thor, the owner of thunder and lightning.

Wars with other peoples and migration

Wars with other nations and migration are directly related to the existence of the concept of "Viking". When a resident of the Scandinavian Peninsula, and later, and Jutland, left the native land in search of Odari, he was started to call "Viking".
There are two main flow of migrations accompanied by active military actions. Residents of the territory that is occupied by the modern Swedish kingdom, were focused on the southeast. Silhouettes of Drakkar Varyagov-Viking were well known in the Dnieper Valley, Vistula, on Daugava, on the Niva. They even managed to get to the Valley of the North Dvina, named by them by the land of Biarmey. But the bulk of operations were trading, because the ancient Rusichi fought no worse than Varyagov. Many of the failed Varyagov had to earn money by hired by the whole team in the squad of the Russian prince. This phenomenon was very common, bringing the benefit to both sides.
Another stream, from the land of today's Norwegian and Danish kingdom, was focused on the west. In the delta Elbe, Rhine, Seine, Thames, Loires, Charente and Harricians, the local population watched watched at sea, waiting for raids of warriors, with whom it was impossible to agree. Due to the low landing and the ability to move both by the strength of the wind under the sail, and by rowers, dragcars, coming from the sea, easily rose upwards along the big rivers, city robes. Mortar Normans remembered well on the coast of Spain and France. There are evidence that they came even to Byzantium.
In the 960th year, the ship of Gardara Svafarson was thrown into a storm on the island of Iceland. After 14 years, the Vikings began to colonize and settle this edge, the same harsh, as well as Scandinavia, but had additional attractiveness due to the sources of thermal waters. The cause of all migrations and military raids of the Vikings was very non-responding agriculture in narrow mountain valleys and the high density of "hungry mouths" in the seaside areas where the fish could be fished.

Over time, the Vikings began to be known as its main source of enrichment, it is military raids aimed at Western, less on Eastern and Central, Europe. And the jerk in the shipbuilding, namely the art of building dragcars, provided the Vikings free, lightweight and elegant movement throughout the North Atlantic.

Hermann

History of origin

The core of the formation of the ethnos of the ancient Germans became the middle part of Europe from Odra to the Rhine. In addition to these lands engaged in today, Germany, Western Poland, the Netherlands and Belgium, traces of the long-standing people were found in the south of Jutland and on the southern outskirts of Eastern Scandinavia, which belong to today's kingdoms of Denmark and Sweden.
The Hermann's full-fledged ethnicity began to be considered only in the 1st century to our era. And since the beginning of our era, the Germans began to actively "spread out" in Central Europe, attacking even the northern frontiers of the Great, apparent eternal, Roman Empire. The result of the attacks of Russian-headed barbarians was the fall of the western part of the Roman Empire, and various traces of the presence of Germanians were found on an extensive area from Cape Roca to the Crimean Peninsula and from La Mansha to the South, African, the coast of the Mediterranean Sea.
Initially, the German ethnos compared with the Celts. Only the first was considered even more wild and pristized in terms of culture than Celts, fighting bare, blue and with the cocks on the head. What would somehow distinguish between their unpredictable northern neighbors, Latinians began to call them "Herman", which means others.

Navigating over Europe, the Germans actively assimilated with the captured peoples. So they replenished their gene pool by Celts and Slavs, goths and a number of small tribes, hidden from the great resettlement of peoples in sufficiently isolated alpine mountain valleys. But the basis of the nation is still considered those tribes that initially lived in the mouth of the Elbe in the south of Jutland and Fennoscandia.

Religion

According to Strabo and Julia Caesar, the Germans were much less diveged than the Celts. Divine power they endowed only the sunny and moonlight and the heat that exudes the fire. But the German customs learned to learn the future even the Romans surprised. As a terrible fairy tale passed the peoples of Europe, one other history about gray witches, cutting the throat victims. According to the way the blood fills the fortune-making cauldron, women determined the outcome of future battles, the fate of the newborn or the life path of the new leader.
Having mastered in Europe, the Germans acquired a small bed of their own gods, borrowing them from captured tribes. So the myth appeared about the manna's god, which threatened their people. The ancestors of today's Danes and Germans began to recognize the classic Greek and Roman gods, such as Mercury or Mars. A special place was occupied by the cult of women. In each of them, it was implied by a divine start, which makes it possible to reproduce their likes.

Looking out other people's gods, the ancient Germanians did not lose love for a variety of fortune telling. The predictors actively used the runes, the internalities of birds, the rye of the sacred horses. Popular were predicting the outcome of an important battle, obtained by imitation of the fight. In the "Probe" converged in a fatal battle of the honorary tribemen and a captive from a potential opponent. In the 4th century, Christianity began to penetrate the lands of the ancient Germans.

Public device

At the head of the tribe, the clan stood the leaders - military leaders. They were surrounded by a ring of elders, experienced warriors, and priests predictors. The bulk of the warriors was formed by free Germans. They were the main strength and voice of the people's assemblies, where they came in full military closure. By the way, it was here that another leader and new commanders responsible for the outcome of future battles were chosen.
Lower public steps occupied freely published citizens and slaves. The slave was obliged to pay the owner of the lifts, and he could kill him with impunity.
With the beginning of our era, the Hermann appears, the power of which was inherited. But before the next war, despite the presence in the region of the king, the leader is still elected, authorized by the function of the commander. And the kings, and the leaders had their own squad, which they fed, armed and dressed. Money was paid only after another successful robbery or military raid on the neighbors.
Elders, elderly and experienced warriors, engaged in the division of land plots, disassembled property and interpersonal disputes. Whatever the decisions are faster, the power of the elders was backed by a detachment of warriors on the content of the community.
According to the same Julia Caesar, who wanted to thoroughly know everything about his opponents, the ancient Germans did not have their own land plots. Every year the king, the leader or elder was engaged in the redistribution of land suitable for processing. Therefore, most members of the community preferred to engage in animal husbandry. Cows and sheep have been the most stable monetary unit for a long time. So it was until the Germans copied the concept of "money" from their enemies and did not start their own coins into circulation.
At the beginning of the first century, the Germans had a weakly developed handicraft, shipbuilding and even the manufacture of fabrics from vegetable fibers. Both women and men went in rascoats and capes from animal skins. Pants wore only the richest citizens. The family of the average Hermann lived together with his cattle in a long single-storey house, an incelaved clay.

War with other peoples and migration

For the first time, Europe spoke about the Germans when the Tuton tribes attacked the Northern Colonies of the Roman Empire in 103rd. New barbarians made an impression on a more civilized people, so the myths about them were filled with new blood chubby, details.

Several centuries in a row, German tribes fought with the Roman Empire. The most famous battle occurred in the Teutoburg Forest (September 9th), during which 3 Roman legions were destroyed. All 2nd century Germans attacked, and the Romans tried to maintain their own possessions at least in the previous borders.
The ferocity and attacks of the young tribe were so great that because of the reluctance to compete with the Germans for the land of Dakia, the Romans came out from there immediately after the death of the emperor Deci. But, despite the retreat, with the beginning of the great resettlement of the peoples, the Germans still penetrated and settled on the Roman lands. This happened in the 4th century.
In the 5th century, the Germans began to attack the Roman Empire on the other hand. They easily knocked Roman governors with Iberia, the land of the current Spanish kingdom. At the same time they became famous in wars with Gunns, coming in the catalaunsk field in battle with the Hordes of Atilla.
After that, the Germans began to take an active part in the appointment of emperors of the Roman Empire. Attempting to show independence of the Romulus of Augustus, than provoked the beginning of the final of the Great Empire .. In 962, the King Otton first began to form his own Roman-German empire, which included hundreds of small princes.
The ancient Germans formed the basis of a number of European peoples: Germans, Danes, Belgians, Dutch, Swiss and Austrians.

Whoever spoke to, but the Russians - the Great Nation, which in the development of the modern world plays a rather significant role. And taking into account the centuries-old history, it is worth thinking about how wisdom is present in this nation, and which contribution it has done to the overall progress of mankind. Today, many people, most often with politicians, the nation "Russians" is unreasonably implicit. Let's see the stages of its development and formation, so that later, no one has doubts about its significance in the history of mankind.

Nation "Russian" as an ethnographic group

Let's start, perhaps, with the presentation of dry facts. It is believed that the Russians, or as they are also called since the long-time Rusichi, belong to the ethnographic Slavic group. It goes without saying that the definition of any nation, as such, is based on the territorial affiliation, common moral and cultural values, as well as some common physiological similarities.

In general, the "Russian" nation belongs to the Slavic branch of the development of mankind, but in general understanding - this is the European-like type of race (one of the most numerous among the entire population of our planet). Consider all aspects of its origin and evolution from several points of view.

Russians - European Nation: Anthropology

If we talk about the nation itself, then the first emphasis should be done on some distinctive features of the same appearance, which will vary quite much from some other peoples.

First of all, some external signs should be noted for which Russian (Slavyanina) can be distinguished from all other representatives of humanity. First, there is a predominance of Schathenas over blondes and Brunettes. Secondly, these people are characterized by a reduced eyebrows and beard. Thirdly, representatives of this nation have a moderate width of the face, the weak development of the abnormal arc and a little beveled forehead. Fourthly, you can note the presence of a moderate horizontal profile with high stand.

But this is all - a purely scientific approach. The "Russian" nation should be considered not only from the point of view of some physiology or belonging to the place of residence, but rather from the point of view of culture, epic and consciousness. Agree, because the understanding of the same question among Russians, Scandinavians or Americans can have different options. All this is due to history.

The story of which we do not know

The fact that Russians live on the Eurasian continent, unfortunately, many misleading. So it was not always. In the light of the last discoveries, it is worth tracing the story of the nation.

Of course, someone may seem utopia mention of such a mythical country as hyperborea. It is believed that she existed in the form of an island state like the same Atlantis, but only in the place, today called the Arctic. After global cataclysms that occurred about 12 thousand years ago, representatives of the race because of a sharp cooling began to migrate to the south, settling the current Central and Eastern European territory. In addition, this, as it is believed to have disappeared civilization gave the world a huge heritage - Vedic wisdom. Even in the skeptics, this fact is no doubt.

Over time, the people were divided, mixed with other representatives of humanity, but the main cultural and physiological differences from other nations were left, uniting the race, which today is customary to call Slavs. It includes three major people, and already distributed on some ethnic signs: Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians. But such a separation happened much later when there was a single nation "Russians".

But that's not all. Some modern historians argue, they say, Russians - the nation of slaves. It is possible to write off this, except that, on the dominance of the Soviet past. However, many of these "writers" would have to dig in history. Actually, if someone does not know, the nation of slaves is called Jews, who, under the leadership of Moses, made an outcome from Egypt. So, no need to confuse different things.

Russian folk tales and folklore

The same nation "Russians", the traditions of her and the life of those times binds to the advent of a kind of folklore. Of course, fairy tales and legends in the form of a national epic transmitting from generation to generation, of any people, however, it is Russian wisdom that has a rather interesting character.

Of course, it is not so badly veiled, as, for example, nevertheless, any little, a competent person knows from childhood that "a fairy tale is a lie, yes in it a hint ..." What is the most interesting thing is that Some fairy tales contain real information about the past, despite not some abstract or non-existent images. Researchers of five lakes with healing water near the settlement of the Okunevo Omsk region argue that they had an understanding that the fairy tales contain a hidden meaning, which can implicitly point out the real things or events that occurred in ancient times. We do not judge us, so it is or not, nevertheless ...

But what is the most interesting! Ershov, who wrote his fairy tale "Konk-Gorbok" in incomplete 19 years, composed it in this place, and the boilers in which it was necessary to swim, and represent the sequence of all lakes in the water (only three main lakes knew in his time) .

What gave Russian

In general, let no one take offense, the Russians - the title nation, which in the near future will be headed by all of humanity. Russia (Western Siberia) will become not only the main cultural, but also the religious center of the whole world. This, by the way, spoke one of these legendary prophets as Edgar Casey. And the recent interpretable verse was found in the katsins of Nostradamus.

As for the cultural heritage, here, who would not say, it is simply impossible to argue. Look, because almost the entire classic of literature or music includes the names of Russian figures. And what to talk about such sciences as physics and chemistry? Only Lomonosov and Mendeleev are worth it.

Misconceptions and speculation about Russian people

Unfortunately, in Western society, it is often possible to meet some associations with the type of nation. So, for example, the nation "Russian" is often associated with a bear playing with a balalaica (usually drunk).

Yes, the people love to apply to the "green snake", but after all our person never drinks himself. Look, because they are not good to "figure out three"?

On the other hand, even the tradition to serve bread-salt at the meeting of the guest or an unfamiliar person at home also became almost international. And this is just the most famous, but if you dig deeper, in history and life you can find so much interesting that the description will have to spend the whole years and even decades.

The inheritance of Ariev

Of course, it can be argued that the Russians are the best nation, however, from the point of view of respect for other peoples, this is incorrect. There was already one person in history, which set a nation above all. This refers to Adolf Hitler. He believed that the ancient Aria from the mentioned already hyperborei were the forefathers of the Germans.

Russian nation today and tomorrow

In the light of the last discoveries, as it turned out, the Führer was absolutely wrong. The arias were the ancestors of Slavs, which then spread through the Eurasian continent, but no Germans who have more similarities with scandinals or Anglo-Saxons.

However, if we talk about the Russian nation today, let it still cannot lead the world movement for cleansing from the bad, however, this day is not far away. Who has doubts, read the predictions of those who have never become mistaken - Wang and Edgar Casey. After all, according to their statements, Russia and the nation "Russians" will become the stronghold, which will give the refuge of saved civilization.

Instead of pre-school

Even biblical sources in modern interpretation argue that the world will come only when an association occurs, and this is the West and East, and the role of the East is assigned to Russian people. And no "Uncle Sam" will not be able to prevent this. The reason, alas, trite simple: By that time, the USA will not be on the world map. And therefore, the states are so diligently to put pressure on Russia so diligently (and maybe even "bite off" part of the territories inappreating to them for their survival?). So I want to answer: "Do not wake the sleeping Russian bear!". And then, you know whether he can not only play a balalaica or vodka to drink, but also will be an up on anyone who dares to enjoy him in Berloga. And if it is also in sleeping condition, there are certainly no American special forces help.

n1.DOC.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.
ethnic Story

western European population

Western Europe

Western Europe

Western Europe's peoples, inhabited by Finland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Iceland, United Kingdom, Ireland, Netherlands, Belgium, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Malta, Greece, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Germany, Hungary, Romania , Albania and Dwarf states of Europe - Andorra, Luxembourg, San Marino.

Due to a number of historical reasons, the largest peoples and states of Western Europe over long periods - in the ancient era (ancient Greece, ancient Rome) and in the II thousand AD. (United Kingdom, France, Holland, Spain, Portugal, Germany, Austria, etc.) - occupied the leading position in the world. Their achievements in economics and culture, the impact on world politics contributed to the formation european regional Civilization.

1. Mailing of Europe by man. Main stepsethnic Story

Europe does not belong to the regions, on the territory of which the formation of humanity occurred. However, people appeared here for a long time. Judging by the archaeological data, they began to live in this part of the world in Early Paleolithic - no later than 1 million years ago. The oldest paleoanthropological find on the territory of Europe refers to the time consideration of 400-450 thousand years from our days. This jaw of Heidelberg man found in 1907 in Germany (near Geidelberg). Later in Europe, other bone fragments were discovered, the age of which is 300-400 thousand years. For a long time (200-250 thousand - 40 thousand years ago), Neanderthals lived in Europe - the other of the well-known forms of ancient people. By the time they disappear (the beginning of the late Paleolithic), modern species people have already appeared in Europe.

In Late Paleolitis (40-13 thousand years ago), people settled almost all of Europe, except for its northern part. Their main occupation served hunting for large animals. Language affiliation of inhabitants of Europe of that time is now impossible to establish. In the racial attitude, the population was, as well as, by the advantage of the Europeanoid.

During the mesolite (13 thousand - 5 thousand years BC), people settled and northern Europe. At the same time, differences in the economic classes of the population of different parts of Europe were arisen: the tribes who lived on the coast of the Mediterranean and the Baltic seas were engaged in fishing, on the banks of the North Sea - sea gathering, in the inner areas - hunting and collecting.

Very early - still in mesolitic time - in certain areas of Europe, a gradual transition to a producing farm began and some groups of fishermen domesticated dogs and pigs. On the languages \u200b\u200bof the Mesolithic population of Europe, you can only build more or less reasonable guesses.

For most of Europe, the transition to neolithic occurred in V thousand BC. (in Northern Greece - to VII thousand BC). Already then here appeared the first agricultural cattlemented settlements. Metallurgy (the use of bronze) emerged in Europe in VI or V thousand BC, the Iron Age began in the I thousand BC.

To III thousand BC. The population of this part of the world spoke on almost unknown pre-European languages. Later, the tribes used by these languages \u200b\u200bwere assimilated to Europe in the III-II thousand BC. peoples who spoke on indo-Europeanlanguages. From the ancient non-invo-European languages \u200b\u200bin Western Europe to our time, the language has been preserved basque;he is associated with the language of the ancients wasconhaving lived in the Pyrenees and mentioned in ancient sources. From Indo-European tribes to Europe earlier penetrated pelasgi, Greeks (Ellina),and then italianand celtic tribes.In the III-II thousand BC. Under the influence of the Ancient Educational Cultural Centers in the south of Europe, an outstanding critical mixing civilization has developed. Her heirement became the resulting in I thousand BC. Ellinskaya (ancient Greek) civilization, and the last-Roman successor.

During the existence of the Roman Empire (27 G. BC - 476, N.E.) in its western part occurred romanizationpopulation: The peoples conquered by the Romans gradually absorbed Latin. However, Latin was mixed with local (relatives) languages \u200b\u200b- iberian, Germanic,celticand others - and significantly changed. So originated vulgar (folk)latin,which gave rise to modern romanesque languages.

In the III-VII centuries. AD In Europe, there were mass migrations of the Germanic, Slavic, Turkic, Iranian and other tribes, which later received the name of the great resettlement of peoples. Powerful impetus to these migrations were given, in particular, Turkic-speaking gunns.They came to Europe in the IV century. From distant Asian steppes. That was the first meeting of the inhabitants of Europe with Mongoloids, so the Gunns scared in Europe's residents not only devastating raids, but also the most appearance, unusual for Europeans. Gunns defeated German-speaking tribes sharpand began to close their relatives westgotOV,living north of the lower flow of the Danube. Westges were forced with the consent of the Roman emperor to move to the Balkan Persh, which was then part of the Roman Empire. In 378, they rebelled in alliance with the Huns, as well as those who came from the East Iranian-speaking alanakhdefeated Roman troops. In 410. Westges captured Rome. After this defeat, the emperor of the Western Roman Empire gave way to WestHots Aquitania (the south-western part of the modern territory of France), where in 419 the first German state in the territory of the Western Roman Empire - the Toulouse Kingdom. Later, the North-East of the Pyrenean P-Oov moved to the Westges. In the northwestern part of his part, the German tribe was fixed sveov.Two other German tribes - burgundyand franky- In the middle of V c. Created their kingdoms (Burgundy and Frankish) on the territory of Gaul. At about the same time, German tribes angles, saksovand yutovthey began to conquer abandoned by the Romans even at the beginning of the V c. British oagues that have long been populated by various Celtic tribes.

In the middle of V c. Huns together with the outputs invaded Gallia, but were divided by the combined forces of the Romans and the Germans settled there and went to the Danube Plain. With VI by VIII century. On this plain, the dominant positions occupied avara.Subsequently Hunna and Avara Fully dissolved in the local population.

In 476, the Western Roman Empire was shred under the blows of the Germans, and in 493, those who took part in its defeat ostogot.created their own state that covered the extensive territory from central Italy to the Danube. In the north of Italy in the VI century. The German-speaking tribe settled langobards.

Thus, the main component of the great resettlement of peoples in Western Europe was the German tribes (Ready, Vandals, Swives, Burgundy,langobards, angles, saks, francs),widely settled in this region and creating their states. On the territory of Spain, posges and swovers were settled, in the territory of France - Westges and Burgundy, and later - francs, in Italy - Ostrogoths, and then Langobard and Frank, in England - Angles, Saksa and Utah. Part of those who lived on the British O-Wah Kel-Toyazy brittovit was forced to migrate on the mainland, to the north-west of the current France. They lead their origin bretons.The fate of the Germans in different parts of Europe was different. In highly novels (on the territory of Gaul, Iberia, Italy), differing dialects of vulgar Latin have preserved, and the Germans over time were assimilated by the local population. In the same areas where the ratomanization turned out to be weak (for example, in Britain), German languages \u200b\u200bprevailed.

On the territory of the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium), the main driving force of the migrations of steel slavs.As a result of displacements throughout the V-VII centuries. Numerous groups of Slavs settled in the territory from the Black and Aegean seas to the Adriatic.

In the VIII century In Europe invaded arabs.They won almost the entire Pyrenean Persh, as well as some O-Wa in the Mediterranean Sea and had a certain cultural impact on people who lived there. In IX century to central Europe, in the dinner pool, penetrated magyary(other name - hungar).Although Magyars were exposed to the anthropological and cultural attitude of the ethnic groups, they managed to maintain and transfer their Ugrian language to the local population, which now they say Hungarians.

IX and X centuries. marked by moving from north to south normanov.They conquered one of the northern regions of France (later than the name of Normandy), but gradually there were ravenized, i.e. They moved to French (emerged earlier on the basis of the local version of the People's Latin), and also experienced the cultural impact from the French. In the XI century Already the nomanized Normans won England. Through Normanov, England was exposed to strong French influence, it was the Norman conquest that led to the fact that in English there was a big reservoir of Romanesque vocabulary. For some time, the Normans managed to gain themselves in the south of the Apennine P-Oov and on the O-ve Sicily. They also mastered Iceland. In all territories conquered (except Iceland), Normans adopted languages \u200b\u200band culture of the local population.

In the XIV-XV centuries. Penetrated into Europe ottoman Turks.They managed to seize Constantinople in 1453, defeat the Byzantium and for several centuries to subjugate the Balkans.

During the era of feudalism (VIII-XVI centuries), small communities have developed in different cities jews.In the XV-XVI centuries. In Europe appeared tsyganot,which gradually minimized communities settled in many countries.

The great resettlement of peoples, migration and conquest of subsequent centuries played a significant role in the formation of the modern ethnic composition of the population of Europe.

2. Modern Ethnic and Language Compositionwestern European population

The languages \u200b\u200bof the overwhelming majority of the peoples of Europe belong to the Indo-European language family. The two largest groups of this family in the region under consideration are Romanesque and German. Ethnic groups of the Romance Group live mainly in the southwest of Europe and in the Basin of the Lower Danube. These are numerous peoples like italians(57 million) french people(47 million) spaniards(29 million) romanians(21 million) portuguese(12 million). Each of them has its own national state. The Romance Group includes and living mainly in the northeast of Spain catalans(8 million), one of the two main peoples of Belgium - wallons(4 million) seasured in northwest Spain galicians(3 million) living in Sardinia sardintSI(1.5 million) inhabiting respectively western, southern and eastern outskirts of Switzerland francischwearta, Italytsariansand romanesh.To the Romanesque group also belong frieliesand ladins,living in northeastern Italy; corsakantesinhabiting oh-in Corsica, aromuneand caracachas- in Yugoslavia, Greece and other countries; meglenitesseasured in the north of Greece; sketchliving in the west of Croatia; selfmarineindigenous population of San Marino; andorranindigenous residents of Andorra; mONEGANCE,monaco inhabitants; llanitoor gibraltar,living in gone.

Not all these nations speak special own languages. Wallon and Franco Swiss speak French, Corsicans, Italian Martz and Sammarine - in Italian, Andorrana - in Catalan, Gibraltar - in Spanish (along with English), Monegski - on the mixture of Italian and French. Many southern French in everyday life communicate on Occitan (Provencal) language.

The peoples of the German group live mainly in the north, northwest and in the center of Europe. To this group belong: germans (75.million)british (45.million)dutch(12 million)swedes(8 million)austrites(7 million)flemish (7.million)danenot (5.million)scots (5.million)norse(4 million)germanoshvillets (4.million)lucsemburzhtsy(0.3 million),icelanders(about0.3 million)liechtensteins(20 thousand).Almost all these nations have their own states. (British - together with the Scots,flemish - with Vallonami, German Shoestsarza - with Francischwitters, Italy Svoles and Retoromians). Swedes in addition to Sweden have long lived in Finland. The German group also includes alsace (1.4 million) andlarring (about 1 million)east France ; friezesliving in the north of the Netherlands and in a very small number - in Germany ; farories Fooding on Faroe O-Wah (those considered the autonomous part of Denmark) ; mansetinhabiting the owned UK o-in Maine.

Peculiar ethnic status scotlandandangloDers Which are descendants of Scottish and English immigrants in Ireland, where they significantly alleged from the initial ethnic groups.

The German group conventionally includes living in France, England and other countries of Jews (1.4 million) - on the basis that in the past for centuries, the household language of most European Jews served yiddishclose to the Medieval Verkhnemietsy language (a small part of the European Jews used related Spanish ladino). However, at present, most European Jews communicate in the languages \u200b\u200bof the countries of residence - French, English, etc.

Among the peoples of the German group, many speak German or English. German language, except Germans, are used by Austrians, Germanosbar, Liechtenstein, Luxembourgs, Alsace. However, the Elsassians are bilingual and they speak French well; Luxembourgs Three-loving: They speak German, French and their Letzburg (Luxembourg) dialect, which has their writing. Attempts are made to develop writing in Switzerland. alean Dialecturegerman language (SWITCHER).It is originating a language situation in German itself. Although the literary language of the Germans one, conversational languages \u200b\u200bof the country two. They are relative, but mutually reconnects. it vernenemetsky,or hochdoych(on the basis of which the German literary language was created), and nizhnenenetsky,or platdoych.Platdoych is distributed in northern Germany; He is close to the Dutch language.

In English, in addition to the British, the Scottish, Scotland and AngloDers, as well as Mentsets, are currently said. In the past, Mentsev had her Celtic language, which completely disappeared.

Language situation in Norway in a certain sense is exactly the opposite of German. With one spoken language, two literary are formed here: bookmol- Very close to Danish (before it was called rixmol)and nyunushk(former name - lansmol),which was formed on the basis of Westonorvezhian govors. Attempts to "combine" them were not crowned with success, but led to the creation of a third literary language - sickle.He, however, did not receive any widespread.

In addition to the peoples of the Romanesque and German Group (as well as the ethnic groups of the Slavic Group), other nations of the Indo-European family live in Europe. Greek(10 million) form a Greek group. The Celtic Group includes irish(6 million) walessets (Welsh), Galy,living on British O-Wah and bretons,france inhabitants in the north-west. It should be noted that at present Irish can be attributed to the Celtic group to some extent conditionally. On Iresk, or Irish, the language is spoken only at the extreme West of Ireland - in the GaelfThatt area. The rest of the Irish though know the Irish language (he is taught at school), mainly enjoy English. There are among the Irish and bilingual. Bilingual and Bretons: They use French and Breton Languages. Celts by origin are and rootinhabited in Cornwall, in the south-west of England. The root language was almost dead, but now he is restored and hundreds of people speak on it, and several thousand people are studying. Albanians(5 million) form a separate Albanian group.

Live in Europe and representatives of the Ivdo group - roma,as well as immigrants from India and Pakistan and their descendants. In Europe, there are also relatively small groups kurdov(Iranian group) and armenian(Armenian group).

The peoples of the Ural Language Family are resettled in Europe - its Finno-Ugric Group. To the Ugric subgroup of this group include hungary(13 million), to Finnish - finns(5 million) and small people saama(otherwise - blades)food in the Far North of Europe, in the Arctic regions of Norway, Sweden and Finland.

To the Afrazian (semit-Khamita) language family treats language mal.tytsev.It is actually a dialect of Arabic, although Latin writing has been adopted in it. True, at present, most of the Maltesers along with Maltese know English and Italian. To the same family owns the language of moved to Europe, primarily in France, arabs(2 million people) from Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia and other countries.

To the Turkic group of the Altai family refers to language turk,living except for the European part of Turkey mainly in Germany (as workers migrants).

One indigenous people of Europe - basque- in language ratio occupies an isolated position; Basque could not be attributed to any language family. Basks live in Western Pyrenees, on both sides of the Spanish-French border.

Due to migrants from other regions (Arabs, Turks, Kurds, etc.), the ethnic composition of the population of Europe in recent decades has become more motley.

In addition to resettlements from other parts of light for Europe, both intraregional interstate migrations are also very characteristic, which also makes the ethnic composition of the population of some countries more diverse. Migrants, of course, attract the richest and developed countries. Their main flows go to France, Great Britain, Germany, Switzerland, Belgium, Sweden. Italians, Portuguese, people from Spain, Poles, Great Britain are going to France - primarily residents of neighboring Ireland, Germany - Italians, Greeks, Portuguese, Serbs, Croats, and others.

3. Anthropological composition of the populationWestern Europe

In a racial attitude, the modern population of Europe, not considering a significant group of immigrants from non-European countries, relatively uniformly. With the exception of Saami, which belong to a small laponoid race, occupying in their physical appearance the intermediate position between Europeanoids and the Mongoloids, the main population of Europe belongs to a large Caucasian race presented here by all three of its branches: north, Southand transitional.Each of these branches in turn includes different groups. The population of most of the Northern Europe refers to the Atlanto-Baltic small race of the northern branch of the European en. It is characterized by very bright leather, blonde hair, blue or gray eyes, a large nose length, a strong development of beard in men, high growth. This group includes Swedes, Norwegians, Danes, Icelanders, Finns, Chosk British (mainly in the eastern regions of England), Dutch, northern Germans and some other peoples living in the north of Europe.

For the peoples of South and Southwestern Europe, various options for the Indo-Mediterranean and Balkan-Caucasian small races belonging to the southern branch of the European appendices are characteristic. Representatives of the Indo-Mediterranean race have dark hair, dark hair, brown eyes, elongated nose with a slightly convex back, a narrow face. The overwhelming majority of Spaniards and Catalans, Galicians, Portuguese, Italians (except Northern), Southern Greeks and Romanians belong to different variants of this small race. For the Balkano-Caucasus race, dark skin, dark hair, dark eyes, convex nose, very strong development of tertiary hair, high growth is characteristic. This type includes for example, Albanians and the Northern Greeks.

Peoples inhabiting the central part of Europe form different variants of the Middle Eastern race. It is a transitional group that occupies an intermediate position between the Northern and Southern branches in its anthropological signs. For the Middle Eastern race, it is characterized by more intense compared to the northern branch of hair and eyes and a slightly smaller growth. The most embodiments of the Middle Eastern race include the main part of the French and the Germans, the Northern Italians, Wallon, Flemish, the population of Switzerland, Austrians, Hungaries.

4. Confessional population compositionWestern Europe

The most common religion of the peoples of Europe is Christianity presented here by three main directions: catoli.cISM, Protestantismdifferent flows I. orthodoxy.Catholicism is distributed primarily in southwestern and Central Europe. It confesses the overwhelming majority of believers Ireland, Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Malta, Austria, as well as all the dwarfs - Andorra, Monaco, San Marino, Vatican and Liechtenstein. Catholics constitute two thirds of Hungary inhabitants (with a significant proportion of reformatoms), form the most numerous groups (although not an absolute majority) in Switzerland and the Netherlands. Many Catholics and Germany, but somewhat less than Lutheran. Significant groups of them are also resets in the UK and Northern Ireland. Many followers of the Roman Catholic Church lives in Albania.

Three main currents of Protestantism in Europe are lutheranglotanismand calvinism.Lutheranism professes the overwhelming majority of the population of Finland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Iceland, as well as more than a third of German residents, where it is the largest confession. Ang-Lican is over half of the UK believers (there are also common both Catholicism and other forms of Protestantism). In England, Anglicism is a state religion. Calvinists in Europe live primarily in Switzerland, the Netherlands and Scotland. In Switzerland and the Netherlands, Calvinism is represented by reformatism; In both these countries, there are many Catholics. Calvinism in the form of Presbyterism, which has the status of state religion, is distributed in Scotland.

Orthodoxy in Europe adhere to the Greeks, Romanians and part of Albanians.

There are in Europe and small Muslim enclaves. In the non-Slavic part of Europe, Muslims are the largest religious group in Albania, Islam prevails in the European part of Turkey. In recent decades, the Muslim community of the population of Europe has greatly increased due to immigrant Muslims.