He wrote about everyday life. Everyday life in history

The problem of a person's everyday life originated in antiquity - in fact, when a person made the first attempts to realize himself and his place in the world around him.

However, ideas about everyday life during antiquity and the Middle Ages were predominantly mythological and religious.

Thus, the everyday life of ancient man is saturated with mythology, and mythology, in turn, is endowed with many features of the daily life of people. The gods are improved people who live the same passions, only endowed with great abilities and capabilities. Gods easily come into contact with people, and people, if necessary, turn to the gods. Good deeds are rewarded right there on earth, and bad deeds are immediately punished. Belief in retribution and fear of punishment form the mysticism of consciousness and, accordingly, the everyday existence of a person, manifested both in elementary rituals and in the specifics of perception and understanding of the surrounding world.

It can be argued that the everyday life of an ancient person is two-fold: it is thinkable and empirically comprehensible, that is, there is a division of being into a sensory-empirical world and an ideal world - the world of ideas. The predominance of one or another ideological setting had a significant impact on the way of life of a man of antiquity. Everyday life is just beginning to be considered as an area of ​​manifestation of human abilities and capabilities.

It is thought of as an existence focused on self-improvement of the individual, implying the harmonious development of physical, intellectual and spiritual capabilities. In this case, the material side of life is given a secondary place. One of the highest values ​​of the era of antiquity is moderation, which manifests itself in a rather modest way of life.

At the same time, the daily life of an individual is not conceived outside of society and is almost completely determined by it. Knowing and fulfilling one's civic duties is of paramount importance for a policy citizen.

The mystical nature of the everyday life of an ancient man, coupled with a person's understanding of his unity with the surrounding world, nature and the Cosmos, makes the everyday life of an ancient person sufficiently orderly, giving him a sense of security and confidence.

In the Middle Ages, the world is seen through the prism of God, and religiosity becomes the dominant moment of life, manifested in all spheres of human life. This determines the formation of a kind of worldview, in which everyday life appears as a chain of a person's religious experience, while religious rituals, commandments, and canons are woven into the lifestyle of the individual. The entire spectrum of human emotions and feelings is of a religious connotation (faith in God, love for God, hope for salvation, fear of God's wrath, hatred of the devil-tempter, etc.).

Earthly life is saturated with spiritual content, due to which there is a fusion of spiritual and sensory-empirical being. Life provokes a person to commit sinful acts, "throwing" all kinds of temptations to him, but it also gives him the opportunity to atone for his sins by moral deeds.

In the Renaissance, ideas about the purpose of a person, about his way of life, undergo significant changes. During this period, both a person and his daily life appear in a new light. Man is presented as a creative person, a co-creator of God, who is able to change himself and his life, who has become less dependent on external circumstances, and much more - on his own potential.

The term “everyday life” itself appears in the epoch of modern times thanks to M. Montaigne, who by him means ordinary, standard, convenient moments of existence for a person, repeated at every moment of an everyday performance. As he rightly pointed out, everyday troubles are never small. The will to live is the foundation of wisdom. Life is given to us as something that does not depend on us. To dwell on its negative aspects (death, sorrow, disease) means suppressing and denying life. The sage should strive to suppress and reject any arguments against life and should say an unconditional "yes" to life and to everything that is life - sorrow, sickness and death.

In the XIX century. from an attempt to rationalize everyday life, they move on to considering its irrational component: fears, hopes, deep human needs. The suffering of a person, according to S. Kierkegaard, is rooted in constant fear that haunts him at every moment of his life. The one who is mired in sin is afraid of possible punishment, the one who is freed from sin is gnawed by the fear of a new fall. Nevertheless, a person chooses his own being.

A gloomy, pessimistic view of human life is presented in the works of A. Schopenhauer. The essence of human existence is will, a blind onslaught that excites and reveals the universe. The person is driven by an insatiable thirst, accompanied by constant anxiety, need and suffering. According to Schopenhauer, out of seven days of the week, six we suffer and lust, and on the seventh we die of boredom. In addition, a person is characterized by the narrowness of his perception of the world around him. He notes that it is natural for a person to penetrate beyond the boundaries of the universe.

In the XX century. the main object of scientific knowledge is the man himself in his uniqueness and originality. V. Dilthey, M. Heidegger, N.A. Berdyaev and others point to the contradictory and ambiguous nature of human nature.

During this period, the “ontological” problem of human life is brought to the fore, and the phenomenological method becomes a special “prism” with the help of which the vision, comprehension and cognition of reality, including social reality, is carried out.

The philosophy of life (A. Bergson, V. Dilthey, G. Simmel) focuses on the irrational structures of consciousness in the life of a person, takes into account his nature, instincts, that is, a person regains his right to spontaneity and naturalness. Thus, A. Bergson writes that of all things we are most confident and know our own existence best.

In the works of G. Simmel, there is a negative assessment of everyday life. For him, the routine of everyday life is opposed to adventure as a period of the highest tension of strength and acuteness of experience, the moment of adventure exists, as it were, independently of everyday life, it is a separate fragment of space-time, where other laws and evaluation criteria operate.

The appeal to everyday life as an independent problem was carried out by E. Husserl within the framework of phenomenology. For him, the vital, everyday world becomes a universe of meanings. The everyday world has an internal orderliness, a kind of cognitive meaning is inherent in it. Thanks to E. Husserl, everyday life acquired in the eyes of philosophers the status of an independent reality of fundamental importance. E. Husserl's everyday life is distinguished by the simplicity of understanding what is "visible" to him. All people proceed from a natural attitude that unites objects and phenomena, things and living beings, factors of a socio-historical nature. Based on the natural attitude, a person perceives the world as the only true reality. All people's daily life is based on a natural attitude. The life-world is the data itself. This is a field that everyone knows. The life world always refers to the subject. This is his own everyday world. It is subjective and presented in the form of practical goals, life practice.

M. Heidegger made a great contribution to the study of the problems of everyday life. He already categorically separates scientific life from everyday life. Everyday life is a non-scientific space of one's own existence. The daily life of a person is filled with troubles about reproducing himself in the world as a living being, not a thinking one. The world of everyday life requires tireless repetition of necessary concerns (M. Heidegger called it an unworthy level of existence), which suppress the creative impulses of the individual. Heidegger's everyday life is presented in the form of the following modes: "chatter", "ambiguity", "curiosity", "preoccupied arrangement", etc. So, for example, "chatter" is presented in the form of empty, groundless speech. These modes are far from the genuine human, and therefore everyday life is somewhat negative, and the everyday world as a whole appears as a world of inauthenticity, groundlessness, loss and publicity. Heidegger notes that a person is constantly accompanied by a preoccupation with the present, which turns human life into fearful chores, into the vegetation of everyday life. This concern is aimed at the objects at hand, at the transformation of the world. According to M. Heidegger, a person is trying to give up his freedom, to become like everyone else, which leads to the homogenization of individuality. Man no longer belongs to himself, others have taken away being from him. However, despite these negative aspects of everyday life, a person constantly strives to stay in cash, to avoid death. He refuses to see death in his daily life, blocking himself from it by life itself.

This approach is aggravated and developed by pragmatists (Charles Pierce, W. James), in whose opinion consciousness is the experience of a person's stay in the world. Most of the practical affairs of people are aimed at gaining personal benefit. According to W. James, everyday life is expressed in the elements of the individual's life pragmatics.

In D. Dewey's instrumentalism, the concept of experience, nature and existence is far from idyllic. The world is unstable, and existence is risky and unstable. The actions of living beings are unpredictable, and therefore from any person maximum responsibility and tension of spiritual and intellectual forces is required.

Psychoanalysis also pays sufficient attention to the problems of everyday life. So, Z. Freud writes about the neuroses of everyday life, that is, the factors that cause them. Sexuality and aggression, suppressed by social norms, lead a person to neuroses, which in everyday life are manifested in the form of obsessive actions, rituals, slips of the tongue, slips of the tongue, and dreams that are understandable only to the person himself. Z. Freud called it "the psychopathology of everyday life." The more a person is forced to suppress his desires, the more methods of protection he uses in everyday life. Freud attributes repression, projection, substitution, rationalization, reactive formation, regression, sublimation, and denial to the ways in which nervous tension can be extinguished. Culture, according to Freud, gave a lot to a person, but took away from him the most important thing - the ability to satisfy his needs.

According to A. Adler, life cannot be imagined without continuous movement in the direction of growth and development. A person's life style includes a unique combination of traits, modes of behavior, habits, which, taken together, define a unique picture of a person's existence. From Adler's point of view, the lifestyle is firmly established at the age of four to five years and subsequently almost does not lend itself to total changes. This style becomes the main pivot of behavior in the future. It depends on him which aspects of life we ​​will pay attention to and which we will ignore. Ultimately, only the person himself is responsible for his own lifestyle.

Within the framework of postmodernism, it was shown that the life of a modern person has not become more stable and reliable. During this period, it became especially noticeable that human activity is carried out not so much on the basis of the principle of expediency as on the chance of expedient reactions in the context of specific changes. Within the framework of postmodernism (J.-F. Lyotard, J. Baudrillard, J. Bataille) the opinion is defended about the legitimacy of considering everyday life from any position in order to obtain a complete picture. Everyday life is not the subject of a philosophical analysis of this direction, capturing only certain moments of a person's life. The mosaic nature of the picture of everyday life in postmodernism testifies to the equivalence of the most diverse phenomena of human existence. Human behavior is largely determined by the consumption function. At the same time, it is not human needs that are the basis for the production of goods, but, on the contrary, the production and consumption machine produces needs. Outside the system of exchange and consumption, there is no subject or objects. The language of things classifies the world even before it is presented in everyday language, the paradigmatization of objects sets the paradigm of communication, interaction in the market serves as the basic matrix of language interaction. Individual needs and desires do not exist; desires are produced. All accessibility and permissiveness dull sensations, and a person can only reproduce ideals, values, etc., pretending that this has not happened yet.

However, there are also positive aspects. A post-modernist person is focused on communication and goal-setting aspiration, that is, the main task of a postmodern person who is in a chaotic, inexpedient, sometimes dangerous world is the need to reveal himself at all costs.

Existentialists believe that problems arise in the course of the daily life of each individual. Everyday life is not only a "rolled" existence repeating stereotypical rituals, but also shocks, disappointments, passions. They exist precisely in the everyday world. Death, shame, fear, love, the search for meaning, being the most important existential problems, are also problems of the existence of a person. Among existentialists, the most common is a pessimistic view of everyday life.

So, J.P. Sartre put forward the idea of ​​absolute freedom and absolute loneliness of man among other people. He believes that it is the person who is responsible for the fundamental design of his life. Any failure and failure is a consequence of a freely chosen path, and it is futile to look for the guilty ones. Even if a person ended up in a war, this war is his, since he could completely avoid it through suicide or desertion.

A. Camus endows everyday life with the following characteristics: absurdity, meaninglessness, disbelief in God and individual immortality, while placing an enormous responsibility on the person himself for his life.

A more optimistic point of view was held by E. Fromm, who endowed human life with an unconditional meaning, A. Schweitzer and H. Ortega y Gasset, who wrote that life is cosmic altruism, it exists as a constant movement from the vital self to the Other. These philosophers preached admiration for life and love for it, altruism as a life principle, emphasizing the brightest sides of human nature. Also E. Fromm speaks about two main ways of human existence - possession and being. The principle of possession is an attitude towards mastery of material objects, people, self, ideas and habits. Being is opposed to possession and means genuine participation in the existing and the embodiment in reality of all one's abilities.

The realization of the principles of being and possession is observed in the examples of everyday life: conversation, memory, power, faith, love, etc. Signs of possession are sluggishness, stereotype, superficiality. Fromm refers to the signs of being activity, creativity, interest. The possessive mindset is more characteristic of the modern world. This is due to the existence of private property. Existence is not conceived outside of struggle and suffering, and a person never realizes himself in a perfect way.

GG Gadamer, a leading representative of hermeneutics, pays great attention to the life experience of a person. He believes that the natural desire of parents is the desire to pass on their experience to children in the hope of saving them from their own mistakes. However, life experience is the experience that a person must acquire on their own. We constantly come to new experiences by refuting old experiences, because it is primarily a painful and unpleasant experience that goes against our expectations. Nevertheless, genuine experience prepares a person to realize his own limitations, that is, the limits of human existence. The conviction that everything can be remade, that there is time for everything, and that everything repeats itself in one way or another turns out to be just an appearance. Rather, on the contrary: a living and acting person is constantly convinced of history from his own experience that nothing is repeated. All the expectations and plans of finite beings are themselves finite and limited. Genuine experience is thus the experience of its own historicity.

Historical and philosophical analysis of everyday life allows us to draw the following conclusions regarding the development of problems of everyday life. First, the problem of everyday life is posed quite clearly, but the huge number of definitions does not give a holistic idea of ​​the essence of this phenomenon.

Secondly, most philosophers emphasize the negative aspects of everyday life. Thirdly, within the framework of modern science and in the mainstream of disciplines such as sociology, psychology, anthropology, history, etc., the conducted studies of everyday life concern primarily its applied aspects, while its essential content remains outside the field of vision of most researchers.

It is the socio-philosophical approach that makes it possible to systematize the historical analysis of everyday life, to determine its essence, systemic-structural content and integrity. We note right away that all the basic concepts that reveal everyday life, its basic foundations, in one way or another, in one way or another, are present in historical analysis in scattered versions, in various terms. We have only tried in the historical part to consider the essential, meaningful and integral being of everyday life. Without going deep into the analysis of such a complex formation as the concept of life, we emphasize that referring to it as the source is dictated not only by philosophical directions such as pragmatism, philosophy of life, fundamental ontology, but also the semantics of the words of everyday life: for all days of life with its eternal and temporal characteristics.

The main spheres of a person's life can be distinguished: his professional work, activities within the framework of everyday life and the sphere of recreation (unfortunately, often understood only as inactivity). It is obvious that the essence of life is movement, activity. It is all the features of social and individual activity in dialectical interconnection that determine the essence of everyday life. But it is clear that the pace and nature of activity, its effectiveness, success or failure are determined by the inclinations, skills and, mainly, abilities (the everyday life of an artist, poet, scientist, musician, etc., differs significantly).

If activity is viewed as a fundamental attribute of being from the point of view of self-movement of reality, then in each specific case we will be dealing with a relatively independent system functioning on the basis of self-regulation and self-government. But this, naturally, presupposes not only the presence of modes of activity (abilities), but also the need for sources of movement and activity. These sources are most often (and mainly) determined by the contradictions between the subject and the object of activity. The subject can also act as an object of a particular activity. This contradiction boils down to the fact that the subject seeks to master the object or part of it, which he needs. These contradictions are defined as needs: the need of an individual, a group of people or society as a whole. It is the needs in various changed, transformed forms (interests, motives, goals, etc.) that bring the subject into action. Self-organization and self-management of the activity of the system presupposes as a necessary a sufficiently developed understanding, awareness, adequate knowledge (that is, the presence of consciousness and self-awareness) of the activity itself, and abilities, and needs, and awareness of consciousness and self-awareness itself. All this is transformed into adequate and definite goals, organizes the necessary means and gives the subject the opportunity to foresee the corresponding results.

So, all this allows us to consider everyday life from these four positions (activity, need, consciousness, ability): the defining sphere of everyday life - professional activity; human activities in everyday life; rest as a kind of sphere of activity, in which these four elements move freely, spontaneously, intuitively outside of purely practical interests, playfully (on the basis of play activity).

Some conclusion can be made. From the previous analysis, it follows that everyday life must be defined starting from the concept of life, the essence of which (including everyday life) is hidden in activity, and the content of everyday life (for all days!) Is revealed in a detailed analysis of the specifics of the social and individual characteristics of the four selected elements. The integrity of everyday life is hidden in the harmonization, on the one hand, of all its spheres (professional activity, activities in everyday life and rest), and on the other hand, within each of the spheres based on the originality of the four designated elements. And, finally, we note that all these four elements have been identified, highlighted and are already present in the historical, social and philosophical analysis. The category of life is present among representatives of the philosophy of life (M. Montaigne, A. Schopenhauer, V. Dilthey, E. Husserl); the concept of "activity" is present in the currents of pragmatism, instrumentalism (by Charles Pierce, W. James, D. Dewey); the concept of "need" dominates in K. Marx, Z. Freud, postmodernists, etc .; W. Dilthey, G. Simmel, K. Marx and others turn to the concept of "ability" and, finally, we find consciousness as a synthesizing organ in K. Marx, E. Husserl, representatives of pragmatism and existentialism.

Thus, it is this approach that allows us to define the phenomenon of everyday life as a socio-philosophical category, to reveal the essence, content and integrity of this phenomenon.

Simmel G. Selected Works. - M., 2006.

Sartre, J.P. Existentialism is humanism // Twilight of the Gods / ed. A. A. Yakovleva. - M., 1990.

Camus, A. Rebel man / A. Camus // Rebel man. Philosophy. Politics. Art. - M., 1990.

Task 25. In the story of O. Balzac "Gobsek" (written in 1830, final edition - 1835), the hero, an incredibly rich usurer, expresses his view of life:

“What inspires delight in Europe is punished in Asia. What is considered a vice in Paris is recognized by the Azores as a necessity. There is nothing lasting on earth, there are only conventions, and in every climate they are different. For one who willy-nilly applied to all social standards, all your moral rules and beliefs are empty words. Only one single feeling is unshakable, embedded in us by nature itself: the instinct of self-preservation ... So you live with mine, you will find out that of all earthly blessings, there is only one reliable enough to make it worth a man to chase after him. Is this gold... All the forces of mankind are concentrated in gold ... As for morals, man is the same everywhere: everywhere there is a struggle between the poor and the rich, everywhere. And it is inevitable. So it's better to press yourself than to allow others to crush you ".
Underline in the text the sentences that, in your opinion, most clearly characterize Gobsek's personality.
Why do you think the author gives his hero the name Gobsek, which means "swallower"? What, from your point of view, could have made it this way? Write down the main findings.

A person deprived of sympathy, concepts of goodness, alien to compassion in his striving for enrichment, is called a "swallower". It’s hard to imagine what exactly could have made him that way. A hint, perhaps in the words of Gobsek himself, that the best teacher of a person is misfortune, only it helps a person to know the value of people and money. The hardships, misfortunes of his own life and the society surrounding Gobsek, where gold was considered the main measure of everything and the greatest good, made Gobsek a "swallower."

Based on your conclusions, write a short story - the story of Gobsek's life (childhood and adolescence, travel, meeting people, historical events, sources of his wealth, etc.), told by himself.
I was born into the family of a poor artisan in Paris and lost my parents very early. Once on the street, I wanted one thing - to survive. Everything boiled in my soul when I saw the magnificent outfits of aristocrats, gilded carriages rushing along the pavements and forcing you to press against the wall so as not to be crushed. Why is the world so unfair? Then ... the revolution, the ideas of freedom and equality, which turned everyone's head. Needless to say, I joined the Jacobins. And with what delight I received Napoleon! He made the nation proud of himself. Then there was restoration and everything that had been fought against for so long returned. And again the world was ruled by gold. Freedom and equality were no longer remembered and I left for the south, to Marseille ... After many years of hardship, wandering, and dangers, I managed to get rich and learned the main principle of today's life - it is better to press yourself than to be crushed by others. And here I am in Paris, and those who once had to shy away from their carriages come to me to ask for money. Do you think I'm glad? Not at all, this further confirmed me in the opinion that the main thing in life is gold, only it gives power over people.

Task 26. Here are reproductions of two paintings. Both artists wrote works mainly on everyday topics. Review the illustrations, noting the timing of their creation. Compare both works. Is there something in common in the portrayal of heroes, the attitude of the authors towards them? Maybe you were able to notice different things? Write the results of your observations in a notebook.

General: Everyday scenes from the life of the third estate are depicted. We see the disposition of artists towards their characters and their knowledge of the subject.
Miscellaneous: Chardin depicted in his paintings calm soulful scenes full of love, light and peace. In Mülle, we see endless fatigue, hopelessness and resignation to a difficult fate.

Task 27. Read excerpts from a literary portrait of the famous 19th century writer. (essay author - K. Paustovsky). In the text, the name of the writer is replaced by the letter N.
What writer did K. Paustovsky talk about? For the answer, you can use the text of § 6 of the textbook, which contains literary portraits of writers. Underline phrases in the text that, from your point of view, allow you to accurately determine the name of the writer.

The stories and poems of N, the colonial correspondent, who himself stood under the bullets and communicated with the soldiers, and did not disdain the society of the colonial intelligentsia, were understandable and graphic for wide literary circles.
About everyday life and work in the colonies, about the people of this world - British officials, soldiers and officers who are creating an empire far away N. narrated from the native farms and cities lying under the blessed sky of old England. He and the writers close to him in the general direction glorified the empire as a great Mother, never tired of sending new and new generations of her sons to distant seas.
Children from different countries read the Jungle Books by this writer... His talent was inexhaustible, his language was precise and rich, his invention was full of plausibility. All these properties are enough to be a genius, to belong to humanity.

About Joseph Rudyard Kipling.

Task 28. The French artist E. Delacroix traveled extensively in the countries of the East. He was fascinated by the opportunity to portray vivid exotic scenes that excited the imagination.
Come up with a few "oriental" subjects that, as you think, might interest the artist. Write down the stories or their titles.

The death of the Persian king Darius, Shahsey-Wakhsey among the Shiites with self-torture to blood, bride kidnapping, horse racing among nomadic peoples, falconry, hunting with cheetahs, armed Bedouins riding camels.

Name the paintings by Delacroix on p. 29-30.
1. "Algerian women in their chambers", 1834;
2. "Lion Hunt in Morocco", 1854;
3. "Moroccan saddling a horse", 1855

Try to find albums with reproductions of works by this artist. Compare the names you have given with the genuine ones. Write down the names of other Delacroix paintings of the Orient that interest you.
Cleopatra and the Peasant, 1834, The Massacre on Chios, 1824, The Death of Sardanapalus, 1827, The Duel of Giaur and Pasha, 1827, The Clash of Arab Horses, 1860, Fanatics of Tangier "1837-1838.

Task 29. Contemporaries rightly considered Daumier's cartoons to be illustrations for the works of Balzac.

Consider a few such works: "Little Clerk", "Robert Macker - Stock Gambler", "Legislative Womb", "Moonlight Action", "Representatives of Justice", "Lawyer".
Make captions under the paintings (use quotes from Balzac's text for this). Write down the names of the characters and the titles of Balzac's works, which could be illustrated by Daumier's works.

Task 30. Artists from different eras sometimes referred to the same subject, but interpreted it in different ways.

Consider in the 7th grade textbook reproductions of David's famous Enlightenment Oath painting by David. What do you think, could this plot be of interest to a romantic artist who lived in the 30s and 40s? XIX century? What would the piece look like? Describe it.
The plot could interest romantics. They sought to portray heroes at moments of the highest tension of spiritual and physical forces, when the inner spiritual world of a person is exposed, showing his essence. The piece could have looked the same. You can replace costumes, bringing them closer to modernity.

Task 31. In the late 60s. XIX century. the Impressionists burst into the artistic life of Europe, defending new views on art.

In L. Volynsky's book "The Green Tree of Life" there is a short story about how once K. Monet, as always in the open air, painted a picture. For a moment, the sun hid behind a cloud, and the artist stopped working. At that moment G. Courbet found him, interested in why he was not working. “I'm waiting for the sun,” Monet replied. “You could paint the background landscape for now,” Courbet shrugged.
What do you think the impressionist Monet answered him? Write down the possible answers.
1. Monet's paintings are permeated with light, they are bright, sparkling, joyful - “light is needed for space”.
2. Probably waiting for inspiration - "I do not have enough light."

Here are two portraits of women. Considering them, pay attention to the composition of the work, details, features of the image. Place under the illustrations the dates of creation of the works: 1779 or 1871.

What features of the portraits you noticed made it possible to carry out this task correctly?
By dress and manner of writing. "Portrait of the Duchess de Beaufort" Gainsborough - 1779 "Portrait of Jeanne Samary" by Renoir - 1871 Portraits of Gainsborough were made mainly to order. Coldly aloof aristocrats were portrayed in a sophisticated manner. Renoir also portrayed ordinary French women, young, cheerful and spontaneous, full of life and charm. The painting technique also differs.

Task 32. The discoveries of the Impressionists paved the way for the Post-Impressionists - painters who strove to dream of their own unique vision of the world with maximum expressiveness.

Paul Gauguin's canvas "Tahitian Pastorals" was created by the artist in 1893 during his stay in Polynesia. Try to compose a story about the content of the painting (what happens on the canvas, how Gauguin relates to the world captured on the canvas).
Considering civilization a disease, Gauguin gravitated towards exotic places, sought to merge with nature. This was reflected in his paintings, which depicted the life of the Polynesians, simple and measured. Emphasized the simplicity and manner of writing. The flat canvases depicted compositions that were static and contrasting in color, deeply emotional and at the same time decorative.

Consider and compare the two still lifes. Each piece tells about the time when it was created. Do these works have something in common?
The still lifes depict simple everyday things and unpretentious fruits. Both still lifes are distinguished by simplicity and laconic composition.

Have you noticed a difference in the depiction of objects? What is it?
Klas reproduces objects in detail, strictly maintains perspective and chiaroscuro, uses soft colors. Cezanne presents us with a picture from different points of view, uses a clear outline to emphasize the volume of the subject, and bright saturated colors. The crumpled tablecloth does not look as soft as Klas's, but rather acts as a background and sharpens the composition.

Imagine and record an imaginary conversation between the Dutch artist P. Claes and the French painter P. Cezanne, in which they would talk about their still lifes. What would they praise each other for? What would these two still life masters criticize?
К .: "I used light, air and a single tone to express the unity of the objective world and the environment."
S .: “My method is hatred of the fantastic image. I write only the truth and I want to hit Paris with carrots and apples. "
K.K .: "It seems to me that you are not sufficiently detailed and depict objects incorrectly."
S .: “An artist should not be too scrupulous, or too sincere, or too dependent on nature; the artist is, to a greater or lesser extent, the master of his model, and mainly of his means of expression. "
K.K .: “But I like your work with color, I also consider it the most important element of painting”.
S .: "Color is the point where our brain comes into contact with the universe."
*note. In drawing up the dialogue, quotations by Cezanne were used.

Napoleon Bonaparte is the most controversial and interesting figure in French history. The French adore and adore him as a national hero.

It doesn't matter that he lost the Patriotic War of 1812 in Russia, the main thing is that he is Napoleon Bonaparte!

For me personally, he is a favorite figure in French history. I have always had respect for his talent as a commander - the capture of Toulon in 1793, victories in the battles of Arcole or Rivoli.

That is why today I will talk about the daily life of the French during the time of Napoleon Bonaparte.

You will say that it was possible to follow the chronological path and gradually reveal this topic, starting from time immemorial. And I will say that this is boring, and my blog will turn into a textbook on the history of France, and then you will stop reading it. Therefore, I will talk, first of all, about the most interesting and out of order. It's so much more interesting! Truth?

So how did people live in the days of Napoleon Bonaparte? Let's find out about it together ...

About Sevres porcelain.

In terms of French industry, the leading industries were glass, pottery and porcelain.

The porcelain products of the Sevres factory near Paris gained world fame ( famous sevres porcelain). This manufactory was transferred from the castle in Vincennes in 1756.

When Napoleon became emperor, classicism tendencies began to prevail in porcelain. Sevres porcelain began to be decorated with exquisite ornaments, which were most often combined with a colored background.

After the conclusion of the Peace of Tilsit (1807), a few months later, Napoleon presented the Russian Emperor Alexander I with a magnificent Olympic service (pictured). Napoleon also used Sèvres porcelain on Saint Helena.

About the workers.

Gradually, industry in France took the track of machine production. The metric system of measures was introduced. And in 1807 the Commercial Code was created and promulgated.

But, nevertheless, France did not become a leader in the world market, but the wages of workers gradually increased, and mass unemployment was avoided.

In Paris, a worker earned 3-4 francs a day, in the provinces - 1.2-2 francs a day. French workers are more likely to eat meat and dress better.

About money.

We all know that currency is now used in France. euro €. But we most often forget about past currencies, maybe we only remember about franc and a strange word Ecu.

Let's fix that and be curious about the old French currency, so to speak.

So livres, francs, napoleondors - what nice names, aren't they?

Livre was the currency of France until the introduction of the franc in 1799. Did you know that the members of the Egyptian expedition, which began in 1798, received a salary? Yes, and this is so, only then it was called a salary. So the famous scientists received 500 livres a month, and the rank and file - 50.

And in 1834, coins denominated in livres were withdrawn from circulation.

Franc was originally silver and weighed only 5 grams. This so-called germinal franc put into circulation in March 1803, and it remained stable until 1914! (pictured on the right)

And here napoleon was a gold coin that was equal to 20 francs and contained 5.8 grams of pure gold. These coins have been minted since 1803.

And the origin of the name is very simple, because on the coin there were images of Napoleon I, and later Napoleon III. This gold coin is not at all easy, because it could be minted in different variations - double Napoleon (40 francs), 1/2 Napoleon (10 francs) and 1/4 (5 francs).

You ask, how louis and ecu?

These coins went out of circulation faster. For example, the louis (French gold coin) was first minted under Louis XIII, and ended its "life" in 1795.

BUT ecu existed since the 13th century, at first they were gold, then silver, and in the middle of the 19th century they were withdrawn from circulation. But the name "ecu" was preserved for the five-franc coin.

Still, lovers of fiction often met this name on the pages of books by French writers.

About food.

If earlier the main food of the French were bread, wine and cheese, then in the 19th century it became widespread potato imported from America. Thanks to this, the population is growing, because potatoes are actively planted throughout France, and they bring a large harvest.

Colorfully describes the benefits of potatoes J.J. Menure, a resident of the department of Isère (fr. Isère) in the south-east of France:

“This culture, freely located, groomed, prosperous in my domain, has brought me many benefits; potatoes turned out to be very profitable, they found use on the table of owners, workers and servants, they went to eat chickens, turkeys, pigs; it was enough for both local residents and for sale, etc. What an abundance, what a pleasure! "

Yes, and Napoleon himself preferred all dishes - fried potatoes with onions.

So it comes as no surprise that simple potatoes have become the favorite dish of all French people. Contemporaries write that they attended a dinner party at which all dishes were prepared exclusively from potatoes. Like this!

About art.

What do the people demand? Right - "Meal'n'Real!"

They talked about their daily bread, or rather potatoes, which took a firm place in the life of the French. Now we will learn about spectacles - about spiritual food.

In general, I must say that Napoleon Bonaparte actively supported the theater, actors and playwrights. Fashion, art and architecture of that time are strongly influenced by style. "Empire"... Napoleon likes drama theater.

He talked about it to the poet Goethe:

“Tragedy should be a school for kings and peoples; this is the highest step that a poet can reach. "

The patronage of the theater smoothly spread to specific actresses who became mistresses of the first persons of the state: Teresa Bourguin, Minister of the Interior Chaptal, and Mademoiselle Georges, Napoleon himself.

However, development of the theater during the Empire is in full swing, dominates there Talma... A talented family member of a dentist. He received an excellent education and even continued his father's work for some time, playing during his leisure time on small stages.

At one point, Talma decided to change his life and graduated from the Royal School of Recitation and Singing in Paris. AND in 1787 successfully debuted on the stage of the theater "Comedie Francaise" in Voltaire's play "Mahomet". Soon he was accepted into the number of the theater shareholders.

Talma broke the ridiculous centuries-old tradition of the theater, according to which the actors represented the heroes of different eras in the costumes of their time - in wigs and velvet!

AND theatrical "revolutionary" gradually introduced into the everyday life of the theater antique, medieval, oriental and Renaissance costumes! ( Francois-Joseph Talma depicted as Nero in the painting by E. Delacroix).

Talma actively advocated the truthfulness of speech in everything, including diction. His views were formed under the influence of French and English enlighteners. And from the first days of the Great Revolution, he strove to embody her ideas on stage. This actor took over a troupe of revolutionary-minded actors who left the Comedie Francaise in 1791. And they founded the Theater of Freedom, Equality and Brotherhood, which later became the Theater of the Republic on Rue Richelieu.

The "old" theater or the Theater of the Nation staged plays that were displeasing to the authorities. And the revolutionary government closed it down, the actors were thrown into jail. But they escaped execution because a Public Safety official destroyed their papers.

After the fall of Robespierre, the remnants of the troupes of both theaters united, and Talma had to make excuses to the public, speaking out against the revolutionary terror.

Such vivid changes took place in the theater thanks to talented, caring people.

And it is worth noting that the French watched not only tragedies! N.M. Karamzin wrote in his "Letters of a Russian Traveler" about five theaters - the Bolshoi Opera, the French Theater, the Italian Theater, the Theater of the Count of Provence and the Variety.

In conclusion, I will add a couple of interesting facts :

- The first experiments in the field of photos.

- And, of course, the glory of the national perfumery is huge, and if a Frenchman starts doing this in another country, he will definitely be successful!

France still occupies a prominent place among the world's perfumers. What is it worth Perfume House "Fragonard" in the southern city of Grasse. By the way, anyone can visit the historical museum of the factory and see with their own eyes the ancient equipment of perfumers.

P.S. On this wonderful note, I will end my story about the everyday life of the French during the time of Napoleon Bonaparte. And for those who want to know even more details on this topic, I can recommend Andrei Ivanov's fascinating book "The Everyday Life of the French under Napoleon."

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Assignment number 22. Consider the drawings and imagine that you have come to the museum, to the hall where the clothes are exhibited. The museum staff have not yet had time to place signs near the exhibits with the names of the era and indicating the time to which these exhibits belong. Place the signs yourself; compose a text for the guide, which would reflect the reasons for the change in fashion

The fashion of the early 19th century was influenced by the French Revolution. The Rococo era passed with the French monarchy. Women's outfits of simple cut from light light fabrics and a minimum of jewelry are in fashion. Men have a "military style" in their clothes, but the costume still carries the features of the 18th century. With the end of the Napoleonic era, fashion seems to remember the forgotten. Lush women's dresses with crinolines and deep neckline are returning. But the men's suit becomes more practical and finally goes to a tailcoat and an indispensable headdress - a top hat. Further, under the influence of changes in everyday life, women's clothing is narrowed, but, as before, corsets and crinolines are widely used. Men's clothing remains virtually unchanged. At the beginning of the 20th century, women's clothing begins to get rid of corsets and crinolines, but the dress is extremely narrowed. The men's suit finally turns into a classic "three"

Task number 23. Russian physicist A. G. Stoletov wrote: "Never since the time of Galileo did the world see so many amazing and varied discoveries that came out of one head, and will hardly soon see another Faraday ..."

What discoveries did Stoletov have in mind? List them

1. Discovery of the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction

2. Discovery of liquefaction of gases

3. Establishment of the laws of electrolysis

4. Creation of the theory of polarization of dielectrics

What do you think was the reason for the high assessment of Pasteur's activities given by the Russian scientist K.A.Timiryazev?

"The coming generations, of course, will complement Pasteur's work, but ... no matter how far they go forward, they will follow the path laid out for them, and even a genius cannot do this in science." Write down your point of view

Pasteur is the founder of microbiology, one of the foundations of modern medicine. Pasteur discovered methods of sterilization and pasteurization, without which it is impossible to imagine not only modern medicine, but also the food industry. Pasteur formulated the basics of vaccination and is one of the founders of immunology

The English physicist A. Schuster (1851-1934) wrote: "My laboratory was flooded with doctors who brought patients who suspected that they had needles in different parts of the body."

What do you think, what discovery in the field of physics made it possible to detect foreign objects in the human body? Who is the author of this discovery? Write down the answer

Discovery of the rays, named after him by the German physicist Wilhelm Roentgen. Based on this discovery, an X-ray machine was created.

The Robert Koch Medal was established by the European Academy of Natural Sciences. What do you think Koch's discovery made his name immortal?

Discovery of the causative agent of tuberculosis, named after the scientist "Koch's wand". In addition, the German bacteriologist developed drugs and preventive measures against tuberculosis, which was of great importance, because at that time this disease was one of the main causes of death.

The American philosopher and educator J. Dewey said: "A truly thinking person draws no less knowledge from his mistakes than from his successes"; "Every great success of science has its source in the great audacity of the imagination."

Comment on the statements of J. Dewey

The first statement is consonant with the statement that a negative result is also a result. Most of the discoveries and inventions were made through repeated experiments, most of them unsuccessful, but giving researchers knowledge, which ultimately led to success.

The philosopher calls the "great audacity of the imagination" the ability to imagine the impossible, to see what goes beyond the ordinary idea of ​​the world around.

Task number 24. Vivid images of romantic heroes are embodied in the literature of the early 19th century. Read excerpts from the works of romantics (remember the works of that time, familiar to you from literature lessons). Try to find something in common in the description of such different characters (appearance, character traits, behavior)

Excerpt from J. Byron. Childe Harold's Pilgrimage

Excerpt from J. Byron "Corsair"

Excerpts from V. Hugo "Notre Dame Cathedral"

What do you think, what reasons can explain the fact that these literary heroes personified the era? Write down your reasoning

All these heroes are united by a rich inner world hidden from others. The heroes seem to withdraw into themselves, are guided more by heart than by reason, and they have no place among ordinary people with their "base" interests. They seem to be above society. These are typical features of romanticism that arose after the collapse of the ideas of the Enlightenment. In a society very far from justice, romanticism portrayed a beautiful dream, despising the world of wealthy shopkeepers

Here are illustrations for literary works created by romantics. Do you recognize the heroes? What helped you? Sign under each drawing the name of the author and the title of the literary work to which the illustration is made. Come up with a name for each

Task number 25. In the story of O. Balzac "Gobsek" (written in 1830, final edition - 1835), the hero, an incredibly rich usurer, sets out his view of life:

“What inspires delight in Europe is punished in Asia. What is considered a vice in Paris is recognized by the Azores as a necessity. There is nothing lasting on earth, there are only conventions, and in every climate they are different. For one who willy-nilly applied to all social standards, all your moral rules and beliefs are empty words... Only one single feeling is unshakable, embedded in us by nature itself: the instinct of self-preservation ... Here you live with mine, you will find out that of all earthly blessings, there is only one reliable enough to make it worth a person to chase after him... Is this gold. All the forces of mankind are concentrated in gold ... As for morals, man is the same everywhere: everywhere there is a struggle between the poor and the rich, everywhere. And it is inevitable. So it's better to push yourself than to let others push you»

Underline in the text the sentences that, in your opinion, most clearly characterize Gobsek's personality

A person deprived of sympathy, concepts of goodness, alien to compassion in his striving for enrichment, is called a "swallower". It’s hard to imagine what exactly could have made him that way. A hint, perhaps in the words of Gobsek himself, that the best teacher of a person is misfortune, only it helps a person to know the value of people and money. The hardships, misfortunes of his own life and the society surrounding Gobsek, where gold was considered the main measure of everything and the greatest good, made Gobsek a "swallower"

Based on your conclusions, write a short story - the story of Gobsek's life (childhood and adolescence, travel, meeting people, historical events, sources of his wealth, etc.), told by himself

I was born into the family of a poor artisan in Paris and lost my parents very early. Once on the street, I wanted one thing - to survive. Everything boiled in my soul when I saw the magnificent outfits of aristocrats, gilded carriages rushing along the pavements and forcing you to press against the wall so as not to be crushed. Why is the world so unfair? Then ... the revolution, the ideas of freedom and equality, which turned everyone's head. Needless to say, I joined the Jacobins. And with what delight I received Napoleon! He made the nation proud of himself. Then there was restoration and everything that had been fought against for so long returned. And again the world was ruled by gold. Freedom and equality were no longer remembered and I left for the south, to Marseille ... After many years of hardship, wandering, and dangers, I managed to get rich and learned the main principle of today's life - it is better to press yourself than to be crushed by others. And here I am in Paris, and those who once had to shy away from their carriages come to me to ask for money. Do you think I'm glad? Not at all, this further confirmed me in the opinion that the main thing in life is gold, only it gives power over people

Task number 26. Here are reproductions of two paintings. Both artists wrote works mainly on everyday topics. Review the illustrations, noting the timing of their creation. Compare both works. Is there something in common in the portrayal of heroes, the attitude of the authors towards them? Maybe you were able to notice different things? Write down the results of your observations in a notebook.

General: Depicts everyday scenes from the life of the third estate. We see the disposition of artists towards their characters and their knowledge of the subject.

Various: Chardin depicted in his paintings calm soulful scenes full of love, light and peace. In Mülle, we see endless fatigue, hopelessness and resignation to a difficult fate.

Task number 27. Read fragments of a literary portrait of the famous writer of the 19th century. (essay author - K. Paustovsky). In the text, the name of the writer is replaced by the letter N.
What writer did K. Paustovsky talk about? For the answer, you can use the text of § 6 of the textbook, which contains literary portraits of writers.

Underline phrases in the text that, from your point of view, allow you to accurately determine the name of the writer

The stories and poems of N, the colonial correspondent, who himself stood under the bullets and communicated with the soldiers, and did not disdain the society of the colonial intelligentsia, were understandable and graphic for wide literary circles.

About everyday life and work in the colonies, about the people of this world - British officials, soldiers and officers who are creating an empire far away N. narrated from the native farms and cities lying under the blessed sky of old England. He and the writers close to him in the general direction glorified the empire as a great Mother, never tired of sending new and new generations of her sons to distant seas.

Children from different countries read the Jungle Books by this writer... His talent was inexhaustible, his language was precise and rich, his invention was full of plausibility. All these properties are enough to be a genius, belong to humanity.

About Joseph Rudyard Kipling

Task number 28. French artist E. Delacroix traveled extensively in the countries of the East. He was fascinated by the opportunity to portray vivid exotic scenes that thrilled the imagination.

Come up with a few "oriental" subjects that, as you think, might interest the artist. Write down the stories or their titles

The death of the Persian king Darius, Shahsey-Wakhsey among the Shiites with self-torture to blood, bride kidnapping, horse racing among nomadic peoples, falconry, hunting with cheetahs, armed Bedouins riding camels.

Name the paintings by Delacroix on p. 29-30

Try to find albums with reproductions of works by this artist. Compare the names you have given with the genuine ones. Write down the names of other Delacroix paintings of the East that interest you

1. "Algerian women in their chambers", 1834

2. "Lion Hunt in Morocco", 1854

3. "Moroccan saddling a horse", 1855

Other paintings: "Cleopatra and the Peasant", 1834, "The Massacre on Chios", 1824, "Death of Sardanapalus" in 1827, "The Duel of Giaur with the Pasha", 1827, "Clash of Arabian Horses", 1860 ., "Fanatics of Tangier" 1837-1838

Task number 29. Contemporaries rightly considered Daumier's cartoons as illustrations for the works of Balzac

Consider a few such works: "Little Clerk", "Robert Macker - Stock Gambler", "Legislative Womb", "Moonlight Action", "Representatives of Justice", "Lawyer"

Make captions under the paintings (use quotes from Balzac's text for this). Write the names of the characters and the titles of Balzac's works, which could be illustrated by Daumier's works

1. "Little clerk" - "There are people who look like zeros: they always need to have numbers in front of them."

2. "Robert Macker - a stock player" - "The nature of our era, when money is everything: laws, politics, customs"

3. "Legislative womb" - "Insolent hypocrisy inspires respect for people who are used to serving"

4. "Moonlight Action" - "People rarely flaunt flaws - most try to cover them up with an attractive shell."

5. "Lawyers" - "The friendship of two saints does more evil than an open enmity of ten scoundrels."

6. "Representatives of Justice" - "If you talk alone all the time, you will always be right"

They can serve as illustrations for the following works: "Officials", "Guardianship Case", "Dark Business", "Nusingen Banking House", "Lost Illusions", etc.

Task number 30. Artists from different eras sometimes referred to the same subject, but interpreted it in different ways

Consider in the 7th grade textbook reproductions of David's famous Enlightenment Oath painting by David. What do you think, could this plot interest a romantic artist who lived in the 1930s and 1940s? XIX century? What would the piece look like? Describe it

The plot could interest romantics. They sought to portray heroes at moments of the highest tension of spiritual and physical forces, when the inner spiritual world of a person is exposed, showing his essence. The piece could have looked the same. You can replace costumes, bringing them closer to modernity.

Task number 31. In the late 60s. XIX century. Impressionists burst into the artistic life of Europe, defending new views on art

In the book JI. Volynsky's "The Green Tree of Life" is a short story about how once K. Monet, as always in the open air, painted a picture. For a moment, the sun hid behind a cloud, and the artist stopped working. At that moment G. Courbet found him, interested in why he was not working. “I'm waiting for the sun,” Monet replied. "You could paint the background landscape for now," Courbet shrugged.

What do you think the impressionist Monet answered him? Write down the possible answers

1. Monet's paintings are permeated with light, they are bright, sparkling, joyful - “light is needed for space”

2. Probably waiting for inspiration - "I don't have enough light"

Here are two portraits of women. Considering them, pay attention to the composition of the work, details, features of the image. Place under the illustrations the dates of creation of the works: 1779 or 1871.

What features of the portraits you noticed made it possible to carry out this task correctly?

By dress and manner of writing. "Portrait of the Duchess de Beaufort" Gainsborough - 1779 "Portrait of Jeanne Samary" by Renoir - 1871 Portraits of Gainsborough were made mainly to order. Coldly aloof aristocrats were portrayed in a sophisticated manner. Renoir also portrayed ordinary French women, young, cheerful and spontaneous, full of life and charm. The painting technique also differs.

Task number 32. The discoveries of the Impressionists paved the way for the Post-Impressionists - painters who strove to dream of their own unique vision of the world with maximum expressiveness

Paul Gauguin's canvas "Tahitian Pastorals" was created by the artist in 1893 during his stay in Polynesia. Try to compose a story about the content of the painting (what happens on the canvas, how Gauguin relates to the world captured on the canvas)

Considering civilization a disease, Gauguin gravitated towards exotic places, sought to merge with nature. This was reflected in his paintings, which depicted the life of the Polynesians, simple and measured. Emphasized the simplicity and manner of writing. Plane canvases depicted compositions that were static and contrasting in color, deeply emotional and at the same time decorative.

Consider and compare the two still lifes. Each piece tells about the time when it was created. Do these works have something in common?

The still lifes depict simple everyday things and unpretentious fruits. Both still lifes are distinguished by simplicity and laconic composition.

Have you noticed a difference in the depiction of objects? What is it?

Klas reproduces objects in detail, strictly maintains perspective and chiaroscuro, uses soft colors. Cezanne presents us with a picture from different points of view, uses a clear outline to emphasize the volume of the subject, and bright saturated colors. The crumpled tablecloth does not look as soft as Klas's, but rather acts as a background and sharpens the composition.

Imagine and record an imaginary conversation between the Dutch artist P. Claes and the French painter P. Cezanne, in which they would talk about their still lifes. What would they praise each other for? What would these two still life masters criticize?

К .: "I used light, air and a single tone to express the unity of the objective world and the environment."

S .: “My method is hatred of the fantastic image. I write only the truth and I want to hit Paris with carrots and apples "

K.K .: "It seems to me that you are not sufficiently detailed and depict objects incorrectly."

S .: “An artist should not be too scrupulous, or too sincere, or too dependent on nature; the artist is, to a greater or lesser extent, the master of his model, and mainly of his means of expression "

К .: "But I like your work with color, I also consider it the most important element of painting."

S .: "Color is the point where our brain comes into contact with the universe."

State educational institution

higher professional education

"Kuzbass State Pedagogical Academy"

Department of Russian History

"Everyday life of medieval Russia

(based on moralizing literature) "

Performed

3rd year student of group 1

Faculty of History full-time

Morozova Kristina Andreevna

Supervisor -

Bambizova K.V., Ph.D. n ,.

Department of Russian history

Novokuznetsk, 2010

Introduction

Relevance the chosen research topic is due to the growing interest in the society in studying the history of its people. Ordinary people, as a rule, are more interested in specific manifestations of human life, they make history not a dry abstract discipline, but visible, understandable and close. Today we need to know our roots, to imagine how the everyday life of our ancestors proceeded, to carefully preserve this knowledge for posterity. This continuity contributes to the formation of national identity, fosters patriotism of the younger generation.

Consider degree of knowledge of the problem everyday life and customs of medieval Russia in science. All literature on everyday life can be divided into several groups: pre-revolutionary, Soviet and modern.

Pre-revolutionary Russian historiography, first of all, is represented by the works of N.M. Karamzin, SV. Solovyov and V.O. Klyuchevsky, although it is not limited to these three big names. However, these venerable historians mainly showed the historical process, while, according to L.V. Belovinsky, "the historical process is, in a sense, an abstract thing, and the life of the people is concrete. This life takes place in its everyday life, in small matters, concerns, interests, habits, tastes of a particular person, who is a part of society. It is extremely diverse. and complex. And the historian, trying to see the general, regularities, perspective, uses a large scale. " Consequently, this approach can in no way be included in the mainstream of the history of everyday life.

In the middle of the 19th century, a book by the famous scientist A.V. Tereshchenko "The Life of the Russian People" is the first attempt in Russia to develop ethnographic material scientifically. At one time, it was read by both specialists and ordinary people. The monograph contains a wealth of material describing dwellings, housekeeping rules, outfits, music, games (fun, round dances), pagan and Christian rituals of our ancestors (wedding, funeral, commemoration, etc., common rituals, such as the meeting of Spring-Red, celebration of Krasnaya Gorka, Ivan Kupala, etc., Christmastide, Shrovetide).

The book was greeted with great interest, but when major flaws were discovered that made Tereshchenko's material questionable, they began to treat it, perhaps more severely than it deserves.

A significant contribution to the study of the life and customs of medieval Russia was made by I.E. Zabelin. It is his books that can be considered the first attempt at addressing a person in history, his inner world. He was the first to speak out against historians' enthusiasm for "loud, thundering wars, defeats, etc.", against reducing history only to "external facts." Already in the middle of the century before last, he complained that they had "forgotten about man," and called for focusing on the everyday life of the people, from which, according to his concept, both religious institutions and political institutions of any society grew. The life of the people was to take the place of "government officials" and "government documents", which, according to Zabelin's description, are "pure paper material, dead."

In his works, the main of which is undoubtedly "The Household Life of the Russian Tsars", he himself created a vivid picture of the Russian everyday life of the 16th-17th centuries. By convictions of a Westerner, he created an accurate and truthful, without idealization and discrediting, image of pre-Petrine Russia.

A contemporary of I.E. Zabelina was his Petersburg colleague Nikolai Ivanovich Kostomarov. The latter's book "An Outline of the Domestic Life and Morals of the Great Russian People in the 16th-17th Centuries" was addressed not only and not so much to the learned public as to a wide range of readers. The historian himself explained in the introduction that the essay form was chosen by him in order to convey historical knowledge to people "immersed in their studies" who have neither the time nor the energy to master the "scholarly" articles and "raw materials" similar to the acts of the Archeographic commission. In general, Kostomarov's work is much easier to read than Zabelin's. The detail in it gives way to fluency and breadth of coverage of the material. There is no heavy scrupulousness in Zabelin's text. Kostomarov pays more attention to the everyday life of the common people.

Thus, a review of the classical historical literature on the topic of research leads us to the conclusion that either major historical processes of the past, or ethnographic details of contemporary folk life, become the object of observation of scientists.

Soviet historiography on the topic of research is represented, for example, by the works of B.A. Romanova, D.S. Likhachev and others.

The book by B.A. Romanov "People and Mores of Ancient Rus: Historical and Everyday Sketches of the XI-XIII Centuries." was written in the late 1930s, when its author, a St. Petersburg historian, archivist and museum expert, accused of participating in a "counter-revolutionary conspiracy", was released after several years of imprisonment. Romanov had the talent of a historian: the ability to see behind dead texts, as he put it, "the patterns of life." And yet, Ancient Russia was not a goal for him, but a means "to collect and put in order his own thoughts about the country and the people." At first, he really tried to recreate the daily life of pre-Mongol Russia, without leaving the circle of canonical sources and traditional methods of working with them. However, "the historian soon realized that this was impossible: such a" historical canvas "would consist of continuous holes."

In the book by D.S. Likhachev "Man in the Literature of Ancient Rus" examines the features of the depiction of the human character in the works of Old Russian literature, with the Russian chronicles becoming the main material of the study. At the same time, the monumental style in the depiction of a person, prevailing in the literature of that time, leaves the details of the life of ordinary Russians beyond the scope of the researcher's attention.

It can be concluded that there is no purposeful study of medieval everyday life in the books of Soviet historians.

Modern research is presented by the works of V.B. Bezgina, L.V. Belovinsky, N.S. Borisova and others.

In the book of N.S. Borisov's "Everyday life of medieval Russia on the eve of the end of the world" 1492 is taken as the main starting point - the year when the end of the world was expected (many ancient prophecies indicated this date for the beginning of the Last Judgment). On the basis of chronicle sources, works of Old Russian literature, testimonies of foreign travelers, the author considers the key moments of the reign of Ivan III, describes some of the features of monastic life, as well as everyday life and customs of the Russian Middle Ages (wedding ceremony, behavior of a married woman, marital relations, divorce). However, the period under study is limited only to the 15th century.

Separately, it is worth highlighting the work of the émigré historian, student of V.O. Klyuchevsky, the Eurasian G.V. Vernadsky. Chapter X of his book "Kievan Rus" is completely devoted to the description of the life of our ancestors. Based on archaeological and ethnographic, as well as folklore and chronicle sources, the author describes dwellings and furniture, clothes, food of different segments of the population, the main rituals associated with the life cycle of a Russian person. Confirming the thesis put forward that "there are many similarities between Kievan Rus and tsarist Russia of the late period", the author of the monograph often draws conclusions about the existence of medieval Russians on the basis of analogies with the way of life and life of Russians at the end of the nineteenth century.

Thus, modern historians pay attention to the history of everyday life in Russia, however, basically the object of research is either tsarist Russia, or the period under study is not fully covered, in part. In addition, it is obvious that none of the scientists uses moral sources as research material.

In general, we can conclude that at present no scientific research has been undertaken in which the study of the history of everyday life in medieval Russia would be carried out on the basis of an analysis of the texts of moralizing sources.

Purpose of the study: on the material of medieval moral sources to analyze the everyday life of a medieval person.

Research objectives:

Trace the origin and development of such a direction as the "history of everyday life", highlight the main approaches.

Analyze the historical literature on the topic of research and the texts of moralizing sources and highlight the main areas of everyday life: wedding, funeral, food, holidays and entertainment and the role and place of women in medieval society.

Working methods... The course work is based on the principle of historicism, reliability, objectivity. Among the scientific and specific historical methods are used: analysis, synthesis, typology, classification, systematization, as well as problem-chronological, historical-genetic, comparative-historical methods.

The historical and anthropological approach to the study of the topic involves, first, fixing attention on micro-objects in order to give their detailed description; secondly, a shift in emphasis from the general to the particular, individual. Thirdly, the key concept for historical anthropology is "culture" (not "society" or "state"), respectively, an attempt will be made to comprehend its meaning, to decipher a certain cultural code underlying the words and actions of people. It is from here that an increased interest in the language and concepts of the era under study, in the symbolism of everyday life: rituals, the manner of dressing, eating, communicating with each other, etc. The main tool for studying the chosen culture is interpretation, that is, "such a multi-layered description, when everything, even the smallest details gleaned from sources, add up like pieces of smalt, forming a complete picture."

Characteristics of sources... Our research is based on a complex of historical sources.

Moral literature is a kind of spiritual writing that has a practical, religious and moral purpose associated with edification in useful rules, instruction in everyday affairs, teaching in life wisdom, conviction of sins and vices, etc. In accordance with this, moralizing literature is as close as possible to real life situations. This finds its expression in such genres of moralizing literature as "Words", "Teachings", "Epistles", "Instructions", "Utterances", etc.

Over time, the nature of moralizing literature changed: from simple moral sayings, it evolved to moralizing treatises. By the XV-XVI centuries. in the Words and Epistles, the author's position is more and more visible, which is based on a certain philosophical foundation.

Morality is distinguished by a peculiar property associated with the peculiarities of Old Russian consciousness: maxims, maxims, proverbs, teachings are built on the basis of a sharp opposition of opposing moral concepts: good versus evil, love versus hate, truth versus lies, happiness versus unhappiness, wealth versus poverty, etc. ... The teaching literature of Ancient Rus was a peculiar form of moral experience.

As a literary genre, moral literature, on the one hand, comes from the Old Testament wisdom, the Proverbs of Solomon, the Wisdom of Jesus the son of Sirach, the Gospel; on the other, from Greek philosophy in the form of short sayings with a pronounced ethical orientation.

In terms of the degree of use and prevalence in the Middle Ages and earlier in the New Age, moralizing literature ranked second, following immediately after liturgical literature. In addition to the author's works of independent significance with a moral and edifying orientation, didactic collections of the 11th-17th centuries, created by collective or unknown authors, had a significant distribution and influence on the formation of the national character and originality of spiritual culture.

Their common features (in addition to anonymity) are theocentrism, the handwritten nature of existence and distribution, tradition, etiquette, the abstract-generalized nature of moral teachings. Even those of the collections that were translated, were certainly supplemented by original Russian material, reflecting the worldview of the compiler and customers.

In our opinion, it is the moralizing texts, on the one hand, that set moral standards, they manifest the ideal ideas of the people about how to behave, how to live, how to act in a given situation, on the other hand, real existing traditions are reflected and customs, signs of everyday life of different strata of medieval society. It is these features that make moralizing sources an indispensable material for the study of the history of everyday life.

The following were selected as moral sources for the analysis:

Collection 1076;

"A Word about Hops" by Kirill, the Slovenian philosopher;

"The Tale of Akira the Wise";

"The Wisdom of the Wise Menander";

"Righteous measure";

"A Word about Wicked Wives";

"Domostroy";

"The Nazi".

"Izbornik 1076" is one of the oldest dated manuscripts of religious and ideological content, a monument to the so-called moral philosophy. The prevailing opinion that the Izbornik was compiled by order of the Kiev prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich seems to most scholars to be unfounded. The scribe John, who copied the Bulgarian collection for Prince Izyaslav, may have made the manuscript in question for himself, although he used materials from the prince's library for it. The Izbornik includes brief interpretations of St. Scriptures, articles about prayer, about fasting, about reading books, "Teachings to Children" by Xenophon and Theodora.

"The Word about Hops" by Cyril, the Slovenian philosopher, is directed against drunkenness. One of the earliest copies of the work dates back to the 70s. XV century and made by the hand of the monk of the Cyril-Belozersky Monastery Euphrosin. The text of the Lay is interesting not only for its content, but also for its form: it is written in rhythmic prose, passing in places into rhymed speech.

"The Tale of Akira the Wise" is an old Russian translated story. The first original of the story took shape in Assyro-Babylonia in the 7th-5th centuries. BC. The Russian translation goes back to either the Syrian or the Armenian prototype and, possibly, was carried out already in the XI-XII centuries. The story tells the story of Akir, a wise adviser to the Assyrian king Synagrippa, slandered by his nephew, saved from execution by a friend and thanks to his wisdom saved the country from a humiliating tribute to the Egyptian pharaoh.

"The Wisdom of the Wise Menander" - collections of short sayings (monostikhs), selected from the works of the famous ancient Greek playwright Menander (about 343 - about 291). The time of their Slavic translation and the appearance in Russia cannot be precisely determined, but the nature of the relationship between the texts in the older lists allows us to consider the date of translation of the XIV or even the XIII century. The themes of the sayings are varied: they are the glorification of kindness, temperance, intelligence, hard work, generosity, condemnation of insidious, envious, deceitful, stingy people, themes of family life and the glorification of "good wives", etc.

"The Bee" is a translated collection of sayings and short historical anecdotes (that is, short stories about the actions of famous people), known in the ancient Russian book literature. It comes in three varieties. The most widespread one contains 71 chapters; it was translated no later than the XII-XIII centuries. From the titles of the chapters ("On Wisdom", "On Teaching and Conversation", "On Wealth and Poverty," etc.), it is clear that the sayings were selected according to topics and mainly concerned issues of morality, norms of behavior, Christian piety.

"Righteous Measure", a legal collection of Ancient Rus, created in the XII-XIII centuries, as a guide for judges. Preserved in manuscripts of the XIV-XVI centuries. Consists of two parts. The first part contains original and translated "words" and teachings about righteous and unrighteous courts and judges; in the second - the church and secular laws of Byzantium, borrowed from the Kormchas, as well as the most ancient monuments of Slavic and Russian law: "Russian truth", "Judgment law by people", "The rule is lawful about church people."

"The Word about Evil Wives" is a complex of interrelated works on one topic, which are widespread in ancient Russian manuscript collections. The texts of the "word" are mobile, which allowed the scribes to both separate them and combine them, to supplement them with extracts of sayings from the Proverbs of Solomon, excerpts from the Bee, from the "Word" of Daniel the Imprisoned. They are found in the Old Russian literary tradition since the 11th century; they are part of the Izbornik 1073, Zlatostruy, Prologue, Izmaragd, and numerous collections. Among the texts with which the Old Russian scribes replenished their writings "about evil wives", attention is drawn to peculiar "worldly parables" - small narratives (about a husband crying ο an evil wife; ο selling children from an evil wife; ο an old woman looking in a mirror ; o marrying a rich widow; o husband pretending to be sick; o whipping his first wife and asking for another; o husband, who was called to the spectacle of monkey games, etc.). The text of the Word "About Evil Wives" is published according to the list of "Zlata Matica", dated by watermarks in the second half of the 70s - the beginning of the 80s. XV century

"Domostroy", that is, "home arrangement", is a literary and publicistic monument of the 16th century. This is a code of norms for the religious and social behavior of a person, broken down into chapters, the rules for the upbringing and life of a wealthy city dweller, a set of rules that every citizen was supposed to follow. The narrative element in it is subordinated to edifying purposes, each position is argued here by references to the texts of Scripture. But it differs from other medieval monuments in that the sayings of folk wisdom are cited to prove the truth of this or that position. Compiled by a well-known figure from Ivan the Terrible's inner circle, Archpriest Sylvester, Domostroy is not only an essay of a moralizing and family-like type, but also a kind of collection of socio-economic norms of civil life in Russian society.

"Naziatel" goes back through the Polish medium to the Latin work of Peter Crescence and is dated XVI century. The book provides practical advice on choosing a place for a house, describes the subtleties of preparing building materials, growing field, garden, vegetable crops, cultivating arable land, vegetable garden, orchard, vineyard, contains some medical advice, etc.

The work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion, a list of sources and literature.

Chapter 1. The origin and development of the direction of the history of everyday life in Western and Russian historical science

The history of everyday life today is a very popular area of ​​historical and humanitarian knowledge in general. As a separate branch of historical knowledge, it was designated relatively recently. Although the main plots of the history of everyday life, such as everyday life, clothing, work, rest, customs, have been studied in some aspects for a long time, at present there is an unprecedented interest in the problems of everyday life in historical science. Everyday life is the subject of a whole range of scientific disciplines: sociology, psychology, psychiatry, linguistics, art theory, literary theory and, finally, philosophy. This theme often dominates philosophical treatises and scientific studies, the authors of which refer to certain aspects of life, history, culture and politics.

Everyday history- a branch of historical knowledge, the subject of which is the sphere of human everyday life in its historical, cultural, political, eventual, ethnic and confessional contexts. The focus of attention is the history of everyday life, according to the modern researcher N.L. Pushkareva, a reality that is interpreted by people and has subjective significance for them as an integral life world, a comprehensive study of this reality (life world) of people of different social strata, their behavior and emotional reactions to events.

The history of everyday life was born in the middle of the 19th century, and as an independent branch of the study of the past in the humanities arose in the late 60s. XX century. During these years, there was an interest in research related to the study of man, and in this regard, German scientists were the first to begin to study the history of everyday life. The slogan sounded: "From the study of state policy and the analysis of global social structures and processes, let us turn to small worlds of life, to the everyday life of ordinary people." The direction "history of everyday life" or "history from below" emerged.

It can also be noted that the surge of interest in the study of everyday life coincided with the so-called "anthropological revolution" in philosophy. M. Weber, E. Husserl, S. Kierkegaard, F. Nietzsche, M. Heidegger, A. Schopenhauer and others proved that it is impossible to describe many phenomena of the human world and nature, while remaining on the positions of classical rationalism. For the first time, philosophers drew attention to the internal relationships between various spheres of human life, which ensure the development of society, its integrity and uniqueness at every time stage. Hence, studies of the diversity of consciousness, internal experience of experiences, various forms of everyday life are gaining in importance.

We are interested in what was understood and understood by everyday life and how scientists interpret it?

For this, it makes sense to name the most prominent German historians of everyday life. Historian-sociologist Norbert Elias is considered a classic in this area with his works "On the Concept of Everyday Life", "On the Process of Civilization", "Court Society". N. Elias says that in the process of life a person absorbs social norms of behavior, thinking and as a result they become the mental image of his personality, as well as that as a form of human behavior changes in the course of social development.

Elias also tried to define "the history of everyday life". He noted that there is no precise, clear definition of everyday life, but he tried to give a definite concept through the opposition of non-everyday life. To do this, he compiled lists of some of the uses of this concept that are found in the scientific literature. The result of his work was the conclusion that in the early 80s. the history of everyday life is so far "neither fish nor meat." ...

Another scientist working in this direction was Edmund Husserl, a philosopher who formed a new attitude towards the "ordinary". He became the founder of the phenomenological and hermeneutic approaches to the study of everyday life and was the first to draw attention to the importance of the "sphere of human everyday life", everyday life, which he called "the world of life." It was his approach that was the impetus for scientists in other areas of the humanities to study the problem of defining everyday life.

Among the followers of Husserl, one can pay attention to Alfred Schutz, who suggested focusing on the analysis of the "world of human immediacy", that is, on those feelings, fantasies, desires, doubts and reactions to immediate private events.

From the point of view of social feminology, Schutz defines everyday life as "a sphere of human experience, characterized by a special form of perception and understanding of the world, arising from labor activity, which has a number of characteristics, including confidence in the objectivity and self-evidence of the world and social interactions, which, in fact, and there is a natural setting. "

Thus, the followers of social feminology come to the conclusion that everyday life is that sphere of human experience, orientations and actions, thanks to which a person realizes plans, deeds and interests.

The next step towards separating everyday life into a branch of science was the emergence of modernist sociological concepts in the 60s of the XX century. For example, the theories of P. Berger and T. Luckmann. The peculiarity of their views was that they called for the study of "meeting people face to face", believing that such meetings "(social interactions) are" the main content of everyday life. "

Later, within the framework of sociology, other theories began to appear, the authors of which tried to give an analysis of everyday life. Thus, this led to its transformation into an independent direction in the sciences of society. This change, of course, was reflected in the historical sciences.

Representatives of the "Annals" school - Mark Blok, Lucien Fevre and Fernand Braudel - made a huge contribution to the study of everyday life. "Annals" in the 30s. XX century. turned to the study of the human worker, the subject of their study is the "history of the masses" as opposed to the "history of the stars", a history visible not "from above" but "from below." According to N.L. Pushkareva, they proposed to see in the reconstruction of the "everyday" element of the reconstruction of history and its integrity. They studied the peculiarities of consciousness not of outstanding historical personalities, but of the mass "silent majority" and its influence on the development of history and society. Representatives of this trend studied the mentality of ordinary people, their experiences, and the material side of everyday life. AND I. Gurevich noted that this task was successfully carried out by their supporters and successors, grouped around the journal "Annals" created in the 1950s. The history of everyday life appeared in their works as part of macrocontext life of the past.

The representative of this trend, Mark Blok turns to the history of culture, social psychology and studies it, proceeding not from the analysis of the thought of individual individuals, but in directly mass manifestations. The historian's focus is on the person. Blok is in a hurry to clarify: "not a person, but people - people organized into classes, social groups. Blok's field of vision is typical, predominantly mass phenomena, in which repetition can be found."

One of Blok's main ideas was that the study of a historian begins not with collecting material, but with posing the problem and asking questions to the source. He believed that "the historian, by analyzing the terminology and vocabulary of the surviving written sources, is able to make these monuments say much more."

The French historian Fernand Braudel studied the problem of everyday life. He wrote that it is possible to know everyday life through material life - "these are people and things, things and people." The only way to experience the everyday existence of a person is to study things - food, dwellings, clothes, luxury goods, tools, money, plans of villages and cities - in short, everything that serves a person.

Continuing the "Braudel line" French historians of the second generation of the School of "Annals" scrupulously studied the relationship between the way of life of people and their mentality, everyday social psychology. The use of the Braudel approach in the historiography of a number of Central European countries (Poland, Hungary, Austria), which began in the mid - second half of the 70s, was interpreted as an integrative method of understanding a person in history and the "spirit of the times." According to N.L. Pushkareva, it received the greatest recognition from medievalists and specialists in the history of the early modern period and to a lesser extent is practiced by specialists studying the recent past or present.

Another approach to understanding the history of everyday life arose and still prevails in German and Italian historiography.

In the face of the German history of everyday life, an attempt was made for the first time to define the history of everyday life as a kind of new research program. This is evidenced by the book "History of Everyday Life. Reconstruction of Historical Experience and Way of Life" published in Germany in the late 1980s.

According to S.V. Obolenskaya, German researchers called for the study of "microhistories" of ordinary, ordinary, invisible people. They believed that a detailed description of all the poor and disadvantaged, as well as their emotional experiences, was important. For example, one of the most common research topics is the life of workers and the labor movement, as well as working families.

An extensive part of the history of everyday life is the study of the everyday life of women. In Germany, many works are published on the women's issue, women's labor, the role of women in public life in different historical epochs. A research center on women's issues has been established here. Particular attention is paid to the life of women in the post-war period.

In addition to the German "historians of everyday life", a number of researchers in Italy were inclined to interpret it as a synonym for "microhistory". In the 1970s, a small group of such scientists (K. Ginzburg, D. Levy, and others) rallied around the journal they had created, starting the publication of the scientific series Microhistory. These scientists made science not only common, but also the only, accidental and particular in history worthy of attention, be it an individual, an event or an incident. The study of the random - argued by the proponents of the microhistorical approach - should be the starting point for work to recreate the multiple and flexible social identities that arise and break down in the course of the functioning of the network of relationships (competition, solidarity, unification, etc.). In doing so, they sought to understand the relationship between individual rationality and collective identity.

The German-Italian school of microhistors expanded in the 1980s and 1990s. It was supplemented by American researchers of the past, who a little later joined the study of the history of mentalities and unraveling the symbols and meanings of everyday life.

Common to the two approaches in the study of the history of everyday life - both outlined by F. Braudel and microhistorians - was a new understanding of the past as a "history from below" or "from within", which gave a voice to the "little man", a victim of modernization processes: both the unusual and the most ordinary ... The two approaches in the study of everyday life are also united by the connection with other sciences (sociology, psychology and ethnology). They equally contributed to the recognition that the person of the past is not like the person of today, they equally recognize that the study of this “dissimilarity” is the way to comprehend the mechanism of sociopsychological changes. In world science, both understandings of the history of everyday life continue to coexist - both as reconstructing the mental macro-context of event history, and as the implementation of the methods of microhistorical analysis.

In the late 80s - early 90s of the XX century, following the Western and Russian historical science, there is a surge of interest in everyday life. The first works appear where everyday life is mentioned. A series of articles is being published in the almanac "Odysseus", where an attempt is made to theoretically comprehend everyday life. These are articles by G.S. Knabe, A. Ya. Gurevich, G.I. Zvereva.

A significant contribution to the development of the history of everyday life was made by N.L. Pushkarev. The main result of Pushkareva's research work is the recognition of the direction of gender studies and the history of women (historical feminology) in the national humanitarian knowledge.

Most of the works written by Pushkareva N.L. books and articles devoted to the history of women in Russia and Europe. By the Association of American Slavists book by Pushkareva N.L. recommended as a textbook in US universities. The works of N.L. Pushkareva have a high citation index among historians, sociologists, psychologists, and culturologists.

The works of this researcher revealed and comprehensively analyzed a wide range of problems of the "history of women" both in pre-Petrine Russia (X-XVII centuries) and in Russia in the XVIII-early XIX centuries.

N.L. Pushkareva pays direct attention to the study of issues of private life and everyday life of representatives of various classes of Russian society in the 18th - early 19th centuries, including the nobility. She established, along with the universal features of the "female ethos," specific differences, for example, in the upbringing and way of life of provincial and metropolitan noblewomen. Attaching special importance to the ratio of the "general" and "individual" in the study of the emotional world of Russian women, N.L. Pushkareva stresses the importance of the transition "to the study of private life as the history of specific individuals, sometimes not at all eminent and not exceptional. This approach makes it possible to" get to know "them through literature, office documents, and correspondence.

The last decade has shown the growing interest of Russian historians in everyday history. The main directions of scientific research are formed, well-known sources are analyzed from a new angle, new documents are introduced into scientific circulation. According to M.M. Kroma, in Russia the history of everyday life is now experiencing a real boom. An example is the series "Living History. Everyday Life of Mankind" published by the Molodaya Gvardiya publishing house. Along with translated works in this series, books by A.I. Begunova, E.V. Romanenko, E.V. Lavrentieva, S.D. Okhlyabinin and other Russian authors. Many studies are based on memoirs and archival sources, they describe in detail the life and customs of the heroes of the story.

Entering a fundamentally new scientific level in the study of the everyday history of Russia, which has long been in demand by researchers and readers, is associated with the intensification of work on the preparation and publication of documentary collections, memoirs, reprinting previously published works with detailed scientific commentaries and reference apparatus.

Today we can talk about the formation of certain directions in the study of the everyday history of Russia - this is the study of the everyday life of the period of the empire (XVIII - early XX centuries), the Russian nobility, peasants, townspeople, officers, students, the clergy, etc.

In the 1990s - early 2000s. the scientific problem "everyday Russia" is gradually being mastered by historians of universities, who began to use new knowledge in the process of teaching historical disciplines. Historians of Moscow State University M.V. Lomonosov even prepared a textbook "Russian everyday life: from the origins to the middle of the XIX century", which, according to the authors, "allows you to supplement, expand and deepen knowledge about the real life of people in Russia." Sections 4-5 of this edition are devoted to the everyday life of Russian society in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. and cover a fairly wide range of issues of almost all segments of the population: from the urban lower classes to the secular society of the empire. One cannot but agree with the recommendation of the authors to use this edition as an addition to the existing textbooks, which will expand the understanding of the world of Russian life.

The prospects for studying the historical past of Russia from the perspective of everyday life are obvious and promising. This is evidenced by the research activity of historians, philologists, sociologists, culturologists, ethnologists. By virtue of its "global responsiveness", everyday life is recognized as a sphere of interdisciplinary research, but at the same time it requires methodological precision in approaches to the problem. As culturologist I.A. Mankevich, "in the space of everyday life," the lines of life "of all spheres of human existence converge ..., everyday life is" our everything interspersed with not ours at all ... ".

Thus, I would like to emphasize that in the 21st century everyone has already recognized that the history of everyday life has become a noticeable and promising trend in historical science. Today, the history of everyday life is no longer called, as it was before, "history from below," and is separated from the works of non-professionals. Its task is to analyze the life world of ordinary people, to study the history of everyday behavior and everyday experiences. The history of everyday life is primarily interested in recurring events, the history of experience and observations, experiences and lifestyle. This is a story reconstructed "from below" and "from within", from the side of the person himself. Everyday life is the world of all people, which explores not only material culture, food, housing, clothing, but also everyday behavior, thinking and experiences. A special microhistorical direction of "the history of everyday life" is developing, concentrating on single societies, villages, families, and autobiographies. Of interest are small people, men and women, their encounters with significant events such as industrialization, the formation of a state or a revolution. Historians have outlined the subject area of ​​a person's everyday life, pointed out the methodological significance of his research, since the evolution of everyday life reflects the development of civilization as a whole. Studies of everyday life help to identify not only the objective sphere of human being, but also the sphere of his subjectivity. A picture emerges of how the way of life determines the actions of people that affect the course of history.

Chapter 2. Everyday life and customs of medieval Russia

It seems logical to organize the study of the daily life of our ancestors in accordance with the main milestones of the human life cycle. The cycle of human life is eternal in the sense in which it is predetermined by nature. A person is born, grows up, marries or gets married, gives birth to children and dies. It is only natural that he would like to properly mark the milestones of this cycle. In our days of urbanized and mechanized civilization, the rituals related to each link in the life cycle are reduced to a minimum. This was not the case in antiquity, especially in the era of the tribal organization of society, when the main milestones in the life of the individual were considered part of the life of the clan. According to G.V. Vernadsky, the ancient Slavs, like other tribes, marked the milestones of the life cycle with complex rituals reflected in folklore. Immediately after the adoption of Christianity, the Church took over the organization of some ancient rituals and introduced its own new rituals, such as the rite of baptism and the celebration of the name day in honor of the patron saint of every man or woman.

Based on this, several spheres of everyday life of a resident of Medieval Russia and related events, such as love, weddings, funerals, meals, festivities and entertainment, were identified for analysis. We also found it interesting to explore the attitude of our ancestors to alcohol and women.

2.1 Wedding

Wedding customs in the era of paganism were celebrated among different tribes. From Radmichi, Vyatichi and northerners, the groom was supposed to kidnap the bride. In other tribes, it was considered normal to pay the ransom for the clan. This custom probably developed out of the kidnapping ransom. In the end, the explicit payment was replaced by a gift to the bride from the groom or her parents (veno). Among the glades, there was a custom that required parents or their representatives to bring the bride to the groom's house, and her dowry was to be delivered the next morning. Traces of all these ancient rituals can be clearly discerned in Russian folklore, especially in wedding ceremonies of even later times.

After the conversion of Russia to Christianity, the engagement and wedding were sanctioned by the Church. However, at first, only the prince and the boyars cared about the church blessing. The bulk of the population, especially in rural areas, was content with the recognition of marriage by the respective clans and communities. Cases of evasion of weddings in the church by ordinary people were frequent until the 15th century.

According to Byzantine legislation (Ekloga and Prokeiron), in accordance with the customs of the peoples of the south, the lowest age requirements for future married couples were established. The 8th century eclogue allows men to marry at the age of fifteen and women at the age of thirteen. In the 9th century Prokeiron, these requirements are even lower: fourteen years for the groom and twelve for the bride. It is known that Ekloga and Prokeiron existed in a Slavic translation and the legality of both manuals was recognized by Russian "lawyers". In medieval Russia, even the Sami low age requirements of Prokeiron were not always respected, especially in princely families, where marriages, most often, were concluded for diplomatic reasons. There is at least one known case when a prince's son got married at the age of eleven, and Vsevolod III gave his daughter Verkhuslav as a wife to Prince Rostislav when she was only eight years old. When the bride's parents saw her off, "they both cried because their beloved daughter was so young."

In medieval moral sources, there are two points of view on marriage. Don of them - the attitude towards marriage as a sacrament, a sacrament, is expressed in Izbornik 1076. "Woe to the fornicator, for he profanes the bridegroom's clothes: let him be expelled from the kingdom of marriage with shame," instructs Isychius, the presbyter of Jerusalem.

Jesus, the son of the Sirachs, writes: "Give your daughter in marriage - and you will do a great deed, but only give her to a wise husband."

We see that in the opinion of these church fathers, marriage, marriage, is called "kingdom", "great work", but with reservations. The groom's clothes are sacred, but only a worthy person can enter the "kingdom of marriage". Marriage can become a "great thing" only if a "wise man" marries.

Sage Menander, on the other hand, sees only evil in marriage: "From marriage to everyone there is great bitterness", "Having decided to marry, ask a neighbor who is already married", "Do not marry, and you will never have anything bad."

In "Domostroy" it is indicated that prudent parents in advance, from the birth of their daughter, began to prepare to marry her with a good dowry: "If a daughter is born to someone, a prudent father<…>from any profit he puts aside for his daughter<…>: either the animal is raised to her with offspring, or from her share, whatever God will send, he will buy canvases and canvases, and pieces of fabric, and trimmings, and a shirt - and all these years they put her in a special chest or put in a box and dress and hats , and monista, and church utensils, and pewter and copper and wood dishes, always adding a little, every year ... ".

According to Sylvester, who is credited with the authorship of "Domostroi", this approach allowed not "at a loss" to gradually collect a good dowry, "and everything, God willing, will be full." In the event of a girl's death, it was customary to commemorate "her dowry, her magpie liked her, and they give out alms."

In "Domostroy" the wedding ceremony itself is described in detail, or, as it was then called, the "wedding rite".

The wedding procedure was preceded by a conspiracy: the groom with his father or older brother came to his father-in-law in the courtyard, the guests were brought "the best wines in cups", then "after the blessing with the cross, they will speak and write contractual notes and an ordinary letter, agreeing on how much for the contract and what dowry ", after which," after securing everything with a signature, everyone takes a cup of honey, congratulates each other and changes letters. " Thus, the collusion was a business as usual.

At the same time, gifts were presented: the son-in-law's father-in-law gave "the first blessing ~ an image, a cup or a ladle, velvet, damask, forty sables." Then they walked to the half of the bride's mother, where "the mother-in-law asks the groom's father about his health and kisses through the handkerchief with him and the groom, and with everyone the same."

The next day, the groom's mother comes to see the bride, "here she is presented with damask and sables, and she will give the bride a ring."

The wedding day was appointed, the guests were "painted", the groom chose the roles for them: the planted father and mother, the invited boyars and boyars, the tysyatsky and the traveler, boyfriends, matchmakers.

On the day of the wedding itself, a friend and a squad came in gold, a bed was brought for him "in a sleigh with a front end, and in the summer - a headboard to the bed, covered with a blanket. And in the sleigh there are two gray horses, and near the sleigh boyar servants in smart dress, on the bed will become the elder in gold, holding the holy image. " A matchmaker rode behind the bed, her attire was prescribed by custom: "a yellow summer man, a red fur coat, and also in a scarf and in a beaver mantle. And if it will be in winter - so in a fur hat."

From this episode alone, it is clear that the wedding ceremony was strictly regulated by tradition, all other episodes of this ceremony (preparation of the bed, arrival of the groom, wedding, "resting" and "cognition", etc.) were also strictly performed in accordance with the canon.

Thus, the wedding was an important event in the life of a medieval person, and the attitude towards this event, judging by the moralizing sources, was ambiguous. On the one hand, the sacrament of marriage was exalted, on the other, the imperfection of human relations was reflected in an ironic negative attitude towards marriage (an example of this is the statements of the "wise Menander"). In fact, we are talking about two types of marriages: happy and unhappy marriage. It is generally accepted that a happy marriage is a love marriage. In this regard, it seems interesting to consider how the issue of love is reflected in moral sources.

Love (in the modern sense) as love between a man and a woman; "the basis of marriage, judging by the moralizing sources, did not exist in the minds of medieval authors. Indeed, marriages were committed not out of love, but by the will of the parents. Therefore, in case of successful circumstances, for example, if a" good "wife was caught, the sages advise to appreciate and cherish this gift, otherwise - humble yourself and be on guard: "Do not leave your wife wise and kind: her virtue is more precious than gold"; "if you have a wife to your liking, do not drive her away, if she hates you, do not trust her." However, the word "love" is practically not used in these contexts (according to the results of the analysis of the texts of the sources, only two such cases were found.) During the "wedding rite" the father-in-law punishes the son-in-law: "By the fate of God, my daughter took the crown with you (name) and you should her and love in a lawful marriage, as the fathers and fathers of our fathers lived. "Noteworthy is the use of the subjunctive mood (" you would favor and love her. ") One of Menander's aphorisms says:" The great bond of love is the birth of a child. "

In other cases, love between a man and a woman is interpreted as evil, a destructive temptation. Jesus, the son of the Sirachs, warns: "Do not look at the virgin, otherwise you will be tempted by her charms." "Avoid carnal and voluptuous deeds ..." - advises Saint Basil. "It is better to disdain voluptuous thoughts" - Hesychius echoes him.

In the "Tale of Akira the Wise," instruction is given to his son: "... do not be seduced by the beauty of a woman and do not long for her in your heart: if you give all the riches to her, and then you will not get any benefit from it, you will only sin more against God."

The word "love" in the pages of moralizing sources of medieval Russia is mainly used in contexts of love for God, Gospel quotes, love for parents, love of others: "... the merciful Lord loves the righteous"; "I recalled the words of the Gospel:" Love your enemies ..., "Strongly love those who gave birth to you"; " Democritus. Wish to be loved during life, and not terrible: for whom everyone fears, he himself is afraid of everyone. "

At the same time, the positive, ennobling role of love is recognized: "He who loves a lot, is a little angry," Menander said.

So, in moral sources, love is interpreted in a positive sense in the context of love for one's neighbor and for the Lord. Love for a woman, according to the analyzed sources, is perceived by the consciousness of a medieval man as a sin, a danger, a temptation of unrighteousness.

Most likely, such an interpretation of this concept is due to the genre originality of the sources (instructions, moralizing prose).

2.2 Funeral

A funeral rite was no less significant rite than a wedding in the life of medieval society. The details of the descriptions of these rituals allow us to reveal the attitude of our ancestors to death.

Funeral rites in pagan times included funeral feasts held at the burial site. A high hill (mound) was poured over the grave of a prince or some outstanding warrior and professional mourners were hired to mourn his death. They continued to fulfill their duties at Christian funerals, however, the form of crying changed according to Christian concepts. Christian funeral rites, like other church services, were, of course, borrowed from Byzantium. John Damascene is the author of the Orthodox panikhida ("funeral" service), and the Slavic translation is worthy of the original. Christian cemeteries were created near churches. The bodies of prominent princes were placed in sarcophagi and placed in the cathedrals of the prince's capital.

Our ancestors perceived death as one of the inevitable links in

chain of births: "Do not seek to have fun in this world: for all the joys

of this world ends in crying. And that cry itself is also vain: today they cry, and tomorrow they feast. "

One must always remember about death: "Let death and exile, and troubles, and all visible misfortunes stand before your eyes at all days and hours."

Death completes a person's earthly life, but for Christians earthly life is only a preparation for the afterlife. Therefore, special respect is given to death: "Child, if there is grief in someone's house, then, leaving them in trouble, do not go to a feast to others, but first visit those who grieve, and then go to feast and remember that you destined for death. " "The Righteous Measure" regulates the norms of behavior at the funeral: "Do not cry loudly, but it is worthy to grieve, do not indulge in sorrow, but do sorrowful deeds."

However, at the same time, in the minds of medieval authors of moralizing literature, there is always the idea that the death or loss of a loved one is not the worst thing that can happen. Much worse is spiritual death: "Weep not over the dead, over the unreasonable: for that is the common path for all, and this one has its own will"; "Weep over the dead - he lost his light, but weep and the fool - left his mind."

The existence of the soul in that future life must be assured by prayer. To ensure that his prayers continue, the rich man usually bequeathed a portion of his property to the monastery. If for some reason he could not do it, then his relatives should take care of it. Then the Christian name of the deceased will be included in the synodikon - a list of names remembered in prayers at each service, or at least on certain days established by the church for the commemoration of the departed. The princely family usually kept their own synodic in the monastery, whose donors were traditionally the princes of this family.

So, death in the minds of medieval authors of moralistic literature is the inevitable end of human life, one must be ready for it, but always remember about it, but for Christians, death is the line of transition to a different, afterlife. Therefore, the sorrow of the funeral rite must be "worthy", and spiritual death is much worse than physical death.

2.3 Nutrition

Analyzing the statements of medieval sages about food, one can, firstly, draw a conclusion about the attitude of our ancestors to this issue, and secondly, find out what specific foods they ate and what dishes they prepared from them.

First of all, we can conclude that moderation, healthy minimalism is preached in the popular consciousness: "From many dishes, an illness arises, and satiety will lead to a torpor; many have died from gluttony - those who remember this will prolong their lives."

On the other hand, the attitude to food is reverent, food is a gift, a blessing sent from above and not to everyone: "When you sit at a plentiful table, remember who eats dry bread and cannot bring water in an illness." "And it will be sweet to eat and drink with gratitude."

The fact that the food was prepared at home and was varied is evidenced by the following entries in "Domostroy": "And I eat meat and fish, and all kinds of pies and pancakes, various cereals and jelly, bake and cook any dishes, - the hostess herself would be able to do everything. so that she could teach her servants what she knows. " The process of cooking and consumption of food was carefully monitored by the owners themselves. Every morning it is recommended that "a husband and wife consult about household chores", plan "when and what food and drink to prepare for guests and for themselves", count the necessary products, after which "the cook should send what should be cooked and the baker, and send the goods for other blanks as well ".

In "Domostroy" it is also detailed in the most detailed way, which products on which days of the year, depending on the church calendar,

to use, there are many recipes for preparing food and drinks.

Reading this document, one can only admire the zeal and thrift of the Russian owners and be surprised at the wealth, abundance and variety of the Russian table.

Bread and meat were the two main foods in the diet of the Russian princes of Kievan Rus. In the south of Russia bread was baked from wheat flour, in the north rye bread was more common.

The most common meats were beef, pork and lamb, as well as geese, chickens, ducks and pigeons. They also ate meat of wild animals and birds. Most often, "Domostroy" mentions hares and swans, as well as cranes, herons, ducks, black grouse, hazel grouses, etc.

The church encouraged the consumption of fish. Wednesdays and Fridays were declared fasting days and, in addition, three fasts were established, including Great Lent. Of course, fish was already in the diet of Russian people before the Baptism of Vladimir, and so was caviar. Domostroy mentions white fish, sterlet, sturgeon, beluga, pike, loach, herring, bream, minnows, crucians and other types of fish.

Lean food included all dishes from cereals with hemp oil, "and flour, and all sorts of pies and pancakes, bakes and juices, and makes rolls and various cereals, and pea noodles, and strained peas, and broths, and kundumtsy, and boiled and sweet cereals and dishes - pies with pancakes and mushrooms, and mushrooms, and mushrooms, and poppy seeds, and porridge, and with turnips, and cabbage, or nuts in sugar or sweet pies with what God sent. "

From legumes, Rusichi grew and actively consumed beans and peas. They also actively ate vegetables (this word meant all fruits and vegetables). Domostroy lists radishes, watermelons, several varieties of apples, berries (blueberries, raspberries, currants, strawberries, lingonberries).

Meat was cooked or fried on a spit, vegetables were eaten boiled or raw. They are also mentioned in the sources of corned beef and stew. The reserves were stored "in a cellar, on a glacier and in a barn." The main type of preservation was pickles, salted "in barrels, and in tubs, and in measuring tanks, and in vats, and in buckets"

They made jam from berries, made fruit drinks, and also prepared levashi (butter pies) and marshmallow.

The author of "Domostroi" devotes several chapters to describing how to properly "feed all sorts of honeys", prepare and store alcoholic beverages. Traditionally, in the era of Kievan Rus, alcohol was not driven. They consumed three types of drinks. Kvass, a non-alcoholic or slightly intoxicated drink, was made from rye bread. It was a bit like beer. Vernadsky points out that it was probably a traditional drink of the Slavs, as it is mentioned in the records of the travel of the Byzantine envoy to the Hun leader Attila at the beginning of the fifth century along with honey. Honey was extremely popular in Kievan Rus. It was cooked and drunk by both laymen and monks. According to the chronicle, Prince Vladimir Krasnoe Solnyshko ordered three hundred cauldrons of honey on the occasion of the opening of the church in Vasilev. In 1146, Prince Izyaslav II discovered five hundred barrels of honey and eighty barrels of wine in the cellars of his rival Svyatoslav 73. Several varieties of honey were known: sweet, dry, with pepper, and so on.

Thus, the analysis of moralizing sources reveals such tendencies in nutrition. On the one hand, moderation is recommended, a reminder that a hungry year may follow a harvest year. On the other hand, studying, for example, "Domostroy", one can draw conclusions about the diversity and richness of Russian cuisine, due to the natural resources of the Russian lands. Compared to modern times, Russian cuisine has not changed much. The basic set of products remained the same, but their variety was significantly reduced.

Some of the didactic statements are devoted to how one should behave at the feast: "At the feast, do not mock your neighbor and do not interfere with him in his joy"; "... at the feast do not recklessly philosophize, be like one who knows, but is silent"; "when they call you to a feast, do not sit in a place of honor, suddenly from among those invited there will be someone more respectable than you, and the owner will come up to you and say:" Give him a place! "- and then you will have to move to the last place with shame" ...

After the introduction of Christianity in Russia, the concept of "holiday" first of all acquires the meaning of "church holiday". In "The Tale of Akira the Wise" it is said: "On a holiday, do not pass by the church."

From the same point of view, the church regulates aspects of the sex life of the parishioners. So, according to "Domostroi", husband and wife were forbidden to cohabit on Saturdays and Sundays, and those who did this were not allowed to go to church.

So, we see that a lot of attention was paid to the holidays in the moralizing literature. They prepared for them in advance, but at the feast modest, respectful behavior and moderation in food were encouraged. The same principle of moderation prevails in moralizing statements "about hops."

In a series of similar works condemning drunkenness, it is widely distributed in ancient Russian manuscript collections "The Word about the Hops of Cyril, the Slovenian Philosopher." It warns readers against addiction to drunken drinking, draws the misfortunes that threaten the drunkard - impoverishment, deprivation of a place in the social hierarchy, loss of health, excommunication. The "Lay" combines the grotesque appeal to the reader of Khmiel himself with the traditional sermon against drunkenness.

Here is how a drunkard is described in this work: "Need-poverty is sitting at home, and diseases are on his shoulders, sadness and grief on his thighs are ringing with hunger, poverty has made a nest in his wallet, evil laziness has become attached to him, like a dear wife , and sleep is like a father, and groaning is like beloved children "; "From drunkenness his legs ache, but his hands tremble, his eyesight fades"; "Drunkenness destroys the beauty of the face"; drunkenness "plunges good and equal people and masters into slavery," "he quarrels with brother, and excommunicates his husband from his wife."

Other didactic sources also condemn drunkenness, calling for moderation. In "The Wisdom of the Wise Menander" it is noted that "wine, drunk in abundance, teaches little"; "The abundance of wine drunk also attracts talkativeness."

The monument "Bee" cites the following historical anecdote attributed to Diogenes: "They gave him a lot of wine at the feast, and he took it and spilled it. When the others began to reprimand him why he was ruining the wine, he answered:" If the wine were not from me perished, I would perish by wine. "

Hesychius, the presbyter of Jerusalem, advises: "Drink honey little by little, and the less, the better: you will not stumble"; "We must refrain from drunkenness, because sobering is followed by groans and repentance."

Jesus, son of the Sirachs, warns: "A drunken worker will not get rich"; "Wine and women will corrupt the reasonable ...". Saint Basil echoes him: "Wine and women seduce even the wise ..."; "Avoid and drunkenness and sorrows of this life, do not speak slyly, never talk about anyone behind your back. "

"When you are invited to a feast, do not get drunk until you are terribly intoxicated ...", the priest Sylvester, the author of Domostroi, instructs his son.

Especially terrible, according to the authors of moral prose, is the effect of hops on a woman: So says Hops: “If my wife, no matter what she is, starts to revel in me, I will make her mad, and she will be bitter than all people.

And I will raise up bodily lusts in her, and will be a laughing stock among: people, but she was excommunicated from God and from the Church of God, so it would be better for her not to be born ";" Yes, always beware of the wife of the drunken husband: - it is bad, but the wife is drunk and not good in the world. "

So, an analysis of the texts of moralizing prose shows that traditionally in Russia drunkenness was condemned, a drunken person was severely condemned by the authors of the texts, and, consequently, by society as a whole.

2.5 The role and place of women in medieval society

Many statements of moralizing texts are devoted to women. Initially, a woman, according to Christian tradition, is perceived as a source of danger, sinful temptation, death: "Wine and women will corrupt the rational, but whoever sticks to harlots will become even more impudent."

Woman is the enemy of the human race, therefore the sages warn: "Do not reveal your soul to a woman, for she will destroy your firmness"; "But most of all a man should refrain from talking with women ..."; "Because of women, many are in trouble"; "Beware of the kiss of a beautiful woman like snake venom."

Whole separate treatises on "good" and "bad" wives appear. In one of them, dating back to the 15th century, the wicked wife is likened to the "eye of the devil", this is "a hellish marketplace, a queen of filth, a voivode of lies, a satanic arrow that strikes the hearts of many."

Among the texts with which the Old Russian scribes replenished their writings "about evil wives", peculiar "worldly parables" - small plot narrations (about a husband crying about an evil wife; about selling children from an evil wife; about an old woman looking in a mirror ; about a man who married a rich widow; about a husband pretending to be sick; about who beat his first wife and asks for another; about a husband who was called to the spectacle of monkey games, etc.). They all condemn a woman as a source of voluptuousness, misfortune for a man.

Women are full of "female slyness", frivolous: "Women's thoughts are unstable, like a temple without a roof", deceitful: "From a woman rarely you will find out the truth "; initially prone to vice and deception: "Girls do bad things without blushing, while others are ashamed, but secretly and do worse."

The initial depravity of a woman is in her beauty, and an ugly wife is also perceived as torment. So, one of the "Bee" anecdotes attributed to Solon says: "This one, asked by someone if he advises to marry, said" No! If you take an ugly woman, you will be tormented, if a beauty, others will also want to admire her. "

"It is better to live in the wilderness with a lion and a snake than with a lying and talkative wife," says Solomon.

Seeing the arguing women, Diogenes says: "Look! The snake asks for poison from the viper!" ...

"Domostroy" regulates the behavior of a woman: she must be a good housewife, keep an eye on the house, be able to cook and take care of her husband, receive guests, please everyone and at the same time not cause complaints. Even the wife goes to church "in consultation with her husband." This is how the norms of behavior of a woman in a public place - at a church service are described: "In church, she does not talk to anyone, stand silently, listen to singing with attention and read the Holy Scriptures, without looking back, do not lean against the wall or a pillar , and do not stand with a staff, do not step from foot to foot; stand, hands folded across the chest in a cross-like manner, unshakably and firmly, lowering bodily eyes down, and heart-to-heart - to God; pray to God with fear and trembling, with sighs and tears. leave the church until the end of the service, come to the very beginning of it "