Give names, or, as they say, stick labels, historical periods are sometimes not only useful, but also a deceptive occupation. It happens that general trends in the development of society extend to the century. They can be distinguished, give them definitions and even, for the convenience, divide into smaller stages and flows, name for any noticeable, typical features for them. However, here is like a trap: no historical period begins and does not end at a specific point in time. The roots of each of them go deep into the past, and the effect extends far beyond historians for convenience. The use of the word "revival" for the period, the center of which is 1500., perhaps misleading more than others, as it leaves too much space for the interpretation of each historian, depending on his inclination and understanding. Jacob Burkhardt, Swiss historian, first analyzing and described this period as a whole, perceived it as a sharp sound of the pipe, proclaiming the beginning of the world of modern. His point of view still shared very many.

Undoubtedly, people who lived in that epoch, clearly realized that they would enter into a new world. The Great Humanist Scientist, Erasmus Rotterdam, who perceives the whole Europe as his country, exclaimed with bitterness: "Immortal God, as I would like to be the young for the new century again, who see my eyes." Unlike many historical names, the term "revival" was caused by some Italian from non-existence precisely when there was a need for it. This word was used about 1550, and soon another Italian called the previous period "Medieval".

Italy was a source of revival, because the very concept of restoration, the birth was renovated, was associated with the opening of the classical world, whose heiress it was. But gradually all of Europe divided this discovery with her. So call the exact date of the beginning and the end of this period is almost impossible. If we are talking about Italy, the initial date should be attributed to the XIII century, and for the northern countries and 1600 will be not late. As a great river, which carries its waters from the source in the south to the north, the revival comes to different countries at different times. Thus, the Basilica of St. Peter in Rome, the construction of which was started in 1506, and the Cathedral of St. Paul in London, which began to build in 1675, both are an example of Renaissance buildings.

In the Middle Ages, the domination of Christian ideology was observed. A man moved to the Renaissance to the center of the world. Humanism had a huge influence. The main task of the era of the Humanists considered the creation of a "new person" than they were actively engaged. The teachings of Humanists, of course, influenced the consciousness of the man of the Renaissance era. This affected the change in morals and life.

The urgency of the chosen topic. The meaning of the word "revival", in my opinion, says for himself: Revival - the beginning of the new world. But, unfortunately, in our time, few people know about the importance of this period, relate to this skeptical. Meanwhile, in the modern world there are many similar to the Renaissance, although they are separated not one century. For example, one of the most pressing problems of our time is the desire for luxury, existed in the Renaissance Epoch ...

The main goal of this work is to study the life and morals of people of the Renaissance.

To achieve the goal, you must perform the following tasks:

• find out what led to changes in the life of all layers of society;
• allocation of the general features of the teachings of humanists and implement them into life;
• study the peculiarities of life during this period;
• consider the peculiarities of the worldview and the worldwasmist in the revival era;
• allocation and general and specific features of the era.

To solve the tasks, the literature of various authors such as Bragin L.M., Ruthenburg V. I., Revyakina N. V. Chamberlin E., Bugardt Ya, et al. But the most appropriate to the topic of the course work are the following sources:

1. General characteristics of the Renaissance

1.1. General features of the era.

Revival raises the values \u200b\u200bof antiquity, returns anthropocentrism, humanism, harmony between nature and man.

The figures of this pore were multifaceted personalities and showed themselves in different fields. Poet Francesco Petracko, writer Giovanni Bokcchcho, Pico della Mirandol, artist Sandro Bhothichelli, Rafael Santi, Sculptor Michelangelo Buonaroti, Leonardo Da Vinci created the Renaissance artistic culture, described a person who believes in their strength.

The Renaissance is considered by researchers of Western European culture as a transition from the Middle Ages to a new time, from the feudal society to bourgeois. The period of the initial accumulation of capital occurs. The concerns of the capitalist industry in the form of manufactory appear. Banking is developing, international trade. There is a modern experimental natural science. The scientific picture of the world is formed on the basis of discoveries, primarily in the area of \u200b\u200bastronomy.

The largest scientists of the epochs of N. Kopery, D. Bruno, Galilee justify the heli-centered view of the world. The era of the formation of modern science begins with the revival, primarily the development of natural knowledge. A peculiar sources of the scientific process of the Renaissance, firstly, antique culture, philosophy, ideas of antique materialists - naturophilosophers, and secondly, Eastern philosophy, which in the XII - XVIII centuries enriched Western European knowledge in the natural sphere.

The culture of Renaissance is the culture of a early burglase society, the formation of a significant impact of the practice of consistent development of the economies of medieval states of states, so that already in the XII - XV centuries, there was a transition from medieval forms of trade and crafts to the early bi-capitalistic forms of life organization.

Special importance to the revival had for the development of art, approval of the principles of realism. The outstanding achievements of the culture of the Renaissance era were stimulated by contacting the ancient heritage, not finally lost in medieval Europe. As already mentioned, the culture of Renaissance most fully embodied in Italy, rich in monuments of ancient architecture, sculptures, decorative and applied arts. Maybe the most striking revival household type was then a fun and frivolous, in-depth and artisticly beautifully pronounced hostel, which we tell the documents of the Platonic Academy in Florence the end of the XV century. Here we find references on tournaments, balas, carnivals, solemn entries, festive feasts and in general about all kinds of adoles even everyday life - summer pastime, dacha life - about the exchange of flowers, verses and madrigals, on ease and grace as in everyday life, so Both in science, eloquence and in general in art, about correspondence, walks, love friendship, about artistic ownership of Italian, Greek, Latin and other languages, about the adoration of the beauty of thought and enthusiasm religions of all times and all nations. It's all about the aesthetic love of antique-medieval values, in turning its own life in the subject of aesthetic admission.

In the Renaissance Epoch, high-cultural secular life is inextricably linked with purely household individualism, which was then spontaneous, irreparable and unlimited. For renaissance culture, a few of its household types are characterized: religious, courtesy, neoplatonic, urban and urban life, astrology, magic, adventure and adventurism.

First of all, consider briefly religious life. After all, all inaccessible objects of religious reverence, requiring an absolute chastity relationship in the medieval Christianity, are in the era of the revival of something very affordable and psychologically extremely close. The same image of the sublime items of this kind acquires naturalistic and Panibrate. A certain type of Renaissance is the court life, which is associated with the "medieval knighthood". Medieval ideas about the heroic protection of sublime spiritual ideals in the face of cultural knighthood (XI-XIII) received unprecedented artistic treatment not only in the form of exquisite behavior of knights, Noah in the form of sophisticated poetry on the paths of growing individualism.

Such a feature of the Renaissance culture, as its reference on "rejuvenation" and the regeneration of time. The constituting element of the socio-artistic consciousness of the Renaissance was a widespread sense of youth, youth, start. His opposite was a figurative understanding of the Middle Ages as autumn. The youth of the Renaissance should be eternal, because the ancient gods, who sought to imitate Renaissance people, never stolely, did not obey the authorities. The myth of youth has similar to other myths (happy childhood, lost paradise, etc.) All features of the original archetype, which is constantly being revived to return as an ideal sample in changed hypostatas in different cultures and at different times. Extremely few cultures, where maturity, experience, charming old age are valued, than youth.

The connection of art and science is one of the most characteristic features of the Renaissance. The truthful image of the world and man should have rely on their knowledge, so the cognitive principle played in the art of this pore, a particularly important role. Naturally, the artists were looking for support in sciences, often stimulating their development. The Renaissance was noted by the appearance of the whole Pleiads of scientists, among which Leonardo da Vinci belongs first place.

All changes in the life of society were accompanied by a wide renewal of culture in the flourishing of natural and accurate sciences, literature in national languages \u200b\u200band, in particular, of the visual art. When the cities of Italy, this update also captured other European countries. The appearance of typography has opened unprecedented opportunities for the spread of literary and scientific works, and more regular and tight communication between countries contributed to the widespread penetration of new artistic flows.

In the context of consideration, it should be noted that the culture of the Renaissance (Renaissance) in its pan-European perspective should be correlated in its origins with that restructuring of feudal socio-political and ideological structures, which had to adapt to the requirements of developed simple commodity production.

The whole measure of the depth of this era of the breakdown of the system of public relations within and on the soil of the feudal system of production is still not fully clarified. However, quite reasonable reason to conclude that we have a new phase in the upstream development of the European Society.

This is a phase in which shifts in the foundations of the feudal method of production required fundamentally new forms of regulating the entire system of power. The political and economic essence of the definition of the Renaissance (XIV-XV centuries) consists of its understanding as a phase of the full heyday of simple commodity production. The society in connection with this was more dynamic, the public division of labor was moved forward, the first tangible steps were made in the secularization of public consciousness, the course of history was accelerated.

1.2. Humanism is the value basis of the Renaissance.

A new human vision comes with the Renaissance Epoch, the assumption is put forward that one of the reasons for the transformation of medieval ideas about a person is in the peculiarities of urban life, dictating new forms of behavior, other ways of thinking.

In the conditions of intensive public life and business activity, a common spiritual atmosphere is created, in which individuality and uncommonness are highly valued. An active, energetic, active, obligated, not so much knowing ancestors, how many efforts, entrepreneurship, the mind, knowledge, and goodwill, comes to the historical advancement. The person begins to see himself in a new way and the world of nature, its aesthetic tastes change, attitude to the surrounding reality and to the past.

A new social layer is formed - humanists - where there was no class sign, where they were appreciated primarily, individual abilities. Representatives of the new secular intelligentsia - Humanists - protect the dignity of man in their works; Approve the value of a person regardless of its public situation; justify and justify his desire for wealth, glory, power, secular titles, pleasure of life; Provide into spiritual culture freedom of judgment, independence in relation to authorities.

The task of upbringing the "new person" is aware of the main task of the era. The Greek Word ("Education") is the most clear analogue of Latin Humanitas (where does the origin of "humanism" come from).

In the era of humanism, Greek and Oriental teachings are returned to life, they turn to magic and teurgy, spreading in some written sources that attributed to the ancient gods and prophets. Reggerer begin to conquer epicureism, staicism and skepticism.

For philosophers of humanism, a person has become a certain plexus of bodily and divine began. The quality of God now belonged to a simple mortal. The man became the crown of nature, all the attention was paid to him. A wonderful body in the spirit of Greek ideals in combination with the Divine soul is the goal that Humanists strive to achieve. With their actions, they tried to introduce a person's ideal.

Humanists tried to embody her creature in practice. Several directions of the practical activity of the humanists can be distinguished: education and education, state activities, art, creative activity.

Organizing scientific circles, academy, arranging disputes, reading lectures, speaking with reports, Humanists sought to attach the society to the spiritual wealth of previous generations. The purpose of pedagogical activities of teachers was the upbringing of a person who would embody humanistic ideals.

Leonardo Bruni, representatives of the so-called civilian humanism, are convinced that only in the conditions of freedom, equality and justice it is possible to exercise the ideal of humanistic ethics - the formation of a perfect citizen who serves the native commune, be proud of it, and acquires happiness in economic prosperity, family prosperity and personal valor . Freedom, equality and justice meant freedom from tyranny.

Humanism had a huge impact on the entire culture of revival. The humanistic ideal of harmonious, endowed with the talent of creation, a heroed man with a special fit, reflected in the Renaissance art of the XV century. Painting, sculpture, architecture that have entered in the first decades of the XV century. On the path of radical transformation, innovation, creative discoveries, developed in the secular direction.

Summing up on this section, it should be noted: the humanists were eager, they sought to be heard, posing their opinion, "clarifying" the situation, because the man of the XV century lost in itself, fell out of one belief system and was not yet established in another. Each humanism worker embodied or tried to embody his theories into life. Humanists did not just believe in an updated happy intellectual society, but also tried to build this society on their own, organizing schools and lectures, explaining their theories of ordinary people. Humanism covered almost all spheres of human life.

2. Key Features of life in the Renaissance Epoch

2.1. Features of the construction of the house outside and inside.

The predominance of stone or wooden construction in the pre-industrial era depended, above all, from natural and geographical conditions and local traditions. In areas where wooden construction prevailed, they begin to build houses of bricks. This meant progress in construction. From the roofing materials were the most commonly tiled and shingle, although the houses were covered with straw, especially in the villages. The city of straw roofs testified of poverty and represented a greater danger due to light flammability.

In the Mediterranean, houses with flat roofs prevailed, north of the Alps - with isochi. The house went outside the street that had more than two or three windows. The land in the urban feature cost expensive, so at home the upwards (at the expense of floors, antlesole, attics), down (semi-pods and basements), deep into the rear premises and extensions). The rooms of one floor can be at different levels and will be connected by narrow ladders, corridors. The house of the ordinary citizen - an artisan or merchant - in addition to the residential premises included a workshop and shop. Immediately lived students and apprentices. The camorks of apprentices and servants were floor above, in the attic. The attic served warehouses. The kitchens were usually located on the first or mixture floor, in many families they served and the dining room. Often at home had an inner house.

City houses of rich citizens were distinguished by spacious and numerous premises. For example, Palazzo XV century families of Medici, Strozzi, Pitti in Florence, Fugger House in Augsburg. The house was divided into a parade, designed for visits, open to an extraneous look, and more intimate - for a family, servants. The lobby is connected to the patio, decorated with sculpture, frontones, exotic plants. On the second floor there were halls for friends and guests. The floor above is the bedrooms of children, women, wardrobe, loggias for household needs and recreation, storerooms. Rooms connected to each other. It was quite difficult to retire. A new type of room appears in Palazzo, intended for privacy: small rooms ("studio"), but in the XV century he has not yet become widespread. In the houses lacked the dismemberment of the space, which reflected not only the state of construction art, but also a certain vital concept. Family holidays purchased public importance here and went beyond the home, family. For celebrations, such as weddings, loggias were intended on the first floor.

Rustic houses were gross, easier, archaic and conservatively conservatively. Usually consisted of one residential premises serving the hill, kitchen and bedroom. Premises for livestock and economic needs were under one roof with residential (Italy, France, North Germany) or apart from him (South Germany, Austria). There appeared at home mixed type - villas.

Much more attention begins to be given to the interior device. The floor of the first floor is covered with stone or ceramic plates. The floor of the second or subsequent floors were settled by boards. Parquet remained a big luxury even in the palaces. In the era of Renaissance, there was a custom sprinkle the floor of the first floor herbs. It found approval from doctors. In the future, carpets or straw mats come to replace the vegetation coating.

Special attention was paid to the walls. They were painted, imitating antique images. There were wallpaper fabrics. They were made of velvet, silk, satin, kamchatka fabric, brocade, embossed fabric, sometimes gilded. Fashion on tapestries began to spread from Flanders. Scenes were served by scenes from antique and biblical mythology, historical events. Tissue trellis used very popularity. Few could afford a similar luxury.

There were cheaper wallpapers. The material for them served the coarse rugs. In the XV century, paper wallpapers appeared. The demand for them became widespread.

Serious problem was lighting. The windows were still small, because the problem was not solved than to cover them. Over time, a monochrome glass was borrowed from the church. It was worth such windows very expensive and did not solve the problem of lighting, although more light and heat came to the house. Sources of artificial lighting served torches, oil lamps, a beacon, wax - and more often, very smoking - candles, fireplace fire and hearth. Glass lamps are appear. Such lighting made it difficult to maintain purity, both at home, so wear and bodies.

The heat was given a kitchen center, fireplace, stoves, brazers. Fireplaces were not available to everyone. In the era of the revival of the fireplace turned into real works of art, richly decorated with sculpture, bas-reliefs, frescoes. The chimney at the fireplace was arranged in such a way that because of a strong traction took a lot of heat. This lack tried to compensate for the use of brazier. Often, the bedroom only was heated. The inhabitants of the house went warmly dressed, even into fur, often caught.

Water pipe, like sewage, in houses were absent. At this time, instead of washing in the morning, even in the highest layers of society, it was customary to wet a wet towel. Public baths from the XVI century become stronger. Researchers explain this fear of syphilis or acute criticism from the Church. At home washed in tubs, tubs, pelvis - usually in the kitchen, where the steam rooms were arranged. Bathrooms appeared in the XVI century. A toilet with a drain of water appeared in England at the end of the XVI century. The toilets were not a rule even in the royal courtyards.

Despite the experienced improvements, the conveniences were introduced in life very slowly. In the era of the Renaissance, success in the area of \u200b\u200bthe home of the dwelling was more notable.

2.2 Features of furnishing at home.

Conservatism was more peculiar to the furniture in the homes of modest wealth than in the rich. The house stopped being a lair, fortress. From the XV century To change monotony, primitiveness, simplicity of the interior comes ingenuity, comfort. From a carpentry case, a carpentry craft was finally separated, the Craftsman's craft began to develop. The number of furniture items has grown. It is decorated with sculpture, carvings, painting, various upholstery. In rich houses, furniture is made from expensive and even rare varieties of wood: black wood, brought from India, ash, walnut, etc. Aristocracy and urban tip sometimes ordered sketches of furniture to artists and architects, because of what furniture items acquired a fingerprint, on the one hand , pronounced individuality, on the other - the general artistic style of the era. The invention of the machine for the production of plywood led to the spread of the equipment of plywood and wooden inlair. In addition to the wooden, the inlays of silver and ivory included in-stroke.

In the era of the revival furniture, as before, placed along the walls. The main thing about the subject of the situation was a bed. In the rich she was high, with a poppet, with lush, decorated sculpture, carvings or painting headboard, canopy or twigrating curtains. On the headboard loved to put the image of Our Lady. Baldahin was intended to protect against insects, but in its folds, bugs and fleas were accumulated, which threatened health. The bed was covered with a closed bedspread or a quilt. The bed was very wide: the whole family was placed on it, sometimes the guests left on it left on it. In poor houses slept on the floor or on the hiracles. The servants slept on straw.

The second after the bed is the object of the situation, as in former times, the chest remained. From the chest gradually formed the object of furniture, resembling a modern sofa: a chest with backs and armrests. The chests are richly decorated with painting, reliefs, saturated with silver. The locks were sophisticated in the manufacture of all sorts of metallic fasteners, keys, locks, including countersight.

Cabinets for clothes have not yet invented, and instead of them, chests, drawers under a high bed or hangers were used. But there were dishwashes and secretaries. The secret, or the office that appeared in the XVI century, was a small locker with a multitude of drawers and double doors. They were richly encrusted.

Tables and chairs, while maintaining the previously approved forms (rectangular, on the X-shaped crosses or four legs) changed their appearance due to a more thorough and exquisite finish.

Especially should be highlighted at the offices and libraries who acquired great importance in the rich dwellings of the Renaissance. While libraries of palaces and rich villas were more public, serving the place of poetic, scientific assemblies, the cabins were more intended for privacy.

The interior has changed not only at the expense of furniture, decoration of walls, ceilings and floors with carpets, tapestries, paintings, painting, wallpaper, etc. Mirrors, clocks, candlesticks, candelabra, decorative vases, vessels and many other useful and useless items were designed to decorate and make a more comfortable and pleasant home life.

The atmosphere of the peasant house remained extremely scarce and satisfied only elementary needs. The furniture was very coarse and heavy, usually manufactured by the owner of the house. The structural disadvantages of peasant furniture tried to refund carvings, sometimes painting on a tree - very traditional.

In the era of revival even more than before, not only the kitchen was acquired, but also a feast: table setting, the order of feeding dishes, the rules of behavior at the table, manners, drinking entertainment, communication. The festival etiquette is a kind of game in which the desire for the ordering of the human dormitory was expressed in ritualized form. The Renaissance Environment particularly contributed to maintaining a gaming position in life as desire for perfection.

The dining room was enriched with new objects and became much more elegant. A variety of dries united under the overall name of the "nem". Sudki's cheeks in the shape of chests, towers, buildings. They were intended for spices, wines, cutlery. Heinrich III is French into one of these oil clan gloves and fan, the vessels for wine were called the "fountain", had a different shape and necessarily the cranes below. Tripods served for dishes. The honorable place on the tables occupied solonks and cannons from precious metals, stone, crystal, glass, faience. The Vienna Art-Historical Museum stores the famous Solonka, made for Francis I Benvenuto Chellin.

Plates, dishes and drink vessels were made by metal: kings and nobility - from silver, gold-plated silver, and sometimes of gold. The Spanish Aristocrat believed below its dignity to have less than 200 silver plates in the house. From the XVI century The demand for tin dishes, which they learned to handle and decorate not worse than gold and silver. But a particularly important change can be considered distribution from the XV century. Fayans's dishes, the secret of the manufacture of which was discovered in the Italian city of Faenz. More furnishings made of glass - one-color and color.

Often, vessels gave the shape of animals, people, birds, shoes, etc. Separate non-burdensome person ordered for their fun companies very frivolous and even erotic in the form of a vessel. Fantasy Udalts Masters was inexhaustible: Cups were invented, which with the help of mechanisms moved on the table or increased in the amount, Cups with clock, etc. The folk medium used the coarse simple wooden and clay dishes.

Europe has long met a spoon; Early information about the fork go to the XI-XII centuries. But how did you use all this abundance of cutlery? The knife still remained the main tool at the table. Big knives cut meat on common dishes, from which everyone took for himself a piece with his knife or hands. It is known that Anna Austrian hands took meat stew. And although napkins were served in the best houses and almost after each dish of guests and the owners were applied to the dishes with flavored water for washing the hands, the tablecloth had to change more than once during the lunch. The honorable audience did not hesitate to wipe their hands about them.

The plug passed on before the Italians. Using forks by several guests at the courtyard of the French king Heinrich II served as a matter of coarse ridiculation. No better was the case with glasses and plates. Still told the custom to put one plate for two guests. But it happened that the soup continued to draw their spoon of soup.

Greek and Roman traditions came toval about the Renaughter's epoch feasts. Sotrazniki enjoyed in a pleasant society with excellent food, tasty cooked and beautifully filed, music, theatrical spectacles, conversation. An important role was played by the entourage of festive meetings. Most of them took place in the home setting, in the halls. The interior on this occasion was specifically executed. The walls of the hall or loggia were taken away with fabrics and tapestries, rich sewing, flowers and laurel garlands, seized ribbons. Garlyands decorated the walls and framed family emblems. The main wall was placed with the "parade" kitchenware from precious metals, stone, glass, crystal and faience.

In the hall, there were three tables in the form of the letter "P", leaving in the middle of the space for both the pedicchers and fun of the dishes. Tables were covered with beautiful, richly embroidered tablecloths in several layers.

Guests have searched from the outside of the table - sometimes pairwise ladies with cavaliers, sometimes separately. At the main table, the owner of the house and high guests were located. In anticipation of the meal, those present saw a light wine, climbed it with dry fruit, listened to music.

The main idea pursued by the organizers of the lush feasts is to show the magnificence, the wealth of the family, her power. From the banquet could depend on the fate of the upcoming marriage, which has a goal to unite prosperous families, or the fate of the business agreement, etc. Wealth and power were demonstrated not only before, equal, but also in front of commoners. For this it was just convenient to organize lush peirs in the loggia. The petty people could not only be attempting on the magnificence of the power of the property, but also to join him. It was possible to listen to cheerful music, dance, take part in theatrical formulation. But the most important thing is, "on the dammer" to drink and eat, because it was customary to distribute the remaining food to the poor.

The pastime at the table in the company became customary, widely spread in all layers of society. Taverns, Tavern, Standing courtyards distracted visitors about; Monotonicity of domestic life.

The named forms of communication, no matter how different from each other, testify that the society overcomed to the former relative closure and became more open and communicative.

2.4. Features of the kitchen.

XVI - beginning of the XVII century. Carefully did not change the power compared to the XIV-XV centuries, although the first consequences of great geographical discoveries have already begun to affect Europeans' food. Western Europe has not yet been freed from fear before hunger. There were still great differences in the nutrition of the "tops" and "lower houses" of society, peasants and citizens.

The food was rather monotonous. About 60% of the diet occupied carbohydrates: bread, pellets, different porridges, soups. The main cereals were wheat and rye. Bread of the poor was distinguished from the bread of rich. The last bread was wheat. The peasants almost did not know the taste of wheat bread. Their dot was rye bread from the flour of a bad grinding, sifted, with the addition of rice flour, which wealthy was beaten.

An important addition to grain was legumes: beans, peas, lentils. From the pea even baked bread. With peas or beans usually prepared stewed meat.

Until the XVI century The range of vegetables and fruits grown in the gardens and the children of Europeans, compared with the Roman era, has not changed significantly. Thanks to Arabs, the Europeans met citrus: oranges, lemons. Almond came from Egypt, apricots from the east.

The results of great geographical discoveries in the Renaissance era only began to affect European cuisine. A pumpkin, zucchini, mexican cucumber, sweet potatoes, beans, tomatoes, peppers, cocoa, corn, potatoes have appeared in Europe. With unequal speed, they applied in different areas and social layers.

Fresh food in large quantities seasoned garlic and onions. As seasonings were widely used celery, dill, sometimes, coriander.

From fats in the south of Europe, vegetable, in the north of animal origin, were more common. Vegetable oil was released from olives, pistachios, almonds, walnuts and cedar nuts, chestnuts, flax, hemp, mustard.

In Mediterranean Europe, meat consumed less than in North. It is not only a hot climate of the Mediterranean. Due to the traditional lack of feed, grazers, etc. There were less livestock there. At the same time, in Hungary, rich pastures and famous meat breeds of cattle, meat consumption was the highest in Europe: an average of about 80 kg per person per year (against about 50 kg in Florence and 30 kg in Siena in the XV century. ).

It is difficult to overestimate the value of fish in the power of that time. Fresh, but especially salty, smoked, dried fish was noticeably complemented and diversified the table, first of all in the days of numerous long posts. For the inhabitants of the coast of the seas Fish and seafood gifts were hardly the main food.

For a long time, Europe was limited in sweet, as Sugar appeared only with Arabs and cost very expensive, so it was available only to the well-waters of society.

From drinks first place traditionally occupied grape wine. His consumption forced poor water quality. Wine was given even to children. Cypriot, Rhine, Moselle, Tokay, Malvasia, Majere, Malara, Malaga, Malaga, enjoyed a high reputation. In the south, natural wines were preferred, in the north of Europe, in a cooler climate - fastened; And over time, addicted to vodka and alcohol, which for a long time treated drugs. Truly folk drink, especially north of the Alps, was beer, although the rich and know from good beer. In Northern France, the beer compete was Cider. Cider enjoyed success predominantly in common man.

From the new drinks spreading to the Epoch of the Renaissance, it should be mentioned first of all about chocolate. Coffee and tea penetrate Europe only in the first half of the XVII century. Chocolate found adherents in the highest layers, for example, Spanish society in the second half of the XVI century. He was attributed to healing properties, as a means against dysentery, cholera, insomnia, rheumatism. However, and were afraid. In France in the XVII century. Rumors spread that black children appear on the chocolate.

The main advantage of food in the Middle Ages was saturated and abundance. On the holiday, it was necessary to find it so that later in hungry days it was something to remember. Although wealthy people did not have to be afraid of hunger, their table was not distinguished by sophistication.

The Renaissance era contributed notable changes to European cuisine. A replacement of unbridled gluttony comes exquisitely, thinly presented abundance. Caring is not only a spiritual, but also about the bodily leads to the fact that food, drinks and their cooking attract more attention, and it is not ashamed. The modes are entitled to the feast, gastronomic books appear. Their authors sometimes were humanists. Educated people in society are discussing old - antique and modern recipes.

Meat dishes, as before, were prepared a wide variety of sauces with all sorts of seasonings, did not regret the expensive oriental spices: nutmeg, cinnamon, ginger, carnations, peppers, European saffron, etc. The use of spices was considered prestigious.

New recipes appear. Some directly indicate a connection with geographic discoveries (for example, an Indian recipe for Soup from Zabachkov, who fell into Spain in the XVI century). In others, the echoes of modern events are heard (for example, a dish called the head of the Turk, known in the same Spain in the XVI century).

In the XV century In Italy, confectionery prepared still pharmacists. In their institutions it was possible to find cakes, biscuits, cakes, all sorts of cakes, candied flowers and fruits, caramel. Products made of marzipan were figurines, triumphal arches, as well as entire scenes - bucolic and mythological.

From the XVI century The center of culinary art gradually moved from Italy to France. The wealth and sophistication of French cuisine was admired even sophisticated in the gastronomy of Venetians. It was possible to eat tasty, not only in the elected society, but also in the Paris Tavern, where, according to one foreigner, "For 25 Ecu, you will be given to a chowder from Manna Heaven or Roast from Phoenix."

It became important not only than feeding guests, but also how to file a cooked dish. The so-called "showing dishes" received a lot of distribution. Of various, often inedible materials, figures of real and fantastic animals and birds, castles, towers, pyramids, which served as containing various evaches, especially pate, were manufactured. Nurembergian confectioner Hans Shneider at the end of the XVI century. Invented a huge pate, inside which rabbits, hares, squirrels, small birds were hidden. In the solemn moment, the pate was opened, and all his livelihood for the fun had disassembled and flew out of it in different directions. However, in general in the XVI century. Rather, there is a tendency to replace "showing" dishes with real.

Summing up on this section, it should be noted that the life of European countries has changed significantly compared to the medieval. The external parties of life were most rapidly developed: home improvement, its furniture. For example, begin to build houses from bricks, houses appear with inner courtyards, but much more attention begins to be given to the interior device. From the XV century To change monotony, primitiveness, simplicity of the interior comes ingenuity, comfort. The interior has changed not only at the expense of furniture, decoration of walls, ceilings and floors with carpets, tapestries, paintings, painting, wallpaper, etc. Mirrors, clocks, candlesticks, candelabra, decorative vases, vessels and many other useful and useless items were designed to decorate and make a more comfortable and pleasant home life. In the innovation, although they arose, but, unfortunately, were introduced slowly. The Renaissance is the era of great geographical discoveries, therefore changes were observed in the nutrition system. Europe appeared pumpkin, zucchini, mexican cucumber, sweet potatoes (batt), beans, tomatoes, peppers, cocoa, corn, potatoes, thanks to the Arabs, Europeans also met with citrus: oranges, lemons, but not all immediately entered the European diet .

3. Features of the worldview and world-standing in the mentality of the average man in the era of the Renaissance

3.1. Features of urban life.

The city was a scene, at which, with all honest people, the fact that now is going to the silence of the cabinets. Details rushed into the eyes, affecting their variability: the irregularities of buildings, eccentric strokes and coat of costumes, countless goods that were produced directly on the streets - all this attached the brightness that was missing in the monotony of modern cities. But there was some homogeneity, the merger of groups, proclaimed the internal unity of the city. In the 20th century, the eye was already accustomed to the separation created by the growth of cities: the movement of pedestrians and cars occurs in different worlds, the industry is separated from commerce, and both are separated by space from residential areas, which, in turn, are divided depending on the consistency of their inhabitants. The city dweller can live all his life, and not seeing how the bread, which he eats, or how to bury the deceaseders. The more the city became, the stronger the man was distinguished from his fellow citizens, while the paradox of loneliness in the middle of the crowd was not an ordinary phenomenon.

In the city hall with the walls with the population, say, 50 thousand people, where most houses were pitiful shacks, the lack of space encouraged the desire to spend more time in public. The shopkeeper sold goods from almost the stall, through a small window. The shutters of the first floors were made on the hinges to quickly fold, forming a shelf or a table, that is, the counter. He lived with his family in the upper rooms at home and, only significantly rich, could keep a separate store with clarifiers, and live in the garden suburb himself.

A skillful artisan used the lower floor at home and under the workshop, sometimes immediately exposing its products for sale. Craftsmen and merchants were very inclined to exercise herdness: in every city there were its own weaving street, a meat row, his bailovenia. Dishonest people were punished publicly, on the square, where they earned their lives, that is, in humans. They were tied to a shameful pillar, and unfit products burned with their feet or hung them on the neck. The Winegown, which made bad wine, were forced to drink a lot of his quantity, and the rest poured him on his head. Rybnika forced a sniff fish to sniff or even walked his face and hair.

At night, the city was immersed in complete silence and darkness. A wise man tried not to go out late on the street and with the onset of darkness. Passerspit, covered by the guards at night, was to get ready to convincingly explain the cause of his suspicious walking. There were no such temptations that could put out an honest person from the house at night, because public entertainment ended with the sunset, and the manons adhered to Skopidom's habit to go to bed along with the sunset. The working day continued from dawn to sunset left a little forces for rapid night fun. With a wide development of printed business in many homes included in the custom of reading the Bible. Another homemade entertainment was a musication for those who could afford to purchase a musical instrument: lute, or Viola, or flute, as well as singing for those who did not have money for it. Most people spent brief leisure hours between dinner and sleep in conversations. However, the lack of evening and night entertainment with interest was fill in the day for the public account. Frequent church holidays reduced the number of working days in the year to the figure, perhaps lower than today.

The days of the posts were observed strictly and maintained the power of the law, but the festive were literally understood. They not only included liturgy, but turned around with rapid fun. These days, the cohesion of citizens appeared visually in crowded religious processes, cropsticks. There were little observers then, because everyone sought to take part in them. Albrecht Durer, an artist, witnessed this procession in Antwerp - it was on the day of the Assumption of the Virgin, "... and the whole city, despite the ranks and classes, there gathered there, each dressed in the best dress, respectively, his rank. All guilds and classes were their signs for which they could be found. In the intervals carried huge expensive candles and three long staple tubes from silver. There were still made on German man drums and twins. They are loudly and noisyly droopy and beat ... There were grazines and embroidery, painters, bricklayers and sculptors, carpentry and carpenters, sailors and fishermen, weaves and tailors, bakers and leathermen ... Truly workers of all kinds, as well as many artisans and different people who earn their feed. Arrows with guns and crossbows, riders and infantry were shilled behind them. But before all their religious orders went ... She took part in this procession and a large crowd of widows. They supported themselves with their work and complyed with special rules. They were from head to feet dressed in white clothes, stitched specifically for this case, it was grieving on them ... Twenty people carried the image of the Virgin Mary with the Lord by our Jesus, luxuriously dressed. In the course of the procession, many wonderful things were shown, perfectly represented. Talled vans, on which ships and other structures, full of people in masks. They marched the troupe, depicting the prophets in order and scene from the New Testament ... From the beginning and until the end, the procession lasted for more than two hours while I got to our house. "

Miracles, such admiring Durer in Antwerp, would charm him and in Venice, and in Florence, because the Italians treated religious holidays as a form of art. At the feast of the body of Christ in Viterbo, in 1482, the whole procession was divided into sites, for each of which was answered by any Cardinal or the Supreme Oven of the Church. And everyone sought to surpass the other, decorating his plot in expensive drapes and supplied his stage, on which Mysteries were played, so in general it was in the series of plays about the death and resurrection of Christ. The scene used in Italy for the formulation of the Mysteries was the same as in the whole of Europe: a three-story building, where the upper and lower floor served as heaven and hell, and the main average platform portrayed the Earth.

Another favorite representation is three ages of a person. Each earthly or supernatural event was played in all details. The Italians did not work on the literary content of these scenes, preferring to spend money on the magnitude of the spectacle, so that all allegorical figures were the creations of straight and superficial and only proclaimed the high-footing empty phrases without any conviction, thus moving out of the play in the performance. But the magnificence of scenery and costumes was delayed, and this was enough.

None in either the city of Europe has not been manifested as brightly and with such a brilliance of civil pride, as in the annual wedding ritual with the Sea, which was committed by the ruler of Venice, a strange mixture of trading arrogance, Christian gratitude and Eastern symbolism. Beginning of his ritual festival takes from 997 after the Nativity of Christ when Venetian's hypothesian before the battle performed the blame by pouring it into the sea. After the victory, she was celebrated on the next ascension day. The huge state barge, called the "Bougentaur", was taken out of the bay in the oars and the same point, and there he threw a ring in the sea, declaring that this action was combined with a marriage with the sea, that is, with the elements that made him great.

Military competitions of the Middle Ages continued almost unchanged and in the Renaissance Epoch, although the status of their participants has slightly decreased. So, for example, Nuremberg's fishing arranged their own tournament. Archers' competitions were very popular, although onions as a weapon disappeared from the battlefield. But the loved ones remained holidays, whose roots went to the pre-Christian Europe. I have not been able to eradicate them, the church is some of them, so to speak, dubbed, that is, he appropriated, and others continued to live in a constant form, both in Catholic and Protestant countries. The greatest of them was the May day, the pagan meeting of spring.

On this day and the poor and rich leave and went beyond the city to rush colors, dance and dance. Being the May Lord was a great honor, but also expensive pleasure, because all festive expenses were located on it: it happened that some men had disappeared from the city to avoid this honorary role. The holiday brought a part of the countryside, life in nature, so close and so distant. Throughout Europe, the change of seasons was celebrated by folk festivals. They differed from each other with details and names, however, the similarity was stronger differences.

3.2. Features of secular life.

Europe's courtyards differed from each other, both the luxury of the situation and household items. The North lagged behind the south not only in the rules of etiquette and decorations, but even in ordinary hygiene. Back in 1608, the dining force caused surprise in England. "As I understand it, this method of feeding is used in Italy everywhere and every day ... Because the Italians tolerate can not touch their food with fingers, since the fingers do not always have the same clean." In 1568, Thomas Sacquille, an English Lord, sharply objected to the duties to host the Cardinal, drawing a miserable picture of life in his possessions. He did not have precious dishes at all, the glasses presented for inspecting the royal representatives were rejected by them, as low-quality, tableclothes also caused ridicule, because "they wished Damascus, and I had nothing but simple flax." He had only one spare bed, which he served as a cardinal, and to provide the bed bishop, the maid of Lord's wife were forced to sleep on the floor. He himself had to borrow with Cardinal his pelvis and a jug for washing and therefore walk incente. A very sad picture, if you compare with the conditions in which a simple English nobleman lived in Salerno in the Italian Marquis. His room was taped by a parol and velvet. He and his companions were provided with separate beds, and one was covered with a silver cloth, and the other velvet. Pillows, rollers for them and sheets were clean and with a magnificent embroidery. The lack of purity is the first thing that the Italian paid attention was paid through the Alps. A young Italian nobleman, Massimiano Sforza, brought up in Germany, acquired there the most sloping habits, and no mockery of men-male, nor nobles of women could make him change underwear. Heinrich VII English was famous for seeing his legs barely only once a year, on the eve of the new year. In a society, where most people went unwashed, not many complained or paid attention to the prevailing smells. Nevertheless, the wide and widespread use of the spirits suggests that the stench often exceeded all the limits of tolerance. Spirits used not only for the body, but also for those subjects that were handed over to hand. A bouquet of flowers, presented as a gift, had not only symbolic meaning, but also quite real value.

A heavy, richly trimmed costume of that time also hampered personal hygiene. The medieval outfit was relatively simple. Of course, there were many options depending on taste and the wealth of the owner, but, in essence, it consisted of a free monochrome robe like a row. However, with the arrival of the XV and XVI centuries, the world of clothes broke out a rainbow bright colors and a fantastic variety of styles. Without satisfying the luxury of brocades and velvet, the rich was covered with pearls and gold embroidery, precious stones sat on the fabric so tightly that it was not visible. The primary, the primary colors that were often contrasting are favorite. At the beginning of the XVI century, Europe overwhelmed the fashion on the mute, which logically flowed out of the usual use contrasting colors for different clothing items. Separate parts of one suit crumbled from the tissue of different colors. One leg of the stans-stocking was red, the other is green. One sleeve - purple, the other - orange, and the robe itself could be at all of the third color. Each mod had his personal tailor, who came up with the styles, so balls and assemblies allowed to admire the widest variety of outfits. Fashion changed with an unprecedented quick speed. London Chronist in the notes of the reign of Elizabeth I notes: "Forty years ago in London there were no twelve haberdasters who traded faded hats, glasses, belts, swords and daggers, and now every street, from Tower to Westminster, is filled with them and their shops , glittering and shining glass. " In all countries, moralists grieved about the decline of modern morals and monkey imitation of a foreign fashion.

Take a look at the sophisticated cavaller,

He looks only a monkey fashion.

He marches the streets, jumped,

Everyone is apt in the nose from France Doublet, Stockings German

And a hat from Spaniard, Blade Tol Food and Short Cloak,

Your Italian collar and shoes

From Flanders who arrived.

There was no such object of clothing or accessories that would not affect the feverish desire for originality. It is not worth trying to list all the modes of fashion - it changed continuously. The basis of a male costume was a doublet and pants stockings. The first was tight clothing, something resembling a modern vest, and the last - trousers or breeches, passing into stockings. But this basic topic was played in a variety of variations. The sleeves have become removable, and each cost a fortune. The modest inch strip of white canvas at the gate has turned into annel, the monstrous ruffle size from the wheel. Stockings pants were transformed into short sharovars, curved or with a shotboard, and the other incredible sizes. Cuts appeared. It was a fashion, not descended from above, and rising in the public staircase, because the Swiss-mercenaries were brought first. Dublet or Sharovar literally stripped with a variety of cuts, so that the fabric is visible, the bottom-up, and the other color. The Germans brought this fashion to the extreme, invented by unusually baggy sharovars, on which the fabrics were 20 yards and more. They fell free stripes from the hips to the knees. Women were no less extravagant. Their dresses opened all the breasts, but concluded the rest of the body into a kind of cell. Court portraits of that time demonstrate noble ladies frozen in inhuman fossils, with the waist, pulled almost to the full inability, and skirt, lush, like a tent.

He was still in the "Gennin", a headdress on a solid paper frame or a stancy of the canvas height in yard, covered with silk, a brocha or other expensive cloth. He was complemented by a long veil, dropped from the top to the spots. The most pretentious scooped veil dragged on the floor. In some palaces, it was necessary to lift the sickness so that the fashionable lady could go into the door.

Addiction to the scope has spread to all sectors of society. Rural slaughter dropped his gloomy household clothes for the sake of a cheap gloss and became the subject of common ridicule. "Now you don't distinguish in the view of the servant in the Kabachea from Lord, the dishwasher from the notable lady." This kind of complaint sounded everywhere.

There was a share of truth here, because with an increase in the welfare of the middle class and increasing the requirements for the living conditions of the poor, boastful walks in the best dress ceased to be the privilege of one class. To preserve explicit social differences, attempts were made to revive the laws regulating the costs. They were scrupulously painted, which can and which could not wear different classes of society. Elizabeth English forbade vessels to wear balls and crinolines. In France, to have clothes made from gold and silver brocade, only the faces of royal blood were allowed. In Florence, ordinary women were not allowed to wear fur and buttons of a certain form made from a number of materials. These laws immediately under adoption were universal rejugation and were not executed. They were accepted again, inventing other types of prohibitions and punishments, but they did not pay attention again. The restraining factor remained only the volume of the wallet. Entertainment of the court reflected the moods and tastes of the sovereign. Unhurried intellectual conversations, in the memoirs of Castiglion, delivered joy to Urbinsky yard, was not everywhere were a favorite pastime. The Germans found pleasure in noisy drip; Drunkenness was national art. They also liked the stormy dances, which caused the annoyance and uks of the trident. However, such an expert of good manners, like Montaen, was pleasantly surprised by the heartfelt, but the good manner of dancing, which was watched in Augsburg. "The gentleman kisses the hand of the ladies and puts her hand on her shoulder and attracts her to himself so close that they turn her cheek to her cheek.

The lady puts his hand on his shoulder, and so the manner they circling around the room. Men have their own places, separate from the ladies, and together they are not mixed. " In all likelihood, it was the participation of ladies in the court festivities softened the morals.

The arrival of the Kurtisani, a beautiful exquisite woman, ready to decorate any meeting, was quite ordinary. Many of them were widely educated and able to support the conversation on any topic. Often they contained their own yard, which visited the great world of this and found entertainment and rest from public affairs, remaining in their circle. Kurtisanka did not push out, and supplemented his wife. Marriages continued to conclude by calculation, because no reasonable family could afford valuable land and the ownership of the random union. At the same time, a young aristocrat, fulfilling his duty and concluding marriage sometimes with an unknown special, not at all saw the reasons to abandon the pleasures on the side. The society was with him according to. Nevertheless, since women began to receive the best education, they were able to play a more active role in public life, and the wife moved from the back plan, which was held for a long time, on an extercane.

Mandatory and generally accepted custom was arranged in honor of an important guest of an exquisite meal. The Renaissance Yard with delight accepted him and even improved, turning into a certain performance with accessories, more appropriate on stage than in the table hall. It is possible that close arts of the opera and ballet were born from such "dining decorations". They turned the scenes in some optional addition. They originated, apparently, in Italy, but again, it was in Burgundy that they became a magnificent "staged" peers, insulting morality and admiring secular people.

The most luxurious of them was Pheasant's feast (1454). A year earlier, Konstantinople fell under the onslaught of the Turks, and this feast was to recover the spark of the last crusade. The new crusade did not take place, and there is a kind of irony that the famous Pheasan Pheasant Pheasan was to revive the dreams of the Middle Ages.

All the details were kept in a strict secret before the hour, when after three days of modest paths of privileged guests were not introduced into a huge hotel-business-Sall. It was in January, and the hall was flooded by the sea of \u200b\u200blight from the countless number of candles and torches. The servants dressed in the gloomy black or gray livery shaded the gold and the crimson, the atlas, velvet and the passage of the guests. There were three tables covered with silk Damascus, every huge size, because they should also serve the scene. Long before the start of the Pir himself, diners walked around the hall, admiring, so to speak, concomitant spectacles. On the duke table, the model of the church with the bell tower, where four musicians were located. On the same table is located a ship with a full snap and a team. It was still a fountain of glass and precious stones. A huge cake accommodate 28 musicians. Mechanical animals slid according to elegantly made forests. The actors portrayed revived proverbs. During the meal, the treat was descended from the ceiling, but the guests could hardly, not distracting, enjoy at least one variable dishes: each was accompanied by 16 interludes: the performances of juggler, singers, acrobats, a falcon hunt with living birds was even played in the middle of the hall. On this scene, presented a complex stage of the "History of Jazon", with fire-hazing dragons, bulls and armed warriors. But all this was only a prologue to the central masterpiece: Moluba Constantinople about help. A giant dressed by Saracin appeared, leading to an elephant, on the back of which a woman squeezed in a traw. She portrayed the church, who came to the duke to tearfully ask for the help of her lost city. After the funeral chants, Gerold came out with live pheasant in his hands. The knights had a longtime custom: to fix the poultry unreasonable eating poultry, which was considered noble (peacock, heron or pheasant). The symbolic rite was in this case somewhat changed, and after the oath, the birds were released by the bird to the will. The solemn meeting was completed by the ball.

Chess and bones, competitions in archery, tennis, cards and ball games, singing and gambling - all these were favorite court entertainment of that time.

Even the most enlightened ruler without rapidly captured large pieces of land for their own needs. The subjects of such a rigid sovereign had every reason to curse the remnants of the barbaric jellies. In order to maintain future prey for hunting, the prince introduced the harsh laws, even appointed death with those who illegally killed the guarded game. Birds and animals flourished, ravagering or sowing, causing much more harm than one hunt. The sovereign is not hunted alone: \u200b\u200bhe could decide to spend a few days in the corner of the country who brought him a large retinue and solving state affairs right in the field.

Night people and dances were replaced by day gambling fun, which was one of the visual contrasts of public life of that time. Not far from sparkling hunting houses, where they having fun and sang, stood the wretched chicken of the peasant, from where, in essence, and traveled funds for the richness of the rich.

3.3. Features of domestic life.

At home, reaching the old cities of Europe medieval flavor today, almost always belong to the merchants. These are solid buildings whose type was to demonstrate the wealth and reliability of their owners, and therefore survive them. Disappear in the centuries of the huts of the poor, the Palace of Rich is becoming a museum or municipality, and the House of the merchant often remains just a house. The owner proud of them: it was a visual testimony of his success. Artists who wrote his portrait in luxurious clothing, depicted in the background details of the situation with the same thoroughness as the features of his face. And it is not at all by chance that the majority of interiors belong to the houses of northern merchants. Even the Italians who are accustomed to the wasteful luxury of the yards of their sovereigns, recognized that their counterparts lived as a prince, rich in the income of ports along the coast of the Atlantic and Baltic. And just like, patronizing artists, I was looking for a fame and immortality of the prince, the merchants were craving for this ... even if Ironically, the fate of the house was experiencing forgotten names of the owners.

The buildings were usually built by two-storey. Although in big cities or where the earth was too expensive, they could raise three or more floors. The main door is a powerful barrier with iron, equipped with a massive lock and grades with chains.

Such a door was able to withstand and kept with the direct attack if necessary. Everyone tried to protect himself and his property. The door opened immediately to the main room, and the inside of the house - it can be seen at first glance - it was a single room, divided into smaller premises with wooden partitions. There was no possibility, and the needs in personal privacy, some kind of privacy. The rooms were adjacent directly to each other, - the corridor eating space could only be used in very large buildings. The bedroom at the same time served as a living room, it was generally accepted, and family members or even the guests casually went around bed, empty or busy. In rich houses, the bed was a massive structure, an almost small room. In general, in the XVI century, the bed with a canopy became a significant step forward in comparison with bulky and high, open on all sides of the beds of the previous days.

The bed from all sides hid the curtains, not only defending people from drafts, but also who gave them some share of privacy. Under it was usually kept a bed of a smaller size, which was put forward for the night for a child or servant.

Other rooms of the first floor also played a double role. A separate dining room appeared much later and only in the houses of the rich. And they prepared, and served food in the same room.

Easy meals persisted until the end of the XVI century. On the day ate twice: dinner at 10 am and dined at 5 pm. The number of dining rooms and devices was limited. The same plate, knife and spoon used for all change of dishes. The glass was rare, usually drank from mugs and metal cups. In the middle of the XVI century, drinking chocolate appeared, and a little later, coffee and tea, but a lot of time passed before they penetrated the lower layers of society. Generally accepted drinks for women and men of all ages and classes were El and Light Wine. Galon per day was considered a reasonable amount of drunk, and they drank them soon as necessary than at will. In cities, like on ships, it was almost impossible to find good clean water.

According to modern concepts, the home environment seems very scarce, however, unlike previous centuries, specialized exquisite furniture appeared. Instead of simple tables like "Boards on goats" and benches began to make heavy coupling tables and separate chairs, often skin-grown. A simple chest has become the main object of furniture. In the absence of voluminous chulads or wall cabinets, we needed standing, freely moved cabinets containers for clothes, linen and even dishes. They occupied a lot of space in the rooms, and naturally, their appearance was given great importance. These cabinets were decorated with rich carvings, especially in Germany and England, they painted them in Italy. Wonderful works of the Renaissance are "Cassons" - the chests that bride took with them as a dowry.

Paintedly decorated necessary items and proudly exhibited atmosphere were useless were an indicator of new wealth, an overlooking society. After ensuring life, it remains most necessary enough money for pampering, wasteful consumption that has become a sign of a traded traded society. The medieval homeowner was impaired by cancer as the sole decoration of the house. His descendant scattered around the rooms a lot of various attractive expensive baubles. The covered walls of the tapestries were not just expensive, but had practical value. However, jugs and vases of precious metals, a couple of mirrors, wall plates and medallions, heavy, luxuriously twisted books on carved tables ... All this should have been demonstrated to the world that the owner of the house managed to send part of the European Gold Flood into his pocket.

3.4. Religion.

Attempts to conduct local reforms were made in Europe more than once. Some themselves went to no, some were cores like heresy, others found a path to church and after receiving recognition there. Great movements often arose without leader and leadership, being spontaneous by the rebellion of people brought to despair with natural or man-made catastrophes. They appealed to God as the last hope. Such were huge processions of flaglalates, swept over Europe in the years of black death. They took part in them a huge number of people that the authorities had no opportunity to suppress them, and the Church of Wisely did not go against the flow and sailed with him until he went to a wan. The church could afford it, because these mass emotions did not have the goal and could be directed to harmless bed. However, the movements with the leader were raised again and again to formulate shapeless hopes and fears of led themselves, which threatened the existing routine, and spiritual and worldly. Two such leaders were born through generation from each other. Both were monks. One - Italian Dzhirolamo Savonarola, the other - German Martin Luther. The Italian on a short moment achieved an absolute political and spiritual power within the city of Florence, but he cummed by the death of a criminal offense. The German almost reluctantly turned out to be a champion and defender of faith for half of Europe.

Savonarola came to power in Florence during the next riots. Medici were expelled, the citizens were redistered, and the threat of the French invasion hung over Italy. People desperately needed some kind of leaders, the expressive of their aspirations, and they found him in the face of the monk-Dominican market, who had already made a huge work on cleaning his monastery of San Marco from obscenities and vice, which now appeared, the integral part of the monastic life . He was not attractive, nor externally, nor speech. The expressive portrait of the work of Fra Angelico, whom he drew into his faith, shows us a strong face, but ugly, with thick lips, a big hook nose and burning eyes. The reviews of contemporaries about his sermons indicate that they were ordinary, and in content, and by execution. But the Italians are accustomed to brilliant speakers that utter passionate sermons with cold perfection. These speeches impressed the listeners while they lasted, but forgotten shortly after they were uttered. However, no one could doubt the sincerity of Savonarol's speeches, in the absolute conviction, with which he warned Italy about the wrath of anger of the Lord. His prophecies and predictions brought him glory, separated far beyond Florence. Lorenzo di Medici came up with him, was warned that he would die for a year ... and died in the same year. In the distant Rome Pope Alexander VI Borgia, who embodied all the vices and villains of the papacy, took note of the hot-tempered monk, as his attacks on corruption in the church became all sharper.

However, temporarily Savonarola was safe among the inhabitants of Florence. He branded them for immorality, and they flocked the crowds to his sermons. He ordered them to clean their homes from the devilish baubles, and they burned the precious jewelry on the main square. It was an autodfefe, but not people, but things. People gathered in a pile of perfume, mirrors, wigs, musical instruments, carnival masks ... Even books with verses not only pagan poets, but also a respectable Christian Petrarch. This huge bunch was not just a kind of incision of the art of the Renaissance, but also had a significant monetary value. Reformed zeal passed into fanaticism. Moreover, one of the unpleasant parties was the piles of "Holy Children", sneaking around the city, looking for sheltered art objects and baubles of the devil.

Florentine refused their civil constitution, for the centuries shed blood to the centuries. Christ was declared the king of the city, and Savonarola his vicar. The inevitable reaction was followed: in just a year after a triumphant autodfe, his power collapsed. People, betrayed him with powerful enemies, who were just waiting for the moment. He admitted that he was mistaken that his vision and prophecies were false, and was first hanged, and then burned on the same Square, where he believed that he had witnessed the celebration of the Lord over the whole world.

Nineteen years later, after Savonarola's ashes threw Arno to the River, another monk-Dominican drove in Germany, fulfilling the role of a peddler of spiritual goods. His name was Johann Tetzel, and he sold paper sheets with a printed promise of salvation from sins in exchange for gold. Pope at the time was the Lion X, one of the most brilliant people of the Renaissance: Educated, cultural, friendly, capable of finding pleasure in countless satires, which wrote to him. It was the incredible task of completing the construction of a new Cathedral of St. Peter, who started his predecessors. To fulfill this work, hundreds of thousands of gold coins were required, and he crushed them, where he could. It happened that the bishop of Magdeburg wasveling to become Archbishop Mainz. The Lion agreed, provided that he would raise the service fee, which in this case will go to the construction of the Cathedral of St. Peter.

The bishop, in turn, took money from Fuggers and to pay them a debt, with the consent of Lev X, put a book for the sale of indulgences. The teachings of the Church regarding this issue was very difficult, but his aunt simplified him, minimizing the formula: pay, and not only the souls of the deceased, but the buyer of indulgence will be almost free to make any sin welcoming.

As soon as the coin in the Larza clasens,

The soul from the purgatory will fly away.

So the contemporaries were interpreted by a cynical distortion by a tetection of one of the postulates of faith. He walked around the cities of Germany truly with the triumph. The secular and church officials met him in every city, the solemn procession accompanied him into some public place, where he installed his kiosk and started sweet speeches, lumbling money. Next to him, counting the gold cheap in the chest, the representative of Fugger stood. He was very busy: buyers have been confused from all sides. However, among numerous buyers there were people who insulted this terrible sacrence. It was from someone from them a copy of the indulgence fell into the hands of Martin Luther with a request to comment on her. On October 31, 1517, Luther nailed his 95 abstracts to the doors of the Church in Wittenberg.

Luther was then by the Augustinian monk, and his act in no way was a bold challenge to dad. Church doors at that time often used as a bulletin board. Luther Total intended for himself (and was so understood) to show that it is ready to defend your abstracts in a public dispute with anyone who will come to the debate. A year later, he appeared before the Papal Messenger in Augsburg, where he defended his position. He still had no desire, nor the intention to head any split movement. In April of the same year, he publicly recognized the honesty of Pope, and his devotion to him. "Now we finally have a wonderful dad, Leo X, whose honesty and the scholarship please all believers ... The Blessing Father, I fall to the footsteps of your Holiness. I recognize my voice of Christ myself, who is in you and speaks through you with us. " For its part, Lev X responded to the softness that happened with decent respect, even released Bulla, in which those who use indulgence in evil were cursed.

Then Luther called on the public debate of someone John Eck from Leipzig. The contemporary, who happened there to be present, gives the following description of the Father of the Reformation: "Martin has an average height and looks so exhausted from the teaching and worries that it can almost be counted through the skin all the bones of his skull. He is in the heyday, has a clear and sonorous voice. He is a scientist man and doubt knows the Old and New Covenants. At his disposal the whole forest of ideas and words. It is sociable and friendly, in no way arrogant and not sullen. He is able to cope with anything. " There were no records of the results of debate, but during their Luther finally formulated his views. In June 1520, Lion X was forced to declare him with a heretic and give him 60 days to catch or subjected to broadcast. Neither the other party could not retreat. Lev X spoke on behalf of a huge and worshiped organization, which during the centuries of its existence seen rebuilders like Luther who came and left hundreds. Luther demanded the right to act in accordance with his conscience for an immeasurable number of believers. It was an intellectual quarrel, but each of the parties was deeply immersed in national and political interests. And dad, and the monk pushed the forces that they could lead in motion, but then they did not have the opportunity to control them. The drama in the Worms Parliament in April 1521, when a lonely monk defended himself in front of the Emperor of the Christian world and was officially sentenced to them, was preparing for centuries. Grad of God eventually divided himself.

The split initially expressed in a brutal verbal war. None in any other area did not show a huge and immediate influence of typography. And as this distribution spread throughout the continent, the pamphlets and books turned into a flood. In one Germany, the number of books produced has grown from 150 in 1518 to 990 in 1524. Rugation complemented evil caricatures. Artists of all the masters and the level of talent turned their abilities on the mockery about religious opponents. However, the verbal of this war remained long, and soon it came to the swords. The mass of commoners, especially the German peasants, who did not know how to express their feelings who slapped them with the words, believed that they finally found the defender and the advocate of their ideas. As in any uprising, ignorant people attributed wine for all the troubles by the authorities who were attacked. Dorganiza bread, arrogance of local officials, monopolies of merchants - all this was now set in guilt. If you destroy the power of dads, a paradise life will come, proud will be overtaken, humiliated ascend. So thought the peasants and were shot down in the detachments to crush slavery. They were convinced that Luther would lead them to the promised land. Having at first, he, however, as all the responsible people, the ferocity was afraid of those who rushed into this new world, whose touch still did not have time to work out. The peasants protested against slave living conditions. "It was in the custom of these people to keep us for their property, and it is worthy of pity, because Christ bought us with his blood. And therefore, in agreement with the Holy Scriptures, we are free. " "No," Luther answered them, "this is not the case: even the prophets had slaves." "Your words are against the Gospel ... [Because then] it would make all people equal, and it is impossible." They swamped him as a traitor and crowds rushed across Europe in a crazy attack of violence, Introducing the revenge thirst for centuries.

The society, called himself with Protestant or reformed, could not endure a threat to its existence. Luther himself loudly condemned the peasant war, getting up with all his authority to the side of those who suppressed them. Inevitably, the tide was replaced by a chip. After all, Buntari was an undisciplined by the Horde, a striver, armed most of the instruments of labor, and people trained in them were opposed to them. As a result, about 130 thousand peasants died in Germany. They dubbed the reformation of their blood and became the first of the many dead when in Europe, from Germany, a canvas of the Christian world broke out.

Summing up on this section, it should be noted, urban and secular life have changed significantly compared with the medieval. Europe's courtyards differed from each other, both the luxury of the situation and household items. It should be noted that the North lagged behind the south not only in the rules of etiquette and decorations, but even in ordinary hygiene. The lack of purity is the first thing that the Italian paid attention was paid through the Alps. A heavy, richly trimmed suit of that time also hampered personal hygiene, although it was relatively simple. With the arrival of the XV and XVI centuries, the world of clothing flashed rainbow bright colors and a fantastic variety of styles. And at the beginning of the XVI century, Europe overwhelmed the fashion on the mludy. Fashion changed with an unprecedented previous speed, and addiction to the focus was spread to all sectors of society. Of course, attempts were made to revive the laws regulating the costs where it was painted, which can and what the various classes of society could not wear. But immediately by adoption, they were subjected to universal rejection and were not executed. Chess and bones, competitions in archery, tennis, cards and ball games, singing and gambling - all these were favorite court entertainment of that time. The days of the posts were observed strictly and maintained the power of the law, but the festive were literally understood. These days, the cohesion of citizens manifested itself clearly in crowded religious processors, the crosses, representing an endless strip of flowers and forms.

It's time, and thousand-year-old holidays easily fit into the life of cities where the roar of printing machines and the noise of the wheel crews marked the beginning of the new world.

Conclusion

The most important opening of the Renaissance is the opening of a person. It is in this era A man of the embodiment - a man in his relationship to himself, to society, to the world. Man became instead of God the center of the Universe. This worldview influenced the teachings of humanists. They did not just believe in an updated happy intellectual society, but also tried to build this society on their own, organizing schools and lectures, explaining their theories of ordinary people. Under the influence of this, the life of the people has changed significantly. The desire for luxury appears. To change monotony, primitiveness, simplicity of the interior comes ingenuity, comfort. The interior was changing the score of furniture, decoration of walls, ceilings and floors with carpets, tapestries, paintings, painting, wallpaper, etc. The Renaissance Epoch is the era of great geographical discoveries, so new products and dishes appear in the menu. The manner of clothing varies significantly, the world of clothing broke out a rainbow bright colors and a fantastic variety of styles. Of all this, we can conclude that the Society of the Renaissance era overcame the former closedness.

But at the same time, people stop afraid of God, which leads to the fall of moral obscons. This is especially brightly manifested in Italy: gambling, crimes, ruin of monasteries, blood revenge, etc.

So, the shafts of the Renaissance Age are:

• man is the center of the world;
• teachings of humanists;
• the desire to improve their lives;
• appearance in the diet of new products;
• brightness and red clothes;
• the increase and emergence of new furniture items;
• lag of the Northern Renaissance from Italian;
• split in a religious environment.

One Frenchman listed with some complacency, which was achieved during this period, wanting to prove his superiority: "The ships went around the world, the largest continent of the Earth was opened, the compass was invented, the printing machines distribute knowledge, the gunpowders made a revolution in military art, ancient manuscripts were rescued, restored The education system is all the triumph of our new century. "

List of studied literature

1. Antique heritage in the culture of Renaissance: [Sat. Art.] / Academy of Sciences of the USSR, scientific. Council on the history of world culture; [Red college. : Ruthenburg V. I. (R. Ed.) And others]. - M.: Science, 1984. - 285С.
2. Bragin L.M., the formation of Renaissance culture in Italy and its pan-European significance. HISTORY OF EUROPE. From the Middle Ages to the New Time. - M.: Science, 1993. - 532c.
3. Revival: Culture, Education, Public Thought: Interunion. Sat Scientific Tr., [Relocked: N. V. Revyakina (R. Ed.) and others]. - Ivanovo: IVGU, 1985. - 144С.
4. From the history of the culture of the Middle Ages and Renaissance: [Sat Art.] scientific Council on the history of world culture; [T. ed. V. A. Karpushin]. - M.: Science, 1976. - 316c.
5. History of Culture of Western Europe / L.M. Bragin, O.I. Varnash, V.M. Vagodar et al.; Ed. LM Bragina. - M.: Higher. Sk., 2001. - 479c.
6. Renaissance culture: Encycle: in 2t., T.1: [Rate: N. V. Revyakina (R. Ed.) And others]. - M.: Rossman, 2007. - 864С.: IL.
7. The culture of the revival of the XVI century: [Sat. Art.] - M.: Science, 1997. - 302c.
8. Culture of the Renaissance and Middle Ages: [Sat. Art.] - M.: Science, 1993. - 228c.
9. Typology and periodization of the Renaissance: [Sat. Art.] / Academy of Sciences of the USSR, scientific. Council on the history of world culture; [Under. ed. V. I. Rutenburg]. - M.: Science, 1978. - 280s.
10. Chamberlin E., Renaissance: life, religion, culture. - M.: Centerpolygraph, 2006. - 237c.: Il.
11. Bugardt Ya., Culture of Italy in the Renaissance Epoch. - Smolensk: Rusich, 2002. - 448С.

application

Room room with bed living room rich family

under the canopy

Part of the main room in the middle-weight family house.

From the engravings of Albrecht Dürer. 1503

Kitchen with closed kitchen stove carved "Casson" from Florence, XV century.

Urban merchants: clothing trader and religious procession

manufactory (left), Barber

(in the center) and confectioner (right)

Celebration of May Day Multicolored Outfit Epoch Renaissance

English nobleman suit, french court dress,

about 1600 about 1555

Masquerade at the court of Emperor Banquet under the French yard

Revival: Culture, Education, Public Thought: Interunion. Sat Scientific Tr., [Relocked: N. V. Revyakina (R. Ed.) and others]. - Ivanovo: IVGU, 1985. - 144С.

Chamberlin E., Renaissance: life, religion, culture. - M.: Centerpolygraph, 2006. - 237c.: Il.

Chamberlin E., Renaissance: life, religion, culture. - M.: Centerpolygraph, 2006. - 237c.: Il.

Chamberlin E., Renaissance: life, religion, culture. - M.: Centerpolygraph, 2006. - 237c.: Il.

Federal Agency for Education

State educational institution of higher
vocational education

Voronezh State Technical University

Department of Philosophy

COURSE WORK
according to cultural studies

on the topic: life and morals of the Renaissance

Performed: student c. CO - 082.

Larin Anton Eduardovich

Checked: Dr. Firos. science

Professor Kurochina L. Ya.

Voronezh 2009.

Table of contents

Introduction

Give names, or, as they say, stick labels, historical periods are sometimes not only useful, but also a deceptive occupation. It happens that general trends in the development of society extend to the century. They can be distinguished, give them definitions and even, for the convenience, divide into smaller stages and flows, name for any noticeable, typical features for them. However, here is like a trap: no historical period begins and does not end at a specific point in time. The roots of each of them go deep into the past, and the effect extends far beyond historians for convenience. The use of the word "revival" for the period, the center of which is 1500., perhaps misleading more than others, as it leaves too much space for the interpretation of each historian, depending on his inclination and understanding. Jacob Burkhardt, Swiss historian, first analyzing and described this period as a whole, perceived it as a sharp sound of the pipe, proclaiming the beginning of the world of modern. His point of view still shared very many.
Undoubtedly, people who lived in that epoch, clearly realized that they would enter into a new world. The Great Humanist Scientist, Erasmus Rotterdam, who perceives the whole Europe as his country, exclaimed with bitterness: "Immortal God, as I would like to be the young for the new century again, who see my eyes." Unlike many historical names, the term "revival" was caused by some Italian from non-existence precisely when there was a need for it. This word was used about 1550, and soon another Italian called the previous period "Medieval".
Italy was a source of revival, because the very concept of restoration, the birth was renovated, was associated with the opening of the classical world, whose heiress it was. But gradually all of Europe divided this discovery with her. So call the exact date of the beginning and the end of this period is almost impossible. If we are talking about Italy, the initial date should be attributed to the XIII century, and for the northern countries and 1600 will be not late. As a great river, which carries its waters from the source in the south to the north, the revival comes to different countries at different times. Thus, the Basilica of St. Peter in Rome, the construction of which was started in 1506, and the Cathedral of St. Paul in London, which began to build in 1675, both are an example of Renaissance buildings.
In the Middle Ages, the domination of Christian ideology was observed. A man moved to the Renaissance to the center of the world. Humanism had a huge influence. The main task of the era of the Humanists considered the creation of a "new person" than they were actively engaged. The teachings of Humanists, of course, influenced the consciousness of the man of the Renaissance era. This affected the change in morals and life.
The urgency of the chosen topic. The meaning of the word "revival", in my opinion, says for himself: Revival - the beginning of the new world. But, unfortunately, in our time, few people know about the importance of this period, relate to this skeptical. Meanwhile, in the modern world there are many similar to the Renaissance, although they are separated not one century. For example, one of the most pressing problems of our time is the desire for luxury, existed in the Renaissance Epoch ...
The main goal of this work is to study the life and morals of people of the Renaissance.
To achieve the goal, you must perform the following tasks:

find out what led to changes in the life of all layers of society;
allocation of the general features of the teachings of humanists and implement them into life;
study the peculiarities of life during this period;
consider the peculiarities of the worldview and the worldwasmist in the revival era;
allocation and general and specific features of the era.

To solve the tasks, the literature of various authors such as Bragin L.M., Ruthenburg V. I., Revyakina N. V. Chamberlin E., Bugardt Ya, et al. But the most appropriate to the topic of the course work are the following sources:

From the history of the culture of the Middle Ages and Renaissance: [Sat Art.] scientific Council on the history of world culture; [T. ed. V. A. Karpushin]. - M.: Science, 1976. - 316c.
Chamberlin E., Renaissance: life, religion, culture. - M.: Centerpolygraph, 2006. - 237c.: Il.

General Characteristics of the Renaissance

1.1. General features of the era.

Revival raises the values \u200b\u200bof antiquity, returns anthropocentrism, humanism, harmony between nature and man.
The figures of this pore were multifaceted personalities and showed themselves in different fields. Poet Francesco Petracko, writer Giovanni Bokcchcho, Pico della Mirandol, artist Sandro Bhothichelli, Rafael Santi, Sculptor Michelangelo Buonaroti, Leonardo Da Vinci created the Renaissance artistic culture, described a person who believes in their strength.
The Renaissance is considered by researchers of Western European culture as a transition from the Middle Ages to a new time, from the feudal society to bourgeois. The period of the initial accumulation of capital occurs. The concerns of the capitalist industry in the form of manufactory appear. Banking is developing, international trade. There is a modern experimental natural science. The scientific picture of the world is formed on the basis of discoveries, primarily in the area of \u200b\u200bastronomy.
The largest scientists of the epochs of N. Kopery, D. Bruno, Galilee justify the heli-centered view of the world. The era of the formation of modern science begins with the revival, primarily the development of natural knowledge. A peculiar sources of the scientific process of the Renaissance, firstly, antique culture, philosophy, ideas of antique materialists - naturophilosophers, and secondly, Eastern philosophy, which in the XII - XVIII centuries enriched Western European knowledge in the natural sphere.
The culture of Renaissance is the culture of a early burglase society, on the formation of which the practice of consistent development of the economies of medieval urban countries has had a significant impact, so that already in the XII - XV centuries, a transition from medieval forms of trade and crafts to the early bi-capitalistic forms of organization of life took place. one
Special importance to the revival had for the development of art, approval of the principles of realism. The outstanding achievements of the culture of the Renaissance era were stimulated by contacting the ancient heritage, not finally lost in medieval Europe. As already mentioned, the culture of Renaissance most fully embodied in Italy, rich in monuments of ancient architecture, sculptures, decorative and applied arts. Maybe the most striking revival household type was then a fun and frivolous, in-depth and artisticly beautifully pronounced hostel, which we tell the documents of the Platonic Academy in Florence the end of the XV century. Here we find references on tournaments, balas, carnivals, solemn entries, festive feasts and in general about all kinds of adoles even everyday life - summer pastime, dacha life - about the exchange of flowers, verses and madrigals, on ease and grace as in everyday life, so Both in science, eloquence and in general in art, about correspondence, walks, love friendship, about artistic ownership of Italian, Greek, Latin and other languages, about the adoration of the beauty of thought and enthusiasm religions of all times and all nations. It's all about the aesthetic love of antique-medieval values, in turning its own life in the subject of aesthetic admission.
In the Renaissance Epoch, high-cultural secular life is inextricably linked with purely household individualism, which was then spontaneous, irreparable and unlimited. For renaissance culture, a few of its household types are characterized: religious, courtesy, neoplatonic, urban and urban life, astrology, magic, adventure and adventurism.
First of all, consider briefly religious life. After all, all inaccessible objects of religious reverence, requiring an absolute chastity relationship in the medieval Christianity, are in the era of the revival of something very affordable and psychologically extremely close. The same image of the sublime items of this kind acquires naturalistic and Panibrate. A certain type of Renaissance is the court life, which is associated with the "medieval knighthood". Medieval ideas about the heroic protection of sublime spiritual ideals in the face of cultural knighthood (XI-XIII) received unprecedented artistic treatment not only in the form of exquisite behavior of knights, Noah in the form of sophisticated poetry on the paths of growing individualism.
Such a feature of the Renaissance culture, as its reference on "rejuvenation" and the regeneration of time. The constituting element of the socio-artistic consciousness of the Renaissance was a widespread sense of youth, youth, start. His opposite was a figurative understanding of the Middle Ages as autumn. The youth of the Renaissance should be eternal, because the ancient gods, who sought to imitate Renaissance people, never stolely, did not obey the authorities. The myth of youth has similar to other myths (happy childhood, lost paradise, etc.) All features of the original archetype, which is constantly being revived to return as an ideal sample in changed hypostatas in different cultures and at different times. Extremely few cultures, where maturity, experience, charming old age are valued, than youth.
The connection of art and science is one of the most characteristic features of the Renaissance. The truthful image of the world and man should have rely on their knowledge, so the cognitive principle played in the art of this pore, a particularly important role. Naturally, the artists were looking for support in sciences, often stimulating their development. The Renaissance was noted by the appearance of the whole Pleiads of scientists, among which Leonardo da Vinci belongs first place.
All changes in the life of society were accompanied by a wide renewal of culture in the flourishing of natural and accurate sciences, literature in national languages \u200b\u200band, in particular, of the visual art. When the cities of Italy, this update also captured other European countries. The appearance of typography has opened unprecedented opportunities for the spread of literary and scientific works, and more regular and tight communication between countries contributed to the widespread penetration of new artistic flows.
In the context of consideration, it should be noted that the culture of the Renaissance (Renaissance) in its pan-European perspective should be correlated in its origins with that restructuring of feudal socio-political and ideological structures, which had to adapt to the requirements of developed simple commodity production.
The whole measure of the depth of this era of the breakdown of the system of public relations within and on the soil of the feudal system of production is still not fully clarified. However, quite reasonable reason to conclude that we have a new phase in the upstream development of the European Society.
This is a phase in which shifts in the foundations of the feudal method of production required fundamentally new forms of regulating the entire system of power. The political and economic essence of the definition of the Renaissance (XIV-XV centuries) consists of its understanding as a phase of the full heyday of simple commodity production. The society in connection with this was more dynamic, the public division of labor was moved forward, the first tangible steps were made in the secularization of public consciousness, the course of history was accelerated.

1.2. Humanism is the value basis of the Renaissance.

A new human vision comes with the Renaissance Epoch, the assumption is put forward that one of the reasons for the transformation of medieval ideas about a person is in the peculiarities of urban life, dictating new forms of behavior, other ways of thinking.
In the conditions of intensive public life and business activity, a common spiritual atmosphere is created, in which individuality and uncommonness are highly valued. An active, energetic, active, obligated, not so much knowing ancestors, how many efforts, entrepreneurship, the mind, knowledge, and goodwill, comes to the historical advancement. The person begins to see himself in a new way and the world of nature, its aesthetic tastes change, attitude to the surrounding reality and to the past.
A new social layer is formed - humanists - where there was no class sign, where they were appreciated primarily, individual abilities. Representatives of the new secular intelligentsia - Humanists - protect the dignity of man in their works; Approve the value of a person regardless of its public situation; justify and justify his desire for wealth, glory, power, secular titles, pleasure of life; Provide into spiritual culture freedom of judgment, independence in relation to authorities.
The task of upbringing the "new person" is aware of the main task of the era. The Greek Word ("Education") is the most clear analogue of Latin Humanitas (where does the origin of "humanism" come from).
In the era of humanism, Greek and Oriental teachings are returned to life, they turn to magic and teurgy, spreading in some written sources that attributed to the ancient gods and prophets. Reggerer begin to conquer epicureism, staicism and skepticism.
For philosophers of humanism, a person has become a certain plexus of bodily and divine began. The quality of God now belonged to a simple mortal. The man became the crown of nature, all the attention was paid to him. A wonderful body in the spirit of Greek ideals in combination with the Divine soul is the goal that Humanists strive to achieve. With their actions, they tried to introduce a person's ideal.
Humanists tried to embody her creature in practice. Several directions of the practical activity of the humanists can be distinguished: education and education, state activities, art, creative activity.
Organizing scientific circles, academy, arranging disputes, reading lectures, speaking with reports, Humanists sought to attach the society to the spiritual wealth of previous generations. The purpose of pedagogical activities of teachers was the upbringing of a person who would embody humanistic ideals.
Leonardo Bruni, representatives of the so-called civilian humanism, are convinced that only in the conditions of freedom, equality and justice it is possible to exercise the ideal of humanistic ethics - the formation of a perfect citizen who serves the native commune, be proud of it, and acquires happiness in economic prosperity, family prosperity and personal valor . Freedom, equality and justice meant freedom from tyranny.
Humanism had a huge impact on the entire culture of revival. The humanistic ideal of harmonious, endowed with the talent of creation, a heroed man with a special fit, reflected in the Renaissance art of the XV century. Painting, sculpture, architecture that have entered in the first decades of the XV century. On the path of radical transformation, innovation, creative discoveries, developed in the secular direction.

Summing up on this section, it should be noted: the humanists were eager, they sought to be heard, posing their opinion, "clarifying" the situation, because the man of the XV century lost in itself, fell out of one belief system and was not yet established in another. Each humanism worker embodied or tried to embody his theories into life. Humanists did not just believe in an updated happy intellectual society, but also tried to build this society on their own, organizing schools and lectures, explaining their theories of ordinary people. Humanism covered almost all spheres of human life.

2. Key Features of life in the Renaissance Epoch

2.1. Features of the construction of the house outside and inside.

The predominance of stone or wooden construction in the pre-industrial era depended, above all, from natural and geographical conditions and local traditions. In areas where wooden construction prevailed, they begin to build houses of bricks. This meant progress in construction. From the roofing materials were the most commonly tiled and shingle, although the houses were covered with straw, especially in the villages. The city of straw roofs testified of poverty and represented a greater danger due to light flammability.
In the Mediterranean, houses with flat roofs prevailed, north of the Alps - with isochi. The house went outside the street that had more than two or three windows. The land in the urban feature cost expensive, so at home the upwards (at the expense of floors, antlesole, attics), down (semi-pods and basements), deep into the rear premises and extensions). The rooms of one floor can be at different levels and will be connected by narrow ladders, corridors. The house of the ordinary citizen - an artisan or merchant - in addition to the residential premises included a workshop and shop. Immediately lived students and apprentices. The camorks of apprentices and servants were floor above, in the attic. The attic served warehouses. The kitchens were usually located on the first or mixture floor, in many families they served and the dining room. Often at home had an inner house.
City houses of rich citizens were distinguished by spacious and numerous premises. For example, Palazzo XV century families of Medici, Strozzi, Pitti in Florence, Fugger House in Augsburg. The house was divided into a parade, designed for visits, open to an extraneous look, and more intimate - for a family, servants. The lobby is connected to the patio, decorated with sculpture, frontones, exotic plants. On the second floor there were halls for friends and guests. The floor above is the bedrooms of children, women, wardrobe, loggias for household needs and recreation, storerooms. Rooms connected to each other. It was quite difficult to retire. A new type of room appears in Palazzo, intended for privacy: small rooms ("studio"), but in the XV century he has not yet become widespread. In the houses lacked the dismemberment of the space, which reflected not only the state of construction art, but also a certain vital concept. Family holidays purchased public importance here and went beyond the home, family. For celebrations, such as weddings, loggias were intended on the first floor. 2.
Rustic houses were gross, easier, archaic and conservatively conservatively. Usually consisted of one residential premises serving the hill, kitchen and bedroom. Premises for livestock and economic needs were under one roof with residential (Italy, France, North Germany) or apart from him (South Germany, Austria). There appeared at home mixed type - villas.
Much more attention begins to be given to the interior device. The floor of the first floor is covered with stone or ceramic plates. The floor of the second or subsequent floors were settled by boards. Parquet remained a big luxury even in the palaces. In the era of Renaissance, there was a custom sprinkle the floor of the first floor herbs. It found approval from doctors. In the future, carpets or straw mats come to replace the vegetation coating.
Special attention was paid to the walls. They were painted, imitating antique images. There were wallpaper fabrics. They were made of velvet, silk, satin, kamchatka fabric, brocade, embossed fabric, sometimes gilded. Fashion on tapestries began to spread from Flanders. Scenes were served by scenes from antique and biblical mythology, historical events. Tissue trellis used very popularity. Few could afford a similar luxury.
There were cheaper wallpapers. The material for them served the coarse rugs. In the XV century, paper wallpapers appeared. The demand for them became widespread.
Serious problem was lighting. The windows were still small, because the problem was not solved than to cover them. Over time, a monochrome glass was borrowed from the church. It was worth such windows very expensive and did not solve the problem of lighting, although more light and heat came to the house. Sources of artificial lighting served torches, oil lamps, a beacon, wax - and more often, very smoking - candles, fireplace fire and hearth. Glass lamps are appear. Such lighting made it difficult to maintain purity, both at home, so wear and bodies.
The heat was given a kitchen center, fireplace, stoves, brazers. Fireplaces were not available to everyone. In the era of the revival of the fireplace turned into real works of art, richly decorated with sculpture, bas-reliefs, frescoes. The chimney at the fireplace was arranged in such a way that because of a strong traction took a lot of heat. This lack tried to compensate for the use of brazier. Often, the bedroom only was heated. The inhabitants of the house went warmly dressed, even into fur, often caught.
Water pipe, like sewage, in houses were absent. At this time, instead of washing in the morning, even in the highest layers of society, it was customary to wet a wet towel. Public baths from the XVI century become stronger. Researchers explain this fear of syphilis or acute criticism from the Church. At home washed in tubs, tubs, pelvis - usually in the kitchen, where the steam rooms were arranged. Bathrooms appeared in the XVI century. A toilet with a drain of water appeared in England at the end of the XVI century. The toilets were not a rule even in the royal courtyards.
Despite the experienced improvements, the conveniences were introduced in life very slowly. In the era of the Renaissance, success in the area of \u200b\u200bthe home of the dwelling was more notable.

2.2 Features of furnishing at home.

Conservatism was more peculiar to the furniture in the homes of modest wealth than in the rich. The house stopped being a lair, fortress. From the XV century To change monotony, primitiveness, simplicity of the interior comes ingenuity, comfort. From a carpentry case, a carpentry craft was finally separated, the Craftsman's craft began to develop. The number of furniture items has grown. It is decorated with sculpture, carvings, painting, various upholstery. In rich houses, furniture is made from expensive and even rare varieties of wood: black wood, brought from India, ash, walnut, etc. Aristocracy and urban tip sometimes ordered sketches of furniture to artists and architects, because of what furniture items acquired a fingerprint, on the one hand , pronounced individuality, on the other - the general artistic style of the era. The invention of the machine for the production of plywood led to the spread of the equipment of plywood and wooden inlair. In addition to the wooden, the inlays of silver and ivory included in-stroke.
In the era of the revival furniture, as before, placed along the walls. The main thing about the subject of the situation was a bed. In the rich she was high, with a poppet, with lush, decorated sculpture, carvings or painting headboard, canopy or twigrating curtains. On the headboard loved to put the image of Our Lady. Baldahin was intended to protect against insects, but in its folds, bugs and fleas were accumulated, which threatened health. The bed was covered with a closed bedspread or a quilt. The bed was very wide: the whole family was placed on it, sometimes the guests left on it left on it. In poor houses slept on the floor or on the hiracles. The servants slept on straw.
The second after the bed is the object of the situation, as in former times, the chest remained. From the chest gradually formed the object of furniture, resembling a modern sofa: a chest with backs and armrests. The chests are richly decorated with painting, reliefs, saturated with silver. The locks were sophisticated in the manufacture of all sorts of metallic fasteners, keys, locks, including countersight. 3.
Cabinets for clothes have not yet invented, and instead of them, chests, drawers under a high bed or hangers were used. But there were dishwashes and secretaries. The secret, or the office that appeared in the XVI century, was a small locker with a multitude of drawers and double doors. They were richly encrusted.
Tables and chairs, while maintaining the previously approved forms (rectangular, on the X-shaped crosses or four legs) changed their appearance due to a more thorough and exquisite finish.
Especially should be highlighted at the offices and libraries who acquired great importance in the rich dwellings of the Renaissance. While libraries of palaces and rich villas were more public, serving the place of poetic, scientific assemblies, the cabins were more intended for privacy.
The interior has changed not only at the expense of furniture, decoration of walls, ceilings and floors with carpets, tapestries, paintings, painting, wallpaper, etc. Mirrors, clocks, candlesticks, candelabra, decorative vases, vessels and many other useful and useless items were designed to decorate and make a more comfortable and pleasant home life.
The atmosphere of the peasant house remained extremely scarce and satisfied only elementary needs. The furniture was very coarse and heavy, usually manufactured by the owner of the house. The structural disadvantages of peasant furniture tried to refund carvings, sometimes painting on a tree - very traditional.
2.3. Rules feast.
In the era of revival even more than before, not only the kitchen was acquired, but also a feast: table setting, the order of feeding dishes, the rules of behavior at the table, manners, drinking entertainment, communication. The festival etiquette is a kind of game in which the desire for the ordering of the human dormitory was expressed in ritualized form. The Renaissance Environment particularly contributed to maintaining a gaming position in life as desire for perfection.
The dining room was enriched with new objects and became much more elegant. A variety of dries united under the overall name of the "nem". Sudki's cheeks in the shape of chests, towers, buildings. They were intended for spices, wines, cutlery. Heinrich III is French into one of these oil clan gloves and fan, the vessels for wine were called the "fountain", had a different shape and necessarily the cranes below. Tripods served for dishes. The honorable place on the tables occupied solonks and cannons from precious metals, stone, crystal, glass, faience. The Vienna Art-Historical Museum stores the famous Solonka, made for Francis I Benvenuto Chellin.
Plates, dishes and drink vessels were made by metal: kings and nobility - from silver, gold-plated silver, and sometimes of gold. The Spanish Aristocrat believed below its dignity to have less than 200 silver plates in the house. From the XVI century The demand for tin dishes, which they learned to handle and decorate not worse than gold and silver. But a particularly important change can be considered distribution from the XV century. Fayans's dishes, the secret of the manufacture of which was discovered in the Italian city of Faenz. More furnishings made of glass - one-color and color.
Often, vessels gave the shape of animals, people, birds, shoes, etc. Separate non-burdensome person ordered for their fun companies very frivolous and even erotic in the form of a vessel. Fantasy Udalts Masters was inexhaustible: Cups were invented, which with the help of mechanisms moved on the table or increased in the amount, Cups with clock, etc. The folk medium used the coarse simple wooden and clay dishes.
Europe has long met a spoon; Early information about the fork go to the XI-XII centuries. But how did you use all this abundance of cutlery? The knife still remained the main tool at the table. Big knives cut meat on common dishes, from which everyone took for himself a piece with his knife or hands. It is known that Anna Austrian hands took meat stew. And although napkins were served in the best houses and almost after each dish of guests and the owners were applied to the dishes with flavored water for washing the hands, the tablecloth had to change more than once during the lunch. The honorable audience did not hesitate to wipe their hands about them.
The plug passed on before the Italians. Using forks by several guests at the courtyard of the French king Heinrich II served as a matter of coarse ridiculation. No better was the case with glasses and plates. Still told the custom to put one plate for two guests. But it happened that the soup continued to draw their spoon of soup. four
Greek and Roman traditions came toval about the Renaughter's epoch feasts. Sotrazniki enjoyed in a pleasant society with excellent food, tasty cooked and beautifully filed, music, theatrical spectacles, conversation. An important role was played by the entourage of festive meetings. Most of them took place in the home setting, in the halls. The interior on this occasion was specifically executed. The walls of the hall or loggia were taken away with fabrics and tapestries, rich sewing, flowers and laurel garlands, seized ribbons. Garlyands decorated the walls and framed family emblems. The main wall was placed with the "parade" kitchenware from precious metals, stone, glass, crystal and faience.
In the hall, there were three tables in the form of the letter "P", leaving in the middle of the space for both the pedicchers and fun of the dishes. Tables were covered with beautiful, richly embroidered tablecloths in several layers.
Guests have searched from the outside of the table - sometimes pairwise ladies with cavaliers, sometimes separately. At the main table, the owner of the house and high guests were located. In anticipation of the meal, those present saw a light wine, climbed it with dry fruit, listened to music.
The main idea pursued by the organizers of the lush feasts is to show the magnificence, the wealth of the family, her power. From the banquet could depend on the fate of the upcoming marriage, which has a goal to unite prosperous families, or the fate of the business agreement, etc. Wealth and power were demonstrated not only before, equal, but also in front of commoners. For this it was just convenient to organize lush peirs in the loggia. The petty people could not only be attempting on the magnificence of the power of the property, but also to join him. It was possible to listen to cheerful music, dance, take part in theatrical formulation. But the most important thing is, "on the dammer" to drink and eat, because it was customary to distribute the remaining food to the poor.
The pastime at the table in the company became customary, widely spread in all layers of society. Taverns, Tavern, Standing courtyards distracted visitors about; Monotonicity of domestic life.
The named forms of communication, no matter how different from each other, testify that the society overcomed to the former relative closure and became more open and communicative.

2.4. Features of the kitchen.

XVI - beginning of the XVII century. Carefully did not change the power compared to the XIV-XV centuries, although the first consequences of great geographical discoveries have already begun to affect Europeans' food. Western Europe has not yet been freed from fear before hunger. There were still great differences in the nutrition of the "tops" and "lower houses" of society, peasants and citizens.
The food was rather monotonous. About 60% of the diet occupied carbohydrates: bread, pellets, different porridges, soups. The main cereals were wheat and rye. Bread of the poor was distinguished from the bread of rich. The last bread was wheat. The peasants almost did not know the taste of wheat bread. Their dot was rye bread from the flour of a bad grinding, sifted, with the addition of rice flour, which wealthy was beaten.
An important addition to grain was legumes: beans, peas, lentils. From the pea even baked bread. With peas or beans usually prepared stewed meat.
Until the XVI century The range of vegetables and fruits grown in the gardens and the children of Europeans, compared with the Roman era, has not changed significantly. Thanks to Arabs, the Europeans met citrus: oranges, lemons. Almond came from Egypt, apricots from the east.
The results of great geographical discoveries in the Renaissance era only began to affect European cuisine. A pumpkin, zucchini, mexican cucumber, sweet potatoes, beans, tomatoes, peppers, cocoa, corn, potatoes have appeared in Europe. With unequal speed, they applied in different areas and social layers.
Fresh food in large quantities seasoned garlic and onions. As seasonings were widely used celery, dill, sometimes, coriander.
From fats in the south of Europe, vegetable, in the north of animal origin, were more common. Vegetable oil was released from olives, pistachios, almonds, walnuts and cedar nuts, chestnuts, flax, hemp, mustard. five
In Mediterranean Europe, meat consumed less than in North. It is not only a hot climate of the Mediterranean. Due to the traditional lack of feed, grazers, etc. There were less livestock there. At the same time, in Hungary, rich pastures and famous meat breeds of cattle, meat consumption was the highest in Europe: an average of about 80 kg per person per year (against about 50 kg in Florence and 30 kg in Siena in the XV century. ).
It is difficult to overestimate the value of fish in the power of that time. Fresh, but especially salty, smoked, dried fish was noticeably complemented and diversified the table, first of all in the days of numerous long posts. For the inhabitants of the coast of the seas Fish and seafood gifts were hardly the main food.
For a long time, Europe was limited in sweet, as Sugar appeared only with Arabs and cost very expensive, so it was available only to the well-waters of society.
From drinks first place traditionally occupied grape wine. His consumption forced poor water quality. Wine was given even to children. Cypriot, Rhine, Moselle, Tokay, Malvasia, Majere, Malara, Malaga, Malaga, enjoyed a high reputation. In the south, natural wines were preferred, in the north of Europe, in a cooler climate - fastened; And over time, addicted to vodka and alcohol, which for a long time treated drugs. Truly folk drink, especially north of the Alps, was beer, although the rich and know from good beer. In Northern France, the beer compete was Cider. Cider enjoyed success predominantly in common man.
From the new drinks spreading to the Epoch of the Renaissance, it should be mentioned first of all about chocolate. Coffee and tea penetrate Europe only in the first half of the XVII century. Chocolate found adherents in the highest layers, for example, Spanish society in the second half of the XVI century. He was attributed to healing properties, as a means against dysentery, cholera, insomnia, rheumatism. However, and were afraid. In France in the XVII century. Rumors spread that black children appear on the chocolate.
The main advantage of food in the Middle Ages was saturated and abundance. On the holiday, it was necessary to find it so that later in hungry days it was something to remember. Although wealthy people did not have to be afraid of hunger, their table was not distinguished by sophistication.
The Renaissance era contributed notable changes to European cuisine. A replacement of unbridled gluttony comes exquisitely, thinly presented abundance. Caring is not only a spiritual, but also about the bodily leads to the fact that food, drinks and their cooking attract more attention, and it is not ashamed. The modes are entitled to the feast, gastronomic books appear. Their authors sometimes were humanists. Educated people in society are discussing old - antique and modern recipes.
Meat dishes, as before, were prepared a wide variety of sauces with all sorts of seasonings, did not regret the expensive oriental spices: nutmeg, cinnamon, ginger, carnations, peppers, European saffron, etc. The use of spices was considered prestigious.
New recipes appear. Some directly indicate a connection with geographic discoveries (for example, an Indian recipe for Soup from Zabachkov, who fell into Spain in the XVI century). In others, the echoes of modern events are heard (for example, a dish called the head of the Turk, known in the same Spain in the XVI century).
In the XV century In Italy, confectionery prepared still pharmacists. In their institutions it was possible to find cakes, biscuits, cakes, all sorts of cakes, candied flowers and fruits, caramel. Products made of marzipan were figurines, triumphal arches, as well as entire scenes - bucolic and mythological.
From the XVI century The center of culinary art gradually moved from Italy to France. The wealth and sophistication of French cuisine was admired even sophisticated in the gastronomy of Venetians. It was possible to eat tasty, not only in the elected society, but also in the Paris Tavern, where, according to one foreigner, "For 25 Ecu, you will be given to a chowder from Manna Heaven or Roast from Phoenix."
It became important not only than feeding guests, but also how to file a cooked dish. The so-called "showing dishes" received a lot of distribution. Of various, often inedible materials, figures of real and fantastic animals and birds, castles, towers, pyramids, which served as containing various evaches, especially pate, were manufactured. Nurembergian confectioner Hans Shneider at the end of the XVI century. Invented a huge pate, inside which rabbits, hares, squirrels, small birds were hidden. In the solemn moment, the pate was opened, and all his livelihood for the fun had disassembled and flew out of it in different directions. However, in general in the XVI century. Rather, there is a tendency to replace "showing" dishes with real.

Summing up on this section, it should be noted that the life of European countries has changed significantly compared to the medieval. The external parties of life were most rapidly developed: home improvement, its furniture. For example, begin to build houses from bricks, houses appear with inner courtyards, but much more attention begins to be given to the interior device. From the XV century To change monotony, primitiveness, simplicity of the interior comes ingenuity, comfort. The interior has changed not only at the expense of furniture, decoration of walls, ceilings and floors with carpets, tapestries, paintings, painting, wallpaper, etc. Mirrors, clocks, candlesticks, candelabra, decorative vases, vessels and many other useful and useless items were designed to decorate and make a more comfortable and pleasant home life. In the innovation, although they arose, but, unfortunately, were introduced slowly. The Renaissance is the era of great geographical discoveries, therefore changes were observed in the nutrition system. Europe appeared pumpkin, zucchini, mexican cucumber, sweet potatoes (batt), beans, tomatoes, peppers, cocoa, corn, potatoes, thanks to the Arabs, Europeans also met with citrus: oranges, lemons, but not all immediately entered the European diet .

Features of worldview and world-milling in the mentality of the average man in the era of the Renaissance

3.1. Features of urban life.

The city was a scene, at which, with all honest people, the fact that now is going to the silence of the cabinets. Details rushed into the eyes, affecting their variability: the irregularities of buildings, eccentric strokes and coat of costumes, countless goods that were produced directly on the streets - all this attached the brightness that was missing in the monotony of modern cities. But there was some homogeneity, the merger of groups, proclaimed the internal unity of the city. In the 20th century, the eye was already accustomed to the separation created by the growth of cities: the movement of pedestrians and cars occurs in different worlds, the industry is separated from commerce, and both are separated by space from residential areas, which, in turn, are divided depending on the consistency of their inhabitants. The city dweller can live all his life, and not seeing how the bread, which he eats, or how to bury the deceaseders. The more the city became, the stronger the man was distinguished from his fellow citizens, while the paradox of loneliness in the middle of the crowd was not an ordinary phenomenon.
In the city hall with the walls with the population, say, 50 thousand people, where most houses were pitiful shacks, the lack of space encouraged the desire to spend more time in public. The shopkeeper sold goods from almost the stall, through a small window. The shutters of the first floors were made on the hinges to quickly fold, forming a shelf or a table, that is, the counter. He lived with his family in the upper rooms at home and, only significantly rich, could keep a separate store with clarifiers, and live in the garden suburb himself.
A skillful artisan used the lower floor at home and under the workshop, sometimes immediately exposing its products for sale. Craftsmen and merchants were very inclined to exercise herdness: in every city there were its own weaving street, a meat row, his bailovenia. Dishonest people were punished publicly, on the square, where they earned their lives, that is, in humans. They were tied to a shameful pillar, and unfit products burned with their feet or hung them on the neck. The Winegown, which made bad wine, were forced to drink a lot of his quantity, and the rest poured him on his head. Rybnika forced a sniff fish to sniff or even walked his face and hair.
At night, the city was immersed in complete silence and darkness. A wise man tried not to go out late on the street and with the onset of darkness. Passerspit, covered by the guards at night, was to get ready to convincingly explain the cause of his suspicious walking. There were no such temptations that could put out an honest person from the house at night, because public entertainment ended with the sunset, and the manons adhered to Skopidom's habit to go to bed along with the sunset. The working day continued from dawn to sunset left a little forces for rapid night fun. With a wide development of printed business in many homes included in the custom of reading the Bible. Another homemade entertainment was a musication for those who could afford to purchase a musical instrument: lute, or Viola, or flute, as well as singing for those who did not have money for it. Most people spent brief leisure hours between dinner and sleep in conversations. However, the lack of evening and night entertainment with interest was fill in the day for the public account. Frequent church holidays reduced the number of working days in the year to the figure, perhaps lower than today.
The days of the posts were observed strictly and maintained the power of the law, but the festive were literally understood. They not only included liturgy, but turned around with rapid fun. These days, the cohesion of citizens appeared visually in crowded religious processes, cropsticks. There were little observers then, because everyone sought to take part in them. Albrecht Durer, an artist, witnessed this procession in Antwerp - it was on the day of the Assumption of the Virgin, "... and the whole city, despite the ranks and classes, there gathered there, each dressed in the best dress, respectively, his rank. All guilds and classes were their signs for which they could be found. In the intervals carried huge expensive candles and three long staple tubes from silver. There were still made on German man drums and twins. They are loudly and noisyly droopy and beat ... There were grazines and embroidery, painters, bricklayers and sculptors, carpentry and carpenters, sailors and fishermen, weaves and tailors, bakers and leathermen ... Truly workers of all kinds, as well as many artisans and different people who earn their feed. Arrows with guns and crossbows, riders and infantry were shilled behind them. But before all their religious orders went ... She took part in this procession and a large crowd of widows. They supported themselves with their work and complyed with special rules. They were from head to feet dressed in white clothes, stitched specifically for this case, it was grieving on them ... Twenty people carried the image of the Virgin Mary with the Lord by our Jesus, luxuriously dressed. In the course of the procession, many wonderful things were shown, perfectly represented. Talled vans, on which ships and other structures, full of people in masks. They marched the troupe, depicting the prophets in order and scene from the New Testament ... From the beginning and until the end, the procession lasted for more than two hours while I got to our house. " 6.
Miracles, such admiring Durer in Antwerp, would charm him and in Venice, and in Florence, because the Italians treated religious holidays as a form of art. At the feast of the body of Christ in Viterbo, in 1482, the whole procession was divided into sites, for each of which was answered by any Cardinal or the Supreme Oven of the Church. And everyone sought to surpass the other, decorating his plot in expensive drapes and supplied his stage, on which Mysteries were played, so in general it was in the series of plays about the death and resurrection of Christ. The scene used in Italy for the formulation of the Mysteries was the same as in the whole of Europe: a three-story building, where the upper and lower floor served as heaven and hell, and the main average platform portrayed the Earth.
Another favorite representation is three ages of a person. Each earthly or supernatural event was played in all details. The Italians did not work on the literary content of these scenes, preferring to spend money on the magnitude of the spectacle, so that all allegorical figures were the creations of straight and superficial and only proclaimed the high-footing empty phrases without any conviction, thus moving out of the play in the performance. But the magnificence of scenery and costumes was delayed, and this was enough.
None in either the city of Europe has not been manifested as brightly and with such a brilliance of civil pride, as in the annual wedding ritual with the Sea, which was committed by the ruler of Venice, a strange mixture of trading arrogance, Christian gratitude and Eastern symbolism. Beginning of his ritual festival takes from 997 after the Nativity of Christ when Venetian's hypothesian before the battle performed the blame by pouring it into the sea. After the victory, she was celebrated on the next ascension day. The huge state barge, called the "Bougentaur", was taken out of the bay in the oars and the same point, and there he threw a ring in the sea, declaring that this action was combined with a marriage with the sea, that is, with the elements that made him great.
Military competitions of the Middle Ages continued almost unchanged and in the Renaissance Epoch, although the status of their participants has slightly decreased. So, for example, Nuremberg's fishing arranged their own tournament. Archers' competitions were very popular, although onions as a weapon disappeared from the battlefield. But the loved ones remained holidays, whose roots went to the pre-Christian Europe. I have not been able to eradicate them, the church is some of them, so to speak, dubbed, that is, he appropriated, and others continued to live in a constant form, both in Catholic and Protestant countries. The greatest of them was the May day, the pagan meeting of spring.
On this day and the poor and rich leave and went beyond the city to rush colors, dance and dance. Being the May Lord was a great honor, but also expensive pleasure, because all festive expenses were located on it: it happened that some men had disappeared from the city to avoid this honorary role. The holiday brought a part of the countryside, life in nature, so close and so distant. Throughout Europe, the change of seasons was celebrated by folk festivals. They differed from each other with details and names, however, the similarity was stronger differences.

3.2. Features of secular life.

Europe's courtyards differed from each other, both the luxury of the situation and household items. The North lagged behind the south not only in the rules of etiquette and decorations, but even in ordinary hygiene. Back in 1608, the dining force caused surprise in England. "As I understand it, this method of feeding is used in Italy everywhere and every day ... Because the Italians tolerate can not touch their food with fingers, since the fingers do not always have the same clean." In 1568, Thomas Sacquille, an English Lord, sharply objected to the duties to host the Cardinal, drawing a miserable picture of life in his possessions. He did not have precious dishes at all, the glasses presented for inspecting the royal representatives were rejected by them, as low-quality, tableclothes also caused ridicule, because "they wished Damascus, and I had nothing but simple flax." He had only one spare bed, which he served as a cardinal, and to provide the bed bishop, the maid of Lord's wife were forced to sleep on the floor. He himself had to borrow with Cardinal his pelvis and a jug for washing and therefore walk incente. A very sad picture, if you compare with the conditions in which a simple English nobleman lived in Salerno in the Italian Marquis. His room was taped by a parol and velvet. He and his companions were provided with separate beds, and one was covered with a silver cloth, and the other velvet. Pillows, rollers for them and sheets were clean and with a magnificent embroidery. The lack of purity is the first thing that the Italian paid attention was paid through the Alps. A young Italian nobleman, Massimiano Sforza, brought up in Germany, acquired there the most sloping habits, and no mockery of men-male, nor nobles of women could make him change underwear. Heinrich VII English was famous for seeing his legs barely only once a year, on the eve of the new year. In a society, where most people went unwashed, not many complained or paid attention to the prevailing smells. Nevertheless, the wide and widespread use of the spirits suggests that the stench often exceeded all the limits of tolerance. Spirits used not only for the body, but also for those subjects that were handed over to hand. A bouquet of flowers, presented as a gift, had not only symbolic meaning, but also quite real value.
A heavy, richly trimmed costume of that time also hampered personal hygiene. The medieval outfit was relatively simple. Of course, there were many options depending on taste and the wealth of the owner, but, in essence, it consisted of a free monochrome robe like a row. However, with the arrival of the XV and XVI centuries, the world of clothes broke out a rainbow bright colors and a fantastic variety of styles. Without satisfying the luxury of brocades and velvet, the rich was covered with pearls and gold embroidery, precious stones sat on the fabric so tightly that it was not visible. The primary, the primary colors that were often contrasting are favorite. At the beginning of the XVI century, Europe overwhelmed the fashion on the mute, which logically flowed out of the usual use contrasting colors for different clothing items. Separate parts of one suit crumbled from the tissue of different colors. One leg of the stans-stocking was red, the other is green. One sleeve - purple, the other - orange, and the robe itself could be at all of the third color. Each mod had his personal tailor, who came up with the styles, so balls and assemblies allowed to admire the widest variety of outfits. Fashion changed with an unprecedented quick speed. London Chronist in the notes of the reign of Elizabeth I notes: "Forty years ago in London there were no twelve haberdasters who traded faded hats, glasses, belts, swords and daggers, and now every street, from Tower to Westminster, is filled with them and their shops , glittering and shining glass. " In all countries, moralists grieved about the decline of modern morals and monkey imitation of a foreign fashion.

Take a look at the sophisticated cavaller,

He looks only a monkey fashion.

He marches the streets, jumped,

Everyone is apt in the nose from France Doublet, Stockings German

And a hat from Spaniard, Blade Tol Food and Short Cloak,

Your Italian collar and shoes

From Flanders who arrived.

Summing up on this section, it should be noted, urban and secular life have changed significantly compared with the medieval. Europe's courtyards differed from each other, both the luxury of the situation and household items. It should be noted that the North lagged behind the south not only in the rules of etiquette and decorations, but even in ordinary hygiene. The lack of purity is the first thing that the Italian paid attention was paid through the Alps. A heavy, richly trimmed suit of that time also hampered personal hygiene, although it was relatively simple. With the arrival of the XV and XVI centuries, the world of clothing flashed rainbow bright colors and a fantastic variety of styles. And at the beginning of the XVI century, Europe overwhelmed the fashion on the mludy. Fashion changed with an unprecedented previous speed, and addiction to the focus was spread to all sectors of society. Of course, attempts were made to revive the laws regulating the costs where it was painted, which can and what the various classes of society could not wear. But immediately by adoption, they were subjected to universal rejection and were not executed. Chess and bones, competitions in archery, tennis, cards and ball games, singing and gambling - all these were favorite court entertainment of that time. The days of the posts were observed strictly and maintained the power of the law, but the festive were literally understood. These days, the cohesion of citizens manifested itself clearly in crowded religious processors, the crosses, representing an endless strip of flowers and forms.
It's time, and thousand-year-old holidays easily fit into the life of cities where the roar of printing machines and the noise of the wheel crews marked the beginning of the new world.

It was that she for the first time drew attention to the inner world of Chelovka in his entire fullness. Attention to the human personality and its unique individuality was shown literally in everything: in lyrical poetry and new literature, in painting and sculpture. In the visual arts popular as NIKO-Gda before, they became a portrait and self-portrait. In the literature, the widespread development of the semi-chili such genres as biography and autobiography. All renaissance culture as a whole formed a new type of personally, the distinctive feature of which became individualism.

However, arguing the high advantage of human personally, Renaissance individualism also contributed to the liberation of its negative sides. Humanism, providing unlimited freedom to the development of natural abilities of a separate person, at the same time deprived of his spiritual, moral support.

I. Burkhardt about the culture of Italy in the Renaissance Epoch

"Italy of that time becomes a school of defects, similar to that, we have not met anywhere else, even in the Voltaire era in France."

"If we dwell on the main features of the then Italian character, we will come to the following conclusion: its most important drawback was at the same time a prerequisite for its greatness; This is a highly developed personality. Thus, the personality is in a contradiction with the public system, the larger Cha-Stew tyrannoe and based on the seizure, a person seeks to protect his rights by his personal revenge and falls under the influence of dark forces. "

"A person of all sorts of laws and restrictions, a person person keeps faith in its superiority and accepts a self-a standing solution in accordance with how they get along and what place is the feeling of honor and care, cold calculation and passion, self-denial and vitality in his soul.

"In a country where any kind of personality reaches extreme degrees, people appear for whom the crime itself is in itself a kind of beauty, not as a means to achieve some goal, but ... as something coming to psychological norms." Material from site.

Introduction 3-4

1. Characteristics of the political and social life of Italy in 13-16 centuries. 4-7

7-12

1 2 -17

Conclusion 18

BIBLIOGRAPHY 19

Introduction

The term Renaissance (revival) was introduced by George Vazari - a famous painter, an architect and an art historian to designate a period in Italian art, starting from 1250 and approximately ending with the 1550s, initially, the term "revival" was used to characterize the period of revival of interest in ancient culture , which came in Italy for the 13-16th century, but in the future the content of the concept expanded and evolved, and the era of revival was actually identified with the beginning of the era of humanism.

The era of the Renaissance is the flourishing of all areas of human knowledge, but, above all, art and culture, facing not so much to the "Grada of God", how much to man. At this time, art is separated from theology, gradually turning into an "autonomous" region of human activity with its own laws. First of all, the "autonomous" becomes the person himself who loses a strictly defined place in the hierarchy of earthly and celestial values. The revival of close to antique pantheism, although it is impossible to deny the attempts of religious searches in many great leaders who have become glorifying this era.

The revival period is characterized by a waste from medieval ideas about a person as a sin vessel, which was reflected on the change not only to the generally accepted morality, but also the norms of behavior. The change in the morals during this period, the weakening of the suppression of natural manifestations of human life, gave rise to, in turn, changes not only in art, plots and visual means of which became much more frank and sensual, but also in such "low" areas of human life as a manner of dress , diet, etc.

In my work, I will try to show the changes characteristic of this period in culture, art, worldview and the nravakh against the background of the socio-political picture of Italy of the Renaissance.

1. Characteristics of the political and social life of Italy in 13-16 centuries.

Italy is considered to be the birthplace of Renaissance culture. In order to understand why it was from there that it began to spread this movement in Europe, we turn to the historical background that this phenomenon originated and developed.

By 1250, Italy was free from foreign intervention. This period of national independence lasted almost two centuries, while the French king of Karl VIII invaded the country in 1494. On the territory of Italy there were five significant centers: Milan, Venice, Florence, Papal Oblast and Naples; In addition, there were many small principalities, which in different combinations entered into an alliance with one of the larger ones.

By 120, Milan was under the rule of the genus of Wisconti, which was ruled 170 years, from 1277 to 1447; Then, after a three-year gap, when the republican government was restored, the government seized a new genus - Sforge, associated with Wisconti and who assigned the title of the Dukes of Milan. From 1494 to 1535, Milan was a host of hostilities between the French and the Spaniards; Sforza joined the Union with one side, then on the other. In the end, in 1535, Milan was attached to the possessions of Emperor Charles V.

The Venetian Republic was somewhat away from Italian politics, especially in the first centuries of their greatness. She was never under the authority of the barbarians and considered himself subjects of the eastern emperors. This tradition, connected to the fact that Venice traded with the East, provided it with independence from Rome, which was kept up to the Triedent Cathedral (1545). Creating a Cambrainese League - the Union of Powerful States in 1509. Together with the opening of Vasco and the Gama Path to India around Cape of Good Hope (1497-1498), in combination with the strengthening of the power of the Turks, destroyed Venice, which continued to have a miserable existence until Napoleonic wars were deprived Her finally independence.

Florence was the most civilized city in the world and the main source of revival. Almost all the great names in the literature are connected with Florence, as well as early and some of the later great names in art.

The history of Florence, as well as the Renaissance Movement is closely intertwined with the genus of the Medici, which from the end of the XIV century. became rulers of Florence. Kozimo Medici (1389-1464), the first representative of the genus, which achieved indisputable superiority, did not occupy any official position; His power was kept on a skilled manipulating elections. The successor of Kozimo, after a short break, his grandson Lorenzo is magnificent, which has ruled from 1469 to his very death that followed in 1492.

One of the sons of Lorenzo, who at the age of 14 became Cardinal, in 1513 he was elected dad, and took the name of the tenth lion. The genus of the Medici, under the title of the Great Dukes of Tuscan, Rules to Florence until 1737; However, in the meantime, Florence, like the rest ITALY, was depleted and lost its former importance.

The secular power of the PAP has increased significantly in the period of rebirth; However, the methods with which the Pope has reached this purpose, deprived the pepper of the spiritual authority. Cathedral movement, the inglorious end of which was the conflict between the Basel Cathedral and Dad Evgeny IV (1431-1447), presented the most pious elements in the church; Perhaps it was even more important that it was the point of view of the church figures to the north of the Alps. The victory of Pad was the victory of Italy and (at least) Spain.

The Italian civilization of the second half of the fifteenth century was indigenously different from the civilization of the northern countries that retained the medieval character. Seriously related to culture, the Italians were indifferent to morality and religion; Even in the eyes of the priests, the elegant Latin style spun a lot of sins. Nikolai V (1447-1455), the first father-humanist, handed out the papal positions of those scientists whom he was honored for deep knowledge, without giving values \u200b\u200bto other reasons; Lorenzo Valla was appointed by the apostolic secretary, the very person who proved the fake of Konstantinova Dara, on which the territorial claims of the Roman throne were based, ridiculed the style of Woolgates and accused BLI. Augustine in heresy. This policy of patronage of humanism, which was preferred to piety or orthodoxy, continued until the plunder of Rome in 1527.

The natural result of the pagan policy of the Dad's Renaissance was the Reformation, which began in the succession of Julia, Leve X (1513-1521).

As can be seen from a brief essay of the position of Italy, in the period of the rebirth in the territory of this country, there were special conditions other than the rest of Europe, which led to the emergence of a special type of culture there, which is customary to call Renaissance: Italy was outside the foreign policy intrigue, we teased the rest of Europe. Major cities became not only the foci of trade, but also, before the rest of Europe, they moved to manufactory production, which, obviously, influenced the formation of a new type of thinking, gradually distinguished from medieval, spiritual life in Italy was rapidly shifted from the religious plane in secular. All this led to the formation of a special type of culture.

2.Tipological features of the culture of rebirth in Italy

The features of this culture include the following.

First, the culture of Renaissance in Italy wore a predominantly secular character. Stripping from the same prerequisites as the Reformation in Europe, the revival in Italy was the nature of the search, primarily in the field of culture, science and art. On the change of the oblique scholastic system, which turned, according to Berran Russell "In the intellectual strait shirt", a scientific search came, not always free (remember Jordano Bruno), but no longer so limited by the narrow framework of medieval theology, as it was in the previous period.

In the field of philosophy, the revival is characterized by the replacement of Scholastic Aristotle Plato. A great role in the spread of Platonism in Italy played Gemist Plonfon - zealous Greek Platonics of dubious orthodoxia; Great merit and Vissarion - Greek, who became Cardinal. Kozimo and Lorenzo Medici were fans of Plato; Kozimo founded, and Lorenzo continued the activities of the Florentine Academy, to a large extent dedicated to the study of Plato. Kozimo died, listening to one of the dialogues of Plato. However, the humanists of that time were too passionate about the study of antiquity in order to be able to create anything original in the field of philosophy.

Secondly, the revival was not a folk movement; It was the movement of a few group of scientists and artists who patronized generous cartridges, especially physici and pope-humanists, without this help, the revival could not achieve such significant success. Petrarka and Bokachco, who lived in the fourteenth century, spiritually belonged to the Renaissance era, but since at their time the political conditions were different, they had less influence on contemporaries than the Humanists of the fifteenth century.

Thirdly, the revival in Italy was expressed more than anywhere in Europe, in a colossal take-off of art, primarily fine.

The period XIII - the beginning of the XIV centuries. - Properness, the era of Dusto, was marked by the work of painters Pietro Cavallini and Jotto di Bondon. The period of the PRASTENESANSA has largely prepared the soil for the art of Renaissance, although he was blood connected with medieval, with romance, gothic and Byzantine traditions. Even the greatest innovators of this time were not absolute pioneers: It is not easy to trace the clear border in their work, separating the "old" from the "new". Most often, elements of the other merge in inseparable unity.

A decisive turn towards the approval of the realism and overcoming medieval tradition in Italian art occurs in the XV century (Quatrocheto). At this time there are many territorial schools overlooking the way the realistic method. The leading center of humanistic culture and realistic art at this time is Florence. Unprecedented flourishing is experiencing monumental fresco painting. Its reformer, which played the same role that in the development of Brunlelles architecture, and in the sculpture - Donatello, was Florentic Mazacho (1401- 1428), who lived a short life and left wonderful works, in which the sequestion of a generalized heroic image of a person was continued to pass the surrounding His world.

The extraordinary subtlety of the performance, very restrained by color, secular in the nature of the works is achieved by Fir Filippo Lippi (approx. 1406 - 1469), a typical representative of the early Renaissance, who has changed the monastic robe on a restless profession of a stray artist. In gentle lyrical images - "Madonna with a baby" (OK; 1452, Florence, Pitty Gallery), "Madonna under a veil (approx.; 1465, Florence, Uffizi) Lippi captured a touching and feminine appearance of his beloved, a shaggy baby.

The most wonderful artist of Late Quattochetto is Sandro Botticelli (1447-1510). His most famous mature paintings - "Spring" (approx. 1478) and "Birth of Venus" (approx. 1484, both in Florence, in Uffizi) - inspired by the poetry of the court poet Medici polyciano and amaze the originality of interpretation of the plots and images of antique myths reinforced through deep personal poetic globility.

The artists of Renaissance sought to make the picture "Window into the world"; To transfer the depth of the space, they developed the so-called linear perspective, and the roundness of the volume began to be able to portray with the help of lighting, the study of the human anatomy was of particular importance. Above all the best, the beauty of a person began to be worshiped. However, the church for a long time remained the main customer, so most of the works are still devoted to Christian scenes. But next to them, paintings and statues inspired by antique mythology appear in the art of revival.

In addition, painters turned to nature. They learn to correctly transmit space, light and shadow, natural poses, a variety of human feelings.

The time of accumulation of these skills and knowledge and became early rebirth. Pictures of this pore are imbued with light and high spirits. The background is often written in bright colors, and buildings and natural motifs are outlined by sharp lines; Pure colors prevail. With naive arrogance, all the details of the event are depicted, the characters are most often lined up in a row and separated from the background with clear contours. The painting of early Renaissance was only striving for perfection, however, oddly enough, her quest, her sincerity often touches more than the art of high revival.

The art of Ginkvestto, who crowned the Renaissance culture, was no longer local, but by the World Phenomenon. Although the culture of Quatrocheto and Ginkovento directly contact themselves, there was a distinct difference between them. Quatrocheto is an analysis, search, finds, this is fresh, strong, but often naive, youthful worldview.

Chinkovento - synthesis, result, magic maturity, concentration in general and the main thing that changed the scattering curiosity of the early Renaissance. The high Renaissance period was relatively short. It is primarily connected with the names of three ingenious masters, the titans of Renaissance - Leonardo da Vinci, Rafael Santi and Michelangelo Buonotti.

They were allate among themselves, although their fate had a lot in common: all three were formed in the village of Florentine school, and then worked with the courtyards of patients, mainly dads, suffering and mercy, and whims of high-ranking customers. Their paths often crossed, they performed as rivals, treated each other hostile, almost hostile. They had too different artistic and human individuality. But in the minds of the descendants, these three vertices form a single mountain range, personifying the main values \u200b\u200bof Italian revival - intelligence, harmony, power. Genuine founder of the high revival style was Leonardo da Vinci (1452 - 1519), genius, whose creativity marked the grand high-quality shift in art. The early works of Leonardo refers and stored in the Hermitage "Madonna with a flower" (the so-called "Madonna Beno'a", approx. 1478), a large altar composition "WHOLOGOVOV" (Florence, Uffizi) and "SV was distinguished. Jerome "(Rome, Vatican Pinakotek)." Madonna in the grotto "(1483 - 1494, Paris, Louvre) Leonardo da Vinci is the first monumental altar composition of high rebirth. Her characters: Maria, John, Christ and Angel - acquired the features of greatness, poetic spirituality and completeness of life expressiveness.

In the world of real passions and dramatic feelings, the most significant of the monumental paintings of Leonardo - "The Last Supper" fulfilled in 1495 - 1497. For the monastery of Santa Maria Delle Grazie in Milan. From the works of the last twentieth anniversary of the life of Leonardo, perhaps the most famous - "Mona Lisa" ("Jokonda") (Paris, Louvre.). The idea of \u200b\u200bthe brightest and sublime ideals of the Humanism of Renaissance with the greatest completeness embodied in his work Rafael Santi (1483-1520). Gentle lyrism and fine spirituality are distinguished by one of its early works - "Madonna Connyabile" (approx. 1500, St. Petersburg, Hermitage) The ability to freely arrange the figures in space, to tie them with each other and the environment is manifested in the composition "Mary's Break" (1504, Milan).

The gift of Raphael - Monumentalist and Decorator - manifested itself in all the brilliance during the painting of Sanza della the senios, where the compositions of the "Disputes", "Athens School", Parnaas, "Wisdom, Moderation and Power" are an important place in his art is the image of Madonna, and The most famous works became "Sicstinskaya Madonna" (2515-1519, Dresden, Picture Gallery). The last titanium of high revival was Michelangelo Buonotti (1475 - 1564) - a great sculptor, painter, architect and poet. Despite his versatile talents, it is called first of all the first drawing officer of Italy thanks to the most significant work of a mature artist - the painting of the Cycstinian Capella in the Vatican Palace (1508 - 1512). The total area of \u200b\u200bthe frescoes of 600 square meters. meters. Multifigure composition of the frescoes represents the illustration of biblical plots from the creation of the world.

It is especially allocated from the picturesque works of the Masters of the Altar Wall of the Sistine Chapel "Scary Court", written after a quarter of a century after the painting of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel.

3. Everyday life of the Italian Renaissance: Time and Morals.

Ya Burkhardt, characterized by a person in the period of Renaissance, wrote: "... In Italy, at this time, the difference in the origin between people of different classes was lost. Of course, it contributed a lot to the fact that the person and humanity in their deep essence were well-known here. Already one of the remuneration should fill us with a sense of gratitude to him. The logical concept of humanity was before, however, it was the revival that it was, in fact "[Burkhardt Ya., 1996. 306]. Indeed, as already was shown in the previous chapter, the knowledge of the nature of man, both spiritual and physical, was the main purpose of the thinker and artist of that period, but how was the case with simple people? How did the change in the views affected everyday life?

First of all, the ideal of physical beauty changed. The rejection of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe body as a focus center, as a temporary refuge of the soul, in many respects identifying the aesthetic addiction of the Middle Ages, was expressed in creating a new ideal of beauty.

E. Fuchs, in the book "Illustrated History of Mrams. The Renaissance era gives the following characteristics of an excellent man and a beautiful woman, taken directly from renaissance sources: "In the book of J. B. Port" Man's Physiomy ", which appeared in the XVI century. In France, the physical appearance of a man is described as follows: "That's the sake of what men from nature have a large mill, wide faces, a little curved eyebrows, big eyes, quadrangular chin, thick housing necks, strong shoulders and ribs, wide chest, shoulder belly, bone and protruding hips, housing sturdy pins and hands, solid knees, strong legs, protruding caviar, slender legs, large, well-folded housing brushes hands, large, far from each other. Sweet shovels, large strong backs, place between the back and waist is equivors and The fleshy, a bone and strong waist, a slow gait, a strong and coarse voice, etc. In their nature, they are generous, non-resistant, fair, honest, simply and ambitious. " The ideal of a beautiful woman Ariosto draws in the face of one of the heroines of the poem "Furass Roland" with the following words: "The neck of her Bela is like snow, the throat is like milk, the beautiful neck of the cooler, the chest wide and magnifier. Just like sea waves beyond and disappear under the light caress of the breeze. So her breasts are worried. Guess what is hidden under a light dress, there would be a gaze of the Argus himself. But everyone will understand that it is also beautiful as what is visible. Beautiful hand ends with a white brush, accurately sharpened from ivory, Subsecurated and narrow, on which no veil, no bone, no longer comes forward. Little, round, elegant leg completes the wonderful, full of grandeur. Through the thick fabric of the veil shines her magnificent angel beauty "" [Fuchs E., 1993. P.120]. As can be seen, these descriptions are far from those almost disembodied images of medieval beauties and beauties. Developed, capable of giving and enjoying the body, such as aesthetic ideas of the era. Naturally, the body cult gave rise to a whole range of concomitant representations. As J. Burkhardt and E. Fuchs noted, nowhere at this time, the cult of physical love was not developed in Italy, the freedom of morals did not reach such a scope.

Of course, the traditional family remained the basis of society, marriage became increasingly similar to a business enterprise. Speaking about the peasant family, the marriage was a prerequisite for survival in the condition of refusal, in general, the natural economy, when each pair of hands was on the account. The same can be said of the life of the urban lower and middle class. However, the attitude to marriage as a sacred union was noticeably devalued. It is well known for numerous sources, according to Decameron, J. Bokcchcho believed, for example, that marital loyalty was not observed too jealously, and the daughting relationships between young people were not considered as vicious. If the roots of such behavior go back in the Middle Ages and are associated with the importance of the birth of the heir, in general, with a continuation of the kind, the means that began to be used in the Renaissance era to attract the attention of the opposite sex, changed.

First of all, the fashion changed radically. The closed dresses of the previous era, which gave only a hint of the body they enhanced, changed frankly sexual outfits. The female breast, which caused special reverence and delight of men, was as much as possible. Shugged and length dresses. Demand generated a proposal, so the production of stockings, gloves accepted almost industrial scales in Italy, giving new jobs to the townspeople engaged in this craft. Caring for external beauty forced women to use various cosmetic procedures. The perfect color of the hair was considered very bright, light golden, so women resorted to various tricks - often very and very dubious. But where to achieve the attention of the opposite sex only by the tricks of porn and skillful makeup did not succeed, other forces entered the game.

Department, fortune telling, superstition and witchcraft, widespread in Europe and in the Middle Ages, gained truly grand scale in the revival era. Pietro Aretino, listed the arsenal of magical objects, the usual for Roman curtains is a huge list, full of strange and disgusting things [Burkhardt Ya., 1996, 454]. And the universality of the phenomenon can be illustrated by Bulla Pope Syksta IV, which in 1474 was forced to condemn Bologna carmelites, openly declared that there is nothing wrong with demons with demons. As you know, such a wide demand for witches and sorcerers caused a response already quite soon - the flame of the bonfire of the Inquisition has long slept throughout Europe in the vain hope to return the flock back to the church.

Popular religiosity, nevertheless, did not suffer from all. Belief in the Virgin Mary, Saints, miracles were as strong, how faith in demonic strength. However, people more educated, as a rule, belonged to church institutions with smaller reverence. Vera and religiosity, i.e. Respect for the external forms of the church at this time is beginning to disperse.

An interesting phenomenon of the religious life of the revived Italy was the existence of a large number of heretical or ceremonic movements, such as the magnitude of the Prelip, Bogomility, etc. The followers of these teachings were literally injected by Italy, and the authority of the preacher, who often turned to the sermon from the official "course" of the church was much higher than that of the parish priest.

The image of the clergy at this time is noticeably diversified. On the one hand, the image of the enlightened prelate - Cardinal, Dad, Papal Leah is well known, is a perfectly educated collector of works of art and erudite, a subtle diplomat and strategist. On the other hand, the authority of the "ordinary" priest, a monk or nuns sharply fell. Treatises of Aretino directly draw an image of lustful and obsessed with perverted passions that are not in natural exit. The same see Dante, Bokachco, etc. The lifestyle of the papal courtyard is widely known, and the story with erotic sketches, which Marcantonio Raymondi left the Papal Palace on the walls, may seem impossible.

Nevertheless, it is impossible to say that the ideal of revival was the ideal of the revival and shameless indulgence of bodies. Such an interest in the flesh was rather dictated by the ideological position of the person of this era than its vicious nature.

Italian life was full of anxiety and dangers, to terrible incurable diseases - plague, cholera, the epidemics of which were carried away by thousands of people, syphilis was added, the consequences of which are well known to the already gallant ladies of Aretino, who fed "French" is not less than leprosy.

Understanding that the instant of life is short, and the life itself is full of sorrows, forced a person of the Renaissance to appreciate every second, every moment of contact with beautiful. No wonder at this time, the decoration of houses becomes truly magnificent, not only rich, but also a pleasing eye. That is why knowledge and literary, as well as musical abilities are highly appreciated.

Beautiful Italian, both noble origin, and so-called. Curtigiane Onesti - First of all, perfectly educated and well-read women, quite independent from husbands and fans and equal to them by erudition and diving.

Independence from the patron is the characteristic feature of the court of this era, the thing is unthinkable for the Middle Ages.

The attitude to the concept of nobility changed and the relationship of the nobility - if earlier under the noble origin was meant the hereditary belonging to the highest class and wealth, in Revival, it is interpreted by this quality as extremely more acquired. Only spiritual development and personal qualities give a man true nobility.

Conclusion

Summing up the abstract, you can draw the following conclusions. The Renaissance of the Renaissance in Italy, not only the event is filled, but first of all, it is rich in those finds and achievements in the field of culture and thoughts, which are still a nutrient medium for the development of modern thoughts. The glory of rebirth in architecture, painting and poetry remains unatail. This period in the history of culture gave rise to true titans, such as Leonardo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. Revival has embodied the rejection of the limited medieval culture and opened the way to develop a human person. Proceedings of the thinkers of this era, such as Lorenzo Valla, Peak of Mirandol, Janozzo Manetti and many others reopened their human nature. Man and the whole range of issues related to the meaning, properties, character, appearance and his life was the main motive and motor of the era.

Changes in relation to personality affected both the art of this period and in the nrav.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Burkhardt Ya. Revival culture in Italy, M., 1996.

Bathkin L. M. Dante and his time. M., 1965.

Bathkin L. M. Italian Humanists: Lifestyle and Thinking Style. M., 1978.

Russell B. History of Western philosophy. T.1. Rostov-Na Donu, 1992.

Revyakina N. V. The Doctrine of the Man of Italian Humanist Janozzo

Maenetti // from the history of the culture of the Middle Ages and Renaissance. M., 1976.

Fuchs E. Illustrated history of morals. Renaissance. M., 1993.

revival, State, Humanists, Publicity, Family, Life

Annotation:

The article discusses the main directions of the daily culture of the Renaissance.

Article text:

The Renaissance began in Italy in the XIII century, then in the XV century the countries of Northern Europe entered it, such as Germany, France, the Netherlands. This period was called the Northern Renaissance.

In the Middle Ages, the domination of Christian ideology was observed. A man moved to the Renaissance to the center of the world. Humanism was the ideology of revival. In a narrow sense, this term referred to secular education in contrast to the formation of the theological scholastic. In the broad sense, reviving humanism is a spiritual movement aimed at liberating a person from medieval corporate morality, from the power of religious dogmas and church authorities, for approval of the values \u200b\u200bof earthly, real life (the cult of human sensuality and secular life), the greatness of the mind and creative abilities of a person , on the elevation of his personality, self-esteem, personal qualities and began.

Revival, thus, anthropocentric; In the first place or plan here - a person as a natural being with all his concerns and hopes, interests and rights.

A new social layer is formed - humanists - where there was no class sign, where they were valued, first of all, individual abilities. Representatives of the new secular intelligentsia - Humanists - protect the dignity of man in their works; Approve the value of a person regardless of its public situation; justify and justify his desire for wealth, glory, power, secular titles, pleasure of life; Provide into spiritual culture freedom of judgment, independence in relation to authorities.

The task of upbringing the "new person" is aware of the main task of the era. The Greek Word ("Education") is the most clear analogue of Latin Humanitas (where does the origin of "humanism" come from).

The teachings of Humanists, of course, influenced the consciousness of the man of the Renaissance era. A new human vision comes with the Renaissance Epoch, the assumption is put forward that one of the reasons for the transformation of medieval ideas about a person is in the peculiarities of urban life, dictating new forms of behavior, other ways of thinking.

In the conditions of intensive public life and business activity, a common spiritual atmosphere is created, in which individuality and uncommonness are highly valued. An active, energetic, active, obligated, not so much knowing ancestors, how many efforts, entrepreneurship, the mind, knowledge, and goodwill, comes to the historical advancement. The person begins to see himself in a new way and the world of nature, its aesthetic tastes change, attitude to the surrounding reality and to the past.

Revival is the time when Europe suddenly re-reserves antiquity, Greco-Roman culture and, inspired by its samples, herself seeks unprecedented earlier than the heyday of the arts and sciences. Revival and was actually reviving antiquity as an ideal sample. The humanitarian knowledge, which was reborn on an ancient basis, which included ethics, rhetoric, philology, history, turned out to be the main sphere in the formation and development of humanism, the ideological rod of which was the doctrine of a person, his place and role in nature and society. This teaching was predominantly in ethics and is enriched in various fields of Renaissance culture. Humanistic ethics put forward the problem of the earth's purpose of man to the fore, achieving happiness with his own efforts. Humanists approached the issue of social ethics in a new way, in the decision of which they relied on the idea of \u200b\u200bthe relics of the creative abilities and the will of a person, about its wide possibilities for building happiness on Earth. An important prerequisite for success, they considered the harmony of the interests of the Individual and the Company, put forward the ideal of the free development of the person and inextricably linked to the improvement of the social organism and political orders.

The revival culture arose before other countries in Italy. Its birth and rapid progressive development in the XV century is due to the historical features of the country. At this time, Italy reached a very high level of development compared to other European countries. Free hotels in Italy have gained economic power. The independent cities of northern and central Italy, rich and prosperous, extremely active economically and politically, became the main base of folding a new, renaissance culture, secular in their general orientation.

Freedom of full citizens was valued here, their equality before the law, the valor and the enterprise, which discovered the path to social and economic achievement. The formation of new social relations was expressed in the liberation of the person.

In Italy there was a broad system of education - from primary and secondary schools to numerous universities. In contrast to other countries, they early were open to teaching disciplines that expanded the framework of traditional humanitarian education. A significant role was played in Italy a close historical connection of its culture with Roman civilization - one should not forget about the numerous monuments of antiquity in the country. A new attitude to the ancient heritage was the problem of the resurrection of the traditions of ancestors. The worldview of the human Renaissance is characterized by freedomity, the desire to create new ideas about society and the universe. However, the development of new concepts lacked still enough extensive information about the world. In this regard, the worldview of the Renaissance person has a combination of real ideas with poetic speculations; Often, new ideas are still in the form of medieval mystical ideas, and real knowledge is inseparable from fiction. The art of Renaissance people in his spirit. The revival of the pagan poetry of antiquity is combined with the appeal to the motives of modern folk art, to full-blooded folklore images. This era is the formation of a literary language and national culture.

In the era of the Renaissance in European countries, there is a transition from the feudal medieval to a new time marked by the initial period of development of capitalism.

The ideological landmarks of the Renaissance culture of Italy influenced the psychological climate of urban life, which changed in the mentality of various layers of society. The new Maxims-oriented merchant morality began to prevail - the ideal of human activity, energetic efforts, without which it was impossible to achieve professional success, and this step by step took away from church ascetic ethics, sharply condemned the comprehension, striving for the accumulation. For a long time ago, a trade and financial entrepreneurship that has generated practical rationalism, calcality, a new attitude to wealth. The desire of Nobirls to play a leading role in urban politics intensified not only personal ambitions in the field of power, but also patriotic sentiment - the service of the state at the administrative field pushed the military valor to the second plan. The majority of traditional intellectual professions ratified for the preservation of the social world and the prosperity of the city-state. The lower urban environment was most conservative, it was in it that the traditions of a folk medieval culture remained firmly, which had a certain impact on the Renaissance culture.

The formation of a new culture has become a matter of all the humanistic intelligentsia, according to its origin and social situation is very motley and heterogeneous. The ideas that nominated by the humanists are difficult to characterize both "bourgeois" or "earlyurboisse." In the culture of Italian revival, the core of a single new worldview was developed, the specific features of which determine its "Renaissance". It was generated by the new needs of life itself, as well as the humanist task of achieving a higher level of education for a fairly wide layer of society.

The crisis of medieval social security and scholastic culture has sharply designated due to the agricultural coup, the development of cities, the emergence of manufactories, the establishment of extensive trading ties. It was the era of great geographical discoveries (Opening of America), bold maritime travel (opening the sea route to India) who contributed to the establishment of relations between countries. It was the era of the formation of national states, the emergence of a new culture, rustling with religious dogmas, the era of the rapid development of science, art and literature, reviving the ideals of antiquity and applied to the study of nature.

In the Renaissance era, the processes of the cross-astall and intraslooking bundle are accelerated. A part of the nobility turns into a servilator on naval (Spain, Portugal) and military administrative (Holland, England, France) part. This facilitates the task of the seizure and operation of colonial possessions. The bundle also touched the peasant mass, a smaller part of which, about 20%, turned into frigolders - farmers and tenants - rural bourgeoisie, and the rest, gradually oblivion, became from copyolders - hereditary tenants - to turn into short-term tenants - Lizgolders, cotters - Batags and romachers , Pooker - the poor, beggars, vagrants, who, if they did not fall into the gallows, they replenished the ranks of the sailors and hired workers.

But the most violently passed the processes of stratification in the cities. Here, from the medium of wealthy masters, merchants and minor financiers, a layer of manuff trainers are formed - owners of large workshops, not engaged in physical labor, future capitalists. And small artisans gradually lose the independence and property rights, first on the product, and then on the very farming and tools of production. Dear, or "scattered" manufactory, received a particularly stormy development where there were weaker workshops. The workshops, increasing the scale of its production and the degree of division of labor, created centralized manufactories. Especially effective manufactory were in industries with expensive, complex production facilities and stable mass marketing: mining, weapons, shipbuilding, printed, weaving.

Urban life, production and exchanges are increasingly activated. Weekly city bazaars become daily. Markets grow together with cities. Selling the market becomes the duty of peasants, merchants and artisans, because it is easier to control.

But in the interval between market days, artisans begin to trade directly in the shop. Then the benches begin to specialize in the fault, long-term and colonial goods, as well as non-food and services. So kabaki appear: gambling, peteed places and stable courtyards. Gradually, the shopkeepers become customers of goods and lenders of artisans.

A quick rate is developing a loan, the money turnover is accelerated. Fairs, revived in the XI century, in the XIV-XVII centuries. Test rapid growth. The permanent place of the meeting of bankers, merchants, denunciators, brokers, bank agents, commissioners becomes an exchange, appearing in almost every major city and in itself testifying to revitalizing economic life.

The flourishing of secular court culture oriented is invariably associated with the epoch of the European Renaissance, and within the framework of this era, with Italy and such courtyards as the courtyard of Medici, D'Eeste, Gonzago and Sforza. The lifestyle, which established in these focus of eternal entertainment, demanded new personal samples. New needs stimulate the appearance of a huge number of benefits on court manners and good education. Among them, the most exalted tone takes the "court" B. Castiglion; This sample got a huge resonance in Italy and beyond.

The only worthy court lesson, says Castiglion, is a knight's occupation, but essentially a sample of Castigliona is a "demilitarized" sample. Enough to participate in tournaments, ride, throw a spear, play the ball. The nobleman is not a blow and will not look for reasons for a duel. He will throw a glove only if necessary and then will not allow itself unworthy weakness. Although the court did not stick to any craft, except for Knight, it differs in everything, for which it takes. He will not inspire horror with his appearance, but also will not be like a woman, like those who curl hair and pluck their eyebrows.

Especially the court grace and some negligence that hides the art and makes it difficult to assume that everything is given to him easily. Our negligence strengthens respect for us around: what would they think they think this man is seriously serious! However, it should not be talked.

Humanistic culture decorates any. Therefore, the perfect court owns Latin and Greek, reads poets, speakers, historians, writes verses and prose, playing different tools, draws. But he may not be musitizing, as leaving for persons, on the aristocratic way, believing as perhaps to his art in which he is quite sure. Of course, he will not dance on some folk guides, nor demonstrate in the dance wonders of agility, decent only to hired dancers.

In the conversation, the courtie avoids evil and poisonous hints; condestees to the weak, with the exception of those who are too submitted; It will not laugh at those who deserve the punishment rather than mockery, over people powerful and rich, as well as over defenseless women.

The final grinding of all these advantages give women with their softness and delicacy. A woman at the courtyard should have to own a humanistic culture, painting, be able to dance and play, saying shyly, if she is offered to shine with their skills. She must tactfully support a conversation and even be able to listen to comments. What a man would not want to earn a friendship of such a virtuous and charming person? An unmarried woman can apply with his favor only to whom she could marry. If she is married, he can offer a fan of only his heart. Men should constantly remember their debt to defend the honor of women.

A family.Renaissance, essentially, the revolutionary era, became the "completely exclusive century of flame sensuality." Together with the ideal of physical beauty, and as its consequence, the ideal was erected, fertility.

In the Renaissance Epoch, the philosophy of love is widely developed; Love a husband and wife seeks to take a legitimate place in the family. Marriages based on the voluntary union were possible, new spiritual trends appeared. However, still, the majority of marriages were determined by monetary and class relationships.

Traditionally, many researchers are uniquely confident in the biological, natural nature of the reproductive culture of the family. Indeed, the reproductive function is predetermined by biologically. But if you turn to a historical retrospective, it becomes obvious how great human intervention in this initially biological process.

The reproductive culture of the Epoch of Early Renaissance determines that the first humanists the marriage and family do not yet find unconditional recognition and support. For example, for Petrarca, family and children are a source of anxiety complicating the life of the curb. But Petraka was perhaps the only representative of the culture of early and high rebirth, who gave such an assessment of family values.

But already the views of Salutati on reproductive values \u200b\u200bare brightly representing the beginning of a new type of culture, which is clearly indicated by the unconditional predominance of the rational component over sensual.

Determining the purpose of marriage the birth of children, Salutati is considering this social institution as a natural responsibility that every person must fulfill. This humanist believes that refusing to produce offspring, people destroy the fact that they made nature; They become unfair in relation to themselves, their loved ones, evil towards the family, a person and highly ungrateful in relation to nature. Without leaving children, a person will be unfair to his ancestors, because will destroy the name and glory of the genus. He will be unfair to his homeland, without leaving her after himself the defender, malicious (malicious) towards human genus, who will die if it does not support the continuous continuity of generations.

The values \u200b\u200bof the reproductive culture of early revival are based primarily on debt. Love, binding spouses, is absent at this time, and the extramarital relationship is not recognized.

The social consciousness of the cultural of early revival reveals a tendency to childhood, which penetrates into the social policy of the era: in France, in 1421, the shelter for children-a-educational house is built - an educational house, one of the first in Europe.

Alberti in his treatise "On the family" is already more than it was in the early humanists, represents the equilibrium of rational and sensual components in their reproductive views. On the one hand, he notes the need for each family to continue his genus, reproduce children. On the other hand, indicates that children are the greatest joy for fathers. And the joy is emotion, and thereby expressing the sensual component of culture.

A representative of the high rebirth era with the relevant views on the reproductive culture, in which the rational and sensual components are equalized as much as possible, is the Erat of Rotterdam. In his work "On the upbringing of children", this humanist unequivocally expresses that a child is value, which is more expensive than human practically nothing. Anti-precision recognizes infertility of spouses. The value of the child manifests itself, on the one hand, in the obligations of the parent to society, to reproduce himself and the child, on the other hand, at the maximum of positive emotions, which are experiencing a valid and future parent in connection with the birth and further education of the child. E.Rotterdamsky indicates that the duty of a person to give birth and raise a child is a duty in which a person is different from animals and most likely to the Divine.

In addition, Erasmus criticizes one-sided, from his point of view, attitudes towards the child, when parents are trying to see him, first of all, physically complete. E. Lerdamsky calls on parents in particular and modern society as a whole to see the harmony of the body and soul, material and spiritual.

In general, there are a large number of documents that record many touching stories about selfless and affectionate mothers and attentive caregivers.

In the art of this period, the child becomes one of the most frequent heroes of small stories: a child in a family circle; the child and his comrades in the game, often adults; a child in a crowd, but not merging with her; The child is an artist's apprentice, a jeweler.

At the famous utopians Renaissance T.Mor and T. Makpanenelly, the topic of the value of the child is somewhat leveled, the greatest importance of them acquire the ideas of upbringing and learning. But, for example, the poem of T.Mor, dedicated to his children and named Margarita, Elizabeth, Cecilia and John, the sweet children, wishes invariably healthy, is an example of attitudes towards children is more sensual than rational.

Reproductive culture of the Late Revival Age (2 Halves of the XVI early XVII centuries) is a change in the reproductive views of the family, the values \u200b\u200bof the child. A child is already appreciated not by any age, as it was earlier, but a somewhat growing, as it were, who had a positive attitude towards himself adults, the presence of valuable personal qualities. The expressive of such opinions of this period is M.Monten, who believes that one should not kiss newborns, who are still deprived of spiritual or certain physical qualities that they would be able to inspire us love for themselves. Genuine and reasonable love would have to appear and grow as we learn them.

Thus, it can be concluded that the relationship of a person of the Renaissance to the reproductive and family values \u200b\u200bduring the time was ambiguous. And the dynamics of the reproductive culture of the designated era schematically represents a certain cycle, the steady of which is characterized by one or another ratio of rational and sensual, spiritual and material principle.

Humanists also wrote a lot about family relations and housekeeping. Family relations were built patriarchal, relatives were revered. Love appreciated a lot below the marriage. Outside the marriage remained, however, quite significant segments of the population: soldiers, bars, apprentices and lumines, priests - priests. But for Miryanin, marriage was necessary for reasons not only economic, but also public prestige. The absence of relatives pushed a person beyond group protection. Therefore, widows and widows quickly entered new marriages - as usual, by calculation. Family portraits were included in the fashion, where the relatives standing strictly in status and age silently testify to the fortress of family bonds. Women received strict upbringing: since childhood they were engaged in housekeeping, did not dare to wander around the city, along the pier.

The Renaissance Epoch was a lot of socially active and very independent women in different layers of the population. An increasing number of women from secured families sought to learn and independently arrange their destiny.

Children were very dependent. Childhood, in principle, did not stand out as a special period in a person's life, requiring its relationship, clothes, food, etc.; Training of the overwhelming number of children occurred in the process of family training - industrial and household. Another skill was given to learn to side. The main thing was that children reproduce the status, model of behavior and communications of the parents, prepared for marriage, independent management or accommodation in the host house. In school, the main subject was the religion, the main means of education - rose. With their help, they taught to obey the owner and authorities. Wealthy people invited home teacher-priest or university professor for their children. The young men of the noble and Burgers-Patrician circle knew foreign languages, artistic literature and history, wrote poems on Latin.

Costume. The era of Renaissance was the times of emergency diversity in clothes. With the improvement of the technology of weaving increased consumption of expensive fabrics. From the XV century Manufactory in Lucca, Venice, Genoa, Florence and Milan, start in abundance to produce a pass, patterned silk, painted by velvet flowers, satin and other magnificent, rich fabric paints. With all the variety of patterns and paints, the Italian fashion of early revival was characterized by simplicity and harmoniousness of the form. Often, all the head decoration was only elegantly laid braids or curls intertwined with thin threads of pearls, or small oval hats (Berretta). A particularly strong impression produced a high, absolutely open forehead, artificially increased by removing part of the hair in front, as well as eyebrows.

On top of the simple bottom dress with long sleeves, it was put on a more elegant, highly spiderman, decorated with a rich pattern. Outerwear with a long loop and hanging with shoulders with decorative sleeves. Young people preferred short, closely adjacent clothes of bright colors. Silk pants-trico, or stockings (in 1589, the knitwear was invented) were distributed. However, in Italy, there is still an influential ancient tradition, especially if we are talking about shape and cover clothes and wearing her manner. So, for example, in the XV century. Magistrate members, dignitaries, mostly wore long overweight with folds and very wide sleeves.

Almost from the very beginning of the XVI century. In Italy, a new ideal of beauty is produced, which manifests itself in the nature of the perception of the human body and dress and move in the manner.

High rebirth with necessity should have come to heavy and soft tissues, wide honeying sleeves, magnificent loops and massive corsages with wide cuts on the chest and shoulders, which were given to women of that time worthy and significant appearance. The underlining of the whole "hanging and worrying" in this era makes the movement more calm and slow, while the XV century emphasized all flexible and movable. All loose and trembling in hairstyles gave way to dense and connected. The image has completed a new-fashioned handkerchief, a decorative "flea fur" around the neck, fan of feathers and gloves, often scented. It is at this time that the new word appears - "Grandezza", meaning a majestic, noble appearance.

Antiquity has become an ideal for Italian humanists, and they sought to revive antiquity images in everyday life. It had an influence on the costume despite the fact that elements of the medieval knightly ideal were preserved in Italian culture. Harmony of proportions, a completely different image of a person, the desire to emphasize the personality of a person - all this has become completely new compared to a rigidly regulated medieval costume. The military armor almost did not have the influence of the Italian male suit, since the leading social force in the XIV-XV centuries. Popolani (merchants and artisans). This suit was more voluminous than in other European countries. Officials and representatives of some professions (doctors, lawyers, merchants), as in other countries, wore long clothes. The peculiarity of the Italian costume was that the clothes had cuts along the constructive lines (prugis, elbow seams, on the chest), through which the white linen lower shirt produced, which created a special decorative effect. Harmonious proportions and constructive cuts of Italian clothing will be borrowed by tailor other countries at the end of the XV - the first half of the XVI centuries.

The main objects of clothing in men and women consisted of the lower and top dress, raincoat, headdress, shoes. Men also wore pants or those objects of clothing, which gradually turned into pants. Underwear has not yet been known. It was replaced by a shirt to some extent, but even their wardrobe knew quite a little.

In 1527, Italy passed under the power of Spain, and gradually the Italian costume began to lose their originality, submitting to the Spanish fashion. Women's costume, especially in Venice in the XVI century, longer than male, retained the individuality and loyalty to the ideas of Italians about beautiful: the silhouette of dresses that worn Italian was more voluminous than the Spanish, despite the fact that from the end of the 1540s gg In Italy, a metal corset spread. It was the first to wear the Italian to the dresses with a bodice ending in front of an acute angle (Cape), shoes on high wooden stands - Tsocoli, so as not to distort the proportions of the shape. It is impossible not to pay attention to the zealous efforts of women to transform themselves with the help of various toileties.

First of all, you need to mention fake hair and fakes from white and yellow silk, very common at the time. The perfect color of the hair was blonde and golden, and women tried to achieve it in various ways. Many believed that the hair was brighten under the influence of sun rays, and therefore women tried to be in the sun for a long time. Widescreen paints and means for hair dissipation are widely used. To this, it is necessary to add a whole arsenal of means for lightening the skin of the face, plasters and a roast for each individual part of the person, even for the age and teeth.

Young people sometimes painted their hair and beard, although they themselves advocated the naturalness of women.

Italy has become a homeland lace, which appeared at the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. Prior to that, there were various types of openwork embroidery, including embroidery "seams on a slot" - on the grid of the sparse canvase, which became the prototype of the real lace.

In addition to lace, the suit was also decorated with appliqué, embroidery silk, wool, gold and silver thread, beads, beads, gold and silver braid, galuna, pearls, precious stones, jewelry sockets.

It is in the era of the revival of the wide distribution of glasses and pocket watch, and also entered the crew. But this, of course, there were already obvious signs of wealth.

Housing.Housing construction was actively conducted in the Renaissance Epoch - and first of all, in the city and his district. The demand for housing exceeded the offer. Therefore, city authorities encouraged construction.

The revival of construction was explained not only by the needs of housing, but also the fact that old houses did not meet the tastes and requests of the era. The famous citizens erected new magnificent palaces, for the sake of which the whole quarters were demolished, sometimes under demolition got not only dilapidated at home.

Urban development in Europe was chaotic. Because of this, there were narrow streets in the city, often ending with deadlocks, at home came into contact with each other roofs. However, with the demolition of old quarters, the urban authorities were given the opportunity to make an element of regularity in the planning of the city. Then the streets expanded and straightened, new squares appeared.

In urban construction, aesthetic ideas were intertwined with practical considerations. Cities everywhere in Europe remained dirty. Potted streets came rarely. Water pipes could boast the inhabitants of only a few cities. Fountains not only delayed the eyes, but also were a source of drinking water. Lighting in the night and evening the moon usually served.

The windows were still small, because the problem was not solved than to cover them. Over time, a monochrome glass was borrowed from the church. It was worth such windows very expensive and did not solve the problem of lighting, although more light and heat came to the house. Sources of artificial lighting served torches, oil lamps, a beacon, wax - and more often, very smoking - candles, fireplace fire and hearth. Glass lamps are appear. Such lighting made it difficult to maintain purity, both at home, so wear and bodies.

The heat was given a kitchen center, fireplace, stoves, brazers. Fireplaces were not available to everyone. In the era of the revival of the fireplace turned into real works of art, richly decorated with sculpture, bas-reliefs, frescoes. The chimney at the fireplace was arranged in such a way that because of a strong traction took a lot of heat. This lack tried to compensate for the use of brazier. Often, the bedroom only was heated. The inhabitants of the house went warmly dressed, even into fur, often caught.

Until the XVIII century, housing furnishings were limited to a small set: a bench, a table, a stool, a boarded bed and a mattress stuffed with straw. The bathroom was the greatest rarity at that time. Parquet and patterned floor plates appear in XIV. Oil and glue paint on the walls are inferior to wallpaper tissues, and then paper wallpaper called "Domino". During the case of the wall, we were cut with wooden panels. The windows were made from stained glass windows, before that the former privilege of the church building, from the listing fabric or washesized paper. And only in the XVI century, a real transparent glass appeared. On the change of the hearth, located in the middle of the kitchen, the oven comes.

Table. In the era of Renaissance, he was not yet freed from fear before hunger. There were great differences in the nutrition of the "tops" and "lower house" of society, peasants and citizens.

The food was rather monotonous. About 60% of the diet occupied carbohydrates: bread, pellets, different porridges, soups. The main cereals were wheat and rye. Bread of the poor was distinguished from the bread of rich. The last bread was wheat. The peasants almost did not know the taste of wheat bread. Their dot was rye bread from the flour of a bad grinding, sifted, with the addition of rice flour, which wealthy was beaten.

An important addition to grain was legumes: beans, peas, lentils. From the pea even baked bread. With peas and beans usually prepared stewed meat.

Thanks to Arabs, the Europeans met citrus: oranges, lemons. Almond came from Egypt, apricots from the east. Pumpkin, zucchini, mexican cucumber, sweet potatoes, beans, tomatoes, peppers, corn, potatoes have appeared in Europe.

Fresh food in large quantities seasoned garlic and onions. As seasonings widely used celery, dill, pore, coriander.

Fats in the south of Europe are more common vegetable, in the north of animal origin. In Mediterranean Europe, meat consumed less than in North. In central and east ate more beef and pork; In England, Spain, southern France and Italy - lamb. The meat diet was replenished due to game, poultry. Citizens ate meat more than peasants. Also fir fish.

For a long time, Europe was limited in sweet, as Sugar appeared only with Arabs and cost very expensive, so it was available only to the well-waters of society.

From drinks first place traditionally occupied grape wine. His consumption forced poor water quality. Wine was given even to children. Cypriot, Rhine, Moselle, Tokay, Malvasia, Majere, Malara, Malaga, Malaga, enjoyed a high reputation.

The main advantage of food in the Middle Ages was saturated and abundance. On the holiday, it was necessary to find it so that later in hungry days it was something to remember. Although wealthy people did not have to be afraid of hunger, their table was not distinguished by sophistication. The Renaissance era contributed notable changes to European cuisine. A replacement of an unbridled appetite comes exquisitely, finely represented abundance.

Meat dishes, as before, were prepared a wide variety of sauces with all sorts of seasonings, did not regret the expensive oriental spices: nutmeg, cinnamon, ginger, carnations, peppers, European saffron, etc. The use of spices was considered prestigious.

New recipes appear. Along with recipes, the number of changes in dishes is growing. In the XV century in Italy, confectionery has also prepared a pharmacist. These were cakes, cakes, pellets, caramel, etc.

It became important not only than feeding the guests, but also how to apply cooked dishes. The so-called "showing dishes" was obtained. Of various, often inedible materials, figures of real and fantastic animals and birds, castles, towers, pyramids, which served as containing various evaches, especially pate, were manufactured. Nurembergian confectioner Hans Shneider in the late XVI century invented a huge pate, which was hiding rabbits, hares, squirrels, small birds. In the solemn moment, the pate was opened, and all his livelihood for the fun had disassembled and flew out of it in different directions.

In the era of revival even more than before, not only the kitchen was acquired, but also a feast: table setting, the order of feeding dishes, the rules of behavior at the table, manners, drinking entertainment, communication.

The dining room was enriched with new objects and became much more elegant. A variety of dries united under the overall name of the "nem". Sudki's cheeks in the shape of chests, towers, buildings. They were intended for spices, wines, cutlery. Heinrich III is French into one of these oil clan gloves and fan, the vessels for wine were called the "fountain", had a different shape and necessarily the cranes below. Tripods served for dishes. The honorable place on the tables occupied solonks and cannons from precious metals, stone, crystal, glass, faience.

Flat plates appeared in 1538 by order of King Francis 1. Sugar was a luxury until the middle of the XVI century. If the "dark" century festive peirs were only interrupted by monotony and a shortage of everyday nutrition, since the XV century meat, previously considered a sign of luxury, firmly entered the casual diet of the middle European. True, in the XVI-XVII centuries. This rule has decreased significantly again, especially in areas, poor cattle. At the table and in life, good manners were given a little. As many as 200 years, it took to learn how to use the fork.

Plates, dishes and drink vessels were made by metal: kings and nobility - from silver, gold-plated silver, and sometimes of gold. The demand for tin dishes, which they learned to handle and decorate not worse than gold and silver. But a particularly important change can be considered distribution from the XV century. Fayans's dishes, the secret of the manufacture of which was discovered in the Italian city of Faenz. More furnishings made of glass - one-color and color.

The knife still remained the main tool at the table. Big knives cut meat on common dishes, from which everyone took for himself a piece with his knife or hands. And although napkins were served in the best houses and almost after each dish of guests and the owners were applied to the dishes with flavored water for washing the hands, the tablecloth had to change more than once during the lunch. The honorable audience did not hesitate to wipe their hands about them. The tablespoon was sought to provide each of the sites sitting at the table. But there were at home in which the spoons did not have enough on everyone - and guests or brought a spoonful with themselves, or as in the old days they were hard food, and in the sauce or sober up their piece of bread. The plug passed on before the Italians.

Using forks by several guests at the courtyard of the French king Heinrich II served as a matter of coarse ridiculation. No better was the case with glasses and plates. Still told the custom to put one plate for two guests. But it happened that the soup continued to draw their spoon of soup.

On the occasion of the banquet, the interior was specifically executed. The walls of the hall or loggia were taken away with fabrics and tapestries, rich sewing, flowers and laurel garlands, seized ribbons. Garlyands decorated the walls and framed family emblems.

In the hall, there were three tables in the form of the letter "P", leaving in the middle of the space, both for sceners of dishes and fun.

Guests have searched from the outside of the table - sometimes pairwise ladies with cavaliers, sometimes separately. At the main table, the owner of the house and high guests were located. In anticipation of the meal, those present saw a light wine, climbed it with dry fruit, listened to music.

The main idea pursued by the organizers of the lush feasts is to show the magnificence, the wealth of the family, her power. From the banquet could depend on the fate of the upcoming marriage, which has a goal to unite prosperous families, or the fate of the business agreement, etc. Wealth and power were demonstrated not only before, equal, but also in front of commoners. For this it was just convenient to organize lush peirs in the loggia. Small people could not only look at the magnificence of the power of the property, but also to join him. It was possible to listen to cheerful music, dance, take part in theatrical formulation. But the most important thing that has existed the tradition, distribute the remaining food to the poor.

The pastime at the table in the company became customary, widely spread in all layers of society. Taverns, restaurants, innovation courtyards distracted visitors from home life monotony.

The named forms of communication, no matter how different from each other, testify that the society overcomed to the former relative closure and became more open and communicative.

Literature.
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