The vital activity of the body is based on the process of automatically maintaining vital factors at the required level, any deviation from which leads to the immediate mobilization of a mechanism that restores this level (homeostasis).

Homeostasis is a set of reactions that ensure the maintenance or restoration of the relatively dynamic constancy of the internal environment and certain physiological functions of the human body (blood circulation, metabolism, thermoregulation, etc.). Next, let's look at the structure of the human body.

An organism is a single, holistic, complex, self-regulating living system consisting of organs and tissues. Organs are built from tissues; tissues consist of cells and intercellular substance.

The skeletal system and its functions. It is customary to distinguish the following physiological systems of organisms: skeletal (human skeleton), muscular, circulatory, respiratory, digestive, nervous, blood system, endocrine glands, analyzers, etc.

The rib cage is formed by 12 thoracic vertebrae, 12 pairs of ribs and the breastbone (breastbone), and protects the heart, lungs, liver and part of the digestive tract; The volume of the chest can change during breathing with contraction of the intercostal muscles and diaphragm.

The skull protects the brain and sensory centers from external influences. It consists of 20 paired and unpaired bones, connected to each other motionlessly, except for the lower jaw. The skull is connected to the spine by two condyles of the occipital bone with the upper cervical vertebra having corresponding articular surfaces.

The skeleton of the upper limb is formed by the shoulder girdle, consisting of 2 shoulder blades and 2 clavicles, and the free upper limb, including the shoulder, forearm and hand. The shoulder is 1 humerus bone; the forearm is formed by the radius and ulna bones; the skeleton of the hand is divided into the wrist (8 bones arranged in 2 rows), metacarpus (5 short tubular bones) and phalanges of the fingers (14 phalanges).

The skeleton of the lower limb is formed by the pelvic girdle (2 pelvic bones and the sacrum) and the skeleton of the free lower limb, which consists of 3 main sections - the thigh (1 femur), the tibia (tibia and fibula) and the foot (tarsus-7 bones, metatarsus -5 bones and 14 phalanges).

All bones of the skeleton are connected through joints, ligaments and tendons.

Joints are movable joints, the area of ​​​​contact of the bones in which is covered with an articular capsule made of dense connective tissue, fused with the periosteum of the articulating bones. The cavity of the joints is hermetically sealed; it has a small volume, depending on the shape and size of the joints.

The muscular system and its function. There are 2 types of muscles: smooth (involuntary) and striated (voluntary). Smooth muscles are located in the walls of blood vessels and some internal organs. They constrict or dilate blood vessels, move food along the gastrointestinal tract, and contract the walls of the bladder. Striated muscles are all skeletal muscles that provide a variety of body movements. The striated muscles also include the cardiac muscle, which automatically ensures the rhythmic functioning of the heart throughout life. The basis of muscles is proteins, making up 80-85% of muscle tissue (excluding water). The main property of muscle tissue is contractility, which is ensured by the contractile muscle proteins actin and myosin.

The muscles of the trunk include the muscles of the chest, back and abdomen.

Receptors and analyzers. Human receptors are divided into two main groups: extero- (external) and intero- (internal) receptors. Each such receptor is an integral part of an analyzing system called an analyzer. The analyzer consists of three sections - the receptor, the conductive part and the central formation in the brain.

The highest department of the analyzer is the cortical department. Let us list the names of the analyzers, the role of which in human life is known to many.

Endocrine system. Endocrine glands, or endocrine glands, produce special biological substances - hormones. The endocrine glands include: thyroid, parathyroid, goiter, adrenal glands, pancreas, pituitary gland, gonads and a number of others.

The natural age-related physical development of a person is the basic basis for his perfection.

From the birth of a person to his biological maturation, about 20–22 years pass. During this long period of time, complex processes of morphological, physical and psychological development occur. The first two processes are combined into the concept of “physical development”.

Physical development is a natural process of formation and change in the morphological and functional properties of the body during the continuation of individual life. The criteria for physical development are mainly the main anthropometric (macromorphological) indicators: body length (height), body mass (weight), girth, perimeter (circumference) of the chest.

Natural physical development is also associated with the age-related dynamics of a number of functional indicators. In this regard, when assessing physical development, the degree to which the development of basic motor qualities (agility, speed, flexibility, strength, endurance) corresponds to average age indicators is most often taken into account.

The dynamics of the physical development of an individual person is closely related to his individual age characteristics, which are influenced to a greater or lesser extent by heredity.

Constantly changing environmental conditions - domestic, educational and labor, environmental, etc. - can have a positive or negative impact on physical development. But it is very important that a number of indicators of a person’s physical development throughout his life can be subject to targeted influence for their significant correction or improvement through active physical exercise.

Age-related changes in body length (height)

Body length differs significantly between men and women. It has a fairly stable hereditary character from parents, although manifestations of heredity from older generations are often observed.

On average, at the age of 18–25 years (earlier in women, later in men), the final ossification of the skeleton occurs and the growth of the body in length is completed. Individual time deviations in this process are often significant. This may be due to temporary or permanent endocrine disorders, various functional loads, living conditions, etc.

The degree and conditions of the influence of heredity on the physical development and functioning of a person.

The entire complex of formation of morphological functional indicators of human physical development is determined by internal factors and external conditions. An essential internal factor is the genetically based program of heredity. However, heredity is not unambiguous in its structure. There are hereditary factors, clearly expressed (sometimes pathological), and factors of “predisposition” of the individual’s body to certain deviations during the normal development of its natural morphological or functional properties. The latter can manifest themselves in a long-term process of formation and life activity only under certain regimes and in specific conditions of influence of the external environment. However, even in this case one cannot talk about the fatality of the manifestation of this heredity.

The tasks and opportunities of physical culture are precisely to increase the body’s resistance to negative factors through regular exercise, targeted selection of physical exercises and the use of other means of physical culture. Thus, it is possible to prevent the manifestation of a negative hereditary predisposition by turning on the body’s compensatory mechanisms.

For example, genetically determined heredity, manifested in a low hemoglobin content in the blood, can be compensated to a certain extent by training the cardiovascular and respiratory systems while providing the body with oxygen. There are many such examples.

Physical culture can solve such problems in the process of physical education independently or together with medical measures through treatment with movements (kinesiotherapy) in therapeutic physical culture (PT).

Let us emphasize once again that not in all cases negative heredity is fatal. You can fight it, including through physical education.

The influence of natural and climatic factors on human life

Climate has a direct and indirect effect on humans. The direct influence is very diverse and is due to the direct effect of climatic factors on the human body and, above all, on the conditions of its heat exchange with the environment: on the blood supply to the skin, respiratory, cardiovascular and sweating systems.

Most of the physical factors of the external environment, in interaction with which the human body has evolved, are of an electromagnetic nature.

Among climatic factors, the short-wave part of the solar spectrum - ultraviolet radiation (UVR) (wavelength 295–400 nm) is of great biological importance.

Temperature is one of the important abiotic factors affecting all physiological functions of all living organisms.

The influence of environmental factors on human life.

All environmental factors affect living organisms differently. Some of them provide them with life, others harm them, and others may be indifferent to them. Environmental factors that influence the body in one way or another are called environmental factors. Based on the origin and nature of the impact, environmental factors are divided into abiotic, biotic and anthropic.

A violation of the natural balance leads to an imbalance in the entire “man - environment” system. Pollution of air, water, soil, food, noise pollution, stressful situations as a result of the accelerated pace of life, negatively affect human health, both physical and mental.

The problem of the relationship between man and nature, harmony between society and the environment has always been relevant. Most gerontologists (scientists who work on the problem of longevity), biologists, ecologists and clinicians believe that the human body can and should function normally for more than 100 years. The health, biological and moral perfection of each person largely depends on the state of the social and natural environment of his life. The complex influence of vital components should form optimal environmental conditions for human existence.

The biological future of humanity depends, first of all, on how much it manages to preserve the basic natural parameters that ensure a full life - a certain gas composition of the atmosphere, the purity of fresh and sea water, soil, flora and fauna, favorable thermal conditions in the biosphere, low background radiation on the ground.

The influence of purely social factors on human life.

Currently, emissions and waste from industrial enterprises and human economic activities often cause irreparable damage to nature and people. Pollution of the atmosphere, soil, groundwater, increased radiation - all this creates harsh conditions for the influence of the external environment on a person, since it does not correspond to the hereditary and acquired properties of the body.

The impact of climate change on human health is not uniform across the world. Populations in developing countries, especially small island states, arid and high-altitude areas, and densely populated coastal areas are considered to be particularly vulnerable.

Sociality is the specific essence of a person, which, however, does not abolish his biological origin. Social factors, to one degree or another, influence the physical development of youth and adult members of society, their views and activity in relation to physical education to ensure their optimal life.

Society is interested in improving the health of its members and must take effective measures to provide the younger generation and representatives of all age groups with adequate conditions for biologically necessary additional physical exercise and various active sports.

Adaptation of the body is the physiological basis of functional and motor improvement of a person.

Adaptation is the adaptation of the senses and the body to new, changed conditions of existence. This is one of the most important features of living systems. There are biological, in particular psychophysiological, adaptation and social adaptation.

Physiological adaptation is a set of physiological reactions that underlie the body’s adaptation to changes in environmental conditions and are aimed at maintaining the relative constancy of its internal environment - homeostasis.”

Thus, adaptation and homeostasis are interacting and interrelated concepts.

The structure of physiological adaptation is dynamic; it is constantly changing. It may include various organs, different physiological and functional systems.

General and local effect of physical activity on the human body.

Each person’s body has certain reserve capabilities to withstand environmental influences.

The overall effect of regular exercise (fitness) is:

Increasing the stability of the central nervous system: at rest, trained individuals have a slightly lower excitability of the nervous system; during work, the possibility of achieving increased excitability increases and the lability of the peripheral nervous system increases;

Positive changes in the musculoskeletal system: the mass and volume of skeletal muscles increases, their blood supply improves, tendons and ligaments of joints are strengthened, etc.;

Economization of the functions of individual organs and blood circulation in general; in improving blood composition, etc.;

Reducing energy consumption at rest: due to the economization of all functions, the total energy consumption of a trained organism is lower than that of an untrained organism by 10–15%;

A significant reduction in the recovery period after physical activity of any intensity.

As a rule, increasing general fitness for physical activity also has a nonspecific effect - increasing the body’s resistance to the effects of unfavorable environmental factors (stressful situations, high and low temperatures, radiation, injuries, hypoxia), to colds and infectious diseases.

The local effect of increasing fitness, which is an integral part of the general one, is associated with an increase in the functional capabilities of individual physiological systems.

Changes in blood composition. Regulation of blood composition depends on a number of factors that can be influenced by a person: good nutrition, exposure to fresh air, regular physical activity, etc. In this context, we consider the effect of physical activity. With regular physical exercise, the number of red blood cells in the blood increases (with short-term intensive work - due to the release of red blood cells from the “blood depots”; with long-term intense exercise - due to increased functions of the hematopoietic organs). The hemoglobin content per unit volume of blood increases, and the oxygen capacity of the blood increases accordingly, which enhances its oxygen transport capacity.

The human body consists of 60% water. Adipose tissue contains 20% water (of its mass), bones - 25, liver - 70, skeletal muscles - 75, blood - 80, brain - 85%. For the normal functioning of an organism that lives in a changing environment, the constancy of the internal environment of the organism is very important. It is created by blood plasma, tissue fluid, lymph, the main part of which is water, proteins and mineral salts. Water and mineral salts do not serve as nutrients or sources of energy.

The exchange of water and electrolytes is essentially a single whole, since biochemical reactions occur in aqueous media, and many colloids are highly hydrated, i.e. connected by physical and chemical bonds with water molecules.

The need for nutrients directly depends on how much energy a person consumes in the course of his life.

When engaging in physical exercise, the body adapts to physical activity. It is based on metabolic changes that occur during muscle activity itself and constitute its molecular mechanism. It should immediately be noted that for adaptation processes both directly in the muscular system and in other organs, repeated use of physical activity is necessary.

Energy exchange. Energy consumption.

The exchange of substances between the body and the external environment is accompanied by an exchange of energy. The most important physiological constant of the human body is the minimum amount of energy that a person spends in a state of complete rest. This constant is called the basal metabolic rate. Its value depends on body weight: the larger it is, the greater the exchange, but this relationship is not straightforward. The body's energy requirement is estimated in kilocalories.

The energy balance in the life of a modern person is very often significantly disrupted. In economically developed countries in recent years.

Performance. Her recovery.

Efficiency is manifested in maintaining a given level of activity for a certain time and is determined by two main groups of factors - external and internal. External - information structure of signals (quantity and form of presentation of information), characteristics of the working environment (convenience of the workplace, lighting, temperature, etc.), relationships in the team. Internal - level of training, fitness, emotional stability. The performance limit is a variable value; its change over time is called the dynamics of performance.

Fatigue. Fatigue.

Fatigue is a physiological state of the body that occurs as a result of excessive mental or physical activity and is manifested by a temporary decrease in performance.

Fatigue is a subjective experience, a feeling that usually reflects fatigue, although sometimes it can occur without actual fatigue.

Hypokinesia. Physical inactivity.

Hypokinesia is a special condition of the body caused by a lack of physical activity. In some cases, this condition leads to physical inactivity.

Hypodynamia (decrease; strength) is a set of negative morphofunctional changes in the body due to prolonged hypokinesia. These are atrophic changes in muscles, general physical detraining, detraining of the cardiovascular system, decreased orthostatic stability, changes in water-salt balance, blood system, demineralization of bones, etc.

Under conditions of physical inactivity, the strength of heart contractions decreases due to a decrease in venous return to the atria, the minute volume, the mass of the heart and its energy potential are reduced, the heart muscle is weakened, and the amount of circulating blood decreases due to its stagnation in the depot and capillaries.

The influence of biorhythms on physiological processes and performance.

Repeatability of processes is one of the signs of life. In this case, the ability of living organisms to sense time is of great importance. With its help, daily, seasonal, annual, lunar and tidal rhythms of physiological processes are established. As research has shown, almost all life processes in a living organism are different.

The rhythms of physiological processes in the body, like any other recurring phenomena, have a wave-like character. The distance between identical positions of two vibrations is called a period or cycle.

Biological rhythms or biorhythms are more or less regular changes in the nature and intensity of biological processes. The ability to make such changes in life activity is inherited and is found in almost all living organisms. They can be observed in individual cells, tissues and organs, in whole organisms and in populations.

The most powerful effect is the rhythmically changing radiation of the Sun. On the surface and in the depths of our star, processes are continuously taking place, manifested in the form of solar flares.

Physical mechanisms of formation and improvement of motor actions.

The central nervous system regulates, controls and improves human motor activity through motor units. A motor unit consists of a motor nerve cell, a nerve fiber, and a group of muscle fibers.

By changing the strength and frequency of bioelectric impulses, processes of excitation and inhibition occur in nerve cells. Excitation is an active state of cells when they transform and transmit electrical impulses to other cells.

The physiological basis for the formation of motor skills is pre-existing or emerging temporary connections between nerve centers (sometimes they say that he (she) has a good motor base). In a number of cases in everyday life, in professional work and, especially, in various sports, so-called motor stereotypes are formed at the level of skills.

Sport. The fundamental difference between sport and other types of physical exercise.

Sport is a generalized concept denoting one of the components of the physical culture of society, historically developed in the form of competitive activity and special practice of preparing a person for competitions.

Sport differs from physical culture in that it has a mandatory competitive component. Both an athlete and an athlete can use the same physical exercises (for example, running) in their classes and training, but at the same time the athlete always compares his achievements in physical improvement with the successes of other athletes in intramural competitions. The athlete’s classes are aimed only at personal improvement regardless of the achievements in this area of ​​others involved. That is why we cannot call the cheerful old man moving along the alleys of the square “jogging” - a mixture of fast walking and slow running - an athlete. This respected person is not an athlete, he is an athlete who uses walking and running. to maintain your health and performance.

Mass sports

Mass sports provide an opportunity for millions of people to improve their physical qualities and motor abilities, improve health and prolong creative longevity, and therefore resist the unwanted effects on the body of modern production and the conditions of everyday life.

The goal of practicing various types of mass sports is to improve health, improve physical development, preparedness and actively relax. This is associated with solving a number of particular problems: increasing the functionality of individual body systems, adjusting physical development and physique, increasing general and professional performance, mastering vital skills, spending pleasant and useful leisure time, achieving physical perfection.

The tasks of mass sports largely repeat the tasks of physical culture, but are implemented through the sports orientation of regular classes and training.

A significant part of young people become involved in the elements of mass sports during their school years, and in some sports even in preschool age. It is mass sports that are most widespread among student groups.

High performance sport

Along with mass sports, there is elite sport, or big sport. The goal of big sport is fundamentally different from the goal of mass sport. This is the achievement of the highest possible sporting results or victories at the largest sporting competitions.

Every highest achievement of an athlete has not only personal significance, but becomes a national asset, since records and victories at major international competitions contribute to strengthening the country’s authority on the world stage. Therefore, it is not surprising that the largest sports forums attract billions of people to television screens around the world, and among other spiritual values, world records, victories at the World Championships, and leadership at the Olympic Games are so highly valued.

To achieve the set goal in big sport, step-by-step plans for multi-year training and corresponding tasks are developed. At each stage of preparation, these tasks determine the required level of achievement of the functional capabilities of athletes, their mastery of techniques and tactics in their chosen sport. All this must be realized in total in a specific sports result.

Unified sports classification. National sports in sports classification.

To compare the level of results achieved both in one sports discipline and between different sports, a unified sports classification is used.

The current sports classification includes almost all sports cultivated in the country. It is very conditional, in a single gradation according to sports ranks and categories, standards and requirements are presented that characterize the level of preparedness of athletes, their sports results and achievements.”

Local effect increasing fitness, which is an integral part of the whole, is associated with an increase in the functional capabilities of individual physiological systems.

Changes in blood composition. Regulation of blood composition depends on a number of factors that can be influenced by a person: good nutrition, exposure to fresh air, regular physical activity, etc. In this context, we consider the effect of physical activity. With regular physical exercise, the number of red blood cells in the blood increases (with short-term intense work - due to the release of red blood cells from the “blood depots”; with long-term intense exercise - due to increased functions of the hematopoietic organs). The hemoglobin content per unit volume of blood increases, and the oxygen capacity of the blood increases accordingly, which enhances its oxygen transport capacity.

At the same time, an increase in the content of leukocytes and their activity is observed in the circulating blood. Special studies have found that regular physical training without overload increases the phagocytic activity of blood components, i.e. increases the body's nonspecific resistance to various unfavorable, especially infectious, factors.

Rice. 4.2

Heart function at rest (according to V.K. Dobrovolsky)

A person's fitness also contributes to better tolerance of the increased concentration of lactic acid in arterial blood during muscular work. In untrained people, the maximum permissible concentration of lactic acid in the blood is 100-150 mg%, and in trained people it can increase to 250 mg%, which indicates their great potential for performing maximum physical activity. All these changes in the blood of a physically trained person are considered beneficial not only for performing intense muscular work, but also for maintaining general active life.

Changes in cardiovascular function

Heart. Before talking about the effect of physical activity on the central organ of the cardiovascular system, we must at least imagine the enormous work that it produces even at rest (see Fig. 4.2). Under the influence of physical activity, the boundaries of its capabilities expand, and it adapts to transfer a much larger amount of blood than the heart of an untrained person can do (see Fig. 4.3). Working with increased load while performing active physical exercises, the heart inevitably trains itself, since in this case, through the coronary vessels, the nutrition of the heart muscle itself improves, its mass increases, and its size and functionality change.

Indicators of heart performance are pulse rate, blood pressure, systolic blood volume, minute blood volume. The simplest and most informative indicator of the cardiovascular system is the pulse.

Pulse - a wave of vibrations propagated along the elastic walls of the arteries as a result of the hydrodynamic impact of a portion of blood ejected

Rice. 4.3. The work of the heart during passage

100 km skier

(according to V.K. Dobrovolsky)

15 liters of blood in 1 minute 100 ml of blood in 1 beat Pulse 150 beats/min

15 liters of blood in 1 min. 150 ml of blood in 1 beat. Pulse 100 beats/min.

Rice. 4.4. Changing the heart rate during a test on a bicycle ergometer at the same intensity provides valuable information about the efficiency of the heart. With the same work, a trained person has a lower heart rate than an untrained person. This indicates that the training led to an increase in the strength of the heart muscle and thereby the stroke volume of blood

(according to R. Hedman)

into the aorta under high pressure during contraction of the left ventricle. The pulse rate corresponds to the heart rate (HR) and averages 60-80 beats/min. Regular physical activity causes a decrease in heart rate at rest due to an increase in the resting (relaxation) phase of the heart muscle (see Fig. 4.4). The maximum heart rate in trained people during physical activity is at the level of 200-220 beats/min. An untrained heart cannot reach such a frequency, which limits its capabilities in stressful situations.

Blood pressure (BP) is created by the force of contraction of the ventricles of the heart and the elasticity of the walls of blood vessels. It is measured in the brachial artery. There are maximum (systolic) pressure, which is created during contraction of the left ventricle (systole), and minimum (diastolic) pressure, which is observed during relaxation of the left ventricle (diastole). Normally, a healthy person aged 18-40 years has a resting blood pressure of 120/80 mmHg. Art. (in women 5-10 mm lower). During physical activity, the maximum pressure can increase to 200 mmHg. Art. and more. After the cessation of the load, it quickly recovers in trained people, but in untrained people it remains elevated for a long time, and if intense work continues, a pathological condition may occur.

Systolic volume at rest, which is largely determined by the force of contraction of the heart muscle, is 50-70 ml in an untrained person, 70-80 ml in a trained person, and with a slower pulse. With intense muscular work, it ranges from 100 to 200 ml or more (depending on age and training). The greatest systolic volume is observed at a pulse from 130 to 180 beats/min, while at a pulse above 180 beats/min it begins to decrease significantly. Therefore, to increase the fitness of the heart and overall endurance of a person, physical activity at a heart rate of 130-180 beats/min is considered the most optimal.

Blood vessels, as already noted, ensure constant movement of blood in the body under the influence of not only the work of the heart, but also the pressure difference in the arteries and veins. This difference increases with increasing activity of movements. Physical work helps to expand blood vessels, reduce the constant tone of their walls, and increase their elasticity.

The movement of blood in the vessels is also facilitated by the alternation of tension and relaxation of actively working skeletal muscles (“muscle pump”). With active motor activity, there is a positive effect on the walls of large arteries, the muscle tissue of which tenses and relaxes with great frequency. During physical activity, the microscopic capillary network, which is only 30-40% active at rest, opens almost completely. All this allows you to significantly speed up blood flow.

So, if at rest the blood completes a complete circulation in 21-22 s, then during physical activity it takes 8 s or less. At the same time, the volume of circulating blood can increase to 40 l/min, which greatly increases blood supply, and therefore the supply of nutrients and oxygen to all cells and tissues of the body.

At the same time, it has been established that prolonged and intense mental work, as well as a state of neuro-emotional stress, can significantly increase the heart rate to 100 beats/min or more. But at the same time, as noted in Chap. 3, the vascular bed does not expand, as happens during physical work, but narrows (!). The tone of the vascular walls also increases, not decreases (!). Even spasms are possible. This reaction is especially characteristic of the vessels of the heart and brain.

Thus, prolonged intense mental work, neuro-emotional states, unbalanced with active movements, with physical activity, can lead to a deterioration in the blood supply to the heart and brain, other vital organs, to a persistent increase in blood pressure, to the formation of “fashionable” among people today. students with a disease - vegetative-vascular dystonia.

Changes in the respiratory system

The work of the respiratory system (together with blood circulation) in gas exchange, which increases with muscular activity, is assessed by respiratory rate, pulmonary ventilation, vital capacity, oxygen consumption, oxygen debt and other indicators. It should be remembered that the body has special mechanisms that automatically control breathing. Even in an unconscious state, the breathing process does not stop. The main regulator of breathing is the respiratory center located in the medulla oblongata.

At rest, breathing occurs rhythmically, with the time ratio of inhalation and exhalation approximately equal to 1:2. When performing work, the frequency and rhythm of breathing may change depending on the rhythm of movement. But in practice, a person’s breathing can vary depending on the situation. At the same time, he can consciously control his breathing to some extent: delay, change in frequency and depth, i.e. change its individual parameters.

The respiratory rate (change of inhalation and exhalation and respiratory pause) at rest is 16-20 cycles. During physical work, the respiratory rate increases on average 2-4 times. With increased breathing, its depth inevitably decreases, and individual indicators of breathing efficiency also change. This is especially clearly seen among trained athletes (see Table 4.1).

It is no coincidence that in competitive practice in cyclic sports, a respiratory rate of 40-80 per minute is observed, which provides the greatest amount of oxygen consumption.

Strength and static exercises are widespread in sports. Their duration is insignificant: from tenths of a second to 1-3 s - a blow in boxing, a final effort in throwing, holding poses in artistic gymnastics, etc.; from 3 to 8 s - barbell, handstand

When considering the training load as a system of formative influences, it was noted that the basis of adaptive changes is the body’s inherent ability of adaptive (selective) response aimed at maintaining homeostasis.

The restoration of dynamic balance in the internal environment of the body and the expansion of its boundaries are most clearly expressed in the dynamics of recovery processes; its heterochronic nature, when a number of ingredients of the physicochemical status are restored over different times. Depending on how the recovery processes proceed and what traces they leave, we distinguish several states of the athlete (V. M. Zatsiorsky, I. T. Ter-Ovanesyan).

• 1. Operational status which changes under the influence of a single application of physical exercise and is transitional (for example, fatigue caused by a single run over a given distance, increased performance after warming up, etc.). Due to the great dynamics during an individual training session, the athlete’s operational state must be known and controlled from the point of view of planning working and recovery intervals (their number, duration, etc.).
• 2. Current state, which changes under the influence of one or more training sessions. It reflects the consequences that arise as a result of participation in competitions, performance of work in a separate lesson, etc. These “traces” can have a positive or negative impact on the athlete. Control over the current state serves as the basis for planning in microcycles (the magnitude and nature of training loads in close training sessions, for example a weekly cycle, etc.).
• 3. Permanent condition which persists for a long time - weeks and months and is characterized by stable indicators of general and special performance. These are different phases in the development of sports form (overwork or insufficient training, etc.), which are the result of longer adaptive changes in the structure and functions of the body.

The need for a differentiated approach to the athlete’s condition is determined by the phase structure of the adaptation process and the corresponding specific means of diagnosing it.

More important from the point of view of training goals is the permanent state, which gives us a general characteristic of the level of general and special performance, i.e. shows the real capabilities of the body to achieve maximum sports results. It is this stable adaptation of the body, which gives us a complex, permanent characteristic of the athlete’s condition and his capabilities for achieving high sports results (in the corresponding type of motor activity), that we call “training”.

We most often encounter scientifically based ideas about fitness as a special qualitative characteristic of a person in the process of diagnosing the physical readiness of an athlete, with the emphasis on the priority of medical and physiological methods. Despite the significant progress achieved by doctors and physiologists, the diagnosis of fitness as an integral problem is still very far from being completely resolved. The main reason for this is the very complex structure of training, which includes both biological and psychological and socio-pedagogical elements. Consequently, along with medical and biological information, data from pedagogical and psychological research is needed.

The most general criterion of fitness is the sports result shown in official or control competitions. It “focuses” all aspects of sports training. By analyzing the dynamics (primarily stability) of sports results, one can judge changes in the level of training. But the sports result, precisely because of its generality, does not allow selective control of individual aspects of the athlete’s training (physical, technical, etc.). Bearing in mind that in many sports the result is not expressed in sufficiently precise quantitative quantities and that many factors that play a stimulating or inhibiting role remain unexplained, it becomes clear that sports achievement does not carry all the information necessary to assess fitness. This raises the question of a number of its additional, private criteria. When selecting them, as is known, the following are taken into account: the functional state of the most important organs and systems of the athlete’s body: the degree of their development and the nature of recovery processes after work; level of basic motor qualities; the degree of improvement of technique in a given sport; the ability to rationally use forces in wrestling conditions; skills and abilities in the field of sports tactics; the ability to maximize the manifestation of mental qualities, etc. (L. P. Matveev).

The biological characteristics of fitness are determined by a whole complex of morphological, biochemical and physiological changes in the athlete’s body. They are the object of the corresponding specialized sections of biological sciences (anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, etc.).

Fitness from a biological point of view, it is characterized in the most general form by an increase in the energy potential of the body and the possibilities of their rational use and restoration.

It is known that energy criteria for fitness are always associated with three types of capabilities: aerobic, anaerobic lactate (glycolytic) and anaerobic alactic. As a result of a number of studies (N. I. Yakovlev, N. V. Zimkin, N. I. Volkov, V. M. Zatsiorsky, G. S. Tumanyan, P. Astrand, Tsv. Zhelyazkov, K. Krastev, I. Iliev , R. Kosev, D. Dobrev, Y. Afor, etc.) developed indicators to assess these capabilities.

• 1. Power indicator – this is the maximum amount of energy that each of the specified sources can provide per unit of time. The power indicator is determined using the corresponding private criteria:
  • aerobic power - MOC and critical work power (for example, critical running speed, etc.), at which maximum oxygen use is achieved;
  • glycolytic power - lactate oxygen deficiency related to working time, as well as a maximum increase in the amount of lactic acid and the accumulation of excess CO2 in the blood, changes in the buffering properties of the blood (pH, etc.);
  • alactic power – alactic oxygen deficiency, breakdown of CrF in working muscles, etc.
• 2. Capacity indicator - this is the total amount of work that can be realized due to one or another source of energy.

Particular capacity criteria are:

• capacity of aerobic processes - the total amount of absorbed oxygen, above the rest level, during the entire working time, as well as the product of critical power and total working time;
• glycolytic capacity – the amount of lactate oxygen debt; the amount of lactates during work, the release of CO2 and the size of blood buffer reserves;
• alactic capacity - the amount of oxygen debt and the total reserves of CrP in the muscles.
• 3.Performance indicator – this is the relationship between directly measurable losses and the amount of work performed (or the ratio of the MPC to the critical power of the work). When assessing the biological side of fitness, aerobic capacity is often examined. However, at the same time, information is also obtained about the activity of the cardiovascular system, whose productivity is the main factor oxygen supply body. Hence the importance of the problem of fitness criteria, expressed in the activity of the cardiovascular system.

For this purpose, emergency and minute blood exchange are most often used. In order to judge the level of training of an athlete based on the state of emergency, it is necessary, first of all, to establish its dependence on the physical work performed. As V. S. Farfel notes, this dependence is physiologically not simple.

The amount of work performed per unit of time (work power) is associated primarily with the amount of energy expended. The power of the work depends on the efficiency of the work, on its efficiency. For its part, energy expenditure can be expressed in the amount of oxygen absorbed. However, these values ​​are determined by the nature of the oxidized energy substances and the relationship between aerobic and anaerobic processes. Oxygen consumption is determined by the minute volume of blood, but the amount of oxygen in the blood depends not only on this, but also on the degree of oxidation of the blood. And the utilization of oxygen depends on the adequate distribution of blood in working and resting muscles, organs, etc.

Consequently, between the amount of work performed per unit of time and the emergency situation for the same period lies a number of complex physiological processes, which at first glance exclude the possibility of a linear relationship between these two indicators. However, in recent years, sports physiology has established a number of conditions under which PE can serve as an informative test about an athlete’s fitness. Research by V. Karpman, K. Krastev and others shows that such a valid indicator is the work performed at a rate of emergency of 170 beats/min, the so-called PWC-170. This value highly correlates with BMD (correlation coefficient 0.8-0.9).

From the above examples it is clear that for the biological characteristics of fitness, both integral and partial indicators can be used. The priority of certain indicators is determined by many factors: the purpose of the study (operational, current and stage), the object of the study (age, gender, qualifications of the athlete), the conditions of the study (on the field, in the laboratory, etc.), technical capabilities (equipment), etc. .d.

The sports and pedagogical characteristics of fitness are determined by a number of factors of physical, technical and tactical training. These factors are based on the corresponding autonomic and motor mechanisms, which must be identified, but are not the direct object of research for sports teachers. They are interested in such integral or partial criteria of fitness that holistically cover the specifics of motor activity and are closely related, on the one hand, to the application of training tools and methods, and on the other, to sports achievement. In other words, the main task of diagnosis here is a holistic assessment of motor capabilities and their manifestation in specific competitive sports activities. If we exclude the sports result, which is the most general criterion of the level of fitness, a number of private criteria, mainly specialized sports-pedagogical tests, are also used in practice. First of all, it should be noted that at the moment the pedagogical aspects of monitoring and assessing fitness are not sufficiently developed. The main reason for this is the generalized nature of the information that interests us, and the associated objective difficulties for an accurate quantitative assessment of a number of basic parameters of motor activity in which fitness is expressed. To this must be added the insufficient training of sports teaching personnel in the field of exact sciences. This is most evident in the assessment of technical and especially tactical training, where the relationship between quality, skill and ability is extremely complex, inevitably leading to the application of multivariate statistical analysis and other quantitative methods.

Psychological criteria fitness reflects various mental states and processes and is the subject of sports psychology. Most often, psychodiagnostics of fitness is associated with the assessment of mental stability in relation to the adverse influence of a number of factors, the ability to self-regulate mental states, the formation of optimal readiness for competitions, etc.

What is body fitness? Let's say for the first time after school, university or the army, where sports were a mandatory part of the process, you decided to go for a run. Let's assume that on your first trip to the track you completed one lap with shortness of breath and curses. The next day you will run the same lap almost calmly. In the third training session it will be very easy to overcome the circle: this means you can increase the distance. Step by step, gradually increasing the load, you teach the body to cope with it. In just a month you can run a kilometer freely, in six months - ten. Look at the person you were 6 months ago: for him, running 10 km was as impossible as flying into space. However, with training, the boundaries of possibilities expand.

It is impossible to cope with the load indefinitely; someday any athlete reaches the peak of his form - to that level of results above which he physically cannot rise.

Over many years of training, the body learns to live in a more economical mode in everyday life. Stayers, for example, have a resting pulse of 40-55 beats per minute (the normal pulse of an untrained person is 60-80 beats per minute); low blood pressure, approximately 100/60 mm Hg. Art. (the norm is 120/80), which eliminates the possibility of heart attacks; if it increases, it will not go beyond critical values; the number of breaths per minute decreases to 12-14 versus 16-20 in untrained people, and the depth of breathing increases. However, all these positive phenomena can be observed only with proper training. Otherwise, there is a high probability of organ function deterioration. The correct training process for a runner consists not only of increasing mileage, but also of strength training (to strengthen the muscular corset and muscles of the limbs), active games (,) to develop speed skills - for recovery. For an athlete participating in competitions, the annual training cycle is divided into several stages:

• preparatory (general and special physical training);

• competitive (gain, maintain and temporarily decrease sports form);

• transitional (active and passive rest).

This division is due to the fact that an athlete cannot be at the peak of his form for a long period of time, so the entire training process fulfills the main task - to bring the athlete to the peak of his form during important competitions.

Morphofunctional and metabolic characteristics of fitness

To characterize the state of fitness, physiological indicators are examined at rest, during standard (non-maximal) and extreme loads. In trained individuals at rest, as well as during standard, non-maximal loads, phenomenon of economization of functions- less pronounced functional changes than in untrained or poorly trained individuals. In the case of using maximum physical activity, it is noted phenomenon of enhancing maximum functionality to maximum values ​​(Bepotserkovsky, 2005; Dubrovsky, 2005; Kots, 1986).

IN at rest the fitness of the body is indicated by: hypertrophy of the left ventricle in 34% of cases and in 20% - hypertrophy of both ventricles, an increase in heart volume (maximum up to 1700 cm3), a slowdown in heart rate to 50 beats-min -1 or less (bradycardia), sinus arrhythmia and sinus bradycardia, changes in the characteristics of the P and T waves. In the external respiration apparatus, there is an increase in vital capacity (maximum up to 9000 ml) due to the development of the respiratory muscles, a slowdown in the respiratory rate to 6-8 cycles per minute. The breath holding time increases (up to approximately 146 s), which indicates a greater ability to tolerate hypoxia.

In the blood system of athletes at rest, the volume of circulating blood increases by an average of 20%, the total number of red blood cells, hemoglobin (up to 170 g1), which indicates a high oxygen capacity of the blood.

Indicators of the fitness of the musculoskeletal system are: reduction of motor chronaxy, reduction of the difference in the values ​​of chronaxy of antagonist muscles, increase in the ability of muscles to tense and relax, improvement of proprioceptive sensitivity of muscles, etc.

During standard (non-maximal) physical activity indicators of fitness are less pronounced functional changes in trained individuals compared to untrained individuals.

During extreme physical activity the phenomenon of increased implementation of functions is noted: heart rate increases to 240 beats min -1, IOC - to 35-40 l-min -1, pulse pressure increases, PV reaches 150-200 l min, V0 2 max-6--7 l-min -1, MKD-22 l or more, the maximum concentration of lactate in the blood can reach 26 mmol-l-1, the pH of the blood shifts towards lower values ​​(to pH = 6.9), the concentration of glucose in the blood can decrease to 2, 5 mmol-l-1, PANO in trained individuals occurs when oxygen consumption is at the level of 80-85% V0 2 max (Dubrovsky, 2005; Kurochenko, 2004; Physiological mechanisms of adaptation, 1980; Physiological testing of athletes..., 1998).

In stress testing, physical loads that meet the following requirements should be used:

• so that the work performed can be measured and reproduced in the future;

• so that it is possible to change the intensity of work within the necessary limits;

• so that a large mass of muscles is involved, which ensures the necessary intensification of the oxygen transport system and prevents the occurrence of local muscle fatigue;

• be quite simple, accessible and do not require special skills or high coordination of movements.

In stress testing, bicycle ergometers or manual ergometers, steps, and a treadmill are usually used (Physiological testing of athletes..., 1998; Sports medicine. Practical..., 2003).

Advantage bicycle ergometry is that the load power can be clearly dosed. The relative immobility of the head and hands during pedaling allows one to determine various physiological indicators. Electromechanical weight-bearing ergometers are especially convenient. Their advantage is that during operation there is no need to monitor the pedaling tempo; changing it within certain limits does not affect the power of the work. The disadvantage of bicycle ergometry is the occurrence of local fatigue in the muscles of the lower extremities, which limits work during intense or duration of physical activity.

Stepergometry- a simple method of dosing loads, which is based on a modified step climbing, which allows you to perform the load in laboratory conditions. The power of the work is regulated by changing the height of the step and the rate of ascent.

They use one-, two-, three-step stairs, which can differ in the height of the steps. The rate of ascent is set by a metronome, rhythmic sound or light signal. The disadvantage of stepergometry is the low accuracy of load power dosing.

Treadmill allows you to simulate locomotion - walking and running in laboratory conditions. The load power is dosed by changing the speed and angle of inclination of the moving belt. Modern treadmills are equipped with automatic ergometers, heart rate recorders or gas analyzers with computer software, which allow you to accurately control the load power and obtain a large number of absolute and relative functional indicators of gas exchange, blood circulation, and energy metabolism.

The most common are these types of loads (Mishchenko V.S., 1990; Levushkin, 2001; Solodkov, Sologub, 2005).

1. Continuous constant power load. The power of work can be the same for all subjects or vary depending on gender, age and physical fitness.

2. Stepwise increasing load with a rest interval after each “step”.

3. Continuous operation at a uniformly increasing power (or almost uniformly) with a quick change of the next steps without rest intervals.

4. Stepwise increasing continuous load without rest intervals.

Assessment of the state of fitness of athletes based on functional indicators of the musculoskeletal system and sensory systems

Study of the functional state of the musculoskeletal system. Under the influence of training sessions, adaptive changes occur not only in the active part of the locomotor system - muscles, but also in bones, joints and tendons. The bones become rougher and stronger. Roughness and protrusions are formed on them, providing better conditions for muscle attachment and preventing injuries.

More significant changes occur in the muscles. The mass and volume of skeletal muscles (working hypertrophy) and the number of blood capillaries increase, as a result of which more nutrients and oxygen flow to the muscles. If untrained individuals have 46 capillaries per 100 muscle fibers, then well-trained athletes have 98. Thanks to increased metabolism, the volume of individual muscle fibers increases, their membrane thickens, the volume of sarcoplasm, the number of myofibrils increase, and, as a result, the volume and mass of muscles , which amounts to 44-50% of body weight or more among athletes of various specializations (Alter, 2001; Kozlov, Gladysheva, 1997; Sports Medicine. Practical..., 2003).

The functional properties of the musculoskeletal system are largely determined by the composition of the muscles. Thus, speed and strength exercises are performed more effectively if fast-twitch (Ft) fibers predominate in the muscles, and endurance exercises are performed with a predominance of slow-twitch (St) muscle fibers. For example, among sprinters the content of BS fibers is on average 59.8% (41-79%). The composition of the muscles is genetically determined, and under the influence of systematic training sessions there is no transition from one type of fiber to another. In some cases, a transition from one subtype of BS fibers to another is observed.

Under the influence of sports training, the supply of energy sources g-creatine phosphate, glycogen and intracellular lipids, the activity of enzymatic systems, the capacity of buffer systems, etc. increase.

Morphological and metabolic transformations in muscles that occur under the influence of training sessions are the basis for functional changes. Thanks to hypertrophy, for example, muscle strength increases in football players: shin extensors from 100 to 200 kg, shin flexors from 50 to 80 kg or more (Dudin, Lisenchuk, Vorobiev, 2001; Evgenieva, 200 2).

The muscles of trained people are more excitable and functionally mobile, as judged by the motor reaction time or the time of a single movement. If the motor reaction time for untrained individuals is 300 ms, then for athletes it is 210-155 ms or less (Filippov, 2006).

Studying the muscle strength of athletes using dynamometers

Equipment: dynamometers (hand and deadlift).

Progress

Using a hand (wrist) dynamometer, the strength of the muscles of the hand and forearm of several subjects (preferably of different specializations) is measured. Measurements are carried out three times, the largest indicator is taken into account. A high value is considered to be 70% of body weight.

The back is measured using a deadlift dynamometer. Research is carried out for each student three times, and the maximum result is taken into account. The analysis of the obtained indicators is carried out taking into account the body weight of the subjects, using the following data:

The obtained indicators of muscle strength of the hand and forearm, as well as the back strength of all subjects, are analyzed and conclusions are drawn.

Study of the functional stability of the vestibular apparatus using the Yarotsky test

Muscular activity is possible only when the central nervous system receives information about the state of the external and internal environment of the body. Such information enters the central nervous system through special formations - receptors, which are highly sensitive nerve endings. They can be part of the sense organs (eye, ear, vestibular apparatus) or function independently (skin temperature receptors, pain receptors, etc.). Impulses arising during receptor stimulation reach different parts of the central nervous system through sensory (centripetal) receptors and signal the nature of the influence of the external environment or the state of the internal environment. In the central nervous system, they are analyzed and a program of adequate response is created. Formations that include a region of the central nervous system, a centripetal nerve and a sensory organ are called analyzers.

Each sport is characterized by the participation of leading analyzers. First of all, for non-standard sports (all sports games, martial arts, alpine skiing, etc.), the muscular and vestibular analyzers are extremely important, ensuring the implementation of technical techniques (Krutsevich, 1999; Solodkov, Sologub, 2003).

The vestibular apparatus is located in the inner ear. Its receptors perceive the position of the body in space, direction of movement, speed, acceleration. In addition, the vestibular apparatus receives functional load during sudden starts, turns, falls and stops. During physical exercises, it is constantly irritated, and therefore its stability ensures the stability of performing technical techniques. With significant irritation of the vestibular apparatus in athletes, the accuracy of actions is disrupted and technical errors appear. At the same time, negative reactions appear that affect the activity of the heart, accelerating or slowing down the heart rate and muscle sensitivity. Therefore, the functional control system should include a method for determining the stability of the vestibular apparatus of athletes, primarily the Yarotsky test.

Equipment: stopwatch.

Progress

From among the students, several subjects of different specializations and with different levels of sports skills are selected.

The subject, standing with his eyes closed, rotates his head in one direction at a rate of 2 movements per 1 s. The time for maintaining heat equilibrium is determined.

Untrained adults maintain balance for 27-28 s, well-trained athletes - up to 90 s.

The data obtained during the examination are compared and conclusions are drawn about the vestibular stability of athletes of different specializations and levels of training.

Study of some functions of the motor analyzer

Equipment: goniometer or protractor.

Progress

The subject, under visual control, performs a certain movement 10 times, for example, flexing the forearm to 90°. Then he performs the same movement with his eyes closed. When monitoring the amplitude of movement, the amount of deviation (error) is noted in each repetition.

Conclusions are drawn about the level of muscle-joint sensation for performing movements of a given amplitude.

Determination of an athlete's fitness by assessing resistance to hypoxia

Breath-hold tests (Shtange and Genchi)- these are simple methods for studying the body’s resistance to hypoxia, which is one of the characteristic signs of the body’s fitness.

Equipment: stopwatch.

Progress

From among the students, subjects of different sports specializations and levels of training are selected.

1. After inhaling, the subject holds his breath as long as possible (the nose is pinched with his fingers). At this moment, turn on the stopwatch and record the time you hold your breath. When exhalation begins, the stopwatch is stopped (Stange test). In healthy, untrained individuals, the breath holding time ranges from 40-60 s in men and 30-40 s in women. In athletes, this figure increases to 60-120 s for men and 40-95 s for women.

2. Having exhaled, the subject holds his breath, from this moment the stopwatch is turned on and the time of holding the breath is recorded (Genchi test). When inhalation begins, the stopwatch is stopped. In healthy, untrained people, the breath-holding time lasts within 25-40 s for men and 15-30 s for women. High rates are observed among athletes: up to 50-60 s for men and 30-50 s for women.

The obtained indicators of all subjects are entered into table 50 and the appropriate conclusions are drawn.

Table 50 - Value of breath-hold tests, s

Assessment of the state of fitness based on data from the cardiovascular and respiratory systems of the body (Ruffier test)

Equipment: stopwatch.

Progress

From among the students, several subjects with different levels of preparedness are selected, who take turns performing the Ruffier test.

In a subject who is in a supine position for 5 minutes, the heart rate is determined for 15 seconds (P1). Then, within 45 seconds, he performs 30 squats, after that he lies down and his heart rate is again calculated for the first 15 seconds (P2), and then for the last 15 from the first minute of recovery (P3). The Ruffier index is calculated using the formula:

Ruffier index =4(P1 +P2+P3)-200/ 10

The functional reserves of the heart are assessed by comparing the data obtained with the following:

The results of the study are analyzed and conclusions are drawn about the level of functional reserves of the heart in the subjects.

Muscle fitness

Muscle fitness affects the ability to perform physical exercises. Muscle fitness can be assessed in several different ways. Sports clubs offer a number of simple methods.

Rice. 2. A decrease in the dynamically recorded average spectral frequency of electrical activity of the paraspinal muscles of the left side at the level of the fifth lumbar vertebra and the first sacral vertebra of trained (A) and less trained (B) men when performing dynamic movements back and forth with weights on a back muscle stretching machine. The decline in a less trained person is much faster than in a trained person.

The indirect route consists of measuring the effective force/torque of the upper and lower extremities, as well as the upper body and neck, using various machines - isokinetic, isotonic and isometric. A limitation of these methods is that they measure the activity or power produced by one specific muscle or group of muscles.

Simultaneous surface electromyography helps describe the action of all muscles, and the muscles involved in force production can also be easily identified.

Electrical activity can be recorded without causing pain or disturbing the person, using cutaneous electrodes attached to the skin over the muscle being tested; as in electrocardiography, where they are stuck to the chest and extremities. When muscles are loaded in standard ways, there is a linear increase in electrical activity. A strong person can lift a much heavier load than a weak person because the muscle fibers of a strong person are larger. The muscles of a weak person show higher electrical activity than the muscles of a strong person if they lift the same load. When muscles become tired, electrical activity increases over time if the muscles are subjected to the same stress for a long time. As electrical activity increases, low-frequency components of the electromyographic spectrum also increase, while high-frequency components tend to be blocked because they are designed to perform short-term tasks by nature.

This transition to lower frequencies can be easily calculated during fatiguing exercise, and simple indicators such as average frequency, for example, during two-minute tests provide the necessary information about muscle fitness (Fig. 2). If the trunk muscles are of interest, a standard exercise could be to hold the body in the same position, such as the upper body over the edge of a table, and record the electrical activity of the paraspinal muscles. A more specific load can be achieved on a special training chair. The trunk muscles are important in any physical activity, and their strength plays an important role in maintaining balance and standing. If the trunk muscles are poorly developed, the risk of low back pain increases, especially if the person happens to lift something heavy using improper technique.

Monitoring electrical activity during training programs can provide objective data on progress in exercise as fitness increases and fatigue decreases. This method is especially valuable when observing muscles that are difficult to study in any other way. The pelvic floor muscles play an important role. A sedentary lifestyle, decreased levels of the hormone estrogen due to aging, obesity and repeated childbirth are the most common causes of muscle deterioration. Urinary incontinence is one of the most annoying problems for middle-aged women, but it also affects men. Training the pelvic floor muscles is one of the most difficult tasks. A physiological solution is to use biofeedback with the installation of electromyographic sensors in the vagina. Audiovisual feedback encourages the patient to continue pelvic muscle exercises with a positive response to therapy, and improvements in the condition of the pelvic muscles can be recorded after one to three months of exercise.

Human training.
Changes in the human body under the influence of physical activity