Culture and man in the oldest civilizations. The originality of the culture of ancient civilizations

Ancient China

The most ancient period of the Chinese civilization is the era of the existence of the state of Shang, a slave owner in the valley of the Juanhe River. Her capital was the city of Shan, who gave the name of the country and the ruling dynasty of the kings. Already in the era of Shan, an ideographic writing was opened, which by long improved turned into an hieroglyphic calligraphy, and was also compiled in the main features a monthly calendar. During the early Imperial Epoch, the ancient China introduced such discoveries as a compass, speedometer, seismograph into world culture. Later, typography and powder were invented. It was in China in China in the field of writing and typography opened paper and a moving font, and in military equipment - guns and stirrups. The mechanical clock was also invented and technical improvements in the field of silk-chockery occurred.

In mathematics, an outstanding Chinese achievement was the use of decimal frains and empty positions to designate 0, calculating the number "PI", opening the method of solving equations with two and three unknowns. The ancient Chinese were educated astronomers, amounted to one of the first star cards in the world. The construction of forts, directed primarily to the protection of the external borders of the Empire, first of all, was also important to protect the external borders of the empire. Chinese builders became famous for grandiose facilities - the Great Chinese Wall and the Great Channel. Chinese medicine for 3 thousand years has reached many results. In ancient China, "Pharmacology" was written for the first time, surgery for the first time began to carry out surgical operations using narcotic drugs, first applied and described in the literature methods for treatment with acupuncture, cacling and massage. Ancient Chinese thinkers and Lekari have developed the original doctrine of "vital energy". On the basis of this teaching, the philosophical and health system "Wushu" was created, which gave the beginning of the treatment of therapeutic gymnastics, as well as the art of self-defense "Kung Fu". The peculiarity of the spiritual culture of ancient China is largely due to the phenomenon known in the world as the "Chinese ceremony". Confucianism is the most important place in Chinese spiritual culture - the etiko-political teachings of the philosopher-idealist Confucius. In 2-3 centuries. Buddhism comes to China, which has noticeably influenced the traditional Chinese culture, it manifested itself in literature, figurative art and, especially in character. Buddhism existed in China to read 2 millennia, changed noticeably in the process of adaptation to a specific Chinese civilization.

Ancient indium

Early Indian civilization was created by the ancient local population of Northern India in 3 V. BC. Its Centers of Harapp and Mohenjo Daro (now Pakistan) supported links with Mesopotamia, Central and Central Asian countries. Residents of these places have achieved high mastery, especially in the image of small forms (figurines, engraving); Their amazing achievement was a water supply system and sewage system, which did not have any other ancient cultures. They created their original not yet decrypted writing.

A bright feature of the Harapp culture was her unusual conservatism: for centuries, the location of the streets of the Old Indian seats did not change, and new houses were built on the places of old. The characteristic feature of the culture of India is that we meet with numerous religions that interact with each other. Among them are the main - brahmanism and its forms of Hinduism and Jainism, Buddhism and Islam. The present heyday, Ancientindian culture reached in the Epoch "Rig Him" \u200b\u200b- a large collection of religious hymns, magical spells and ritual customs created by the priests of the Aryan tribes, which appeared in India after the "great resettlement of peoples". At the same time, brahmanism was formed as a kind of synthesis of beliefs of Indo-Arya and religious ideas of the previous local North Indian population. An Indian phenomenon is the custom system in the Rig Hedi Epoch. For the first time, theoretically substantiated moral and legal motives for the division of Indian society into four main "Varna": priests, warriors, progress-agriculties and servants. A whole system of life regulations and behavior of each Varna was developed. According to this, marriage was considered to be legitimate only within one Varna. The result of such relations between people was the following separation of Varna to an even greater number of small castes. The formation of castes is the total of a thousand-year evolution of interaction between different racial and ethnic groups in a single cultural system of an ancient Indian society, where a very complex social structure was formed. Olympus in Hinduism symbolizes Brahma's Trinity, Vishnu and Shiva, which represents the cosmic forces of creation, savings and destruction. A peculiar reaction of the population, not belonging to the caustes of priests and speaking against the inequality of Cast, was Buddhism. According to the teachings of Buddhism, the human life mission is to achieve Nirvana.

Islam was brightly different from all previous religious views. First of all, the Muslim tribes owned military technology and a strong political system, but their main believer relied on the concept of "grouped fraternity", which united deep respect for all those who took this faith. All Indian literature, both religious and secular, filled with hints of sexual content and symbolism of open erotic descriptions. In the culture of ancient India, the originality of cultural trends and philosophical thought is closely related.

The artistic culture of an ancient Indian society is inextricably linked with traditional religious and philosophical systems for it.

The ideas characteristic of the religious beliefs of the ancient Indians inspired creativity in architecture, culture and painting. For descendants, the huge statues of Buddha, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, which cause surprise with their colossal sizes remained from metal. The perception of light through the spiritual prism of the beliefs of these religions is the frescoes of cave temples. Ajans and rock coat compositions in Ellora temples, which unite the traditions of the Northern and southern type of temple structure in ancient India.

This ancient agricultural civilization began to form in 4 V. BC. The history of the state and culture of Egypt is divided into several periods: early, ancient, average and new kingdom. Early Egypt - It was the time of formation of a slave-owner building and a despotic state, during which a religious belief characteristic of the ancient Egyptians was formed: the cult of nature and ancestors, astral and illuminated cults, fetishism, totemism, animism and magic. In cult construction, a stone began to be widely used. Ancient and middle kingdom They were characterized by the strengthening and centralization of the bureaucratic apparatus of the Board, the strengthening of the power of Egypt and its desire to expand its influence on neighboring peoples. In cultural development, this is the era of construction, which is surprising for the sizes of pharaohs, such as Heops and others, the creation of unique monuments of art, such as pharaoh sphinxes, portrait relief on the tree. About the grand is the largest of the Egyptian pyramids - the pyramids of Heops, which does not have equal among the stone structures of the whole world, they say its dimensions: 146m - height, and the length of the base of each of the 4 faces is 230m. New kingdom It was the last period of the external activity of Egypt, when he led the war in Asia and North Africa. At this time, the architecture of the temples especially flourished.

Hellenic culture

Ellina worshiped deities representing different forces of nature, public strength and phenomena, the heroes - the mythical ancestors of tribes and childbirth, founders of cities. Mythology has become a significant element greek culture, on the basis of which literature, philosophy, science developed later.

6.1. Culture and her understanding in the East

If we could look at the old light map about 1 millennia BC. E., Could find three belts of cultures: the first belt would form the culture of civilizations of the Ancient East. They formed a bandwidth of states stretching from the west to the east of ancient Egypt to China. As a rule, the beginning of their education belongs to the VI-IV millennia BC. e. The end falls at the beginning of our era. The second belt would have consisted of the cultures of the "barbarian" societies in the nuclear stage of the development, which have passed towards farming or cattle breeding, but who did not create more of their statehood. These cultures were adjacent to the belt of civilizational crops from the south and from the north. All of them, who earlier, who later also go to the civilization path of development. Over the second belt, north and under it, south, the third belt - the archaic crops of the doseling communities, the peoples who used the stone tools of labor were mainly engaged in hunting, collecting and fishing. This is the tribes of Siberia, the Far East, the coast of the Arctic Ocean, on the one hand, and the peoples of the southern countries, the islands of the Pacific, Indian Ocean, tribes of tropical and South Africa. Most of them lived to the nineteenth and early twentieth century, and some of them would probably be included in the XXI century.

Cultures of civilizations of the Ancient East - the most ancient of the civilizations known to us. S. N. Kramer released a book in 1965 "The story begins in Sumere" - and he was close to the truth. In many respects about the culture of ancient civilizations, we can judge the written sources left to the Sumerums. But no smaller material gives the data of archeology, philology and other sources. The researchers have long attracted to the culture of the East at all, and the Ancient East - especially. There was a peculiar culture, which is different from European. In the twentieth century, we used to look at the East "condescendingly", from top to bottom, believing that it is a catchy type of culture, doomed to the backlog from the culture of the West and periodic upgrades. But this state is the result of development over the past 3-4th century - a brief moment in history. The largest part of the historical culture of the East was ahead of the West. East - "gave", Europe - "took". No wonder the sayings appeared: "Light from the East". And whether this position will not return again, in the twentieth century - who knows? At least, the role of Eastern culture is now, at the turn of 2000, it clearly increases, interest in Eastern culture is growing. Therefore, it would be impossible to get around the peculiarities of this culture.

The culture of the East is distinguished by a lot from the West. Even the concept of "culture" in the West and East carries various meaning. European understanding of culture comes from the concepts of "cultivation", the change, the transformation of the product of nature into the human product. The Greek word "Paida" (from the word "Pass" - a child), also means "transformation". But the Chinese word (hieroglyph) "Wen", similar to the concept of "culture", pictographically dates back to the design of the decoration symbol; "Decorated man." Hence the main meaning of this concept - decoration, color, grace, literature. Wen opposes "Ji" - something intact, aesthetically rude, spiritually unattached.

Thus, if in the West under the culture is understood as the totality and material, and spiritual products of human activity, then in the east, the culture includes only those of products that make the world and man "decorated", "sophisticated" internally, "aesthetically" decorated.

6.2. Formation of the originality of the culture of the East

What kind of formational type is attributed to Eastern culture?

K. A. Vitfogel described the Eastern Society as a primitive public system with an exploitative state. F. Tehoki believed that the Khansky China (from the II century BC) was already feudal and remained so until the nineteenth century. F. Tehoki, and after him, and J. Sheny believed that the "atypical" line of historical development forms the culture of ancient Greece, and therefore the European culture. While the rest of the world, including oriental cultures, civilization, followed naturally. Similar theses defended E. S. Varga and L. A. Sedov.

In order to substantiate the correctness of the existence of the Asian Method of Production, and therefore a special "Asian", "eastern" type of culture, it was necessary to substantiate four parameters:

special, asian, level of development of productive forces;

a special system of property relations;

special methods assigning an increase in the surcharge product;

non-repulsive, but at the same time, and not a feudal class structure.

In general, allocate these parameters failed.

Thus, it is not necessary to talk about the specter "Asian" type of culture of the East, but it is possible to talk about the originality of the culture of the East. After all, the same basis "can detect infinite variations and gradations in its manifestation."

Yu. V. Kachanovsky allocated five main features, in which the originality of the historical development of the East is manifested:

1. A stronger tendency to preserve community structures;

2. An important economic role of the state;

3. Establishing supreme ownership of land;

4. The trend of the development of feudalism without a major landlord;

5. Centralized, despotic power.

As the characteristic features of the Asian Society and its culture, you can call:

for the characteristics of the productive forces - the level due to their artificial non-recovery;

as a special system of property relations - a system of state-bureaucratic, hierarchical relations;

as special methods of assigning a surcharge product - the method of operation of knowledge, preventive redistribution of the surplus product due to knowledge of knowledge;

as a non-repulsive and, at the same time, no feudal class structure is a specific class-caste, hierarchical membership of society with a special place in it is a colossal layer of officials, engineers and scientists.

Despite some common features of the culture of civilizations of the Ancient East:

early transition to bronze as the main material of culture (although the stone tools of labor remained for a long time) and

the spread of slavery, existing along with the community peasantry, the confrontation of the state-shop and community-private sectors of the economy, etc.,

in these cultures, differences preserved the three models of civilizations.

6.3. Models of Culture of Civilizations of the Ancient East

The first model of culture of civilizations is folded in Mesopotamia. The culture of Mesopotamia is preceded by the civilization of Jericho (6th millennium BC), accural Kiyuk (6-5th thousand years BC. E.) In the 5-4th millenniums BC e. Civilization arises in the upper mesopotamia. Initially, statehood in the area arises in the foothills, and only later descends into the valleys of the Tiger River and Euphrates. In the 4-3rd millenniums BC. e. Civilization covers the lower two-range - the Sumer appears.

On the filled lands in the Valley of the Euphrates of Effrate, agricultural people began to receive a huge surplus product at that time. But the need for its preservation and distribution, as well as the organization of community joint work on the regulation of water flows, the creation of irrigation facilities, has very early led to the creation of the state. This state included both the city and the adjacent territory. He was invited to call Nome, unlike the policy, the city of the city. Nomes in the ancient Sumer were located on the river or irrigation canal, and not on the trading path, which indicates the weak development of trade.

The center of the organization and storage of the surcharge product was a temple. The temple was the city center, states. Therefore, such a state is called "temple". The rulers of "Enshi" - the states called themselves no on the name of the territory, the city, but by the name of the god of a particular temple. The temples were the main owners of the Earth, the priesthood was carried out and secular functions - control and organization of work, and sacred - carrying out religious events. The priests of the temple were both government officials and employees of the city administration.

Gods are the hosts of the territory, her keepers. But they are also personalized forces of nature, astral bodies, cosmic elements. Each Nome had their gods. There was a struggle between Nomas, the victory of the Noma led to the victory of the patron God. He held a dominant place in the pantheon of the gods. Ancient Religion - communal. It has not yet been formed by dogma, they are not yet combined into the system. The main thing in such religion is a ritual, rite, cult, and not faith, feeling, mental appeal, love. The feeling of faith, love for God will appear later. By the middle of the 3th millennium BC e. (XXIV century. BC. E.) There is an association of nomes into a single state. It resembled a military union and remained fragile. Ancient Sumerians spoke to the language unknown to us. He did not belong to the Semitic group of languages. But it is they who invent a letter, first drawing - pictographic, then a slider - clig.

Sumer was hostile with the Accident kingdom, which was formed by the semitting tribes. It was located on average two-range. As a result of a long-term struggle, the Sumer was conquered and the state was formed, which united the average and the lower two-range under the rule of Sargon Ancient. In the XXII century BC e. The kingdom of sargonyids decays under pressure from the tribes of the pan, and in the XXI century - a newly centralized state "Ur Khaldaysky" is formed, from where does Abraham come from. From the dynasty, the cheers remained hundreds of thousands of clay documents, huge zigkurats - temple complexes - decorated cities, there was a strict reporting system, followed by bureaucracy. All Tsar's subjects were called slaves. The report is preserved - the lap the shepherd, in which he reports where the cattle passes. There is a sign on the write-off of two pigeons on the royal cuisine. But all this passed. A new state is created - Babylon. The story continued. The civilization culture model is developing in ancient Egypt, in the Nile Valley. According to the language, the population of Ancient Egypt belongs to the seven-Khamita group, that is, is related to the Hebrew, Aramaic, Akkadian languages, but there is some kind of relationship with Berbero-Libyan, couch, gady languages. On the territory of Egypt archaeologists found traces of Paleolithic cultures, but it is impossible to tie them with one or another ethnicity. Very early in the area there are products from copper - in the V-IV millennium BC. er, but the period of systematic propagation of bronze begins later - in the II millennium BC. e. And only among the elite. Up to Ptolemyev, farmers used stone products. Hence the famous conservatism of culture. The annual spills of the Nile brought rich yields and without improving the tools of labor.

The formation of civilization in ancient Egypt occurs in the 4-3rd millenniums BC. e., about the same time as in Sumer. Initially in Egypt, there were up to 40 nomes - centers, in all likelihood, tribal connections. The boundaries of the nomov were quite stable and persisted throughout history. The whole territory was divided into two parts: the upper and lower Egypt. This membership is also sufficiently sustainable. Pharaoh was called "Lord" "both lands." Initially, the formation of nomov was the formation, then the nomes were united in two kingdoms, and then the union of kingdoms, land in a single state occurred. The state has a leading role in the association of the country. Pharaoh combined the functions of the "king" - the heads of executive and judiciary, the "leader" - the leader in war, and the Supreme Priest, performing religious functions. The main cult reflecting the idea of \u200b\u200bthe unity of the state was the cult of Pharaoh. Pharaoh - Live God on Earth. With the activities of Pharaoh, his health was associated by the welfare of the country, the yield of fields. Very long existed the rite of the Hepset. He was a ritual running of Pharaoh, during which the ruler demonstrated his strength, health and as if reborn - was updated. The ritual was religious because it symbolized the high yield of fields. By order of Pharaoh spilled Nile. The entire population of Ancient Egypt was called "slaves" of Pharaoh, although there were free communities, artisans, etc. But they were obliged to work out a certain amount of time to the state. Here very quickly the state-the temple sector was absorbed, submitted to himself communal-private.

The third model of the culture of civilization is Hetto-Ahasey. It arises later, after the addition of Mesopotama and Egyptian and other geographical, climatic conditions. Here the state-the temple sector does not constitute a single whole. The state-temple complex does not concentrate in his hands the bulk of the surplus product, he remains in the hands of the communal private sector, we would say "civil society". As a result, the unlimited power of the king is not characteristic for this model of culture. The Hettites tsarist government was limited to the Council for the Nature, the oligarchy dominated the triray. States of this model had the nature of military unions, not unitary states. According to this model, the Culture of the Ahasey, Hittan, Mittania, the Egyptian Empire in Syria of the Times of the New Kingdom and others developed.

One of the cases of such a variant of the development of culture and civilization is an antique culture. In this case, there is a special option of the public-private sector - polis ownership, while state property receives weak development.

In the future, we will discuss the first two models of the culture of the ancient civilizations of the East, for it was precisely the specifics of its development for many years.

6.4. The specificity of the development of the culture of the East: from antiquity to modernity

Studies of Paleoanthropologists show that during the Stone Age period "from African Savann to Czechoslovak Hills and in the East from China itself, people formed a single giant genetic community ... in which ... all the time was the exchange of physical and behavioral features." Thus, culture during the Paleolithic period, the mesolite was more or less united and homogeneous in all peoples.

But the transition to barbarism, and then civilization leads to unevenness in the development of cultures.

The first civilizations arise in the East: China, India, Sumer, Egypt. Thus, Eastern culture overtakes Western. "Oh Solon, Solon, you, Greeks - like children ...", says Egyptian priest in the "dialogues" of Plato and this is true. And in the first, and in the fifteenth centuries of our time, "the new era of the" Chinese "in general is far out of Europe." And not only the Chinese. The same can be said about other east peoples, for example, the Arabs of the VIII-XIII centuries. Moreover, some researchers believe that neolithic, Hellenism and Renaissance most closely brought the culture of the East and the West.

At the same time, the lag of the East from the West is found in many areas of culture in a new time, which laid the foundations of industrial culture.

Why is this lag?

For example, the cause of the lag of the East is the lack of here for its Mediterranean. But why during the Neolithic period this circumstance did not affect the lag of the East? That is, the geographical, natural factor is not valid.

Maybe scientific, technical?

The view is widely represented about the "cultural" standing of the East (in particular, China). But is it? Up to the XV century. East Agered in its cultural development Europe: some talk about "Eastern Reborn". For example, powder was invented in China in the IX century. BC er, mechanical clock - in the VIII century. BC e. (that is, 6 centuries earlier than in Europe). The paper was invented in 105 N. e. (That is, almost 1000 years ahead of Europe), text printing from the board - in 9th century. n. e. (that is, 600 years earlier than in Europe), and the typographical method is known in China for 400 years longer than in Europe. In 130 g. e. China Chan Henned invented the seismograph. Already in the VII century. n. e. Archors and segment bridges are built. For the 15th centuries earlier in China, iron production begins and ironstyle technology opens. In i century BC e. Chinese astronomers open solar stains. After 1700 years, they will be "open" by Galileem. The first porcelain plant appeared in China in 1369. The production of porcelain here was based on a high degree of labor separation. China - Motherland Shelka, Compass. It is in China that the gateway is invented and the largest channels are built. The Chinese invented the feed steering wheel and the first mastered the swimming with galesm, etc. This Europe has not yet known.

The West in Cultural Development was ahead of the revival of East. Why is the lag going? It is not explained by geographic, natural factors, nor scientific, technical.

We can detect famous parallels in the development of culture in the East and West. The birth of the first civilizations began with the III millennium BC. e. In II-V. n. e. There were collisions with "barbarians" (the Romans called them "Barbari", the Chinese - "Hu", "Khugen"). At about one time, feudalism is beginning to develop - I-VII centuries. n. e. By the VII-VIII centuries. n. e. There are mighty states empires.

The development of spiritual culture begins. As in the West, in China, it takes place under the slogan of appeal to the "Ancient" "Gu Wen" - in China, in Europe - Caroling Revival. "But the term itself -" Fugu "(return to antiquity) appears later, just like The term "rinashimeto" in George Vazari (XVI century). Moreover, not all Chinese antiquity is accepted for the sample, but only the "classical". In China, thinkers appealed to authoriters I C.: Syman Qian, Syo SJSC, Yang XUN. samples The treatises serve: "Jeep" ("Book of Change"), Shizhin ("Book of Songs"), "Schujin" ("Book of History"), compositions of Confucius. It is interesting that in Europe the top of the Renaissance does not fall on Italy, where it It originated, but in England. In Eastern culture - to Japan, for the period of Ganoku (1688-1704) (Fig. 6.8), and not to China. Very close in content and subsequent cultural epochs, such as enlightenment. In Japan, Pleiada of enlighteners appears in Japan , there is a nomination in the arena "Enlightened Monarchs": Kansi, Yun-Zhen, Qiang Lun and others. In the Chinese monument of the XIV century. "Isto Ria Sung "times" Wei "and" Luchao "- from the III century. before the VII century - Rated as "mid-century".

At this time, elements of culture similar to European appear here. By VII. Yan Shi-Chu gives the editorial board of five ancient texts: "Jezing", "Shizhin", "Shuzzin", "Chunzu", "Lyssi". They constitute a canon, "Approved Text" - "Dingbe". Then the comments were selected that Kun In-yes found the "correct" - "Zhenyi", that is, canonization occurs.

Canonization also occurs in the literature: "Favorites in the literature" - "Wensuan" appears, therefore, a closed, dogmatic system of texts that is authorized by political and religious authorities is formed.

In Europe, at this time the "amount of the theology" of the foma of aquinate and other "amounts ..." is published. The practice of interpretation of texts, phrases, words - it is called "Xong", in the West - Exegetics.

Thus, medieval culture has a lot of total:

1. Dogmism as a worldview;

2. Interpretation of texts as a method of cognition;

3. Scholasticism as a form of pseudoscience.

It makes up and the desire to overcome these talked their own, phenomena.

Nakamura Teksay in the preface to "Chzintes Mu" wrote: "It is believed that in the ideological world of Confucianism with the onset of the Sun period (x in., It serves as a new era dating) a new era began. ... proclaimed the doctrine in nature ... for scientists Han and Tanging Time was the most important considered to give as many interpretations as possible. "

But the same thing happened in Europe! Francis Bacon wrote that two books were given: the book of Scripture, in which the will of God is revealed, and the book of nature, in which the power of God is revealed. Thus, it is not yet a refusal of text, authority, faith, but step to the side.

In the East, this secularization process went faster. The acquisition of knowledge is the very first, but not the most important; The most important thing is to achieve moral and intellectual human height, "they considered the philosophers of the Sun school. Thus, knowledge and morality are considered in unity. More than a higher value, morality is considered.

The main thing in the culture of civilization of the Ancient East is preservation and recovery - if something is broken - order, organization, law. The subjects should support the law - they must make taxes in time, pay the grade, perform means. Courtty, the boredrals should also know the law - the ritual, the ceremonial, who was subordinate to the court life. If the order was violated, for example, taxes did not receive - it was perceived as the wrath of the gods, like the death of culture. The world orders urgently needed to restore.

From the need to maintain the approved world order, science was born: if the boundaries of the fields were cleaned with flood, they should be restored in the same form, in which they existed before destruction. If the courtyard, the owner pays the tax, then it is necessary to calculate whether he pays it correctly. The course of field work, river spills, arid seasons - cyclical. It is necessary to know the pattern of these cycles, and for this you need astronomy: "Sotis Great sparkles in the sky - Neil comes out of the banks."

But art also claims and reflects the current order, space. In the cultures of the ancient kingdoms, art performs a very important role: it is a means of maintaining the universe, the execution of the law and the order. If art has connected art on the archaic stage, it has reduced a person with others, now it puts it before the world of the gods, allows him to see their lives, participate in the ritual to maintain the existence of this world. The interest of the artist of the ancient world rotates exclusively around the life of the gods and the figure of the king. But the king is a divine creature (like, for example, the Egyptian pharaoh - the living God of the Sun of the Republic of Armenia), and the head of state (empire), and an ordinary person. Therefore, the ancient Egyptian artist depicts Pharaoh not only in the world of gods (where he, as it supports with Other gods of the world order). Pharaoh is depicted in the war - he rushes on a chariot, gone up the enemies, on the hunt he struck from Lviv onion, in his palace - it takes foreign embassies, in everyday life - resting with his wife. All the headraoh has an approximate and servants, and those in turn, their own etc. To slaves, no longer having anything, the divine force spreads through the sacred king on his entire people. Therefore, in the center of the ancient drawing and pattern of canonical type, the figure of the sacred king is always worth, from her to the periphery waves, images of other people are diverged - the queens, an approximate king, military leaders, scribes, agriculties, artisans, slaves, prisoners, standing in front of an ancient painter and in general Art - to support the world order and the law - contributed to the development of a picturesque canon: the formation of a stable unchanged composition, preference to rest before movement, ritual poses before ordinary, natural; The difference in the pictures of the figures (the king was depicted on one scale, the largest, and the rest, in accordance with the situation, in an increasingly small); Allocation of advantageous referral areas (crowd in front of the temple, front of troops or works). The last moment and explains why multilateral bypass, image and vision of objects, as it were in different projections, was changed in another image of the image - all kinds merged around the main one.

But the ancient East imposed an imprint on the culture of civilization, gave it specific features that distinguish it from the culture of the West.

6.5. Features "Eastern" culture in its comparison with "Western"

1. The basis of the written culture of the West is the alphabet - a set of signs expressing sounds. For oriental culture, a hieroglyph is characterized by a fixing value.

For the West, the atomic system of the alphabetical letter is characteristic, the analysis as the main method of recognizing sounds and further synthesis of values. Independent value, the semantic load carry individual parts of the word: root, suffix, consoles, etc. They report the grammar meaning to the word. The word is worth the concept - a form of thinking. The formal content of the subject in the concept is actually absent, reduced.

European concepts, for example, "Man" or "Individual" - perceived purely atomic. But the Japanese concept "Ningan" (person) means both public relations that are established between individuals and the individual himself.

2. The use of synonyms in Western culture is based on the conceptual content of the words regardless of the graphics shell of the word. True, in the Old History Poetry, the reception of sound allitilation was widely used

In Eastern culture, the branching of meanings is based on the type of visual image. Here, the symbol, the metaphor is set by graphic shaped identities characterized by a hieroglyphic symbol. The shell itself is not an external form, but a meaningful form.

3. In Western culture, the role of the means of expression, broadcast meaning is given. In eastern culture, the hieroglyph does not simply transmit meaning, and contains it in itself. The hieroglyph is the unity of the purpose (concept) and the means (images).

4. In Western culture, therefore thinks, perhaps the mismatch "goals" and "funds". Eastern - means are understood as the detailed content of the goal.

5. In Western culture, the difference between the goals and facilities, the difference, the contradiction between the equipment, technology and values, morality, the personal-emotional world of man is based on this. In Eastern culture, the development of technology, technology and morality, values \u200b\u200b- inextricably. Hence the special role that is given to the preservation of nature.

6. In Western culture, science is aimed at transformation of nature, from here nature is perceived as a person alien to man. "Experience" - a method of science of new time, formed from the word "torture". The man "tortures" nature, seeking to violence the disclosure of secrets. In Eastern culture, science is looking for identities, unity of nature and humans, nature and culture.

7. For European culture "Understand" - it means to give a repeating result, that is, "reproduce". From here we have a specific world generated by our culture of transformed forms - and not natural, and not social. For example, scientific language. For the eastern culture to "understand" - it means to get into this world, to feel your, human, involvement of this natural world. Therefore, the world of culture is as close as possible to natural. An example is the "garden of stones". It is characterized by the desire to preserve nature as much as possible, in a larger amount. For example, the art of creating bouquets - Icybana.

8. For Western culture, anthropocentrism is characterized, for Eastern - natural centers. Man is not a center, not a point of reference, but an element of a holistic system "nature - culture".

9. For Western culture, "Futureness", "Commodity Fetishism" is characterized - "buy, buy, buy", the owner's instinct. For eastern - "minimization" needs. For example, in the decoration of the traditional Japanese house.

10. For the West, the recognition of impersonal, anonymous perception of culture: "All - consumers". For Eastern culture, the personal nature of the formation of culture is characterized: there is a "teacher." This is explained by the fact that the language translation of the text coincides with the transmission of the meaning: it does not need an intermediary, an interpreter, commentator. In Eastern culture, the situation is preserved when, without commenting, the translation loses part of the content. For example, Koran has seven layers of comments.

11. Vomethop silence means the absence of meaning - in Western culture. In Eastern Culture - silence is a way to comprehend meaning.

12. In Western culture, the goal of science is the truth. It has a practical return. Eastern is the purpose of knowledge - the development of values \u200b\u200bemerging beyond the utility.

13. In Western culture, knowledge and morality are divided. The main question of science: "Truth is Nisanda." In Eastern culture, knowledge is a means of moral improvement. The main question is the ratio of good and evil.

14. In Western culture, the comprehension of universal, laws are the main goal. Single is incomprehensible directly in the language, in science. In Eastern culture, individuality is focused on individuality.

For example, European medicine copes well with epidemics, with mass diseases, but it hops in the treatment of mental illness, when contacting a specific person, Eastern medicine - on the contrary, is stronger when exposed to an individual, let's say, after acupuncture.

15. Differs in the east and interpretation of "humanism". The term "Humanism" was introduced in Italy Kolyuko Salutati and Leonardo Bruni. They borrowed it from Cicero. In China, Han Yu introduces the term "Jean", distinguishing his way from the way to him. But the content of this term ("paths") is different. Confucius preached the love of man, Han Yu is the love for everything, to the world, understood pantheistic and spiritualized.

Thus, East Humanism was not anthropocentric. Zhang Min-Tao said: "My soul is the same as the soul of herbs, trees, birds, animals. Only a person is born, accepting the median sky-land." Thus, this is a peculiar ecological worldview, "nature centers".

Turning to the question of ancient civilizations, it is necessary to emphasize that they appear thanks to the manufacturing farm.

Modern scholars for the basic criteria of civilization include specific features of the economic, social, cultural and spiritual life of peoples in certain historical conditions.

Historically, the first civilizations appeared in the ancient East. Their chronological frameworks are not uniform. At the end of the IV-IIIthelligesis BC. Civilization arose in the Valley of the River Nile in Egypt, as well as between the rivers Tiger and Euphrates in Mesopotamia. Somewhat later - BIII-ITIS. BC. - Indian civilization was born in the Valley of the Indian River, and the people of T. In the Valley of the River Juanhe - Chinese.

Very progressive was the appearance of one of the most ancient types of crop production in the east. The main condition for the production of crops was artificially regulating the river regime using dams and channels for flooding (hydrogenelioration) of exclusively fertile soil. With a hot climate, it provided in normal - without natural disasters - years of pretty high yields of cereals, vegetables and fruits.

In the absence of mechanization, only the collective labor of large masses of people could cope with irrigation construction. On the one hand, people regulated the rivers, on the other hand, the whole life of people was regulated by rivers.

Since manual earthworks were exclusively laborious (120 - 150 thousand people / hour per 1 km of the canal), and the material incentives in natural economy did not act, the management of these works was to be not only centralized, but also deified (for the most part The kings are quite officially considered alive gods) . therefore priests as interpreters of mythology played a huge role in the management.

A no less role was played by bureaucracy that carried out control and accounting for the work. Suffice it to say that for issuing an employee of the Babylonian state farm, the pair of sandals required to write down 9 clay tables "invoices".

Hydrotechnics, especially the supply of water to the upper fields, was above the average level. Ancient Egyptian crane could be raised for one hour to the height of six meters almost two tons of water. The effect is significant, if you consider the absence of pumping equipment. In Mesopotamia, with its shaft swampy shores, a complex system of dams and canals functioned to uniform water intake on the field. Although field technology remained at a primitive level: Helting plowing, manual sowing, after which cattle with hooves was in the ground. The hooves were made and threshing.

The irrigation economy was apparently the earliest example of command-distribution systems: without a central manager and the accounting body it was impossible to maintain a hydro-eleiological network. The construction of irrigation complexes required a clear organization, and it was provided to the first states, the initial form of which were the so-called nomes.

Mr was the land of several territorial communities, the administrative, religious and cultural center of which was the city. Such cities - the state for the first time appeared at the end of the Ivtyahellosis BC. In Egypt and Southern Mesopotamia. Over time, the number has become united by a river basin or united under the rule of a stronger noma collecting tributes with weaker.

The leading role in the eastern states was played by socio-state property, first of all, to Earth. In other words, there was a community sector of the economy, where the ultimate land belong to the territorial communities, and only movable property was the private ownership of communists who were treated by the land allocated to them. However, the peasant communities had the right of hereditary use for the share of the harvest, the size of which was installed not on the barn, but by biological vintage, i.e. Defined officials even before the harvest.

In addition, there was a state sector of the economy. The state, as a manager of irrigation and water distributor, was the supreme proper and all irrigated land, which was disposed of through the royal (state) or temple economies.

All the military theocratic powers of the Ancient East used the work of slaves in the state and community sector of the economy. But such work was auxiliary, which led to the formation of a patriarchal type of slave-owned relations. They were based on early slavery, not yet completely separated from the community-generic system. The slaves became prisoners and insolvent debtors. Often slavery was home and pursued political and ideological purposes. Huge masses servants in the homes of kings and nobility, multinational harem, - all this once again emphasized the prestige of the limitless despotic power.

The production work of slaves, according to many modern scientists, was not applied due to economic reasons: not only a deficit, but there was an excess of labor resources, i.e. . population in working age. In order to create irrigation systems and gigantic structures, the work of personally free people was used. The main manufacturer of material goods in irrigation systems was a peasant, who was legally free, but the obligation of the state labor service .

During the ranks of rivers, when agricultural work ceased, ancient states of the peasants could have been building the construction of grandiose facilities - Egyptian pyramids, Babylonian towers, the Great Wall of China, etc. It must be said that the construction technology of unique giant buildings was very primitive. Egypt, for example, did not know the wheels. During construction, the pyramids did not even apply such a simple lifting mechanism as a block.

However, the construction of the Heops pyramid, which was the highest building in the world before the appearance of the Eiffel Tower, lasted only 20 years. According to the calculations of modern specialists, building such a pyramid in the second half of the XXV. It would take at least 40 years. The whole secret was in the organization of labor. Modern engineers came to the conclusion that such a structure could be created in 20 years only under the condition of choice for each labor operation of the optimal version that completely excludes a downtime. The high level of the organization compensated for primitive technology, guaranteeing stable reproduction of life. Such structures in antiquity were among the "miracles of the world" and contributed to the formation of a strong centralized power in the ancient East as despoty.

In the Nile Valley, for example, two kingdoms have arisen as a result of the merger of Nomov - the lower and top Egypt. At the beginning of the third millennium BC. The Pharaoh Mina, who founded the first dynasty of the Egyptian pharaohs in one state. The capital of the state was the city of Memphis. Egypt began to constitute a major centralized state. Its influence applied to the region of the Sinai Peninsula, Palestine, Nubia.

Cultural and economic conditions in Egypt led to the emergence of the first "great people" in world history. Over time, due to the permanent attacks of conquerors, frequent change of rulers, rebellions, the strengthening of the positions of the local, novel, Egypt began to lose the former power. In VIV. BC. He was captured by the Persion, and Cival. BC. He fell under Greco-Macedonian domination and from 30 g. BC. turned into one of the Roman provinces.

In the southern Mesopotamia of the end IVTS. - First half ofiith. BC, in contrast to Egypt, the centralized state did not work out. There were several political centers, in an ethnic, religious and cultural attitude of a single whole - the state of the Sumer. This name country received from the people who settled in the lower reaches of the Euphrates. Its accurate origin is still unknown.

Centralized states in Mesopotamia arose in the second half of IIITI. BC. In the conditions of a constant struggle of cities for the primacy. CXIX. BC. Among others, two of the most influential states were distinguished, the rivalry of which determined the development of this region for many centuries ahead. This is Babylon and Assyria. The struggle between them for leadership ended only when in the second half of the liv. BC. Mesopotamia was conquered by Persians and became part of their powers.

In XIIV. BC. On the territory of Palestine, the Israeli state begins to form. SWIT. BC. It disintegrates into two parts: the Jewish kingdom with the capital in Jerusalem - in the south of the country; Israeli kingdom - in the north. The North Kingdom existed until Startvii. BC, when was destroyed by the troops of Assyria. Southern kingdom at the end speaking. BC. It was captured by the Babylonian king, and the Jews are resettled in Babylon.

Please note that throughout the ears. BC. - P in. AD The efforts of many generations created a religious, historical and literary monument, called the "Bible" (from Greek. - Books). This collection of high-end and variekterical writings is laid by the idea of \u200b\u200bthe monotheism, which has become the basis for creating not only Judaism, but also other world religions - Christianity and islam. However, the earliest religion - Buddhism - arose VVI-VVV. BC. She was created in India. VVI BC. In China is being developed confucianism, and VI-IIVV. - taoismwho seriously influenced the spiritual life of the people for almost 2.5-2 thousand years, respectively.

From the end of the IITI. BC. The so-called world powers, or empires, which were much more strong associations with central administration, a single domestic policy, an extensive territory inhabited by numerous peoples.

The largest state in the Middle East was in VI. BC. Persian power. She joined the territory of Mesopotamia, East Mediterranean, Egypt, the northeastern part of India. Persian power existed before the beginning. BC, when all its possessions were conquered by Alexander Macedonian and became part of his empire.

Ancient and ancient Chinese civilizations were somewhat later. The formation and development of statehood in India and China occurred in about the same way as in Egypt and Mesopotamia: they first arose ancient cities, then small states. The struggle between them ended with the formation of uniform empire states. In India, it was the kingdom under the rule of the kings from the Nidons dynasty, then Maurya. In China - empireQin, and then Han. It was in India and China that the classic features of the eastern type of civilization were particularly clearly clearly shown.

It is advisable to dwell on the characteristics that have been manifested in every ancient state state. Most countries existed a special form of a socio-political device - despotism(from Greek. - Unlimited power, form of autocratic unlimited power).

The state ruler in a developed despoty had all the completeness, was considered God or, as a last resort, the descendant of the gods. In Egypt, Pharaoh, who possessed the Supreme Military, judicial and priestly, was revered as the God of RA. And in the Babylonian kingdom, the king, unlike Pharaoh, was not God in the representation of Babylonian, although he possessed unlimited power. Moreover, in the rule of the king Hammurapi (XVIIIV. BC), a set of laws was issued here, which limited the arbitrariness of the authorities and contributed to the establishment of law enforcement in the country. And yet, in most despotic states, religion played a regulatory role instead of the basic laws. The religious ideal at the same time dictated the norms of personal, public and state life.

A major role in the management of the country was played by a bureaucratic apparatus, where there was a clear rank system and subordination. All this led to an absolute predominance of the state over society. An important feature of Eastern despotism was the policy of coercion. Moreover, the main thing was not the punishment of the criminal, but the injury of fear before the authorities.

All ancient-packed societies had a complex hierarchical social tract. The most privileged estate was generic and military bills. Special place were held warriors and merchants. Slaves and dependent people were completely powerless.

The very largest population in the history of the state was the community farmers. Craftsmen belong to the manufacturers. The entire labor population of a despotic state, except taxes, state-owned states were assigned - the so-called public works. The pyramid of the state bureaucracy was tested over the manufacturers, which was based on tax collectors, supervisors, scribes, priests, etc. Valved this pyramid figure of the king. This made it possible to build giant structures (pyramids - royal assisters), create new irrigation channels and maintain them in due order.

Some originality had a class division in India. There was a varnan system. Four varnarepresented the basic estates of the Old Indian society: two higher Varna - Brahmans ( priesthood), Kshatriya (military aristocracy), two lower - Vaishi (farmers - communities, merchants, artisans), shudras (servants). It did not belong to any Varna untouchables, which should have been performed the hardest and black work.

In general, the social life of Eastern civilizations was built on the principles of collectivism. Personality, individuality of people did not have their own value. The eastern man was not free, he was obliged to abide by tradition, rituals, lead a strictly defined way of life, maintain stability, maintain the established foundations of society.

So, the Ancient-Russian countries had similar ways of economic and social development. The main features for them were: irrigation agriculture; community; despotic monarchy; Bureaucratic management.

In the era of the heyday of the ancient states (End II-End. BC) there are significant changes. At this time, the bronze finishes and the Iron Age begins. The culture of iron on the territory of ancient states bring the so-called peoples of the sea, which invaded Egypt, Malny Asia, East Mediterranean and have a strong impact on the entire Middle East. In other regions, there is also active tribal movement. Indian and Persian tribes come to the territory of Iran. The Ganges Valley in India is beginning to master Indoary tribes.

The active use of iron and steel increases productivity, contributes to the development of agriculture, crafts, an increase in production of production, as evidenced by the development of a system of monetary relations. Distribution receive money in a coin form and, as some researchers believe; In the last century, paper money is born to our era.

An important consequence of the development of commodity-money relations is the emergence of private land ownership, along with state and community. The Earth turns into many states in the sale facility. In urban handicraft production, slave labor begins to prevail. In agriculture, the main producers were still peasants, although the work of slaves begins to be used much wider, especially in state land.

At this time, economic, political and cultural contacts are established between different regions of the Middle East, international trade routes are drawn up, the struggle for the predominance of them is aggravated, the number of gravasical wars is growing.

In the first half of the ITC. AD The tribes and peoples who were on the periphery of the ancient states began to play an important role in the history of mankind. VIII-VVV. started Great relocation of peoplesIn many cases, it became the immediate cause of the collapse of the Ancient states.

On this, the last stage of their history, significant shifts occur in all spheres of society. The formation of new, feudal relations begins. Antiquity is inferior to medieval. However, preservation in the East, in particular in China and India, a more or less centralized management system in the form of a despotic monarchy and the prevailing role of state ownership of Earth led to the manifestation here, along with the characteristic features of the feudal system, a significant difference from European countries.

In the conditions of the despotic form of the autocratic power in ancient states, there were no paradoxical, considerable discoveries in science were made, culture was successfully developed, there were certain military achievements. It was in the east who originally originated for arithmetic, geography, astronomy. Much earlier than in Europe, typography has arisen. In India, they first began to produce sugar from the juice of sugarcane, cotton fabrics; Chess appeared here and richest literature was created - the poems "Ramayana", "Mahabharata" ... In China, the compass was invented, the method of production of silk, making tea and much more.

Technical, economic, cultural achievements accumulated in the countries of Front Asia, the Middle East, Egypt, have absorbed ancient Greece and ancient Rome. It is not by chance that the first state of the West arose on about. Crete, who was closer to others to the countries of an ancient Civilization. Thus, the ancient world inherited not only the experience of the peoples of the Mediterranean, but also the experience of the peoples of the East.

Many common was in the international life and diplomatic relations of Egypt, states in Mesopotamia, the kingdoms of Hettov, Assyria, Persia, China and India. International disputes were usually resolved with the help of armed force. The main goal of wars, who conducted ancient states, was the realization of conquering interests through the robbery of neighboring countries, the seizure of their lands, slaves, livestock, other values.

At the same time, the states of the Ancient East developed lively diplomatic activities. Diplomatic relations were conducted on behalf of the kings. So, already in the middle of IIITI. BC. Egyptian kings have been equipped with the Embassy Expeditions to the Pant Countryside, which was located on the south coast of the Red Sea. To the topiirts. BC. Egypt's relations with neighboring countries of Asia intensified. With the royal court there was a special category of ministers - the messengers who were distant predecessors of modern ambassadors and envoys. On the negative sides of the fender, it is said in the literary work of that time: "When the messenger comes into an alien country, he will make his own property ... because of fear of lions and Asians ... he has a brick behind the belt."

Centralized diplomacyallowed a relatively limited range of issues related to the conquest foreign policy of military-theocratic states. However, then the practice of concluding contracts appeared, some of which reached our days; There was a custom to send the embassies to resolve various problems of international life; There was military political intelligence.

The ancient East knew the practice of diplomatic negotiations before the opening of hostilities. In the XVI. BC, at the moment of extreme exacerbation of relations between those who seized the northern part of Egypt, the gyxos nomads and the Fan kings, the leader of Giksosov presented the ruler of the purner of the impossible requirement, threatening in case of refusal to start the war. This is the oldest of those famous in the history of international relations the case of ultimatu-ma. After the expulsion of Gixos, as a result of heavy wars between the rulers of Egypt and other ancient states, a systematic exchange of embassies was established.

In the midty. BC. His boundaries reached the opposite of the brand and the Euphrates River, and he played a primary role in the international life of the Ancient East. The Egyptians supported lively trade, cultural and political ties with all the world famous to them - with the state of Hettites in Front Asia, with the states of Northern and Southern Mesopotamia (Mitanni, Babylon, Assyria), the Cretan kingdom and the Islands of the Aegean Sea, with the Syrian and Palestinian princes, which As a result of hiking, mostly Pharaoh Tutamosiii was subordinate to Egyptian dominion.

The diplomatic republic in Egypt was a special state office. From numerous monuments of Ancient Device Diplomacy, the el-ammnal correspondence and the agreement of the Egyptian pharaoh Ramses IYUS King Hettov Hattushileii, concluded in 1296, are of the greatest interest in the volume and wealth of detention. Amarne is a terrain on the right bank of the Nile in Middle Egypt, where the residence of the Egyptian pharaoh amenhetepiv was once located. In 1887-1888. There was an archive containing the diplomatic correspondence amenhotepiiii of his son. About 360 clay plates are preserved, representing letters to the named pharaohs from the kings of other states and subject to Syrian and Palestinian princes. The archive of the Hett Tsar, the capital of which was located near modern Ankara, is a significant addition to El-Amarn archive.

In subsequent centuries, Egypt and the Hittch kingdom lost their primary position in the international relations of the East, and his state of anterior Asia was taken by Assiya. Initially, it was a slight principality, but with HIVV. BC. Its territory began to expand. Assidium turned into one of the most powerful states of the Ancient East. Already in the era of El-Amarn correspondence, the Assyrian kings call themselves the "lovers of the Universe", whom the gods called on to dominate the "country lying between the Tigrome and Euphrate".

In the early period of its history, Assyria was part of the Babylonian kingdom. But the dependence of the Assyrian kings from the king of Babylon has weakened over time, and the Assyrian kings have become independent. The first mention of Assyria as an independent power of scholars found in the Al-Amarn correspondence, where the arrival of Assyrian ambassadors to Egypt. Against the adoption of their Egyptian pharaoh, the Babular King Bournaburian was determined. "Why, he asks his ally Amenhotep IV," did they come to your country? " If you are located to me, do not join them in a confusion. Let them leave, having achieved anything. For our part, you give you a gift for five mines of blue stone, five horse harnesses and five chariots. " However, Pharaoh did not consider it possible to satisfy his friend's request and did not refuse to receive the ambassadors of the Assyrian king.

The strengthening of Assyrian inspired the alarm of the governors of the largest neighboring keen - the Hittte kingdom and Egypt. Under the influence of this concern, they concluded a house-thief of 1296 BC, indirectly directed against Assyria.

His greatest power Assyrian kingdom reaches later, under the sargonides (VIII-VIIIVV. BC), outresses from the commander's environment. They conducted major reforms in the political and military stroke of Assyria, increased the number of Assyrian troops to exercise widely conquering policies.

The driving force of Assyrian politics was the desire to take possession of fertile oases, seize metal deposits, prey and people and, in addition, to establish their domination over the most important trading paths. At that time, two trade arteries had great importance in this geographical area. One of them was from the Great (Mediterranean) Sea to Mesopotamia and further in the eastern direction. Another trading road led from Mesopotamia to the southwest, towards the Siro-Palestinian coast and further to Egypt.

Before the elevation of Persia Assyria was the most extensive ancient master's power. Its geographical position caused constant collisions with their neighbors, led to continuous wars and forced the Assyrian rulers to show more ingenuity both in the field of military equipment and in the field of diplomatic art. Both of them experienced the Northern State of Urart, which was located in the territory of modern Armenia. It was literally flooded with Assyrian scouts and diplomats, followed by every step of King Urartu and its allies.

The struggle between Assyria and Urartu lasted several centuries, but did not lead to certain results. Despite the row of defeats that the Assyrians inflicted him, and on all the treasures of Assyrian diplomacy, the state of Urart still retained his independence and even survived his strongest opponent somewhere somewhat.

Assyria has reached the highest power in the Ashurbanipale. This allowed her to seize most of the countries of the Middle and Middle East. The borders of the Assyrian kingdom stretched from the snow vertices of Urartu to the thresholds of Nubia, from Cyprus and Kilicia to the eastern borders of Elama. Missing mercilessly exploited surrounding irrigation systems, turning them into their colonies. Violence was the basis of its economy.

The vast of the Assyrian cities, the shine of the courtyard and the magnificence of buildings was superior to everyone ever seen in the countries of the Ancient East. The Assyrian king traveled around the city in the chariot, in which four captive kings were pronounced; Cells were placed on the streets with the defeated rulers planted in them. And nevertheless, the power of Assyria knead to decline, the signs of which began to affect the Ashurbanipal. Reversible wars have exhausted the country. The number of hostile coalitions with whom it had to fight the Assyrian kings, everything increased. The situation of Assyria has been critical due to the invasion of peoples from the north and east. She could not stand this pressure and became the extraction of new conquerors.

With what rule Assyrian reached its highest power?

It must be said that the confusion of irrigation systems led to a violation of times of the given rhythm of economic life and in Mesopotamia, Egypt, China, anterior Asia. Each time they came into decline and each time was revived, because without irrigation could not be life.

In the VI century BC, the most powerful state of the ancient world becomes Persia, who united under its authority all the countries of Front Asia and Egypt. The Persian Power of Ahemenide was one of the most powerful ancient ancient political entities. Its influenced far beyond the classic east in both Eastern and Western directions.

At the time of capturing Mesopotamia, the Persian troops King Cyrus turned with a broadcast manifesto to the Babylonian people and priesthood. In this manifest, the Persian conqueror refers to himself the liberator of Babylonians from the King of Nabonida hates, Tirana and the weakening of the old religion.

In the appeal of the Persian king Kera, it was said: "I am Cyrus, the king of the world, the great king, the mighty king, the king of Babylon, the king of Sumer and Akkada, the king of the four countries of the world ... Sunset of the Eternal Kingdom ... When I warmly entered Babylon and during babysitters and Cheering in the Palace of the Kings took the royal dwelling, Marduk, the Great Vladyka, bowed to me the noble heart of the inhabitants of Babylon for the fact that I thought daily about his worship. "

An interesting monument of Ancient Industrial Diplomacy and International Law is the Ancient Indian laws of Manu, the authentic text of which did not reach us. Only his later (poems) transfer is preserved, in all likelihood, already related to I in. AD In this edition, they were opened in the XVIII century., And in the XIX-XX centuries. Were translated from the classic sanrite to a number of European languages, including Russian.

According to Indian legend, the laws of Manu have a divine origin, as the legendary mana was revered by the ancestor of the Aryans. In terms of its nature, the laws of Manu are a set of various ancient Indian rules that have been developing throughout the ITC. BC. and related policies, international law, trade and military affairs. From the formal side, the laws of Manu are a vault of the laws of ancient India, however, the content of this historical monument is much wider and more diverse. He is rich in philosophical arguments; Contains religious and moral rules.

The basis of the Ancient Indian philosophy is the doctrine of the perfect man-sage. Under this angle of view, diplomacy is also considered. It is important and today the provisions are heard that the success of a diplomatic mission depends on the personal qualities of the diplomat; What diplomatic art lies in the ability to prevent war and strengthen the world that the diplomat is aware of his sovereign about intentions and plans of foreign rulers, thereby protecting the state from the dangers threatening. Therefore, the diplomat must be a person insightful, comprehensively educated and able to arrange people who can recognize the plans of foreign sovereigns not only by their words or actions, but even on the gestures and expression of the face.

These theoretical provisions were intended for use in diplomatic activities, since the rulers of India began to send ambassadors to distant countries, establish relations with Central Asian states, Egypt, Syria, Macedonia. It is also known about the arrival of Indian ambassadors to the Roman Empire.

As already mentioned, the first slave-ownership statements in East Asia arose on the average course of the Juanhe River at the beginning of the ITIYS. BC. KXIIV BC. They merged into a single big kingdom, which broke up four centuries into a number of large and small independent kingdoms. That is hostile between him, then entering into friendly talks and concluding unions, they were in close relationships.

The natural development of the ancient Chinese states was violated by repeated devastating raids of the nomadic tribes of the Central Asian steppes, which in China called "Hong-Well" ( gunns). To protect against raids of the Gunnov, the rulers of the Old China states were forced to unite into the unions, and in the middle of the liv. BC. Agreement concluded a refusal to resolve controversial issues with the help of military force and the mandatory appeal of both conflicting parties to the Arbitration Court.

However, this one of the "non-fire treaty" known in the History in the history of diplomacy turned out to be impaired. The rulers of individual Chinese states re-entered into a tense struggle, completed in the middle of III. BC. Victory Lord of the Kingdom Qin. He defeated the military forces of all his rivals and recreated a single ancient Chinese slave despoty.

By combining under its authority, the entire central part of the modern territory of China for the flow of Juanhe and Yangtze rivers, Zheng, who accepted the title of Qin-Shi Juan Di (Qing Great Yellow King), organized a number of expeditions to conquer neighboring tribes and nationalities. However, after his death (209 BC) in the south, in the Pearl River basin and on the coast of the South China Sea, small slave-owned states were still preserved.

With the kings of the next dynasty - Han, (206 BC - 220 AD) - Chinese slave-owned despotus turned into a powerful centralized state, whose rulers had large military forces and a well-organized bureaucratic management system. Therefore, at that time, all the most important events of internal and foreign policy life were carefully recorded in the Chinese royal offices.

Chinese emperors were also exchanged by embassies with the rulers of Central Asian states, the kings of Iran, the leaders of nomadic tribal associations of Central Asia, the rulers of Korea, the states of the southeastern outskirts of the Asian mainland, the Japanese islands.

So, as the development of embassies, the embassies intensified the exchange of embassies, established a kind of etiquette when conducting diplomatic negotiations, and more often appeared written agreements, the appeal of one rulers to other, written or material evidence of the Embassy authority, reports of ambassadors to fulfill the missions entrusted to them. All this is an invaluable material for studying the history of the Ancient East.

One of the ancient civilizations of the ancient world was the civilization of ancient Greece and ancient Rome.

The Mediterranean is not found in the Mediterranean "not so much by the sea as world," as G. K. Chesterton rightly said. At the turn of the III-II millennium BC. e. The Balkan Peninsula invaded, moving due to the Danube, the ancestors of the later Greeks (Ahetsev). Then the Mediterranean in the area was settled by people who spoke in a language that did not apply to any Indo-European, nor to the Semitic groups. Later, the aheitsa began to call themselves by authonic (indigenous) by the population of Greece, but also they retained the idea of \u200b\u200bthe existence of some ancient, the doggrin people, the karytsev, Lellegov or Pelasgov, originally inhabited by Ellad and the adjacent islands.

It should be noted that the history of Greece researchers began to be engaged in the time of the Renaissance. It was then that the term "antiquity" appeared. Renaissance figures are so called the era of ancient Greece and ancient Rome. Up to the second half of the nineteenth century, the history of Greece and its culture began with 776 BC. e., i.e. From the year of the first Olympiad. Many scientists, having reliable evidence of earlier history, were forced to recognize everything that was before the first Olympic Games, fiction and legends, as for example, considered the English historian George Grotto in his "History of Greece". Others called doubt on the existence of ancient Greek poetagomer and his poems.

The coup in views on the history of Greece performedgenger Schliman (1822 - 1890), who glorified his name with great archaeological discoveries. He opened her three and made an excavation on the mainland of Greece, in Mynair and Tirinf, exploring the Homeric places there. As a result, the 20-year-old excavations Schliman opened the unknown before the Aegean world of Dogometer Greece. The culture opened by him belonged to the bronze century. Its chronological frameworks were identified by other researchers. The merit of Schlaman consisted not only that he opened the Aegean world, but also that he attracted the attention of scientists to historical facts concluded in the depths of the ancient Greek epic and mythology. His talent and hardworking, incredible love for Homer forced society interest to the ancient world of Greece. According to L. Akimova, "Archeology, History, Homer, ancient art for the first time widely entered the consciousness of Europeans along with Shliman."

The next important step in the opening of Greece's history was made by the English archaeologist, the keeper of the museum in Oxford, Arthur Evans (1851-1941). As a result of its epochal excavations on the island of Crete, begun in 1900, a whole world was discovered by the Minoan culture, by the name of the mythical king of Crete Minos. Until this time, Crete knew less than about three, Egypt, two-range. From the legends and myths, as well as from fragmented evidence of ancient authors (Homer, Herodotus, Fucdide), it was known that once in Crete there was a strong state headed by the wise and fair king Minos. But when it was, who are such critical, what is their culture and in what language they spoke, there was a secret.

Already on the third day of excavations, Evans recorded in his diary: "Exceptional phenomenon is nothing Greek, nothing roman ...". Indeed, Crete culture turned out to be peculiar and original. As a result of perennial studies of scientists, the holistic image of the centuries-old Aegean culture created by the societary population, and in the II millennium BC. e. And with the participation of the Greeks-Ahetsev, the creators of the culture of a Mycena type. Crete was the cultural and political center of the Aegean world, which had an impact on the Mycenaean culture. The overall culture of the Aegean world was named Aegean or Creoto-Mycena. Crete culture, early stage Aegean, Evans called Mina.

Thus, in modern science, the history of ancient Greece is customary to divide for five periods, which are both cultural era:

The first - Aegean or Crito-Mysensky - border III - II thousand to n. e. - End of II thousand BC. e., i.e. The period of ancient civilizations - Mina and Myna (Ahasey, Aegean);

The second - Homerovsky - XI - IX centuries. BC e.;

Third - Archaic - VIII - VI centuries. BC e.;

Fourth - Classic - End VI is the first half of the IV century. BC e.;

Fifth - Hellenistic - the second half of the IV century. BC e. - Mid-i c. BC er

The first three epochs are often combined under the general name of the report. In this case, the entire history of Greece is divided into three main periods: reports, classical and et alic. The greatest heyday to ancient Greece reached in the classical period.

Ahaseyan Greece (Rubezh III - II thousand BC. Er) is the most important stage in the history of the development of Europe. It was then in the southern part of the Balkan semi-brightness and on the adjacent islands there are societies divided into classes. The first Greek tribe, who came to the south of the Balkans, were the ionians who settled mainly in the Attica and on the Highrs of the Peloponnese coast, then the aolians who took Fessel and Besotia followed them, and (from the 20th century BC), the Ahaseians who were witnessed by Ionians And the aolians from the part of the territories developed by them (Northeast Fessiona, Peloponnese) and mastered the main part of Balkan Greece. By the time of the invasion of the Greeks, this region was inhabited by Pelasgami, dealers and carmen, who were at a higher level of development than the conquerors: they had the era of bronze, the social bundle and the formation of the state began, a protogue appeared (the early eleldest period of the XXVI-XXI centuries).

Greek conquest took place gradually and stretched out for several centuries (XXIII-XVII centuries. BC). As a rule, aliens captured new territories, destroying local residents and their settlements, but at the same time assimilation occurred.

Although the aheitsy had a somewhat enriched technological (potter circle, wagon, battle chariot) and animal (horses) The world of conquered areas, their invasion led to a certain economic and cultural regression - a sharp reduction in the production of metal guns (the predominance of stone and bone) and the disappearance of the urban type of settlement ( Dominance of small trees with small global houses). Apparently, in the medium eleldest period (XX-XVII centuries BC), the standard of living of the Ahetsev was very low, which ensured a long-term preservation of property and social equality. There is a constant need to fight for the existence with the neighboring Ahasey tribes and the balances of the local population, the military community character of their lifefriend has been determined.

The whole history of the Ahasey world is the history of bloody wars. Sometimes several kingdoms united in the struggle against the richest and powerful (for example, the campaign of seven Argos kings against FIV) or for the overseas robbing expedition (for example, the famous Trojan War 1240 - 1250g. BC. For the straits of the marble and black seas).

To the XIV century BC. Mixes that begin to qualify for the role of Hegenyon Ahasey Greece. In the XIII century. BC. Mycken kings are managed by a dynastic marriage to subjugate Sparta and make submission (at least formal) a number of other Ahasey states (tyaring, pylon). The data of mythology show that in the Trojan war, the Mikaensky king Agamemenon was perceived by other Greek kings as the Supreme Ruler.

In the XV-XIII centuries. BC. Ahetis begin military and trade expansion in the Mediterranean. At the end of the XV century. BC. Created control was established in the XIV-XIII centuries. BC. Founded colonies on the Western and South Coast of Asia Minor, in Rhodes and Cyprus, in Southern Italy. At the same time, the Ahasey detachments also take part in the invasion of the "peoples of the sea" to Egypt.

Continuous wars have given, on the one hand, to the depletion and destruction of human and material resources of the Ahaseyan Greece, and on the other, to enrich its ruling elite.

At the end of the XII century. BC. Greek-Doriytsev tribes were invaded in Greece, who passing average Greece downtown in Megarida and in the southeastern part of Peloponnese - in Corinthia, Argolid, Laconia and Messia. The Dorians also sewed alongside the islands in the southern part of the Cycladic and Sporadic Archipelasses (Melos, Fera, Kos, Rhodes), a flat part of Crete, proving the remnants of the Mino-Ahasey population to mountainous areas, and the South-Western Majuazyan coast (Dorid Najanias). Relicious Dorians northwestern Greek tribes settled in Epiro, Akarnia, Etolia, Lokrid, Eloid and Ahaye. Ionians, Aceans and Ahetis were kept in Fessiona, Besotia, Attika and Arkadia, and part of them emigrated to the island of the Aegean Sea and to Maly Asia, the west coast of which was colonized by Ionians, and the north-west - aois.

Dorian conquest, as well as Ahasey at the beginning of the II thousand BC, led Greece to a new regression - a sharp reduction in population population, a lifetime fall, the termination of monumental and general construction, decline of the craft (deterioration of technical and artistic quality products, reduction Their assortment and quantities), weaken trade contacts, loss of writing. With the fall of the Ahase cytales throughout Greece (including those who are not engaged in Doriians), previous state entities disappeared and the primitive communal system was established. Again the main form of the settlement was small poor generic villages. Of the achievements of the Mycena Civilization, Dorians borrowed only a pottery circle, metal processing technique and shipbuilding, grape culture and olive trees. At the same time, Dorians brought with them the art of smelting and processing iron, the practice of using it not only as decorations (as in the Myckene era), but in production and military business.

Thus, Greece by the end of the period under consideration was the world of hundreds of small and the smallest community policies that united farmented peasants. It was a world where the main economic unit was a patriarchal family, economically independent and almost independent, with a simple life, lack of external relations, the world, where the top of society has not yet meditated from the majority of the population, where man's exploitation is only harvested. With primitive forms of social organization, there was no strength that could cause the bulk of producers to give a redundant product. But it was this that the economic potency of Greek society was concluded, discontinued in the next historical era and ensuring his rapid takeoff.

The third attempt to create a state belongs to the end of the IX. BC, when polishers were formed in Greece. Polis is a state city, civil community. According to some specialists, the formation of policies is largely due to the socio-economic development of Greece VIII-VIVV. BC. Historically, the first of the strongest ancient Greek policies is Sparta. Another protortment that established a little later Spartansky, VIII-VIIIV. BC. - Athens.

The main base of the polis structure was small and noticeably isolated from each other, the teams of communists who lived in the settlements of the village of Rustic Type and those who were in the collective ownership of land and land, the cholera, which were delivered to all full and free community members, most often in lots.

The social structure of the policies assumed the existence of three basic classes: the dominant class; free minor manufacturers; Slaves and dependent workers of various categories. The core of the social structure of the Greek Polis is a civil team, which included full-fledged citizens. The limited nature of the Polis was manifested in the fact that his citizens could not become migrants from other policies, foreigners, women, slaves. The civil team of the policy was heterogeneous. Strengthening commodity relations increased the property and social differentiation of the civil team, led to its bundle and weakening. The polis economy based on agriculture opened large than the eastern opportunity for the development of commodity relations, the accumulation of wealth, and as a result, rapid development in the Western society of private property. This was also facilitated by the fact that in the ancient state agriculture was an individual character, and in the east - community.

In general, the history of ancient Greece can be traced on the example of Sparta and Athens. Sparta - the strongest state of the archaic period, arose very early, shortly after the conquest of mainland Greece Dorians, i.e. Approximately on the turn of the X-IXVV. BC. Having taught the territory, Dorians - Spartians submitted to themselves most of someone else's neighboring population, turning it into slaves - Ilotov. Considering that Ilotov was several times more than Spartians, and, fearing possible conflict situations, full citizens set themselves to keep them in fear, for which, from time to time, "Cryptia" - punitive operations.

Formally, the head of Spartians stood two kings who belonged to two dynasties and transmitted their status by inheritance. Supervised the "community of equal" gerusia, i.e. Council of the oldest. Decisions and laws of the kings and Georias were submitted to the approval of the People's Assembly, which most often approved these decisions without discussion. Later, another important instance was added to the national assembly, gerusia and kings to the system of authorities - five Ehors, warders designed to exercise supreme observation.

The Social Device of Sparta can be represented as follows: 9-19 thousand spartiats were the "community of equal"; 30 thousand were free, but income-free people; 200 thousand Ilotov - Almost slaves, although not separated from the means of production: they had their housing, a household, cropped a crop and passed it to their owner.

The richest area of \u200b\u200bancient Greece was attic with the center in Athens. Athenian democracy is considered the most developed, somable and the most perfect form of the democratic building of ancient states. The main and decisive authority in Athens was the national assembly with broad powers. A high role was also played by the Council consisting of 500 people. Along with the Council of five hundred in the System of Athenian Democracy, there was a Council of the Areopagu - one of the oldest bodies of public administration in Athens. The Athenian Court consisted of lifelong members, which ensured independence to him. In 621 BC. Under the pressure of Demos, Archont Dracon (Dragon) made a series of strict legislative measures (Dragons), which aimed to legalize and besides cruel measures to protect private property in every way, eliminate the ancient custom of blood revenge, and also limit the arbitrariness of the trial. These and some other new rules partially tied to ordinary law, but in the greater part of the demos reflecting the interests of the demos, increased their attention in the policy, slightly facilitated the position of the majority, but did not solve its problem. In particular, it was still valid that caused the strict norm of the enslavement of impoverished relatives for debts. Actually, it was against this norm that the largest estimates of Athens Archont Solon spoke. Reforms 594 BC. It was hardly touched by all aspects of the polis life and contributed to rapid and progressive development.

First of all, Solon eliminated the boat slavery. He limited loan percentage. The right of inheritance for the family and the law of the will was also enshrined, which strengthened the Institute for Private Property. The land maximum was installed, which limited the growth of major land tenure and weakened the generic to know. The introduction of a new unit of measures and scales favored the development of crafts and trade.

In the political region, Solon replaced the generic power of Timocracy - the power of wealth. He created a Council from 400 members who were configured on a democratic basis, which contributed to the weakening of the rights of the areaopagu and increased the role of the People's Assembly. Solon created a new board of judges, helium, which could be elected all citizens. And although there was still a lot to do, it is possible to state with complete confidence that it was Solon who laid the foundations of Athenian democracy in that very developed form, which was not yet known to the rest of the world.

At the end of VI. BC. Greece joined the fourth classic period of its development. In the period from 508-500 BC. Closfen reforms were performed. The introduction of new administrative division of attic was important. In accordance with it, the Council of the Four hundred was transformed into the Council of five hundred. A new important board of 10 strategists was created, which were mainly engaged in military affairs. Clisphen established and the so-called "Court Cherepkov", or "Ostracism" - the original form of deliverance of Athens from excessively active figures that could cause harm to the policy. However, at the subsequent time, Ostracism became a tool in political struggle.

The flourishing of the Athenian slave-owner democracy of historians was called the "Golden 50th Anniversary" (480-431 BC). At this time, Greco-Persian wars occurred during which an aristocracy led by Fuchidide intensify at the first stage, and on the second - Demos led by Pericles in 457 BC. The leaving from the notable genus of Athenian eupatrides, the upbringing of the famous philosopher Anaksagora, the pericles strongly made the further democratization of Athens. It was on his initiative that reforms were carried out, which allowed the poor to take an active part in the work of important self-government bodies. It should be noted that for each meeting of its participants began to pay, which caused the growth of the political activity of Athenian citizens.

According to the researchers, the Athenian democracy was the most advanced state of the slave-owned society. At the same time, it had a limited nature, since the 9/10 of the population of Athens was not among the citizens. This weakened the Athenian democracy, generated many internal contradictions, increasing due to the ruinous annual collisions with Sparta in 431-421. BC.

By the end of the 30s, Hg.VV BC. Social, economic and political contradictions between Athens and Sparta have achieved special acute, which led to the unleashing of the Peloponess War (431-404. BC). She showed the weakness of Athens and Sparta, had a huge impact on the structure of policies, and social tensions poured into a real civil war. One of the attempts to solve the socio-political problems of the Greek policies Vivv. BC. It was the establishment of late tyranny. As a rule, the authorities captured popular commander or commander of the hired detachments, which soon come to power, caused sharp discontent in all layers of the civilian population.

Exit from the crisis Polisa in IVV. BC. Looking for in the creation of unions, this contributed to this and the fact that the neighbors of Greece began to strengthen, primarily low-developed countries. Among them are Macedonia. The Philipii-First Tsar of Macedonia Antique tradition attributes a whole series of various reforms, after which Macedonia turns into one of the strongest states. After the defeat of the Greek militia under the Heronea in 338 BC In Corinth, on the initiative of Philipiji, a national congress was convened, which was to legally consolidate the approval of the Macedonian hegemony over Greece. One of the important decisions of the Corinth Congress was the announcement of the Holy War of the Persian monarchy. But she did not begin because of the murder of PhilipiyOther from their courtiers. The Macedonian king was proclaimed his son and the pupil of Aristotle, Alexander. Thanks to successful conquests, Alexander Macedonsky managed to establish a huge unprecedented empire, stretching from the Danube to Inde. However, the fierce struggle for the inheritance after death in 323 BC. Alexandra Macedonsky led to the disintegration of the empire.

Greece's socio-economic development is associated with the massive resettlement of the Greeks east after Alexander's hikes, moving there the main trade routes, the emergence of new economic centers, the exhaustion of their own natural resources led to the III-II centuries. BC. By the loss of the Balkan Greece leading positions in the economy of the Eastern Mediterranean. The Aegean pool increased the role of Rhodes and Pergami (later Delos) to the detriment of mainland polishes (including Athens), which were on the periphery of international trade. In cities, the overall fall in the population of the population occurred against the background of the concentration of wealth in the hands of a few. In the agrarian sphere, the mobilization of land ownership strengthened; The practice of acquiring land in neighboring polishes has spread. Property stratification extremely aggravated social confrontation. Constantly distributed the requirements of the abolition of debts and redistribute land; In a number of policies, the authorities made attempts to implement land and debt reforms (Sparta, Alida, Beochie, Cassandria).

The foreign policy of Greece was based on the "proxy", i.e. hospitality. The scans existed both between individuals, childbirth, tribes and between all states. A resident of some city (proxen) took both private citizens and ambassadors from another city and took over the protection of the interests of this city and the moral obligation to be an intermediary between him and the authorities of his native policy. In turn, in Polis, which was associated with proxen, he used well-known advantages compared to other foreigners - in relation to trade, taxes, trial and all kinds of honorary privileges. Through proxecons were diplomatic negotiations; The embassies that came to the city were applied primarily to their proxy. The Institute of the Academy of Sciences, who received very widespread in Greece, lay down the basis of all subsequent international relations of the ancient Greek world.

In the era of Hellenism, covering the sh-p centuries. BC, a system of states that were in permanent diplomatic, cultural and economic relations were formed. This system included large powers for which the monarchy of Alexander Macedonsky was broken: the kingdom of Ptolemyev in Egypt and Kiren, the huge state of Seleucidov in South-West Asia, the kingdom of antigonides in Macedonia and Greece, the Pergamm kingdom, Viphinia and Pont in Malaya Asia, Rhodes Island, A number of coastal cities in Greece, Ahasey and Etoli alliances, Sicily, Carthage and somewhat later - Rome.

According to the historical legend, the city of Rome was founded in 753 BC. e. Arriving initially as a small policy (no more than 10 square meters. Km. By area and from 10 thousand people. Population), Rome over time became the center of a huge world power, which were located on three continents (Europe, Asia, Africa), And whose population exceeded 60 million people. The Roman power was the largest slave-owned state of the ancient world, where slavery passed all the levels of development - from patriarchal to classical. Naturally, it did not remain unchanged and the state system. Usually allocate three periods in its development:

VIII - VI centuries. BC e. - the period of the state ("royal period"),

509 - 27 BC e. - period of the republic,

27 BC e. - 476 N. e. - The period of the empire, divided, in turn, into two stages - principal and dominate, the frontier between which is the III century. n. e.

At the final stage of its history, the Roman Empire was divided into two parts - Western and Eastern. The Western Roman Empire ceased to exist in 476 the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) existed also for many more millennium and died as a result of Turkish conquest in 1453.

In the middle of the VIII century. BC e. Three tribes (Latins, Sabines, Etruscans), inhabited in the Valley of the Tiber River, united into a single community with the center of which became the city of Rome. Located on the hills, convenient for defense, this city acquired the role of an important military point. The advantages of Rome and as a promising Economic Center were pretty early - he was at the crossroads of trade routes, tieding Italy with Greece and the East.

In the vicinity of Rome developed cattle breeding and agriculture; Ancient source of income of the Roman community was hydrochlorians. The indigenous population, which constituted the initial Roman community, was called patrician (patricii) and represented a category of full Roman citizens involved in the management of public affairs. In the oldest period of Roman history, there is all signs of a tribal building. The lowest cell of society was the genus, whose members considered themselves derived from one ancestor. The head of the genus was the most authoritative, dear representative of a native family, elected by the general meeting of the genus. Each member of the genus was a co-owner of the Land Fund, he could claim his share in the division of the generic property, enjoyed protection and help from congor, participated in solving the general affairs and departure of the general cult. There were differences between childbirth: the most powerful childbirth was considered "seniors". Inside the births themselves, hereditary aristocracy was formed, disposed of influenza property (including land) and towering over their relatives.

The total number of patrician giving birth was 300. Every 10 gods were combined into a smoke, every 10 hours - in the tribe, it was, therefore, 30 hours and 3 tribes. Such a slightness that has an obvious imprint of artificial orderliness pursued, obviously military purposes. The oldest Roman squad, which consisted of 3,000 infantry and 300 riders, gained 100 people infantry and 10 riders from each curia.

Rome's management bodies in the oldest period of its history are characterized by the presence of three main elements, usually characterized by t. N. The period of military democracy. The supreme power in the Roman community personified the king. This position was replaced by elections in which full citizens collected by Kuria were participating. The main prerogatives of the king were the Supreme Administration (had the purpose of providing internal order, the protection of "traditions and morals of fathers"), the Higher Military Command (including the organization of the militia, with the right to appoint lower warlords), judicial authority (up to the right of life and death), the functions of the Supreme Priests (including the management of public priesthoods and sacrifices). Senate (from Latin. Senex - an elder, an elder), initially included in his composition of all generic elders, was performed as a deliberative body. As the role of generic traditions weakened, the Senate began to be appointed by the king from the representatives of the Patrician class without taking into account their specific generic affiliation; The folk assembly was informed about the election of new members of the Senate. The right of convocation of the Senate and the chairmanship at its meetings belonged to the king. Senate Resolutions related to the most important issues of public administration (declaration of war and the conclusion of the world, the provision of citizenship, the departure of religious cult and others), usually had to be taken by the king into account, but did not have an imperative character for him. Senate also considered some criminal cases.

Significantly increased the role of this body in war or serious internal shocks. However, its maximum volume of the power of the Senate reached the king in the event of the death of the king, when the period of transactions arose. In these cases, the Senate elected 10 people from his environment, which in turn, every 5 days each, managed the state until the candidate of the new king was determined. The scheduled candidacy was previously discussed in the Senate, and then appeared to the People's Assembly. The decision of the People's Assembly on the election of the new king was also subject to a statement in the Senate. Naturally, the Senate was interested in extending the term of transfers, since during this period the entire real power focused in his hands.

Folk Assembly (Comicies) were the form of participation of adults (capable of carrying weapons) full citizens in solving cases of public importance; The most ancient types of folk assemblies were collections in Kuria. The convening of the People's Assembly was carried out on the initiative of the king, which introduced its proposals there; In addition to the will, the People's Assembly could not take place.

The whole mass of the Population of Rome, left outside the generic organization, received the name of Plebeev (Plebei, Plebs). This category consisted of two main sources. One part is voluntary aliens attracted by trade and entrepreneurial interests; The second part was resettled by violent as a result of Rome wars against neighboring peoples. Plebei were personally free, possessed property, property rights, were engaged in crafts and trade, they were attracted to military service (however, in the auxiliary troops), they could independently carry out judicial claims and bear legal responsibility. Numerous complaints of Plebeans on the severity of debt obligations to patricians indicate that legal relations between these estates were not only possible, but also had a broadest distribution. In a word, in the field of private civil relations, the plebeian was equal with patricians. In the area of \u200b\u200bpolitical relations, the status of the specified estates was diametrically opposed: the plebey did not have any political rights and therefore were completely devoid of opportunities to participate in solving community affairs. Peel into the ranks of the Patrician community with the help of a marriage plebies were also prohibited.

It should not be thought that the plebs represented a homogeneous mass. Inside it was strengthened by the trading and crafting top, gradually mastered the important positions in the economy of Rome. On the other hand, the number of Plebeev-poor grew, which in the case of social conflicts could objectively be the allies of slaves.

The main requirement of plebeans was to gain access to the section, since the land is close for Plebeev became increasingly unbearable. It was possible to solve this economic task of Plebea only subject to access to public positions. Thus, the economic and political requirements of Plebeev were closely related and mutually due. The struggle of the plebeian with patricians has become the main content of socio-political life, and therefore - the main spring of early Roman history. This struggle, stretched out for several centuries, took at times very sharp forms, repeatedly putting the country on the edge of the civil war. The struggle ended with the victory of Plebeyev: the Patrician generic community was forcibly destroyed, and the state was formed on her wreckage, in which the patrician and the plebs were finally dissolved.

The historical tradition connects the fastening of the victory of the plebeian and the emergence of the state in ancient Rome with the reforms of the king of serving Tully, relating to the VI century. BC, although, obviously, these reforms were the result of rather long changes in the public life of Rome, stretched, maybe in the century.

Reforms serving Tully laid the property and territorial principles for the public organization of Rome.

All the free population of Rome - and members of Roman childbirth, and plebeians - was divided into property discharges. The basis of the division was based on the size of the land, which was owned by a person (later, with the advent of the IV century. BC money, a monetary assessment of property was introduced). Possessing full put on the first category, three quarters put on the second, etc. In addition, a special group of citizens was allocated from the first discharge - riders, and landless - proletarians were isolated in a separate, sixth category.

Reforms serving Tully, thus, completed the process of breaking the foundations of the generic system, replacing it with a new socio-political device, based on territorial division and property differences. Turning on the plebeian to the "Roman people", having allowed them to participate in centurious and tributary people's assembly, they contributed to the consolidation of free citizens, ensured their domination over slaves.

The next two centuries in the history of Rome are characterized by the continuation of the struggle of the plebeian for the equation in patricians.

In this struggle, you can allocate two main stages. In V c. BC. Plebei achieved success in the desire to limit the arbitrariness of officials who were patricians on the preserved tradition. For these purposes in 494 BC. The post of Plebee Tribune was established. Plebea tribunes that eating plebeans in the amount of up to 10 people did not have management authorities, but had the right of the vet - the right to prohibit the execution of the order of any official and even the decree of the Senate. The second important achievement of the plebeian - edition in 451-450. BC. The laws of XII tables that limited the capabilities of Patrician magistrates arbitrarily interpret the norms of customary law. These laws testify to the almost complete equation of Plebeev with patricians in civil rights - the word "plebey" itself, judging by the presentation of the text of law, is mentioned in them only once due to the preservation of the ban on marriages between the plebies and patricians. However, this ban is soon in 445 BC. It was canceled by the law of the canow.

The second stage belongs to the IV century. BC, when Plebei achieved the right to occupy government posts. In 367 BC The law of Litinia and the Sexti was established that one of two consuls (senior officials) had to be elected from Plebeev, and a number of laws 364--337. BC. They were given the right to occupation and other public posts. In the same century, laws contributed to the consolidation of plebeans and patricians were also published. The Liticultinium and Sextius law limited the size of land ownership that patricias from the public land foundation could have expanded the access of plebeian to this fund. Labor Labor 326 BC A long-term debt saved by the laws of XII tables was canceled, from which the plebeian suffered mainly.

The completion of the struggle of the plebeian for equality was the adoption in 287 BC. The law of hydrangea, according to which the decisions of Plebeian collections in the tribamas began to spread not only on the plebeian and, therefore, received the same force of law as decisions of centers.

In 509 BC The Romans expelled the last king of Tarquinia for the fact that he was not consulted with the Senate, the citizens were unjustly sentenced to the death penalty with the confiscation of property. The people pounding should never allow the restoration of the royal power. The republic existed for five centuries. Power in the republic was awarded two consuls for a period of one year, one of which should be plebem. Each of them had all the completeness, but only those orders were obligatory from both consuls. Protection of the rights of plebs carried out folk tribunes.

From 509 to 265 BC. All the events of Roman history are stacked in two processes: the struggle of plebeians with patricians for civil rights and the struggle of Romans for the subordination of all Italy. 20 years later, after the expulsion of the kings, Rome broke out the uprising of the plebeian against patrician, which was the result of the reform of public administration: besides two Patristian consuls, it was decided to choose two Plebey Tribunes annually with the right of the veto for the order of the consuls and the Senate regarding the Plebeev. As a result of the struggle of patrician and plebeans in 471 BC appeared public laws Through which Plebei from nowend received the right to occupy consular and other posts and get the land on the community field. It was forbidden to turn Roman citizens into slavery for debts.

The basis of economic life was still the farming. Along with small property, largeholders appeared with the use of slave labor. Wheat becomes the main agricultural crop. Copper first appears, and then a full silver coin. The development of crafts in Rome occurred slowly, since slaves were engaged in small crafts in each house, in addition, the state oriented on land owners did not contribute to their development.

To the IV-III centuries. BC. There are numerous measures to maintain cleanliness in the city, security, orders for buildings, baths, taverns. For Appia Claudia, Consulted the Consul and Powered in 292 BC. The dictator, the Senate retreated from the previous system of extreme leaning in expenditures: expensive, but useful structures, excellent roads in different ends of Italy, including the famous road appiyev; Excellent water supply in Rome; Extensive areas that have created new places for settlements, etc. Appia is considered the founder of jurisprudence.

By the end of the 3th century BC. Rome's possessions approached Sicily's island, but here the aspirations of Romans collided with Carthage, Turning to this time into a strong marine power of the Mediterranean. So the wars of Rome vs. Carthaginian (Funtees) are denoted.

From 264 to 241 The 1st PuNic War took place, which ended with the defeat of the Bunny residents (Carthaginian), forced to give Sicily and Sardinia and pay the Contribution of Rome. But the Romans remained dissatisfied with the results of the war, since their goal was the richest city of Carthage.

During the 2nd Punchy War (218-201 BC), Carthage lost all his off-African possessions and the role of the Great Power. The strongest was the 3rd Punic War (148-146 BC), during which the Carthage after a long siege was taken, looted, burned and was buried on the decision of the Roman Senate erased from the face of the Earth. During the same years, the Romans defeated Macedonia, broke the troops of the Syrian king, and later the Greece and the western part of Malaya Asia later were subdued. So, by the end of the II century. BC. Rome became the center of the Mediterranean Sea.

Although by the end of the II century. BC. Rome and turned into a great world power, he clone to decline, because with the development of large land tenure, which used enormously developed slave work, the factor was destroyed at the root for which the state was restored: the economy of small landowners. In all branches of activity, the work of slaves, which were engaged in crafts, led large enterprises of their Lords, taught children, managed banking operations. Their amount was huge, and the position is extremely difficult. From the beginning of II century. BC. In Italy, the risks are continuously occurring: 134-132. BC. - The uprising in Sicily, more than 20,000 people were executed, 73-71. BC. - uprising under the guidance Spartak, More than 6,000 people were executed.

However, the threat to the state was not in the risks of slaves, but in the fall of the class of small owners, which developed in parallel with the strengthening of slavery. The Roman government has always supported a fine land tenure by distributing the poor re-acquired land, however, after Punic Wars, this process slowed down, and the number of full Roman citizens decreased.

The best of the Romans saw the danger of such a tendency and thought about the need for reforms. Such people were brothers Tiberius and Guy. Grakhi. Elected in 133 BC. Tiberius was offered the law on which all government lands engaged in individuals should be selected in the treasury and distributed by citizens who did not have land for 7.5 decishes, for the use of which the owners had to make a moderate rent. Over five years after making this law, 75,000 people received again plots of land and were listed in the lists of citizens. Tiberius Grakh was killed, and his business continued his brother Guy. Given the lack of land in Italy, he proposed to bring the colony of citizens for the sea, facilitated military service, introduced softening into criminal law, weakened the rules to know. Restraining the power of the Senate, he focused great power in his hands: the distribution of land, bread, watching the choice of jury, consuls, leadership of communications and public buildings.

In the middle of the i century BC. The Republican Rome is in front of the collapse: he is shocked by the uprisings in the conquered provinces, heavy wars in the East, civil wars in Rome itself. In 82 BC commander Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BC) established his sole power and for the first time indefinitely proclaim himself dictator. His dictatorship was aimed at overcoming the state crisis in Rome. But in 79 BC. He admitted that he had not reached his goal and folded the authority.

The official founder of the Roman Empire is considered Guy Julius Caesar (100-44 BC), elected in 59 BC. Consul in Rome. Realizing the need for serious reforms to transform the dictatorship into the empire, Caesar began to pay the soldiers of his army twice as much more complaining than other warlords; The Allies of Rome, he generously distributed the rights of Roman citizenship. Being declared in 45 BC. Lifetime dictator, Caesar conducted laws that changed the political system of the Roman state. The people's assembly lost their meaning, the Senate was increased to 900 people and is replenished with supporters of Caesar. Senate gave Caesar the title of Emperor with the right to transfer it to descendants. He began to coach a gold coin with his image, appearing in the signs of royal dignity. Caesar's desire to the royal authorities restored many senators against him, they organized a conspiracy led by Mark Bruta (85-42 BC) and GEAR. Cassie. In 44 BC Caesar was killed, but the restoration of the aristocratic republic, which the conspirators were hoping, did not happen.

In 43 BC. Mark Anthony (83-30 BC), Octavian (63 BC - 14 AD), Lepid (about 89-13 BC) entered into a union, finally defeated Republicans and divided into 42 BC. Among the Roman powers. However, striving for personal power, Anthony and Octavian in 31 years began a new civil war over the victory of Octavian, who received the title from Senate August and proclaimed from 27 BC. Emperor. Octavian was endowed with the right of the tribune commanding all the troops and even the Supreme Priest.

August (27 BC - 14 N.E.) brought Caesar's reform to the end. He left a huge Roman empire, whose possessions extended to Armenia and Mesopotamia, to Sahara and the shores of the Red Sea.

After the fall of the republic in Rome, large land tenure of Roman emperors are formed (Saltus), which were in Italy, provinces, mainly in Africa. Saltus or a group of them launched a special official - procurator.

Under the emperor Traian (53-117, Rules with 98) Civil wars were resumed, and the Roman Empire reached maximum borders. But in the future the conquests stopped, the influx into the empire of new slaves decreased dramatically. In the III century, the crisis of the economy, the decline of agriculture, crafts, trade, return to the natural forms of farming begins in the Roman Empire. A new form of land relations is born - coluntia.Large landowners have leased plots of land, cattle necessary to work to implement labor. Small tenants gradually falling due to debt dependent on landowners, called colonami. They paid products to the rent for land and taxes to the state. The colons gradually turned into fortress peasants who are not eligible to leave their village, and urban artisans lost the right to change the profession and place of residence. Huge spending on the maintenance of the army and the luxurious courtyard of emperors, on the spectacle, the gift of the free poor forced the Roman rulers to increase the grant of the provincial population.

In different parts of the empire, the population rebellion and rebellion of warriors displeased by heavy service. In the last period of the Roman Empire, two processes are developing in parallel: the process of distribution in the Empire of Christianity and the process of regular invasions of European barbarians.

Christianity originated in the Roman province of Judea in I century. AD Based on the religious and social teaching on the spiritual salvation of people through faith in the redemptive power of the Savior, the Son of God, who preached such sects of Judaism as zelotov and essess. The idea of \u200b\u200bChristianity is based on the redeeming mission of Jesus Christ, his execution, the resurrection and the second coming to people, a terrible court, rewarding for sins, establishing the eternal kingdom of heaven.

After a long and unsuccessful struggle with Christianity, the emperors were allowed to confess faith in Jesus Christ (Milan Edict Konstantin, 313). Over time, the rulers themselves adopted baptism (Konstantin, 330) and declared Christianity the only state religion (Feodosius I, 381). They participated in church cathedrals and tried to put the church under state control. The army, the officials and the Christian church are becoming three main supports of Dominat - military, political and ideological.

Finally, considering that the eastern part of the empire was relatively less than West to attacks of the barbaric tribes and was more economically more developed, Konstantin moved its capital to the ancient Greek city of Byzantine, giving him the new name Constantinople. In 330, Constantinople was officially proclaimed the capital of the Empire. The transfer of the capital to Constantinople secured the process of the decay of the empire into two parts, which led in 395 to its final section to the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium).

Economic separation and political separation of the empire coincided with a period of further deepening the general crisis of the slave-ownership and was its manifestation and result. The section of a single state objectively was an attempt to prevent the death of this building that was destroyed by the fierce political and ideological struggle, the uprisings of conquered peoples, the invasions of the barbaric tribes, which were particularly suffering from the Western Roman Empire.

In 476, the Commander of the Imperial Guardian German Odoacre Svarc from the throne of the last Roman emperor and sent the signs of imperial dignity to Constantinople. Western Roman Empire ceased to exist.

The life of the primitive peoples of the archaic era is subordinate to the traditions, permeated with ritualism and was little suitable for change. The age-old constancy of the lifeguard of primitive tribes quite consistent with the relative constancy of the natural and climatic conditions in the territories developed by them. When the conditions of existence deteriorated - due to the exhaustion of food resources or climate change, the primitive teams responded to this challenge nature by relocation to areas with more favorable conditions for existence.

We do not know how many primitive tribes died, without preparing the migration tightness (Migro - Lat. Go, move) or, on the contrary, in clashes with starminated hunger by aliens, and how many such tribes, reaching new edges, scattered among the local population. But we know at least two terrain on Earth - in the Valley of the River Nile and in the lower current of the Tiger Rivers and Euphrates, - where the challenge for the first time a more strong answer was given: by the end of the IV Millennium BC to our era there was a new type of human collectiveness , with culture and civilization, which is customary now as the era of antiquity.

The main sign of the offensive of antiquity is the emergence of states. Compare. In the archaic era, any generality was based on blood-study links (family, genus, tribe, etc.), that is, on a sign of unconditionally biological, although meaningful humanly via the myth. In the era of antiquity, the outcomes of human unions began to be approved - the neighborhood, joint ownership, cooperation. These new principles allowed to integrate much more extensive and diverse communities capable of solving unprecedented labor-intensive economic tasks.

The first state formations arose on the banks of the Nile and in the Valleys of the Twires in the process of construction of irrigation systems. The construction of dams and water distribution channels was a new activity that demanded an unprecedented previous organizedness of all participants in the work - in fact, the entire population. The construction should be preceded by design, and the move could be passed only under the control of persons involved in the power of coercion and control. So, in the process of the very irrigation construction, almost simultaneously and independently of each other were formed models of relations characteristic of the early Schumeria and Egyptian statehood.

In general, this new type of community was focused on production, and, for the first time, the organization of production was based on the relationship of power and subordination. Coercion to work, cost accounting and manufactured products, its storage and distribution, creating a reserve, to a certain extent and exchange - all this has become a special area of \u200b\u200bactivity that required special training, knowledge and special, powerful, the status of its executables. The state organization has also allowed dramatically to increase the scale of military activities and construction. Far Military Hiking, as well as the construction of for the first time huge structures - pyramids, palaces, temples and cities, demanded all the same planning, accounting, control and coercion by part of society, in the person of which the state concentrated knowledge and power. Thus, the ancient state for the first time enshrines the hierarchical structure of society: collective interest and collective will are aware of the efforts of a relatively small part (the top of the society), while their practical implementation remains for another, much greater part of it (bottom).

The transition from blood-study unions to state formats of collectivity caused another fundamental innovation to life - legislation. The proclaimed and carried out on behalf of the head of state, the king laws put all the members of the civil team in relations depended on the place of the individual in the public structure, and in no way - from its tropping belonging.

The revolutionary meaning of this transformation is now not easy to appreciate: the new approach overcomed in principle inter-barded differences within the state and at the same time formulated a new idea of \u200b\u200bthe world and the place of man in this world (2.3). In fact, therefore, we are talking about the cultural revolution in the transition from Archaik to antiquity, which the peoples who join the statehood, each in due time, throughout the segment of history in 2-3 thousand years (it is believed that the era of antiquity ended in approximately the V century of our Era with the fall of the Roman Empire).

The expressions of the type go (or enter) into a new cultural era are not quite accurately expressing the essence of the case, for it was nowhere to enter into at first. Peoples of antiquity, the creators of the civilization of the first states and cities worked their culture, rethinking the inherited ideas about the time and space, adapting to new needs of the well-established mythoritual canon.

In the culture of antiquity, as, however, in any other culture, time is the characteristics of the sequence of events meaningful for this culture. The ancient preserves a widespread archaic idea of \u200b\u200bthe time identifying the significant moments of the present with the corresponding primary precedents, as a result of which the past and present are ritually combined. But, as will be shown below, the ancient develops a substantively new mythology, which is devoted to other heroes and other precedents, essential for a new culture and new civilization.

The new in the civilizations of antiquity is also the fact that in them an important place is occupied by temporarily significant events, which requires another ritual-mythological method, to correlate consistently alternating events. For example, the state self-consciousness is important to account for the sequence of kingdoms and dynasties; To streamline private transactions (exchange, loan, debt development, etc.) requires the correlation of the initial and final acts of one operation, between which months and years can run. This circumstance imposes in use other than myth-ritual - an astronomical account of time, usually by years, counting from the beginning of the reign of the active monarch.

Writing began in antiquity in the forms of painted icons, capable of keeping only that much is different from the well-known. Let us continue the football example. Suppose it requires fixation of the results of football matches. Since in these cases, everyone who is interested in these messages know what we are talking about, it is enough to build a fairly simple picture, the so-called icon consisting, for example, from the characters of the players placed one above the other, considering that the command symbol is placed above -Bake (repeated in the number of scored heads), and at the bottom - the loser team. In this case, the entry in the form of "DD / C" can denote the victory of the Dynamo team over the Spartak team with a score of 2: 1.

The history of writing systems launched in ancient times reflects the historically changing ratio of traditional (repeated) and unique (specific) phenomena of civilization - in favor of the latter.

New relations of collectivity, the incarnation of which we find in the states of the ancient world, developed on the basis of the new mythologies of the era of antiquity - new collective ideas about the world and the place of man in this world. The myths of the ancient world directly inherited archaic myths, but their figurative symbolic system became incomparably more developed; She and today amazes the generous variety of events, plots and characters.

The transformation of archaic mythology in ancient expressed in the change of significant foremost precedents. If the archaic myths, to the number of primitives, were predominantly those that led to the creation of universe, people and animals, the new (often updated) the myths of antiquity center attention is transferred to the original, the meaning of which is the meaning of the major skills and values \u200b\u200bof an ancient civilization. According to the myths of antiquity, the heroes of culture, they brought fire to people, equipment processing equipment and manufacturing products, possession of crafts, principles of state life (laws), etc. For example, in the ancient Greeks with a triplet, driving around the whole world, sowed the land and taught it people, and Prometheus kidnapped the symbol of fire from the god craft Hephaesta. The Sumerian God of Enki, who was also worshiped by Hitts and Hurts, as the creator of people, livestock and grain, created, according to myths, plow, hoore, a brick shape, in addition, he was considered the inventor of gardening, gardening, lineries, herbal. In the Ancient Chinese mythology, a number of features presented in myths as an ancient rulers are mentioned in connection with the mining of fire (Sui-Zhen), the invention of the fishing network (Fu-SI), the means of movement - boats and chariots (Juan-di). The merits of other mythical characters of the Ancient China were to teach people agriculture, the sophistication of the first wells, in the introduction to the Chinese civilization of clay vessels and musical instruments, writing and other innovations, including the introduction of exchange trade.

In the movement of peoples from the culture of Archaika to the culture of antiquity, the mythical ideas about the first-enders were also substantially rethought. In general, it is the fact that the place of the first-end-of-creators of the world come first-hand lubricants, gods. The process of this transition is reflected in mythologies as the era of the struggle of new generations of gods with senior deities. In the ancient Greek mythology, the gods from the youngest generation of Olympians headed by their sonor and the head of Zeus, the son of Kronos, who belonged to the older generation of Titanov's gowns, born gay's land and the sky uranium, defeated the ancestors of Titans in a giant battle, personified nature elements with all her catastrophes , and establish a reasonable and ordered world. In the ancient Chinese mythology, the multi-legged and multi-legged chiyu-y (the image of the plurality and disorder of natural forces) is defeated in the battle of the sovereign Juan-Di, which established harmony and order. In the Khurritian mythology there is an epos about reigning in heaven, telling about the struggle and violent change of three generations of gods. In the Sumero-Akkadian mythology, the stories of Tomakhia (struggle of the gods) are partly replaced by the voluntary election of all the gods for the role of their leader of the main god of the city of Babylon Marduk, who won the creator of the first godsinty Tiamat in the cosmic battle.

The myths transformed in this way corresponded to the realities of the era of antiquity. The gods are the rulers of the world, the institutions and guarantors of the order in nature and among people often identified through a myth with earthly lords - rulers, kings. Ancient Jews before the first king Saul, God Yahwe had royal titles. Egyptian pharaohs were considered deities, direct descendants of the Supreme Deity of the Egyptians. Demined, i.e., he wore as deities, and the ancient Sumerian kings. In other cases, the lord of the ancient states was considered divinely appointed to the kingdom. In the Novovavilon kingdom at the beginning of the first millennium BC. e. The ritual of the annual election of the king was formed during the celebration of the New Year (March-April of the Gregorian calendar). In the New Year, - describes this ceremony a modern researcher, - from the Barsippes to Babylon on the Nar Barsippa channel delivered the Istkan of God Nabu, the main god Barsipp. The Babylonian gate of God, the Ustan was unloaded to the land and in a solemn procession through these gates along the street of God Nabu to the Temple Eseagil, the dwelling of God Bal, whose son was considered the God of Nabu. The king was in Esagil, he made a royal insignia from himself and, by completing a number of ceremonies, took the hand of Bal's God in the presence of God Nabu. After that, he was considered selected again and received back signs of royal dignity. This ritual was repeated annually, but necessarily if there is an idiot of God Bal, the idiot of God Nabu and with the participation of the king. Without these three characters, the New Year's holiday could not take place.

So. The culture of the era of antiquity is a mythorganized culture. Myths and rituals serve here and here in an integrator, the focus of the main images and ideas that organize the lives of people and peoples, which are now combined into large - state-community with relevant, state, myths and rituals. The hero of this cult is becoming Vladyka - the king or a deity (the king of the gods or earthly deity, the lord of the four sides of the world), which combines signs of the prisoner-donor (Hammurapi gives his laws) and the ruler of the world and country. In the space of antiquity, the vertical image of the arrangement of world forces begins to prevail, and in the temporary ideas, the image of eternity as a property, the possession of which distinguishes the rulers of the world (for example, pharaohs).

The complex and long history of the ancient world is completed by the existence of the Roman Empire (before the V century. E.), In which the basic properties of the culture of antiquity reached utmost development. The Romans were aware of this, and this consciousness had their pride and their traditionalism. In the culture of the Roman world (Pax Romana), we will find both the complex mythology of the Roman state, and its Pantheon, embodied even in a real construction with the same name, and the emperor deified after the death of the Emperor, and the idea of \u200b\u200bRome as an eternal city. At the same time, in Roman life is wider than anywhere in antiquity, a mini-ritual, practical, regulated by the right, the space of privacy unfolded. In comparison with other cultures of the era of antiquity, Roman practicality is one of the most visible features of this culture, the characteristics of the Roman spirit.

This ancient agricultural civilization began to form in 4 V. BC. The history of the state and culture of Egypt is divided into several periods: early, ancient, average and new kingdom. Early Egypt was the time of formation of a slave-ownership and a despotic state, during which a religious belief characteristic of the ancient Egyptians was formed: the cult of nature and ancestors, astral and illuminated cults, fetishism, totemism, animism and magic. In cult construction, a stone began to be widely used. The ancient and middle kingdom were characterized by the strengthening and centralization of the bureaucratic apparatus of the Board, the strengthening of the power of Egypt and its desire to expand their influence on neighboring peoples. In cultural development, this is the era of construction, which is surprising for the sizes of pharaohs, such as Heops and others, the creation of unique monuments of art, such as pharaoh sphinxes, portrait relief on the tree. About the grand is the largest of the Egyptian pyramids - the pyramids of Heops, which does not have equal among the stone structures of the whole world, they say its dimensions: 146m - height, and the length of the base of each of the 4 faces is 230m. The new kingdom was the last period of the external activity of Egypt, when he led the war in Asia and North Africa. At this time, the architecture of the temples especially flourished.

Among the greatest achievements of the artistic creativity of this period, the image of Queen Nefertiti from the sculptural workshop in Achetaton, the Golden Mask of Pharaoh Tutankhamon and the painting of the tombs in the valley of the kings near Five. They continued the tradition of the head and feet of the figure in the profile, characteristic of the Ancient East, and torso in the FAS. This tradition disappears in the final period of the fall of Egypt, when he conquers Persia. In the boundaries of a peculiar worldview, the religious and mythological system of the ancient Egyptians on the construction of the world was formed. All many fragmented religions were gradually reduced to a certain divine hierarchy, where the cult of the RA god (most important among all the deities) merged with cults of other gods. In ancient Egypt, where only Pharaoh standing on society, all other citizens were considered equal to the Creator and the law, women were equal to men. Belief in the individual immortality gave rise to such a phenomenon in the culture of ancient Egyptians, as the desire to leave a memory of themselves in the centuries, they built tomb monuments labeled by hieroglyphs. If in the era of the ancient kingdom, only Pharaohs could enter the "kingdom of the dead", while building a pyramid, then since the time of the Middle Kingdom, everyone had the right to build his own tomb. In ancient Egypt, all special knowledge was concentrated by a small group of people, which was the caste of priests ruling in society. The priests were effectively used to control the masses of astronomical observations accumulated over times, opening the frequency of solar eclipses and learning them to foresee. In ancient Egypt, for the first time in the world, practical medicine has emerged, a certain development has reached a decimal account in arithmetic. The ancient Egyptians also owned some elite knowledge in algebra.

The opening of the hieroglyphs as writing contributed to the development of such genres of literature as myths, fairy tales, bikes, prayers, hymns, crying, epitaph, story, love lyrics and even philosophical dialogues and political treatises, a religious drama and a secular theater appear later. The rapid development of art in ancient Egyptian society led to the emergence of the 1st in the world in writing aesthetic and philosophical reflections. It was here for the first time in the history of world culture a humanism arose. The cultural legacy of the ancient Egypt played its historical role in the formation and development of world culture.

Culture of ancient India

Early Indian civilization was created by the ancient local population of Northern India in 3 V. BC. Its Centers of Harapp and Mohenjo Daro (now Pakistan) supported links with Mesopotamia, Central and Central Asian countries. Residents of these places have achieved high mastery, especially in the image of small forms (figurines, engraving); Their amazing achievement was a water supply system and sewage system, which did not have any other ancient cultures. They created their original not yet decrypted writing. A bright feature of the Harapp culture was her unusual conservatism: for centuries, the location of the streets of the Old Indian seats did not change, and new houses were built on the places of old. The characteristic feature of the culture of India is that we meet with numerous religions that interact with each other. Among them are the main - brahmanism and its forms of Hinduism and Jainism, Buddhism and Islam. The present heyday, Ancientindian culture reached in the Epoch of "Rigvety" - a large collection of religious hymns, magic spells and ritual customs created by the priests of the Aryan tribes, which appeared in India after the T. N. "Great Resettlement of Peoples."

At the same time, brahmanism was formed as a kind of synthesis of beliefs of Indo-Arya and religious ideas of the previous local North Indian population. An Indian phenomenon is the custom system in the Rig Hedi Epoch. For the first time, theoretically substantiated moral and legal motives for the division of Indian society into four main "Varna": priests, warriors, progress-agriculties and servants. A whole system of life regulations and behavior of each Varna was developed. According to this, marriage was considered to be legitimate only within one Varna. The result of such relations between people was the following separation of Varna to an even greater number of small castes. The formation of castes is the total of a thousand-year evolution of interaction between different racial and ethnic groups in a single cultural system of an ancient Indian society, where a very complex social structure was formed. Olympus in Hinduism symbolizes Brahma's Trinity, Vishnu and Shiva, which represents the cosmic forces of creation, savings and destruction. A peculiar reaction of the population, not belonging to the caustes of priests and speaking against the inequality of Cast, was Buddhism. According to the teachings of Buddhism, the human life mission is to achieve Nirvana.

Islam was brightly different from all previous religious views. First of all, the Muslim tribes owned military technology and a strong political system, but their main believer relied on the concept of "grouped fraternity", which united deep respect for all those who took this faith. All Indian literature, both religious and secular, filled with hints of sexual content and symbolism of open erotic descriptions. In the Middle Ages, the process of cosmic creation itself was depicted as the marriage alliance of God and the goddess, so the figures on the walls of the temples were depicted in various poses. In the culture of ancient India, the originality of cultural trends and philosophical thought is closely related. Philosophical views that have separated a religious separation of light are included in brahmanism, Jainism, Hinduism and Buddhism. All philosophical views played an important role not only in the history of culture of India, a and global philosophy and science. They are closely related to the achievements of various industries of Old Indian science - mathematics, astronomy, medicine and environmental education. It is known that Indian scientists in the distant past were ahead of some discoveries made by European scientists only in the Renaissance era or at the present time. The artistic culture of an ancient Indian society is inextricably linked with traditional religious and philosophical systems for it.

The ideas characteristic of the religious beliefs of the ancient Indians inspired creativity in architecture, culture and painting. For descendants, the huge statues of Buddha, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, the cat remained for the descendants. cause surprise with their colossal sizes. The perception of light through the spiritual prism of the beliefs of these religions is the frescoes of cave temples. Ajans and rock paintings in Ellora temples, a cat. Combine the traditions of North. and south. Type of structure of temples in dr. India. In some details of these art monuments, the influence of art and others are also felt. Vost. Civilizations. This was due to the location of India on the Great Silk Road, on the cat. Not only walked caravans with goods, but also a cultural exchange took place. In this process, India played a cultural role, expanding the civilized influence of Buddhism on others. countries.

Culture dr. China.

The most trees. A period of Chinese civilization is the era of the essence of the state of Shan, a slave owner in the Valley of the Juanhe River. Her capital was the city of Shan, the giving Naz. The country and the ruling dynasty of the kings. Later, she was won by others. Chinese tribes, called. New kingdom Zhou. Subsequently, it broke up on five independent principalities. Already in Epoch, the ideographic writing was opened, the cat. By long-term improvement, turned into hieroglyphic calligraphy, and was also compiled in the main features of the monthly calendar. During the early imperial era of DR. K. introduced into the world. Culture Such discoveries as a compass and speedometer, seismograph. Later, typography and powder were invented. It is in K. in the field of writing and typography opened paper and a moving font, and in military equipment - guns and stirrups. Mechanical was also invented. The clock has happened. Improvements in the region Shelkotroaty.

In mat-ke, an outstanding Chinese achievement was the use of decimal fractions and blank positions to designate 0, calculating the number P, the opening of the method of solving equations with two and three unknowns. Trees. The Chinese were educated astronomers, amounted to one of the first star cards in the world. Since the ancient Chinese communion was agricultural, centralized bureaucracy was to solve complex technical issues related primarily to the use and protection of water resources, therefore, high development in others. K. reached astronomy, knowledge of calendar calculations and astrological forecasts, mat-ka, physics and hydraulic engineering in their engineering use. The construction of forts, directed primarily to the protection of the external borders of the Empire, first of all, was also important to protect the external borders of the empire.

Chinese builders became famous for grandiose facilities - the Great Chinese Wall and the Great Channel. Chinese medicine for 3 thousand years has reached many sharp. In dr. K. For the first time, "Pharmacology" was written, for the first time began to conduct surgical operations with drug use. The funds were applied for the first time and described in the literature methods for treatment with acupuncture, cavity and massage. Ancient Chinese thinkers and Lekari have developed the original doctrine of "vital energy". Based on this teaching, a F-F-F-F-F-F-F-F-F-Profit System "Wushu", which gave the beginning of the treatment of therapeutic gymnastics, as well as the art of self-defense "Kung Fu". Peculiarity of spiritual culture dr. K. is largely due to a phenomenon known in the world as "Chinese ceremony". These strictly fixed stereotypes of ethical-ritual norms of behavior and thinking are based on the cult of antiquity. The place of cult of the gods took the cult of real clan and family ancestors. And those gods, the cult of which preserved, lost the smallest similarity with people, becoming abstract deities-symbols, for example. Sky.

Confucianism is the most important place in Chinese spiritual culture - ethical and political. The doctrine of the F-F-F-idealist Confucius. His ideal is a highly oral man based on the traditions of wise ancestors. The teaching was shared in the "highest" and "lower" and demanded from each fulfillment of obligations assigned to him. Confucianism played a significant role in the development of Chinese state and functioning political. Culture of the Imperial China. GL The force opposed to the Confucianism in politics and ethics was Leather. The legists, being realistic, the basis of their doctrine put the law, strength and authority cat. must be supported by cruel punishments. Confucianism made a bet on morality and trees. Tradition, whereas Leather put the administrative regulations for the first place. Under the influence of characteristic of the trees. Chinese society of religious, ethical and f-f-f-f-f-f-and socio-polit. Looks developed and all his classic. Lit-ra. Already in the earliest poetic compilation of others. K., the famous "Book of Songs", the cat. A long time was created on the basis of folk songs, sacred mess and trees. Hymfs, fells of ancestors. In 2-3VV. In K. Buddhism comes, the cat. Sufficiently influenced by the traditional Chinese culture, it was manifested in lit-re, figurative art and, especially in the Arakter. Buddhism existed in K. Read 2 Millennium, changed noticeably in the process of adaptation to a specific Chinese civilization. Based on the synthesis of his ideas with Confucian pragmatism in K., Chan Buddhism arose, a cat. Subsequently, it was distributed in Japan and received a kind of Zen Buddhism. The most transformation of Buddhism was manifested in their own. Chinese art, cat. How anywhere in the world relied on tradition. The Chinese have not accepted the idea of \u200b\u200bthe ind. Buddhas created their own image. The same thing happened with the Arakster temples. A significant role in Chinese culture was played by Taoism, with a cat. Configured the development of science and technology dr. K. A special role in cultural contacts K. With the outside world played the "Great Silk Road", the cat. Not only trade, but also the cultural exchange of K. with other countries, which influenced Chinese culture.

Hellenic culture

Ellina worshiped deities representing different forces of nature, public strength and phenomena, the heroes - the mythical ancestors of tribes and childbirth, founders of cities. The myths preserved the layers of different eras - from an ancient worship of plants and animals to anthropomorphism - man deified, representing gods in the images of young, beautiful and immortal people. A significant place in Greek mythology occupied the legends about the heroes - children of gods and mortals. Mythology has become a significant element of Greek culture, on the basis of which literature, philosophy, science developed later. The basis of literary education was the works of Homer, Hesiod, Ezopa. One of the largest acquisitions of the culture dr. C. There are works of Homer "Iliad" and "Odyssey", a lyrics arose, one of the first lire. Poets are considered archives. On Lesbos, Sappo worked, Cat creativity. It was the top lyrics dr. C. In 7B BC. Appears from stone. GL This is temples.

In the process of formation of gr. Arakters arise 3 main directions: Dorician (used mainly on the peloponnese, it is characterized by simplicity and severity of forms), ionic (lightness, harness, decorativeness), Corinthian (refinement). Temples arch. Period: Apollo in Corinth and Gera in Pestum. In the sculpture of the arch. The primary place is the picture of the person. C. Hood is trying to master the right building of the person, learn to pass the movement. The human body was subjected to a thorough geometric study, as a result of a cat. The rules for the proportional ratio of its parts were established. Historians believe that the theorist of proportions is the sculptor polyclet. Anthropocentricity of ancient Greek culture involves the cult of the human body. The body's body was so great that the nudity did not make a feeling of smallestness cost the famous Athenian Beauty Frin, accused of committing a crime, reset his clothes before the judges, as they justified her with beauty. The human body has become a measure of all forms of Greek culture. Painting ch. arr. Known to us with vase paintings. In 6V. The black-phony painting dominates, on the yellow surface of black varnish shapes are depicted. At the end of 6V. There is a red-chicken painting when the figures remain in the color of clay, and the background is black and varnish. Developed dramaturgy. The emergence of c. Theater was associated with the cult of god Winemaking Dionysus. The actors performed in goat skins and therefore this genre was called "tragedy" ("Song Kozlov").

Famous playwrights were Eschil ("Crazy Prometheus"), Sofokl ("Antigron" and "King Edip"), Euripid ("Medea", "Electra"). From prosaic genres in the classic period, rhetoric flourishes - the ability to clearly express their thoughts, convincingly defend its position. Sculptors were mainly depicted gods. The most prominent sculptors were fidi, a polyclet and a lisipe (court sculptor A. Macedonian). The creation of Fidius was the statues of Athena in Parfenone and Zeus Olympic in Olympia. Policlet Chief Representative of the Peloponess School. The most famous sculpture of the master "Dorina", a young man with a spear. In 4v. BC. c. The sculpture leans towards the transfer of individual characteristics of the character of a person. In 5V. BC. - Time for fracture to c. Painting, transition to volume image. Greek agon is the struggle, the competition personified the characteristic features of the free Greek. The most striking expression of ancient agon was the famous Olympics. The origins of the first Olympics are lost in antiquity, but in 776. BC. It was on the marble board for the first time recorded the name of the winner in the race, and this year is considered the beginning of the historical period of the Olympic Games. The place of the Olympic festivals was the sacred grove of Altis.

In the famous temple of Zeus Olympic, a statue of God created by FIDIA and considered one of the seven wonders of the world. In the sacred grove, trade transactions, poets, speakers were concluded, and scientists performed in front of the audience, artists and vagateli represented their paintings and sculptures to the court. The state had the right to announce new laws here. Athenian academy, dedicated to the Athenian hero, the Academy became famous for the fact that he was later running with a torch. In Greek Agone, the dialectic (ability to lead a conversation). Greek culture is festive, outwardly colorful and spectacular. In the literature during the period of Hellenism, attention is growing towards a person. Enjoyed the success of the comedy. The rapid growth of cities, the desire of the rulers to glorify the power of their state-in promoted the development of the Arakter, especially the art of urban planning and art of art related to the decoration of buildings - mosaic, decorative sculpture, painted ceramics. Basilica, gymnasiums, stadiums, libraries, as well as the tsar's shops, residential buildings appeared. In the region Sculptures during this period existed 3 schools. 1. Rhodes school (drama). Sculptural groups "Laocoon" and "Fernese Bull". 2. Pergaman school. Sculptural frieze Altar Zeus and Athens in Pergama. 3. Alexandria school. The image of the goddess aphrodite. Great development reached painting, especially landscape. The culture of Hellenism has become the final stage in the development of culture dr. Greece.

Archaic period.

In the history of dr. C. 8-6V. BC. Characterized by large changes in the host. activities, social Life, culture. One of the largest acquisitions of the culture of the arch. The period is the works of Homer "Iliad" and "Odyssey". In 7-6VV. BC. arose gr. Lyrics, one of the first lire. Poets are considered archives. In the first floor. 6B. BC. On Lesbos, Sappo worked, Cat creativity. It was the top lyrics dr. C. In 8-6V. in dr. C. There was a rise of the sample lawsuit and the arakter. In 7B BC. Appears from stone. GL This is temples. In the process of formation of c. Arakters arise 3 main directions: Dorician (used mainly on the peloponnese, it is characterized by simplicity and severity of forms), ionic (lightness, harness, decorativeness), Corinthian (refinement). Temples arch. Period: Apollo in Corinth and Gera in Pestum. In the sculpture of the arch. The primary place is the picture of the person. C. Hood is trying to master the right building of the person, learn to pass the movement. Painting ch. arr. Known to us with vase paintings. In 6V. The black-phony painting dominates, on the yellow surface of black varnish shapes are depicted. At the end of 6V. There is a red-chicken painting when the figures remain in the color of clay, and the background is black and varnish. Generalization of knowledge about the environment. The world was the basis for the development of F-Fii. The founder of the Miletsky F-F-F-F-F-school was Fales, who believed that the first-base world is water, from the cat. Everything arises in the cat. Everything turns into. For the first time also considered "APIROON", uncertain, eternal matter, air, fire. Ancient F-F-F and Mathematics Pythagoras founded the F-F-F-F-F-F-school South. Italy. According to his F-Fii, the world consists of co-violent patterns, a cat. can be calculated. The merit of the Pythagoreans were the development of the theorems, the theory of music, built on numerical relations, the establishment of a number of col -n patterns in the world. The idealistic line in F-Fii, founded by the Pythagoreans, was continued by the Elaska F-F-F-F-F-school. Victory over the Persia Dala c. Full power in the Cre-Rye. Military prey, trade, the use of slave labor contributed to the development of all sectors of culture.

Classic period.

In cl. Period develops dramaturgy. The emergence of c. Theater was associated with the cult of god Winemaking Dionysus. The actors performed in goat skins and therefore this genre was called "tragedy" ("Song Kozlov"). The famous playwrights of this period were Eschil ("Crazy Prometheus"), Sofokl ("Antigona" and "King Edip"), Euripid ("Medea", "Electra"). From prosaic genres in the classic period, rhetoric flourishes - the ability to clearly express their thoughts, convincingly defend its position. Among the F-F-F-F-F-F-CL Problems. A period of 1 plan put forward an understanding of the essence and place of a person in the world, the consideration of the problems of being and primary acquisition of the world continues. Materialistic interpretation of the problem of primancy put forward democritus, developing the doctrine of atoms. Ancient Softers taught that "a person is a measure of all things," and the essence of things depends on their connection with the person. Socrates the path to achieving truth saw in self-knowledge. Plato to explain Genesis developed the theory about the existence of "ideas". Considerable attention was paid to the state issues, he proposed a project of an ideal policy that the F-Fa is managed. Aristotle made his contribution to F-Fiya, environmentaling, history, literature, state right, the basis of formal logic. Astronomy, medicine, geography, mechanics, history have developed. Contribution to medicine made ancient. Heal Hippocrat. C. claim in CL. The period has reached the highest development. Sculptors were mainly depicted gods. The most prominent sculptors were fidi, a polyclet and a lisipe (court sculptor A. Macedonian). The creation of Fidius was the statues of Athena in Parfenone and Zeus Olympic in Olympia. Policlet Chief Representative of the Peloponess School. The most famous sculpture of the master "Dorina", a young man with a spear. In 4v. BC. c. The sculpture leans towards the transfer of individual characteristics of the character of a person. In 5V. BC. - Time for fracture to c. Painting, transition to volume image. Damn gr. Culture Competition. C. Agon is the struggle, the competition personified the characteristic features of the free Greek. The most striking expression of ancient agon was the famous Olympics. In Greek Agone, Dialectics takes his beginning - the ability to lead a conversation.

Hellenism.

The period from the beginning of the campaign of A. Macedonian to the east before the conquest of the Roman Committee was named with Hellensky. It is characterized by the expansion of relationships and mutual influences of GR. and east. cultures. Having lost the polis limit, gr. Culture absorbed the vehicle. Al-you. These changes found their manifestation in religion, F-Fii, literature. There are new f-f-f-schools. The most famous in this period of the exercise of the Stoikov (founder of Zenon) and the philosophy of epicura (follower of democritus) are most famous. In the literature during the period of Hellenism, attention is growing towards a person. Enjoyed the success of the comedy. The rapid growth of cities, the desire of the rulers to glorify the power of their state-in promoted the development of Arakters, especially the art of urban planning and art related to the decoration of buildings - mosaic, decorative sculpture, painted ceramics .. Basilica, gymnasiums, stadiums, libraries, as well as plants kings, residential buildings. In the region Sculptures during this period existed 3 schools. 1. Rhodes school (drama). Sculptural groups "Laocoon" and "Fernese Bull". 2. Pergaman school. Sculptural frieze Altar Zeus and Athens in Pergama. 3. Alexandria school. The image of the goddess aphrodite. Great development reached painting, especially landscape. The culture of Hellenism has become the final stage in the development of culture dr. Greece.