Literary directions and trends Table. Literary directions and methods
The concepts of "direction", "current", "School" refer to the terms describing the literary process - the development and functioning of literature on a historic scale. Their definitions are in literary science discussion.
Under the direction in the XIX century, the general nature of the content, ideas of the whole national literature or a period of its development was understood. At the beginning of the XIX century, the literary direction was associated as a whole with the "dominant direction of the minds."
So, I. V. Kireevsky in the article "The Nineteenth Century" (1832) wrote that the dominant direction of the minds of the end of the XVIII century is destructive, and the new consists in the "striving for a sedative equation of a new spirit with the ruins of old times ...
In the literature, the result of this direction was the desire to agree on the imagination with the reality, the correctness of the forms with freedom content ... In a word, the fact that they are vainly called classicism, with what is still incorrectly called romanticism. "
Even earlier, in 1824, V. K. Kyuhelbecker announced the direction of poetry as its main content in the article "On the direction of our poetry, especially lyrical, in the last decade." Ks. A. Polevoy for the first time in Russian criticism applied the word "direction" to certain stages of the development of literature.
In the article "On the directions and parties in the literature", he called the direction "That, often invisible for contemporaries an inner desire of literature, which gives the character to all or at least many works of it in a certain time ... The basis of it, in the general sense, It happens the idea of \u200b\u200bthe modern era. "
For "real criticism" - N. G. Chernyshevsky, N. A. Dobrolyubova - the direction agreed with the ideological position of the writer or group of writers. In general, a variety of literary communities was understood under the direction.
But the main unifying sign is that the unity of the most common principles of the implementation of the artistic content, the generality of the depths of artistic world-world is recorded in the direction.
This unity is often due to the similarity of cultural and historical traditions, is often associated with the type of consciousness of the literary era, some scientists believe that the unity of the direction is due to the unity of the creative method of writers.
There is no specified list of literature directions, as the development of literature is associated with the specifics of the historical, cultural, social life of society, the national and regional features of one or another literature. However, traditionally allocate areas such as classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, symbolism, each of which is characterized by its set of formal-substantive signs.
For example, in the framework of the romantic worldview of romanticism, such as the motives for the destruction of familiar borders and hierarchies, the ideas of the "spiritualizing" synthesis, who came to the change of the rationalistic concept of "Communication" and "order", awareness of a person as a center and secrecy of being , personality open and creative, etc.
But the specific expression of these common philosophical and aesthetic foundations of world-upsion in the work of writers and their worldview is different.
So, inside romanticism, the problem of the embodiment of universal, new, extra-term ideals was embodied, on the one hand, in the idea of \u200b\u200brebellion, a cardinal reorganization of the existing world order (D. G. Bayron, A. Mitskevich, P. B. Shelly, K. F. Ryleev) And on the other, in the search for your inner "I" (V. A. Zhukovsky), the harmony of nature and spirit (Wordsworth), religious self-improvement (F. R. Shatubol).
As you can see, such a community of principles is international, in many ways disabilities, and exists in a sufficiently blurred chronological framework, which is due to the largest national and regional specificity of the literary process.
The same sequence of changes in directions in different countries is usually evidence of their supranational nature. These or another direction in each country acts as a national species of the relevant international (European) literary community.
According to this point of view, French, German, Russian classicism is considered to be varieties of an international literary direction - European classicism, which represents the combination of the most common typological signs inherent in all varieties of the direction.
But it should be unable to take into account that often the national peculiarities of one or another direction can manifest themselves much brighter than the typological similarity of varieties. In generalization, there is some schematism, which can distort the real historical facts of the literary process.
For example, the most vividly classicism showed himself in France, where it is represented as a complete system and meaningful, and formal signs of works, codified by theoretical regulatory poetic poetics ("Poetic Art" of N. Balo). In addition, it is represented by significant artistic achievements that have influenced other European literature.
In Spain and Italy, where the historical situation was different, classicism turned out to be the direction in many ways imitated. The leading in these countries was Baroque literature.
Russian Classicism becomes the central direction in the literature also not without the influence of French classicism, but acquires its own national sound, crystallized in the struggle of "Lomonosovsky" and "Sumarokovsky" flows. In national species of classicism, there are many differences, even more problems are associated with the definition of romanticism as a single pan-European direction, within which very differently different phenomena are often found.
Thus, the construction of pan-European and "world" models of directions as the largest units of functioning and the development of literature seems a very difficult task.
Gradually, along with the "direction", the term "current" is included in circulation, often used with the "direction" synonyms. So, D. S. Merezhkovsky in an extensive article "On the reasons for decline and new currents of modern Russian literature" (1893) writes that "between writers with different, sometimes opposite temperaments are established, both between opposite poles, special mental flows, singular air, saturated with creative trends. " It is them, according to criticism, is due to the similarity of "poetic phenomena", works of different writers.
Often, the "direction" is recognized as a generic concept in relation to the "flow". Both concepts indicate the unity of leading spiritual and most aesthetic principles arising at a certain stage of the literary process, covering the work of many writers.
Under the term "direction" in the literature understand the creative unity of writers of a certain historical era using the general ideological and aesthetic principles of the image of reality.
The direction in the literature is considered as a generalizing category of the literary process, as one of the forms of artistic worldviews, aesthetic views, ways to display life associated with a kind of artistic style. In the history of national literatures of European peoples, such areas as classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, naturalism, symbolism are distinguished.
Introduction to literary studies (N.L. Vertinina, E.V. Volkov, A.A. Ilyushin, etc.) / Ed. LM Kruchachanova. - M, 2005
If someone thinks they are very difficult to remember, then, of course, is mistaken. Everything is simple enough.
Open a list of references. We see that everything is laid out here. Specific temporary segments are given. And now I will emphasize your attention on what - almost every literary direction has a clear temporal binding.
We look the screenshot. "Lady" of Fonvizin, "Monument" of Derzhadina, "Mountain from Mind" Griboedov is all classicism. Then a realism comes to replace the classicism, there is no sentimentalism at all time, but it is not represented in this list of works. Therefore, almost all works that are listed below are realism. If a "novel" is written next to the work, then it is only realism. Nothing more.
Romanticism in this list is also there, it is impossible to forget about it. It is presented weakly, these are works such as Ballada V.A. Zhukovsky "Svetlana", Poem M.Yu. Lermontov "MTSI". It would seem that romanticism died even at the beginning of the XIXVEK, but we can still meet it in XX. There was a story M.A. Gorky "old woman Izergil." That's all, there is no more romanticism.
Everything else, which is given in the list, that I did not call is realism.
And what is the direction of the "Word about the regiment of Igor?" In this case, it does not stand out.
And now we will briefly go through what features in these directions. Everything is simple:
Classicism- It is 3 unity: unity of the place, time, actions. Recall the comedy Griboedov "Mount from Wit". All action lasts 24 hours, and it happens in the Famusov House. With the "inexpensive" phonvizin, everything is similar. Another detail for classicism: the heroes can be clearly divided into positive and negative. The remaining signs of knowingly. It is enough for you to understand that we have a classic work.
Romanticism - Exceptional hero in exceptional circumstances. Recall what happened in the poem M.Yu. Lermontov "MTSI". Against the background of the majestic nature, the divine beauty and greatness, the events unfold. "Mcsier runs away." Nature and hero merge with each other, there is a complete immersion of the inner world and external. Mcyri is an exceptional personality. Strong, brave, bold.
Recall the Hero Danko Hero, who snatched his heart and illuminated the path to people. The specified hero is also suitable for a criterion of an exceptional personality, so it is a romantic story. And in general, all the characters that are described by Gorky are desperate rebellion.
Realism begins with Pushkin, which throughout the second half of the XIX century is very violently developing. All life with its advantages and disadvantages, with inconsistency and complexity - becomes the object of writers. Specific historical events and individuals who live with fictional characters, which very often have a real prototype or even a few.
If short, realism- What I see, I write. Our life is complicated, complex and heroes, they are moving, they think they change, develop, mistaken.
By the beginning of the twentieth century it became clear that it was time to look for new forms, new styles, other approaches. Therefore, new authors are growing rapidly in the literature, modern is flourishing, which includes a lot of branches: symbolism, acmeism, immudy, futurism.
And to determine what particular literary flow can be attributed to one or another work, you need to know more of writing it. Because, for example, it is wrong to say that Akhmatova is only anxisis. You can only attribute to this area. Some creativity did not suit the specific classification, such, for example, were Tsvetaeva with Pasternak.
As for symbolism, it will be somewhat simpler: block, mandelles. Futurism - Mayakovsky. Axism, as we said, Akhmatova. There was still an immudy, but it is presented weakly, it is attributed to Yesenin. That's how it is all.
Symbolism- The term speaks for himself. The authors through a large number of all sorts of characters encrypted the meaning of the work. The number of meanings that were laid by poets can be sought and looking for infinity. Therefore, these poems are so sufficient.
Futurism - Slovency. The art of the future. Refusal of the past. Unrestrained search for new rhythms, rhymes, words. Lestenka Mayakovsky remember? Such works were intended for the declamation (read in humans). Futurists are simply anstic people. They did everything to remember them. All means for this were good.
Axism- If in the symbolism neither the trait is not clear, then the aqmeists took to completely oppose themselves. Their creativity is clear, specifically. It does not hide somewhere in the clouds. It is here here. They portrayed the earthly world, her earthly beauty. Still stripped through the word to transform the world. It's enough.
Imazinism- The basis is based on the image. Sometimes not one. Such poems, as a rule, are completely deprived of meaning. Sergei Yesenin has a short time wrote such poems. More from the list of references to this flow is not related.
It's all. If something has not yet understood, or found mistakes in my words, then write in the comments. Tell together.
The works of each era are inherent in the similarities of the shadow-thematic system, the repetition of plot strokes, the unity of the artistic thinking and the proximity of ideological views. Hence, the main literary directions were formed.
Classicism
The name is given from the word "exemplary" translated from Latin. As an artistic style and literary direction appeared in Europe in the seventeenth century and dried up to the beginning of the nineteenth. Literary directions did not have the channel wider than this. Characteristics:
1. Appeal to antiquity - in images and forms - as an aesthetic standard.
2. Strict canons, harmony, logic: the inviolability of the construction, like the universe.
3. rationalism without individual signs and features, in the field of view only eternal and unshakable.
4. Hierarchy: Genres High and low (tragedy and comedy).
5. Unity of the place, time and action, no side distracting lines.
Bright representatives were Cornel, Lafonten, Rasin.
Romanticism
Literary directions typically grow one of the other or new brings a protest wave. The second is characteristic of the appearance at the end of the eighteenth century of romanticism - one of the largest currents in the history of literature. Romanticism in Europe and America almost at the same time. Characteristic features: protest against the vulgarity of bourgeois life, for the poetry of everyday life and against prosperity, disappointment in the fruits of civilization. Cosmic pessimism and world grief. Confrontation of personality and society, individualism. Separation of the real and perfect worlds, opposition. The romantic hero is high-way, inspired and illuminated by the desire for the ideal. A new phenomenon appears in the literature: the local flavor, blooming fairy tales, legends, beliefs, chasing the elements of nature. The action often occurs in the most exotic places. Representatives: Byron, Kitts, Schiller, Duma Father, Hugo, Lermontov, partly - Gogol.
Sentimentalism
Translated - "sensual." Literary directions consist of more or less noticeable trends. Sentimentalism is the essence of the course in line with predocant. I existed in Europe and America the second half of the eighteenth century, by the mid-nineteenth ended. Not a mind, but the feeling exceeded sentimentalism, without recognizing any rationalism, even the educational. The naturalness of the feeling and democracy is characteristic. For the first time, an interest in the inner world of ordinary people appears. In contrast to romanticism, sentimentalism rejected irrational, there are no contradictions, impulsiveness, impulse, inaccessible to rationalistic interpretation. He was strong in Russia and was somewhat different from the Western: rational was still expressed quite clearly, morality and educational trends were present, improved and enriched by Russian due to the use of the spacious. Favorite genres: Message, Epistolar Roman, Diaries - all that helps confessionality. Representatives: Rousseau, Young Goethe, Karamzin.
Naturalism
Literary destinations that existed in Europe and North America throughout the last third of the nineteenth century include in their direction and naturalism. Characteristic features: objectivity, accurate image of details and realities of human character. Artistic and scientific knowledge were not divided into approach methods. Artistic text, as a human document: Implementation of an act of knowledge. Reality is a good teacher and without moralization, for a writer there can be no bad plots and topics. From here in the works of naturalists, quite a lot of purely literary deficiencies like immucing, indifference to public interest. Representatives: Zola, Maupassan, Dodé, Driver, Norris, London, from Russians - Boborakin, in separate works - Kubin, Bunin, Veresaev.
Realism
Eternal. Born at the end of the nineteenth century, alive to this day. In priorities: the truth of life as the truth of the literature. Images correspond to the essence of phenomena, literature as a means of knowledge and yourself, and the surrounding world. Typing characters through attention to detail. The life-affirming began, reality in the development of new phenomena, relationships, psychological types. Representatives: Balzac, Standal, Twain, Dickens. Russians - almost all: Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Chekhov, Tolstoy, Shukhin, and so on.
Literary directions and trends not considered in the article, but having great representatives: symbolism - Verlene, Rembo, Mallarm, Rilke, Bryusov, Block, Vyach. Ivanov; Akmeism - Gumilyov, Gorodetsky, Mandelshtam, Akhmatova, Ivanov; Futurism - Mayakovsky, Khlebnikov, Burluk, Northerner, Shershevich, Pasternak, Aseev; IMAZHINISM - Yesenin, Klyuev.
The term literary flows usually denote a group of writers associated with the community of ideological positions and artistic principles within one direction or artistic movement. Thus, modernism is the common name of various groups in the art and literature of the 20th century, which distinguishes the departure from classical traditions, the search for new aesthetic principles, a new approach to the image of being, includes such trends as impressionism, expressionism, surrealism, existentialism, acmeism , Futurism, IMAZHINISM, etc.
The belonging of artists to one direction or flow does not exclude deep differences in their creative individualities. In turn, the individual creativity of writers may manifest the features of various literary directions and flows. For example, O. Balzac, being a realist, creates a romantic novel "Shagreen leather", and M. Yu. Lermontov, along with romantic works, writes a realistic novel "Hero of our time".
The current is a smaller unit of the literary process, often within the framework of the direction, is characterized by the existence of a certain historical period and, as a rule, localization in a certain literature. The basis of the flow also lies the commonality of the meaningful principles, but the similarity of ideological and artistic concepts is manifested more clearly.
Often, the generality of artistic principles forms the "artistic system" during the course. So, within the framework of French classicism, two currents are distinguished. One is based on the traditions of the R. Descartes rationalistic philosophy ("Cartesian rationalism"), to which the work of P. Cornel, J. Rasina, N. Bouoye. Another course, based mainly to the Sensual philosophy of P. Gassendi, expressed itself in ideological principles of such writers as J. Lafontane, J. B. Moliere.
In addition, both currents are different and the system of used artistic agents. In romanticism, two main flows are distinguished - "progressive" and "conservative", but there are other classifications.
The belonging of the writer to one or another direction or flow (as well as the desire to remain outside the existing flows of literature) implies the free, personal expression of the author of the author, its aesthetic and ideological positions.
This fact is connected quite later than the emergence of directions and flows in European literature - the period of the new time, when the personality, the copyright becomes leading in literary work. In this, the fundamental difference between the modern literary process from the development of the Literature of the Middle Ages, in which the meaningful and formal features of the texts were "predicted" by the tradition and "canon".
The feature of the directions and flows is that these commonality is based on the deep unity of philosophical, aesthetic and other meaningful principles in many respects of various, individual-copyright art systems.
Directions and flows should be distinguished from literary schools (and literary groups).
Introduction to literary studies (N.L. Vertinina, E.V. Volkov, A.A. Ilyushin, etc.) / Ed. LM Kruchachanova. - M, 2005
2) SentimentalismSentimentalism is a literary direction that recognized the feeling of the main criterion of the human person. Sentimentalism originated in Europe and Russia approximately simultaneously, in the second half of the 18th century, as the counterweight of the rigid classical theory dominated at that time.
Sentimentalism was closely related to the ideas of enlightenment. He assigned a paramount site for manifestations of human mental qualities, psychological analysis, sought to awaken in the hearts of readers an understanding of the nature of man and love for her together with a humane attitude to all weak suffering and persistent. Feelings and experiences of a person are worthy of attention regardless of its class affiliation - the idea of \u200b\u200buniversal equality of people.
The main genres of sentimentalism:
tale
elegy
novel
Letters
travels
memoirs
Motherland Sentimentalism can be considered England. Poets J. Thomson, T. Gray, E. Jung tried to awaken in readers. Love for the surrounding nature, drawing in their works simple and peaceful rural landscapes, sympathy for the needs of poor people. A bright representative of English sentimentalism was S. Richardson. In first place, he put forward a psychological analysis and attracted the attention of readers to the fate of his heroes. Writer Lawrence Stern preached humanism as the highest value of man.
In French literature, sentimentalism is represented by the novels of Abbot Abbot, P. K. De Shamblin de Marivo, J.-zh. Rousseau, A. B. de Saint-Pierre.
In German literature - works by F. G. Klopshtok, F. M. Klinker, I. V. Guete, I. F. Schiller, S. Laros.
Sentimentalism came to Russian literature with the translations of the works of Western European sentimentalists. The first sentimental works of Russian literature can be called "Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow" A.N. Radishcheva, "Letters of the Russian Traveler" and "Poor Lisa" N.I. Karamzin.
3) Romanticism
Romanticism originated in Europe at the end of the 18th - early 19th centuries. As opposed to the previously dominated classicism with his pragmatism and following established laws. Romanticism, as opposed to classicism, promoted the retreat from the rules. Backgrounds of romanticism lies in the Great French Revolution 1789-1794, which overthrown the power of the bourgeoisie, and with it - bourgeois laws and ideals.
Romanticism, like sentimentalism, pays great attention to the personality of man, his feelings and experiences. The main conflict of romanticism was confronting the personality and society. Against the background of scientific and technological progress, the complicating social and political device went to spiritual devastation of the individual. Romance sought to attract the attention of readers to this circumstance, to cause protest against confusion and selfishness in society.
Romantics were disappointed in the surrounding world, and this disappointment is clearly traced in their works. Some of them, such as F. R. Shutubin and V. A. Zhukovsky, believed that a person could not resist the mysterious forces, must comply with them and not try to change his fate. Other romance, such as J. Bayron, P. B. Shelly, S. Petfi, A. Mitskevich, Early A. S. Pushkin, believed that it was necessary to deal with the so-called "world evil", and opposed him the power of the human spirit.
The inner world of the romantic hero was full of experiences and passions, throughout the work the author forced him to fight the world around, doubt and conscience. Romantics portrayed feelings in their extreme manifestations: high and passionate love, cruel betrayal, contemptuous envy, low-lying ambition. But romantics were interested not only by the inner world of man, but also the secrets of being, the essence of all the living, maybe, therefore, there are so many mystical and mysterious in their works.
In German literature, romanticism was most pronounced in the works of Novisa, V. Tika, F. Göldderlin, Kleista, E. T. A. Gofman. English Romanticism is represented by the works of Wordsworth, S. T. Kolridge, R. Sauti, V. Scott, J. Kita, J. Byrona, P. B. Shelley. In France, romanticism appeared only by the beginning of the 1820s. The main representatives were F. R. Shatubin, J. Steel, E. P. SENANKUR, P. Merim, V. Hugo, J. Sand, A. Vinyi, A. Duma (father).
The Great French Revolution and the Patrican War of 1812, the Great French Revolution and the Patriotic War of 1812 were on the development of Russian romantics and the Patriotic War of 1812 - before and after the Decembrists' uprising in 1825, representatives of the first period (V.A. Zhukovsky, K.N. Batyushkov, A.S. Pushkin periods of the Southern Link), believed in the victory of spiritual freedom over everyday life, but after the defeat of the Decembrists, executions and references, the romantic hero turns into a well-refined and incomprehensive human society, and the conflict of personality and society becomes unresolved. The bright representatives of the second period were M. Yu. Lermontov, E. A. Baratinsky, D. V. Venevitinov, A. S. Khomyakov, F. I. Tyutchev.
The main genres of romanticism:
Elegy
Idyll
Ballad
Novella
Novel
Fantastic story
Aesthetic and theoretical canons of romanticism
The idea of \u200b\u200bdvoemirine is the struggle between objective reality and subjective maidos. In realism, this concept is absent. The idea of \u200b\u200bdvoemirine has two modifications:
care in the world of fantasy;
Travel concept, road.
Hero concept:
Romantic hero is always an exceptional personality;
The hero is always in conflict with the surrounding reality;
The dissatisfaction of the hero, which manifests itself in lyric tonality;
Aesthetic purposefulness to the unattainable ideal.
Psychological parallelism - the identity of the inner state of the hero of the surrounding nature.
Speech style of a romantic work:
extreme expression;
principle of contrast at the level of the composition;
abundance of characters.
Aesthetic categories of romanticism:
rejection of the bourgeois reality, its ideology and pragmatism; Romance denied the value system, which was based on stability, hierarchy, strict system of values \u200b\u200b(house, comfort, Christian morality);
cultivation of individuality and artistic worldview; Rejection rejected by romanticism was subordinate to the subjective worlds based on the creative fantasy of the artist.
4) Realism
Realism is a literary direction that objectively reflects the surrounding validity to be affordable by artistic means. The main reception of realism is the typing facts of reality, images and characters. Writers-realists put their heroes in certain conditions and show how these conditions affected the person.
While the romantic writers worried the inconsistency of the world around them to their inner globacy, then the realist writer is interested in how the world affects the person. The actions of the heroes of realistic works are due to life circumstances, in other words, if a person lived at another time, elsewhere, in another socio-cultural environment, then he would be different.
The foundations of realism laid another Aristotle in 4 c. BC e. Instead of the concept of "realism", he used the concept of "imitation" close in meaning. Then the realism was revived in the era of the Renaissance and Epoch of Enlightenment. In the 40s 19th century In Europe, Russia and America, realism came to replace romanticism.
Depending on the content motives, recreated in the work, distinguish:
Critical (social) realism;
realism of characters;
psychological realism;
Grotesque realism.
Critical realism focused on real circumstances that affect human influence. Examples of critical realism are the works of Standal, O. Balzak, Ch. Dickens, W. Tekkkeva, A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol, I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, and . P. Chekhov.
Characteristic realism, on the contrary, showed a strong person who can fight circumstances. Psychological realism more attention paid to the inner world, the psychology of heroes. The main representatives of these varieties of realism are F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy.
In grotescan realism, deviations from reality are allowed, in some works of retreats bordered with fantasy, with the more grotesque, the stronger the author criticizes reality. Grotesque realism is developed in the works of Aristophan, F. Rabl, J. Swift, E. Hoffmann, in the satirical poses N. V. Gogol, works of M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, M. A. Bulgakov.
5) Modernism
Modernism is a collection of artistic directions that promoted freedom of self-expression. Modernism originated in Western Europe in the second half of the 19th century. As a new form of creativity, opposed to traditional art. Modernism manifested itself in all kinds of art - painting, architecture, literature.
The main distinguishing feature of modernism is its ability to change the world around. The author does not seek realistic or allegorically to portray reality, as it was in realism, or the inner world of the hero, as it was in sentimentalism and romanticism, and depicts his own inner world and his own attitude to the surrounding reality, expresses personal impressions and even fantasies.
Features of modernism:
denial of classic artistic heritage;
recharged discrepancy with theory and practice of realism;
Orientation per person individual, not social;
high attention to the spiritual, not the social sphere of human life;
Orientation on the form to the detriment of the content.
The largest currents of modernism were impressionism, symbolism and modern. Impressionism sought to capture a moment in the form how he saw or felt the author. In this author's perception, the past, present and future can be gossipped, the impression that any subject or phenomenon has rendered on the author, and not this subject itself.
The symbolists tried to find a secret meaning in everything that happened, emphasized the usual images and words to mystical meaning. Modern style promoted a refusal to proper geometric forms and direct lines in favor of smooth and curved lines. Especially Bright Modern manifested itself in architecture and applied art.
In the 80s. 19th century The new course of modernism was originated - decades. In the art of decades, a person is put in unbearable circumstances, he was broken, doomed, lost taste for life.
The main features of the decadence:
cynicism (nihilistic attitude towards universal values);
eroticism;
Tonatos (according to Z. Freud - the desire for death, decline, expansion of the individual).
In the literature, modernism is represented by the following currents:
Axism;
symbolism;
futurism;
Imazinism.
The most prominent representatives of modernism in the literature are French poets Sh. Bajler, P. Vellen, Russian poets N. Gumilev, A. A. Blok, V. V. Mayakovsky, A. Akhmatova, I. Northernik, English writer O. Wilde, American Writer E. By, Scandinavian playwright of Ibsen.
6) Naturalism
Naturalism is the name of the course in the European literature and art that emerged in the 70s. XIX century And especially widely unfolded in the 80-90s., when naturalism became the most influential direction. The theoretical substantiation of the new flow gave Emil Zola in the book "Experimental Roman".
End of the XIX century. (In particular, the 80s) marks the flourishing and strengthening of industrial capital, developing into financial. This corresponds to, on the one hand, a high level of technology and an increase in operation, on the other - the growth of the self-consciousness and class struggle of the proletariat. The bourgeoisie turns into a class of reaction, struggling with a new revolutionary force - a proletariat. The petty bourgeoisie ranges between these basic classes, and these oscillations are reflected in the positions of the petty-bourgeois writers who joined naturalism.
The main requirements presented by naturalists to literature: scientific, objectivity, apoliticalness in the name of "universal truth". Literature should stand at the level of modern science, should be imbued with scientific relations. It is clear that naturalists are based on their works only that science that does not deny the existing social system. The basis of its theory of naturalists make mechanistic natural-scientific materialism such as E. Geckel, Spencer and C. Lombroso, adapting the interests of the dominant class of heredity (heredity is the cause of social bundle, which gives advantages to one before others), the philosophy of positivism of Auguste Contit and Small bourgeois utopians (Saint-Simon).
Through an objective and scientific note of the shortcomings of modern reality, French naturalists hope to influence the minds of people and thereby cause a number of reforms to save the existing system from the impending revolution.
Theoretics and leader of French Naturalism, E. Zola ranked in the genuine school of Flaubert, the Brothers Gekroch, A. Dode and a number of other less well-known writers. In the immediate predecessors of the Naturalism of Zola attributed French realists: O. Balzak and Standal. But in fact, none of these writers, not excluding the zol himself, was not a naturalist in the sense in which he understood this direction of the sol theoretics. To naturalism, as the style of the lead class, writers are unworn and on the artistic method, and according to accessories to various class groups. It is characteristic that the unifying moment was not an artistic method, but the reformist trends of naturalism.
For followers of naturalism, only partial recognition of the complex of claims nominated by naturalism theorists is characterized. Following one of the principles of this style, they are repelled from others who differing sharply among themselves, representing both various public trends and various artistic methods. A number of practitioners of naturalism perceived his reformist essence, throwing without constraint even such typical of naturalism requirement as the requirement of objectivity and accuracy. This was done by German "Early Naturalists" (M. Creerer, B. Bill, V. Lesse and others).
Under the sign of decay, rapprochement with impressionism went to the further development of naturalism. The resulting in Germany is somewhat later than in France, German naturalism appeared to the style of predominantly petty-bourgeois. Here, the decomposition of patriarchal petty bourgeoisie and the aggravation of capitalization processes creates more and more new personnel of the intelligentsia, which far from always finding themselves. In their medium, frustrating in the power of science penetrates more and more. Gradually tolerate the wreck of hope for the resolution of social contradictions in the framework of the capitalist system.
German naturalism, as well as naturalism in Scandinavian literature, is a whole transitional step from naturalism to impressionism. So, the famous German Lamprecht historian in his "History of the German People" suggested this style to call "physiological impressionism." This term is further applied by a number of historians of German literature. Indeed, from naturalistic style, known in France, it remains only a worship of physiology. Many German naturalist writers do not even try to hide their tendentiousness. In the center of it usually puts some problem, social or physiological, around which the facts are grouped, it is illustrating (alcoholism in the "before the sunrise" of Hauptman, heredity in "Ghosts" of Ibsen).
The founders of German naturalism were A. Golz and F. Hisf. The main principles are set forth in the Goltz's "Art" brochure, where Golz argues that "art tends to become nature again, and it becomes in accordance with the reproduction and practical applications available. Also denied the complexity of the fabul. The place of rich in the events of the French Roman (Zola) occupies a story or novel, extremely poor plot. The main place here is allocated to the painstaking transfer of moods, visual and auditory sensations. A drama and poem, to which the French naturalists treated is extremely negative as the "family of entertainment art", are also replaced. Special attention is paid to the drama (Ibsen, Gauptman, A. Golz, F. Hisf, Zudman), in which the intensively developed effect is also denied, only a catastrophe and fixation of the experiencing of heroes ("Nora", "Ghosts", "Before sunrise", "Master Eleza" and others). In the future, naturalistic drama is reborn in the drama impressionistic, symbolic.
In Russia, naturalism did not receive any development. The early works of F. I. Parferov and M. A. Sholokhov called naturalistic works.
7) Natural School
Under the natural school, literary criticism understands the direction originated in Russian literature in the 40s. 19th century It was an era of increasingly aggravated contradictions between the serfs and the growth of capitalist elements. Followers of a genuine school in their works tried to reflect the contradictions and mood of that time. The term "Natural School" itself appeared in criticism thanks to F. Bulgarin.
A natural school in the expanded application of the term, as it used in the 40s, does not indicate a single direction, but is a concept largely conditional. There were such heterogeneous schools for their class-based school and the artistic appearance of writers as I. S. Turgenev and F. M. Dostoevsky, D. V. Grigorovich and I. A. Goncharov, N. A. Nekrasov and I. I. Panayev.
The most common signs, on the basis of which the writer was considered belonging to a natural school, were the following: social and significant topics, who captured a wider circle than even a circle of social observations (often in the "low" layers of society), a critical attitude to social reality, the realism of artistic Expressions that fought against the embellishment of reality, aesthetics, romantic rhetoric.
V. G. Belinsky allocated a realism of a genuine school, arguing the most important feature of "truth", and not the "lies" of the image. The natural school is not drawn to the ideal, fictional heroes, but to the "crowd", to the "mass", to people ordinary and most often to people of "low title". Completed in the 40s. All sorts of "physiological" essays satisfied this need for a reflection of other, short-lived life, at least just in reflection by externally domestic, superficial.
N. G. Chernyshevsky especially sharply emphasizes as the essential and main feature of the "literature of the Gogol period" its critical, "negative" attitude to reality - "Literature of the Gogol period" is here another name of the same genuine school: it is to N. V. Gogol - The author of the "Dead Souls", "Auditor", "Shineli" - as a generic team was erected by a genuine school V. G. Belinsky and a number of other critics. Indeed, many writers ranked in a genuine school experienced the powerful influence of various sides of the creativity of N. V. Gogol. In addition to Gogol, such representatives of Western European small -coming and bourgeois literature were influenced on the writers of the Natural School, as Ch. Dickens, O. Balzac, Georges Sand.
One of the currents of the genuine school, represented by the liberal, capitalizing nobility and the social layers, was distinguished by the surface and cautious nature of the critics of reality: this is or harmless irony in relation to individuals of noble reality or noble-limited protest against serfdom. The circle of social observations of this group was limited to the bosom estate. Representatives of this course of the Natural School: I. S. Turgenev, D. V. Grigorovich, I. I. Panaev.
Another course of a genuine school was relied mainly on the city boss of the 40s, strangled, on the one hand, still with tenant fortresses, and on the other - the growing industrial capitalism. A certain role here belonged to F. M. Dostoevsky, the author of a number of psychological novels and leads ("poor people", "twin" and others).
The third course in the natural school, represented by the so-called "differences", ideologists of the revolutionary peasant democracy, gives in his work the most clear expression of the trends, which were associated with contemporaries (V.G. Belinsky) with the name of a natural school and opposed the noble aesthetics. Further and sharply, these tendencies showed themselves to N. A. Nekrasov. To the same group, A. I. Herzen must be attributed ("Who is to blame?"), M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin ("confusing business").
8) Constructivism
Constructivism is an artistic direction, originated in Western Europe after the First World War. The origins of constructivism lie in the thesis of the German architect G. Zemper, who argued that the aesthetic value of every artistic work is determined by the correspondence of its three elements: the work, the material from which it is made and the technical processing of this material.
In this thesis, which was subsequently adopted by the functionalists and functionalists-constructivists (L. Wright in America, Ya. J. P. Aud in the Netherlands, V. Gropius in Germany), is put forward to the forefront of the material and technical and material and utilitarian side of the art And, essentially, the ideological side of it is powered.
In the West, constructivist trends during the First World War and in the post-war period were expressed in a variety of directions, more or less "orthodox" interpretative thesis of constructivism. Thus, in France and Holland, constructivism was expressed in Purizme, in the "Aesthetics of Machines", in the "Neo-Plasticism" (Isoiski), an aesthetic formalism of Corbusier (in architecture). In Germany - in the naked cult of things (pseudoconductivity), one-sided rationalism of the Gropius school (architecture), distracted formalism (in a free-free movie).
In Russia, a group of constructivists appeared in 1922. A. N. Chicherin, K. L. Zelinsky, I. L. Selvinsky. Constructivism was originally narrowly a formal direction that puts forward an understanding of the literary work as a design. In the future, the constructivists were freed from this narrow aesthetic and formal slope and put forward significantly wider substantiations of their creative platform.
A. N. Chicherin, around I. L. Selvinsky and K. L. Zelinsky, a number of authors are grouped by a number of authors (V. Inbert, B. Agapov, A. Gablovich, N. Panov), and in 1924 a literary center is organized constructivists (LTCK). In its Declaration, LTCC primarily comes from a statement about the need for art as close as possible in the "Organizational Science Class Organization", in the construction of a socialist culture. From here there is an installation of constructivism on the saturation of art (in particular, poetry) with modern topics.
The main topic, which always attracted the attention of constructivists, can be denoted as follows: "Intelligentsia in revolution and construction". With special attention, stopping at the image of the intellectual in the Civil War (I. L. Selvikinsky, "Commander 2") and in construction (I. L. Selvinsky "Pushtorg"), constructivists are primarily put forward in a painful-exaggerated form its proportion and value under construction. This is especially clear this in the "Pashtorge", where the exclusive specialist of the semi-survey is opposed to a talent communist of Kol, which prevents him from working and bringing him to suicide. Here Paphos technique of work as such overshadows the main social conflicts of modern reality.
This exaggeration of the role of the intelligentsia finds its theoretical deployment in the article of the main theorist of constructivism of the Cornelia of Zelinsky "constructivism and socialism", where it considers constructivism as a holistic worldview of the epoch, transition to socialism, as a condensed expression in the literature of the experienced period. At the same time, again, the main social contradictions of this period Zelinsky are replaced by the struggle of man and nature, pathos of naked technology, interpreted out of social conditions, outside the class struggle. These erroneous provisions of Zelinsky, who caused a sharp rebuff from the Marxist criticism, were far from random and with high clarity opened the social nature of constructivism, which is easy to schedule in the creative practice of the whole group.
A social source that feeds constructivism is undoubtedly the layer of urban petty bourgeoisie, which can be designated as a technical qualified intelligentsia. It is not by chance that in the work of the Selvinsky (who is the largest poet of constructivism) of the first period with undoubtedly, the image of a strong personality, a powerful builder and a conqueror of life, individualistic in its essence, is detected.
In 1930, LCC collapsed, "Literary Brigade M. 1" was formed, announcing himself by organizing transitional to RAPPU (Russian Association of Proletarian Writers), which places his task a gradual transition of travelers to the rails of communist ideology, to the style of proletarian literature and condemning Former errors of constructivism, although also retaining his creative method.
However, the inconsistency and the zigzagness of the promotion of constructivism to the working class gives itself to know here. This is evidenced by the poem of the Selvinsky "Declaration of the Poet Rights". This is confirmed by the fact that the Brigade M. 1, having existed for less than a year, in December 1930, also dismissed, recognizing that he did not allow themselves to task.
9)Postmodernism
Postmodernism in translation with the German language literally means "what follows upgrades." This literary direction appeared in the second half of the 20th century. It reflects the complexity of the surrounding reality, its dependence on the culture of the preceding centuries and information saturation of our time.
Postmodernists did not suit that literature was divided into elitar and mass. Postmodernism opposed all modern in the literature and denied mass culture. The first works of postmodernists appeared in the form of a detective, thriller, fantasy, followed by a serious content.
Postmodernists believed that higher art was over. To move on, you need to learn how to correctly use the lower genres of pop culture: thriller, western, fantasy, fiction, erotica. Postmodernism finds the source of new mythology in these genres. The works are becoming focused on the elite reader, and to the uniability audience.
Signs of postmodernism:
the use of preceding texts as a potential for own works (a large number of quotes, it is impossible to understand the work if you do not know the literature of the previous epochs);
rethinking the elements of the culture of the past;
Multi-level text organization;
Special organization of text (gaming element).
Postmodernism questioned the existence of meaning as such. On the other hand, the meaning of postmodern work is determined by the pathos inherent in it - critical of the mass culture. Postmodernism tries to erase the border between art and life. All existing and ever existed is the text. Postmodernists said that everything was already written before them, which could not come up with anything else and they only remain playing with words, take ready-made (already once and somehow invented, written ideas, phrases, texts and collect works of them. There is no point in that, because the author itself is not in the work.
Literary works are similar to a collage made from incomparable images and combined into a whole uniformity of technology. This technique was named Fastish. This Italian word is translated as a Popourry operator, and in the literature it means a mapping of several styles in one work. In the first stages of postmodernism, the Pastish is a specific form of a parody or selfartment, but then a way of adapting to reality, a way to show the illusory of mass culture.
The concept of intertextuality is associated with postmodernism. This term introduced Y. Kristev in 1967. She believed that history and society could be viewed as text, then culture - a single intertext, which serves as an avnet aster (all texts that precede this) for any newly emerging text, and the individuality is lost here Text that dissolves in quotations. For modernism, a quote thinking is characteristic.
Intertextuality- Presence in the text of two or more texts.
Paratext- The attitude of the text to the title, epigram, afterword, preface.
Mettextuality - It can be comments or reference to the following.
Hypertextuality - Rugging or parody of one text to others.
Architectuality - genre communication of texts.
A person in postmodernism is depicted in a state of complete degradation (in this case, destruction can be understood as a violation of consciousness). There is no character development in the work, the image of the hero appears in the blurred form. This technique calls defocalization. He pursues two goals:
avoid excessive heroic pathos;
Hover in the shadow of the hero: the hero is not put forward on the fore, it is generally not needed in the work.
Bright representatives of postmodernism in literature are J. Faulz, J. Bart, A. Rob-Grièry, F. Sollers, H. Kortasar, M. Pavich, J. Joyce and others.