Chinese philosophy. Confucius - Genius, Great Thinker and Philosopher of Ancient China
Chinese philosophy. Chinese philosophy arose at about the same time as the ancient Greek and ancient Indian philosophy, in the middle of the 1st of the Millennium BC. Separate philosophical ideas and topics, as well as many terms formed by most of the lexicon of traditional Chinese philosophy, were already held in the oldest written monuments of Chinese culture - "Shu Jin" ("Canon [documentary] Scriptures"), "Shi Jin" ("Canon poems"), "Zhou and" ("Chzhesky Changes") established in the 1st floor. 1st millennium BC, which sometimes serves as a basis for statements (especially Chinese scientists) on the emergence of philosophy in China at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. This point of view is also motivated by the fact that the specified works include individual independent texts that have developed philosophical content, for example. Hong Fan ("Majestic Sample") from "Shu Jina" or "Si Chuan" ("Comment of tied words") from "Zhou and". However, as a rule, the creation or final design of such texts is given by the 2nd floor. 1st millennium BC.
Genetic and general theoretic features. The first historically reliable creator of philosophical theory in China was Confucius (551-479 BC, confucianism .
According to traditional datding, the senior contemporary Confucius was Lao Tzu , founder taoisma - the main opposition confusion of ideological flow. However, now it has been established that the first actually the Taoice works were written after Confucian, even apparently came the reaction to them. Lao Tzu as a historical face most likely lived later Confucius. Apparently, inaccurately and traditional idea of \u200b\u200bDocigno (until the end of the 3rd century BC) period in the history of Chinese philosophy as an era of equal controversy "a hundred schools", since all the philosophical schools that existed at that time were self-determined through their attitude towards Confucianism.
It is not by chance that this era of the "anti-philosophical" repressions of Emperor Qin Shi-Huana in 213-210 are ended. BC e. directed precisely against Confucianians. The term "zhu" from the very occurrence of Chinese philosophy indicated not only and not even so much of its schools as philosophy as a single ideological complex, which combined signs of philosophy, science, art and religion. In different epochs, the balance of these signs was different.
In 2nd. BC e. Confucianism achieved the official status of orthodox ideology, but before that it informally had a similar status. Consequently, the whole history of Chinese philosophy is related to the fundamental division of philosophical schools on the basis of correlation with orthodoxy. This relevant theology of the classification principle had in traditional China universal importance, spreading to all spheres of culture, and incl. on scientific disciplines.
Confucius and the first philosophers - Zhu - saw their main task in theoretical understanding of the life of society and the personal fate of a person. As carriers and distributors of culture, they were closely related to social institutions responsible for storing and reproducing written, incl. Historical and literary, documents (culture, writing and literature in Chinese were designated by one term - "Wen"), and their representatives - violent. From here, three main features of Confucianism: 1) in the institutional plan - the relationship or an active desire for communication with the administrative apparatus, permanent claims for the role of official ideology; 2) in a meaningful plan - the dominance of socio-political, ethical, social science, humanitarian issues; 3) in a formal plan - recognition of a textual canon, i.e. compliance with the strict formal criteria for "literature", as a methodologically significant norm.
From the very beginning, the Confucius software was "transferred, and not to create, believe the antiquity and love it" ( "Lun Yu" , VII, 1). At the same time, the act of transferring an ancient wisdom to the upcoming generations had a cultural and creative character, if only because the archaic works (canons), which led the first Confucians, were already unlimited by their contemporaries and demanded comprehensive interpretations. As a result, the dominant forms of creativity in Chinese philosophy were the commentation and exegez of ancient classical works. Even the most bold innovators sought to look only with interpreters or reducing agents of an old ideological orthodoxy. The theoretical innovation, as a rule, not only was not focused and did not receive an explicit expression, but, on the contrary, intentionally dissolved in the mass of the commentator (quasom-gate) text.
This feature of Chinese philosophy was determined by a number of factors - from social to linguistic. Ancient Chinese society did not know the polis democracy and the type of philosopher, deliberately detached from the surrounding empirical life in the name of the understanding of being as such. The acquisition for writing and culture in China has always been determined quite high social status and determined it. Already from 2 c. BC, with the transformation of Confucianism to the official ideology, the examination system began to develop, which fastened the connection of philosophical thought with both state institutions and with "classical literature" - a certain set of canonical texts. Ancient times, such a connection was determined by a specific (including linguistic) complexity of obtaining education and access to cultural material carriers (primarily books).
Thanks to the high social status, the philosophy had an outstanding importance in the life of Chinese society, where she was always a "queen of science" and never became a "maid of theology." However, with the theology of its relatives, the immutable use of the regulated set of canonical texts forming an inadequate source for all sorts of speculation speculation. On this path, which involves the accounting of all previous points of view on the canonical problem, Chinese philosophers with inevitability turned into historians of philosophy, and in their writings, historical arguments took the top over logical.
Moreover, the logical historic was, just as in the Christian religious and theological literature Logos turned into Christ and, having lived human life, opened a new era of history. But unlike the "real" mysticism, which denies both a logical and historical, pretending to the exit and for conceptual, and for the space-time borders, in Chinese philosophy the trend towards the full immersion of mythology into historical specifics.
What was going to "transfer" Confucius, was recorded by GL.O. In historical and literary monuments - "Shu Jin" and "Shi Jin". T. about., The specifics of Chinese philosophy defined close relationship not only with historical, but also with a literary thought. The philosophical works traditionally reigned a literary form. On the one hand, the philosophy itself did not strive for dry abstractness, and on the other hand, the literature was impregnated with the "finest juices" of philosophy. According to the degree of fiction, Chinese philosophy can be compared with Russian philosophy. These features, Chinese philosophy as a whole preserved up to the beginning of the 20th century, when influencing the acquaintance with Western philosophy in China began to arise non-traditional philosophical theories.
The specifics of Chinese classical philosophy in a meaningful aspect determines primarily of naturalism and the lack of developed idealistic theories of the type of Platonism or Neo-Platonism (and the more classical European idealism of the new time), and in a methodological aspect - the absence of such a universal society and general scientific organon, as a formal logic (which is It is a direct consequence of the undevelopment of idealism). It is about naturalism, and not about materialism because the latter correlated idealism and outside this correlation term "materialism" loses its scientific meaning. Researchers of Chinese philosophy often see the concept of ideal in categories of "Lack of non-existence" (especially in Taoirs; see Yu - W. ) or lie - "Principle-reson" (especially neoconfucianians). However, "U", at best, can designate some analogue of Platonov-Aristotelian matter as a clean capability (current non-existence), and "Lee" expresses the idea of \u200b\u200ban ordering structure (patterns or "legitimate place"), immanently inherent in each individual thing and devoid of transcendent.
In the classic Chinese philosophy, who did not develop the ideal as such (ideas, Eidos, forms, a transcendental deity), there was no not only "Plato Line", but also "Line of Democritus", since the rich tradition of materialistic thought was not formed in theoretically meaningful opposition clearly The expressed idealism and independently did not give rise to atomics at all. All this testifies to the undoubted domination in the classic Chinese philosophy of naturalism, is typologically similar to democratic philosophizing in ancient Greece.
Methodological specificity. However, from the consequences of the general flow role of logic in Europe, the philosophical categories were acquired primarily by the logical sense, genetically rising to grammatical models of ancient Greek. Chinese analogs of categories, genetically rending to the mythical ideas, images of assigitive practices and economic-ordering activities, which have found primarily philosophical meaning and used as classification matrices: for example, binary - yin Yang , or Liang and - "binary images"; Tropic - tian , zhen, Di - "Heaven, Man, Earth", or San Cai - "Three Materials"; Patracatic - at Sin - "Five Elements." The modern Chinese term "category" (Fan-Chow) has numerological etymology, occurring from the designation of a square nine-tall (9 - chow) of construction (according to the magic square model 3 × 3 - Lo Shu; see HE TU and Lo Shu ), on which "Hong Fan" is founded.
The place of logic in China occupied the so-called. Numerology (see Xiang Shu Ji Xue ), those. The formalized theoretical system, the elements of which are mathematical or mathematical-shaped objects - numerical complexes and geometric structures related, however, among themselves ch. about. Not according to the laws of mathematics, but otherwise it is symbolically, associatively, factual, aesthetically, mnemonically, tried, etc. As shown at the beginning of the 20th century. One of the first researchers of the Ancient Chinese methodology Hu Shi , the two main varieties were the Confucian logic set forth in "Zhou and", and the Moist logic set out in the 40-45th chapters "Mo Tzu" , those. Numerology and protestology. The most ancient and canonical forms of self-optical methodology of Chinese classical philosophy, implemented, on the one hand, in Numerology "Zhou and", "Hong Fanya", "Tai Xuan Jing", and on the other - in the protesto "Mo Tzu", "Gunsun Moon Tzu ", "Xun Tzu" , now they cause increased interest in all global synology.
Hu Shi was sought to demonstrate the presence in the ancient Chinese philosophy of the "logical method", on equal rights including in it and protestology and numerology. The wonderful achievement of Hu Sha was the "discovery" in ancient China developed by the general consumption methodology, but he failed to prove its logical character that it was fairly noted in 1925 by Academician V.M. Alexseeva. In the 1920s. The most prominent European sinologists A.Fake and A. Mespero showed that even the teachings of the late mysts, the closest to the logic in the ancient Chinese methodology, strictly speaking, is erystics and, therefore, has the status of the protesto.
In the mid-1930s. Understanding the "Zhou and" as a logical treatise convincingly denied Yu.K. Ice. And at the same time, Shen Zhunto (Ch.T. Sun) showed that the "Zhou and" numerology can be used as a general scientific methodology, since it is a slim system of symbolic forms reflecting universal quantitative and structural patterns of the universe. Unfortunately, Shen Zhuntoo left aside the question of how much this potential was implemented by the Chinese scientific and philosophical tradition.
The methodological role of numerology in the widest context of the spiritual culture of traditional China was then brilliantly demonstrated by an outstanding French synologist M.Gran, considered numerology as a peculiar methodology of Chinese "correlative (associative) thinking." The work of the Grain contributed to the emergence of modern structuralism and semiotics, but for a long time, despite its high authority, did not find a proper continuation in Western Synological.
The largest development of the theory of "correlative thinking" found in the works of the largest Western historian of Chinese science J. Nidam, which, however, fundamentally divided "correlative thinking" and numerology. From his point of view, the first due to its dialecticity served as a nutrient medium for genuine scientific creativity, the second, although a derivative from the first, rather slowed down than stimulated, the development of science. The internal contradiction of the position of Nidama externally smoothes by the narrowing of the concept of Chinese numerology to just a mysticism of numbers (naturally, not having a general methodological status). With the criticism of this position, another outstanding historian of Chinese science was made, N. Sivin, on the material of several scientific disciplines, specifically showed an integral organic of numerological constructions inherent in them.
The most radical views in the methodological interpretation of Chinese numerology adhere to domestic centends V.S.Pirin and A.M. Karapetyanz, defending the thesis about its full-fledged scientific relationship. Spirin sees in it primarily the logic, Karapetyanz - Mathematics. Similarly, a researcher from the PRC Liu Wehua interprets the numerological theory of "Zhou and" as the most ancient mathematical philosophy in the world and mathematical logic. Spirin and Karapetyans offer to abandon the term "numerology" or use it only in applied to obviously unscientific buildings. A similar distinction, of course, possibly, but it will reflect the worldview of the modern scientist, and not the Chinese thinker, which has been a single methodology and in scientific, and in unscientific (from our point of view).
The foundation of Chinese numerology is three types of objects, each of which is represented by two varieties: 1) "Symbols" - a) trigms, b) hexagrams (see Guo ); 2 ) "Numbers" - a) Hoe, b) Lo Shu (see HE TU and Lo Shu ); 3) The main ontological hypostasis of "symbols" and "numbers" - a) Yin Yang (dark and light), b) in Sin (five elements). This system itself is numerologicalized, since it is built on two starting numerological numbers - 3 and 2. It reflects all three main types of graphical symbolization used in traditional Chinese culture: "symbols" - geometric shapes; "Numbers" - numbers; Yin Yang, Sin - Hieroglyphs. The specified fact is explained by the archaic origin of Chinese numerology, which, from time immemorial, performed a cultural modeling function. The oldest samples of Chinese writing are extremely numerological inscriptions on assignment bones. Therefore, in the future, canonical texts were created in numerological standards. So in a purely traditionalist society, the most significant ideas were inextricably stood with the iconic clichés, in which the composition, the number and spatial arrangement of hieroglyphs or any other graphic symbols were strictly established.
For its long history, numerological structures in China have achieved a high degree of formalization. It was this circumstance that played a decisive role in the victory of Chinese numerology over the protesto, since the latter did not become neither formal nor formalized, and therefore did not possess the qualities of a convenient and compact methodological tool (organon).
The Chinese protestology simultaneously opposed numerology and strongly depended on it. So, being under the influence of a numerological conceptual apparatus, in which the concept of "contradiction" ("contradictory") was dissolved in the concept of "opposite" ("Counteriness"), the protestological thought failed to terminologically distinguish between the "contradiction" and "the opposite". This, in turn, affected the nature of Chinese protestology and dialectics, because and logical, and dialectic is determined by attitude towards contradiction. The central epistemological procedure is generalization - in numerology and numerological protestology was based on the quantitative ordering of objects and the value-regulatory allocation of the main - representative - without a logical distraction of the set of ideal features inherent in the entire class of objects. Generalization is essentially interconnected with the axiological and regulation of the entire conceptual apparatus of the classical Chinese philosophy, which led to such fundamental features of the latter as felting and textual canonisticness.
In general, in the classic Chinese philosophy, Numerology prevailed with the theoretical invertation of the opposition "Logic - Dialectics", the non-differentiation of materialistic and idealistic trends and the general domination of the combinatorial and classification naturalism, the absence of a logihood idealism, as well as the conservation of the symbolic multigid of philosophical terminology and the value-regulatory hierarchy of concepts.
Major schools. In the initial period of its existence (6-3 centuries BC), Chinese philosophy in the context of the categorical non-differentiation of philosophical, scientific and religious knowledge was the picture of the limiting diversity of views and areas represented as "rivalry of a hundred schools" (Bai Jia Zheng Min ). The first attempts of the classification of this manifold were made by representatives of the main philosophical flows (Confucianism and Taoism) in the desire to criticize all their opponents. The 6th chapter (Fay Shi-Er Tzu "is specially dedicated to this -" against the twelve thinkers ") of the Confucian treatise" Xun-Tzi ". In addition, in addition to the promoted teaching of the Confucius and his student of Tzu-Gun (5 V. BC, the author allocated "six teachings" (Liu Sho), pairwise represented by twelve thinkers, and exposed their sharp criticism. In the 21st chapter of his treatise, Xun-Tzu, giving the teachings of Confucius the role of "the only school that has reached the universal Dao and its preparing application (Yun, see Tu.– yun. )» , also allocated six "indiscriminate schools" (Luan Jia).
Approximately synchronous (although, on some assumptions, and later, up to the turn of a new era) and a typologically similar classification is contained in the final 33rd chapter ("Tien-Sia" - "Podnebyny") Zhuang Tzu (4-3 centuries BC), where the core, inherited ancient wisdom, the teachings of Confucianians, who are opposed to the "STR schools" (Bai Jia), divided into six directions.
These structurally similar harsher constructions coming from the idea of \u200b\u200bthe unity of truth ( dao ) and the diversity of its manifestations, became the basis for the first classification of the main philosophical teachings as such (and not just their representatives), which the Suma Tan (2 V. BC), who wrote a special treatise on "six schools" (Liu Jia) In the composition of the final 130th chapter compiled by his son, the son of the Suma Question (2-1 centners BC) of the first dynasty history of Shi Ji ("Historical Notes"). In this work are listed and characterized: 1) "School of Dark and Light [Miro-forming began]" ( inian Jia. ), in Western literature, also called "Naturophilosophical"; 2) "School of Scientists" (JU Jia), i.e. Confucianism; 3) "School of MO [DI]" ( mO Jia , moism); 4) "School of Names" ( min Jia ), in Western literature, also called the "nominal" and "dialectic and sophistic"; 5) "School of Laws" (FA Jia), i.e. leather and 6) "School of the path and grace" (Tao DE Jia), i.e. Taoism. The highest assessment was awarded the last school, which, like confusion, in classifications from Xun-Tzu and Zhuang Tzu, is presented here the synthesizing the main advantages of all other schools.
This scheme was developed in the classification and bibliographic work of an outstanding scientist Liu Biower (46 BC - 23 AD), the most as the basis of the oldest in China, and perhaps in the world of the corresponding catalog "and Wen Zhi" (" Treatise on art and literature "), which became the 30th chapter compiled Banah (32-92) of the second dynasty history" Han Shu "(" Book [about Dynasty] Han "). First, the classification has grown up to ten members - four new ones were added to six, the diplomatic "school of vertical and horizontal [political unions]" ( tzunhan Jia ); eclectic and encyclopedic "Free School" ( zz Jia ); "Agricultural School" (NUN Jia) and Folklore "School of Small Dechens" (Xiao Sho Jia). Secondly, Liu Xin suggested the theory of the origin of each of the "Ten Schools" (Shi Jia), covering "all philosophers" (Zhu Tzu). This theory assumed that in the initial period of formation of traditional Chinese culture, i.e. In the first centuries of the first millennium, the new era, the carriers of socially significant knowledge were officials, in other words, "scientists" were "officials", and "officials" - "scientists". Due to the decline of the "Way of the True State Superior" (Van Dao), i.e. The weakening of the power of the ruling house Zhou, there was a destruction of a centralized administrative structure and its representatives, having lost official status, turned out to be forced to conduct a private lifestyle and to ensure their own existence by the implementation of their knowledge and skills as teachers, mentors, preachers. In the coming era of state fragmentation, representatives of various spheres of once unified administration formed various philosophical schools, the general designation of which "Jia" (this hieroglyph has the literal meaning of "family") indicates their private nature.
Confucianism created people from the department of enlightenment, "who helped the rulers to follow the strengths of Yin Yang and explaining how to carry out an educational influence," relying on the "written culture" (Wen) of the canonical texts "Liu and", "At Jing" , "Shi San Jing" and putting humanity in chapter ( jen. ) and due justice ( and ). Taoism (Tao Jia) created immigrants from the chronography department, which "made up the chronicle of the path (Tao) of success and lesions, existence and death, grief and happiness, antiquity and modernity," due to which the "royal art" of self-preservation was comprehended by "cleanliness and emptiness "," Juice and weakness ". "School of Dark and Light [Miro-forming]" created immigrants from the Astronomy Office, who followed the heavenly signs, the Sun, Moon, Stars, Space Landmarks, and the alternation of times. Leather has created immigrants from the judicial department who complemented management based on "decency" ( lie ) awards and punishments defined by laws ( f ). "School of Names" created immigrants from the ritual department, whose activity was determined by the fact that in antiquity in the ranks and rituals, the nominal and real did not coincide and the problem of their bring into mutual compliance arose. Moism has created immigrants from the temple watchmen who preach the thrift, "Comprehensive Love" (Jian ah), the nomination of "decent" (Xian), respect to the "Vanis" (Tui), denial of "predestination" (min) and "uniformity" (Tun; cm. Yes tun ). The diplomatic "school of vertical and horizontal [political alliances]" created immigrants from the Embassy Office, capable of "one's commitments, and not to be guided by regulations, and not words." Eclectic-encyclopedic "free school" has created immigrants from advisers who combined the ideas of Confucianism and Mysia, the "School of Names" and Legianess in the name of maintaining order in the state. "Agrarian School" created immigrants from the department of agriculture, which made the production of food and goods, which at Hong Fana are attributed to the first and second of eight most important public affairs (Ba Zheng). School of Small Insolutions "created immigrants from low-bit officials who had to collect information about the sentiments among the people on the basis of" street robs and road rumors ".
Evaluating the last school (which was more folklore, rather than a philosophical character, and producing "fiction" - Xiao sho) as not worthy of attention, the authors of this theory recognized ten remaining schools "mutually opposite, but forming each other" (Xiang Fan Er Xiang Cheng ), i.e. Going to one goal with different ways and resting on a general ideological basis - "Six Canons" ("Liu Jing", see "Shi San Jing" ). From the conclusion, it followed that the diversity of philosophical schools is a forced consequence of the collapse of the common state system, naturally eliminating in the restoration of such and returning philosophical thought into the unifying and standardizing Confucian bed.
Despite the refusal of the consideration of the "School of Small Dechens" as a philosophical, in "and Wen Ji", a decassion of a set of philosophical schools was implicitly preserved, since "Military School" was allocated to the special section ( bin Jia ), which in accordance with the general theory is represented by educated immigrants from the military department. The origins of this ten-year classification are traced in encyclopedic monuments of 3-2 seconds. BC. "Lui-Shi Chun Tsu" ("Spring and Autumn Mr. Lui") and "Huainan Tzu" ("[Treatise] teachers from Huainani").
Created during the formation of the centralized empire Han, whose name became the ethnonym of the most Chinese people, calling himself "Hans", the theory of Liu Blue - the Ban GU in traditional science found the status of classical. In the future, during the entire history of China, its development continued, a special contribution to which Zhang Xuecheng was made (1738-1801) and Zhang Binlin (1896-1936).
In Chinese philosophy of 20 century. It was resolutely criticized Hu Shi, but, on the contrary, supported and developed Feng Yulam. , who came to the conclusion that six major schools created representatives of not only different professions, but also different types of personality and lifestyle. Confucianism formed intellectual scientists, moisband - knights, i.e. Wearing warriors and artisans, Taoism - Hermits and recluses, "School of Names" - Ritimens-Polemists, "School of Dark and Light [Miro-forming Benefits]" - Occultists and Numerologists, Lead - Politicians and rulelists.
Although after creating a classification of Liu Blue - Banu GU arose schemes with even more elements, in particular in the official history of the Dynasty of Sui (581-618) "Sui Shu" (7th century) listed fourteen philosophical schools, a really significant role in the historical and philosophical The process was played by six of them allocated in "Shi Jing" and now recognized by such a majority of specialists.
The rod role of Confucianism. And in the "axial time" of the origin of Chinese philosophy, and in the era of the "rivalry of a hundred schools", and even more so at the next time, when the ideological landscape has lost such a magnificent diversity, Confucianism played a central role in the spiritual culture of traditional China, so his story is a rod for The whole history of Chinese philosophy or at least the part of its part, which begins with the Han era. With the emergence to date, the history of Confucianism in the most common form is divided into four periods; The beginning of each of them is associated with the global socio-cultural crisis, the way out of which Confucian thinkers were invariably found in theoretical innovation, following the archer forms.
First period: 6-3 centuries. BC. The initial Confucianism arose in the middle of the 1st millennium BC, when China was spreading endless wars, which made decentralized states conducted with each other and with attackers from different sides "barbarians". In the spiritual plan there was a decomposition of the early History of Religious ideology, undermined by the relics of daughter (Yinskaya) beliefs, nonoshistanist (proteodaoche) cults and foreign-cultural trends, to the median states of their aggressive neighbors. The reaction to this spiritual crisis was the canonization of the confusion of ideological maintenance of the Rannezhou Past, imprinted primarily in the text of "Schi" ("Shu") and "poems" ("Shi"), and the result is the creation of a fundamentally new cultural education - philosophy.
Second period: 3 in. BC. - 10 V. AD The main stimulus of the formation of the so-called. The Han Confucianism was the desire to restore the ideological departure, lost in the fight against new-forming philosophical schools, primarily by Taoism and Legality. The reaction was, as before, retrograde in form and progressive essentially. With the help of ancient texts, first of all "change" ("and") and "majestic sample" ("Hong Fan"), the Confucianis of this period led by Dong Zhongshu (2 V. BC) significantly reformed their own teachings, integrating the problems of their theoretical competitors in it: Methodological and Ontological - Taois and School Yin-Yang, political and legal and legists.
The third period: 10-20 centuries. Appearance neokonfucianism it was caused by another ideological crisis, due to the confrontation of officialized Confucianism with a new competitor - Buddhism (see Bogje Xue. , Sanlun School , Wayish School , Hoyan School , Chan School , Tiantai School , Jingtu School ), and also transformed under its influence by Taoism. In turn, the popularity of these teachings, especially in their religious and theoretical costs, was due to the socio-political cataclysms in the country. The answer to the Confucianians to this challenge was again the nomination of original ideas with references to the founders of their teachings, primarily Confucius and Meng Tzi. .
The fourth period is the last and incomplete, which began in 20 V. Introduced at this time new Confucianism the reaction was already on global disasters and global information processes, which expressed, in particular, in the rooting of China's foreign Western theories in China. For their innovative rethinking, the Confucians again turned to the old Arsenal of Confucian and Neokonfutian constructions. The last one, the fourth form of Confucianism is most distinguished from all the others preceding it, first of all, because in the sphere of its integrative intentions it was extremely alien, even in essence the opposite spiritual material.
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Introduction
1. Thinkers of the Ancient China
Three greatest thinkers of the ancient China
2.1Lo Tzu.
2 Confucius
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
China is a country of ancient history, culture, philosophy.
Ancient China has arisen on the basis of neolithic crops that have developed in 5-3 millennia BC. On average, the River Juanhe. The Juanhe basin has become the main territory of the formation of an ancient civilization of China, during a long time developed under the conditions of relative isolation. Only from the middle of 1 millennia BC e. The process of expanding the territory, in the southern direction, first to the area of \u200b\u200bthe Yangtze basin, and then further south.
On the verge of our era, the state of the ancient China is already far beyond the Gunhae basin, although the northern border, the ethnic territory of the ancient Chinese remains almost unchanged.
Ancient Chinese class society and statehood was formed somewhat later than the ancient civilizations of ancient ancient Asia, but nevertheless, after their occurrence, they begin to develop in a fairly fast pace and in ancient China, high forms of economic, political and cultural life are created, which lead to the formation of the original socio-political and cultural system.
Chinese philosophy is part of Eastern philosophy. Its influence on the culture of China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam and Taiwan is equivalent to the influence of ancient Greek philosophy to Europe. Thus, the relevance of the topic is that the thinkers of the ancient China left their mark in history, the experience of which is currently used.
The purpose of this work: to explore the greatest thinkers of the ancient China and characterize the basic provisions of their teachings.
. Thinkers of the ancient China
China's religion never existed in the form of a rigidly centralized "church". The traditional religion of ancient China was a mixture of local beliefs and ceremonies united in a single universal theoretical construction of scientists of husbands.
Nevertheless, three great philosophical schools have gained the greatest popularity among the formed groups of the population and among the peasants, often called three religions of China: Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. All these exercises are more philosophical than religious, unlike ancient Indian philosophy, which has always been closely related to religious tradition.
Ancient Chinese philosophy originated in about the middle of the 13th millennium BC. The ideas that have formed the basis of philosophy have developed in monuments of the ancient Chinese literary tradition such as "Shu Jing" ("Book of Documentary Scriptures"), Shi Jing ("Book of Poems"), "and Jing" ("Book of Change").
For ancient Chinese philosophy, it is characterized by features that are not characteristic of other Eastern philosophical traditions. It must be said that the ancient Chinese did not have ideas about the transcendental God, about the creation of the world by God from nothing, did not have the idea of \u200b\u200bthe dualism of the ideal and material principles of the world. In ancient China, they did not work out traditional for the West, India, the Middle East of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe soul as a certain intangible substance separated from the body after death. Although the ideas about the spirits of the ancestors existed.
The Chinese worldview is based on Qi. Qi is understood as some vital energy that permeates absolutely everything in the world. All in the world there are turns of qi.
Qi is a certain quasi-moterial substance that cannot be determined only as the material or spiritual one.
Matter and spirit are inseparable, they are unique and interrelated, that is, spirit and matter are in a state of constant intelligence.
The basis of the existing is the initial Qi (boundless, chaos, one), which polarizes into two parts - Yang (positive) and Yin (negative). Yang and Yin are interconnected. Their transition is a great daa-path.
In the negative potentially contained positive and vice versa. So, the power of Yang comes to his limit and goes into yin and vice versa. This provision is called the great limit and is depicted graphically in the form of "Monad".
Considering everything that the unity of opposites began, Chinese thinkers explained the infinite process of moving them to dialectical interaction. Filling universe, generating and preserving lives, these primary substances or forces cause the essence of five elements: metal, wood, water, fire and soil.
Actually, these ideas underlie the Ancient Chinese philosophy and are supported by all Chinese thinkers, with some differences in interpretations.
Differences of Chinese philosophy from Western: whole (cholic) perception instead of analytical and cyclic processes instead of their static, linearity. Three greatest thinkers of the ancient China, which we will pay the most attention in the next chapter:
Lao Tzu - coated with a halo of mystery;
Confucius - by all revered;
Mo Tzi. - Today, there are few people who are known, which, however, for four more extreme century before the Nativity, Christ formulated the concept of universal love.
Acquaintance with the views of these thinkers is facilitated by the fact that there are three texts directly related to their names.
2. Three greatest thinkers of the ancient China
.1 Lao Tzu
Lao Tzu is a nickname, meaning the "old teacher" - the great sage of ancient China, who laid the foundations of Taoism - the directions of Chinese thought that has come down to the present day. Approximately the lifetime of Lao Tzu refers to VII-VI centuries BC. It is considered the author of the main treatise of Taoism "Tao Dha Jing", which has become the most popular test of the ancient Chinese philosophy in the West.
About the life of this sage is known little and authenticity of the information available is often criticized by scientists. But it is known that he was the keeper of the imperial archive of the Zhowsky courtyard - the greatest book storage of ancient China. Therefore, Lao Tzu had free access to various ancient and modern texts to him, which allowed him to work out his own teaching.
Glory about this wisely was walking throughout the Middle Kingdom, so when he decided to leave the kingdom of Zhou, he stopped him on the cavity and asked to leave their teachings for her kingdom in a written version. Lao Tzu amounted to the treatise "Dae De Jing", which is translated as "canon path and grace." The entire treatise says about the category Dao.
Dao translated from Chinese means "path". According to Lao Tzu Tao underlies the world and the world carries out Dao. Everything in the world is Tao. Dao is inexpressible, it can be comprehensible, but not verbally. Lao Tzu wrote: "Dao, which can be expressed by words, is not constant Dao." The doctrine of Tao is closely related to the teaching about the integrity of opposites.
Seeing previously two other great Chinese thinkers of Lao Tzu (VI-V GB. BC) It is not easy to understand that the main concept of "Dao" is very ambiguous: it is "the main thing above the many things", and "Mother land and sky "," First Citysman of the World ", and" root ", and" way "; But because in comprehending this concept, we have no opportunity (as, for example, in the ancient Indian and other cultures) to rely on any mythological images that would make assimilation. Tao is just as vague by Lao Tzu, as the concept of the sky in all Chinese culture.
Tao is the source of all things and the basis of the functioning of being. One of the definitions of Tao is "root". The root is underground, it is not visible, but it exists before the plant, which appears from it. Also primary and invisible Dao, from which the whole world is produced.
Tao is understood as a natural law of nature development. The main value of the hieroglyph "Dao" - "The road on which people go." Tao is the path for which people go in this life, and not only something outside it. A person who does not know the path is committed to delusion, he was lost.
Tao can be interpreted as unity with nature through subordination to the same laws. "The path of a noble husband begins among men and women, but its deep principles exist in nature." Since this universal law is soon there is no need for any moral law - both in the natural law of Karma, so in the artificial law of the human dormitory.
Ecologically indicate the proximity of Taoism to the emerging new understanding of nature. Lao Tzu advises adapted to natural cycles, indicates self-apparent in nature and the importance of equilibrium, and possibly the concept of "Tao" is a prototype of modern ideas about space information belts.
Tao is looking for in himself. "Who knows himself, he will be able to find out [the essence of things], and who knows people, he is able to be better." To learn Dao, you need to free yourself from your own passions. Kona Dao reaches a "natural equilibrium", because all the opposites leads to harmony and reaches self-satisfaction.
Tao does not want anything and does not seek anything. People should also come. Everything natural happens as if by itself, without special efforts of the person. Natural move is opposed by artificial activity of a person who pursues their selfish, mercenary purposes. Such activities are reprehensible, so the main principle of Lao Tzu is not the act (UWE) - "non-interference", "non-resistance". You will not eat passivity, but rather, non-resistance to the natural course of events and activities in accordance with it. This principle, following whom, a person retains his own integrity, at the same time gaining unity with the goal. This is the way to implement your own Dao, which cannot be different from the Universal Dao. To gain your own Dao and there is a goal of each Daus and should be the goal of every person, but it is difficult to find it and requires many efforts, although at the same time leads away from all the tension of the forces.
For a better understanding of the teachings of Lao Tzu, it is necessary to plunge into reading his treatise and try to understand it on the inner intuitive level, and not at the level of logical-discursive thinking, to which our Western mind is always drawn.
.2 Confucius
taoism Thinker Confucius Philosophical
Junior contemporary Lao Tzu Confucius or Kun Tzu "Teacher Kun" (approx. 551 - Ok. 479 BC) gives traditional to Chinese culture to tribute the sky as a creator of all things and encourages unquestioning to follow fate, but most importantly pays to conscious design We are necessary for the normal functioning of society of social connections. Confucius is the founder of the exercise that is known as confucianism.
The "Kun Teacher" was born in the poor family, early left orphans and knew the need, although, according to legend, his family was an aristocratic. Men of this family were either officials or military. His father was already in old age (70 years old), when he married the young girl (16 years old), so it's not surprising that when Confucius, or as it was called in the family, Tsyu was 3 years old, the father left his life.
From the young Youth, Tsyu was distinguished by prudence and the desire for study. When he was seven years old, the mother gave him to a public school, where he was already hit by teachers with his mind and wisdom. After studying Tsyu entered the civil service. At first he was a trading bait, supervising the freshness of market products. The next job was the service of arable fields, forests and herds. At this time, the future Kun teacher is also engaged in science and improving the skill of reading and interpretation of ancient tests. Also at the age of 19, Tsu marries a girl from a notable kind. His son and daughter is born, but family life did not bring the confusion of happiness. The service began to bring the popularity of confusion among officials and they began to talk about him as a very capable young man and seemed to be a new increase, but a mother suddenly dies. Confucius, exactly acting traditions was forced to leave the service and observe the three-year mourning.
After he returns to the work of a man with a man, but he already appears students who learned about the wisdom and knowledge of great traditions, Confucius. At 44, he took the high post of the Governor of the city of Zhong do. Grew the number of students. He traveled a lot and everywhere found willing to join his wisdom. After many travel, Confucius returns to his homeland, and the last years of his life he holds at home surrounded by numerous students.
The main work of the Confucius "Lun Yu" ("conversations and statements") was recorded by his students and used throughout the subsequent history of China so popular that it was forced to even memorize in schools. It begins the phrase, almost literally coinciding with us well known: "Learn and from time to time to repeat learned."
Confucius activities are accounted for by a difficult for Chinese society a period of transition from one formation - slave-owned, to the other - feudal, and at that time it was especially important to prevent the collapse of social oblats. This goal of Confucius and Lao Tzu went different ways.
The primacy of morality, preached by Confucus, was determined by the desire of the Chinese spirit to sustainability, calm and peace. Confucius's teaching is devoted to how to make a happy state through the growth of morality primarily of the highest sections of society, and then the lower. "If you manage the people through laws and maintain order with the help of punishments, the people will strive to avoid punishment and will not have shame. If you manage the people through virtue and maintain order with the help of rituals, the people will know shame, and it will fix. " The moral sample for Confucius is a noble husband: a devotee, sincere, faithful, fair. The opposite of a noble husband is a low person.
The desire for realism led the Confucius to the Regulation of the Regulation " golden middle"- Avoiding extremes in activities and behavior. "Such a principle like" Golden Middle, "is the highest principle." The concept of the middle is closely related to the concept of harmony. A noble husband "... Strictly adheres to the middle and does not inclined in any direction. It is in this that the genuine power consists! When the state reigns the order, he does not refuse that behavior, which he had before ... When there is no order in the state, it does not change its principles until the death of death. " Greek philosophers also answered. But a noble husband is not reckless. When the state reigns the order, his words contribute to prosperity; When there is no order in the state, his silence helps him to keep himself.
Of great importance, both in the history of China, and in the teachings of Confucius acquires the following rules and ceremonies forever. "The use of the ritual is valuable because it leads people to consent. The ritual recognizes only those actions that are consecrated and tested by the tradition. Results without a ritual leads to a fussiness; caution without a ritual leads to fearlessness; The courage without a ritual leads to troubles; Directness without a ritual leads to rudeness. " The purpose of the ritual is to achieve not only within social harmony, but also harmony with nature. "The ritual is based on the constancy of the movement of the sky, the order of phenomena on earth and the behavior of the people. Once heavenly and earthly phenomena occur regularly, then the people take them for a sample, imitating clarity of heavenly phenomena, and is agreed with the nature of earthly phenomena ... But if it is abused, then everything is confused and the people lose their natural qualities. Therefore, to support these natural qualities and created a ritual. "
Ritual, picturesque expression, "This is the color of the debt." What is called a duty of a person? Father must show parental feelings, and son - respect; The elder brother is kindness, and the younger friendliness, a husband - justice, and the wife - obedience, the eldest - mercy, the youngest - submission, the sovereign - humanity, and the subjects are devotion. These ten qualities are referred to as human debt.
Confucius proclaimed the principle that the red thread passes through the whole history of ethics: "Do not make people of what you do not want yourself." He was not the first to formulate this moral Maxim, called the "golden rule of ethics" later. It meets in many ancient cultures, and then at the philosophers of the new time. But in this tavern, the essence of the basic concepts of Confucius - human-minded, humanity.
We meet Confucius and many other thoughts regarding the rules of the hostel. Not sad about the fact that people do not know you, but sadness that you do not know people. " "Do not go into the case when you are not in his place." "I listen to the words of people and look at their actions."
Understanding the importance of knowledge, Confucius warned against exaggerated presentation of his own knowledge: "Knowing anything, consider what you know; Not knowing, consider what you do not know - this is the right attitude towards knowledge. " He emphasized the importance of joining training with reflection: "In vain, learning without thought, dangerous idea without training."
The similarity between Lao Tzu and the Confuciation is that both of them in accordance with the archetype of Chinese thought were looking for constancy, but Lao Tzu found him in no act, and Confucius - in the constancy of activity - Ritual. The general was and calling for restriction of needs.
The difference between them is that they considered more important. But Lao Tzu wrote about humanity, and Confucius said: "If in the morning you know the right way, in the evening you can die."
.3 Mo Tzi.
Mo Tzu (Mo Di) is the founder of the teachings and schools of the MOETS, identified wisdom and virtue, and his sermon was loved by Christ.
The years of the life of the Mo Tzu is approximately 479 - 381. BC. He was born in the kingdom of Lou and belonged to "Sia", that is, the worshipers of soldiers or knights. "Sia" was often gained not only from impoverished houses for nobility, but also from the lower segments of the population. Mo Tzu was originally admirer of the Confucianism, but then he moves away from him and creates the first opposition teaching. The critical attitude towards the Confucianism was due to the discontent of the established traditional and fairly burdensome system of rules of behavior and ritual. Compliance with all Ritual rules often demanded not only internal efforts, but also external. The ritual took a lot of time and forced to spend sometimes great money on its accurate observance. As a result, Mo Tzu comes to the conclusion that ritual and music is a luxury, inaccessible to the lower layers or impoverish nobles, so requires abolition.
Mo Tzu and his followers organized a strictly disciplined organization, which was even capable of conducting hostilities. Mo Tzu was "completely wise" in the eyes of his students.
MO DI preached the principle of universal love and the principle of mutual benefit. The principle of universal love of the Mo Tzu formulated in a clear form, opposing the love, "not knowing the differences to the degree of kinship", the love of a separate, selfish that every person should love another as closest, for example as his father or mother. Note that love (in understanding Mo Tzu) concerns relations between people, and not to God, as in Christianity.
The principle of mutual benefits assumed that everyone should shared with their sophors and joys, as well as poverty and wealth with everyone, then all people will be equal. These principles were carried out under the organization created by MO Di.
Lao Tzu and Confucius emphasized the meaning of the sky as the highest strength. According to Mo Tzu, the events of our lives are not dependent on the nruhth of the sky, but from the effort attached by a person. However, the sky has thoughts and desires. "Follow the thoughts of the sky - it means to follow the universal mutual love, the mutual benefit of people, and this will certainly be rewarded. The speeches against the minds of the sky sow mutual hatred, encourage evil to each other, and this will certainly entail the punishment. " The authors of the "History of Chinese Philosophy" correctly write that Mo Tzu used the authority of the sky as an ideological weapon to substantiate the truth of his views. The same subsequently, Marx used an idea of \u200b\u200bthe objective laws of social development.
Like all the great Utopists of the Mo Tzu created his concept of the ideal state and even an idea of \u200b\u200bthree consecutive phases of social development: from the era of "restlessness and unrest" through the era of "great benefits" to the "Great Unity" society. But not all people want to transition from restlessness and unrest to prosperity and unity.
The views of the Mo Tzu were very popular in IV-III explosive BC, but then the realism of the Confucius still won in the practical soul of the Chinese. After the death of MO DI, at the end of the IV century BC School of MO is undergoing disintegration into two or three organizations. In the second half of the III century BC. There was a practical and theoretical disintegration of the organization and the teachings of MO Di, after which she could no longer be able to recover and in the future this teaching existed only as the spiritual heritage of the ancient China.
Confucius's teaching is also fixed to the ideal, but the ideal of moral self-improvement. Mo Tzu was a social utopian and wanted forced introduction of universal equality. Confucius took the place between Lao Tzu, with his not an act, and Mo Tzu, with his violence; And his concept turned out to be a "golden middle" between passivity and extremism.
Conclusion
The prominent philosophers of the ancient China, in many respects determined by its problems and development for centuries ahead, are Lao Tzu (the second half of the VI is the first half of the V century. BC) and Confucius (Kun Fu Tzu, 551-479 BC. er), as well as other thinkers, and first of all the philosophical heritage of the Mo Tzu. These teachings give a sufficiently objective idea of \u200b\u200bthe philosophical quests of the ancient Chinese thinkers.
Lao Tzu is an ancient Chinese philosopher of the VI-IV centuries BC, one of the founders of the teachings of Taoism, the author of the treatise "Dae De Jing" ("Canon Road and Grace"). The central idea of \u200b\u200bLao Tzu philosophy was the idea of \u200b\u200btwo originated - Dao and Dha. The word "Tao" literally means "path"; In this philosophical system, it received a much broader metaphysical content. "Tao" means the essence of things and total being of the Universe. The very concept of "Dao" can be interpreted and materialist: Dao is nature, an objective world.
Confucius is an ancient thinker and philosopher of China. His teaching had a deep influence on the life of China and East Asia, becoming the basis of a philosophical system known as Confucianism. Although Confucianism is often called religion, there is no Institute of the Church in it, and issues of theology are not important for him. Confucian ethics is not religious. Confucius's teaching concerned, mainly socio-ethical problems. The ideal of Confucianism is the creation of a harmonious society on an ancient pattern, in which any person has its own function. The harmonic society is built on the idea of \u200b\u200bdevotion aimed at preserving the harmony and this society itself. Confucius formulated the golden rule of ethics: "Do not make a person of what you do not want yourself."
Mo Tzu is an ancient Chinese philosopher who has developed a doctrine of universal love. The religious form of this teaching is Misa - over the course of several centuries, in popularity with Confucianism.
So, it is possible to argue with a complete reason that Laoszes, Confucius and Mo-Tzu their philosophical creativity laid a solid foundation for the development of Chinese philosophy for many centuries ahead.
Bibliography
1.Gorelov A.A. Fundamentals of philosophy: studies. benefit. - M.: Academy, 2008. - 256 p.
2.History of Chinese philosophy / Ed. M.L.Tititarenko. - M.: Progress, 1989.- 552 p.
3.Lukyanov A.E. Lao Tzu and Confucius: Tao philosophy. - M.: Eastern literature, 2001. - 384 p.
.Ryskov S. Yu. The Doctrine of Knowledge of the Late Moists // Society and the State in China: XXXIX Scientific Conference / Institute of Oriental Studies RAS. - M. - 2009. - p.237-255.
.Shevchuk D.A. Philosophy: Lecture Abstract. - M.: Eksmo, 2008. - 344 p.
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Man is good in nature. So he considered the famous philosopher ancient China, who lived in Pd battleing kingdoms, Men-Tzu. A person is also characteristic of being kind, as the water is treated down. The one who exhausts his heart comprehends its nature, which means he knows the sky. In these quotations of Men-Tzu, however it is impossible to reveal the essence of his teachings. A man inherent in innate knowledge of good and the ability to create him, taught the great Chinese philosopher. Evil is the result of perfect mistakes, it can be eradicated, restoring the original human nature.
Meng-Tzu: Live image of a thinker
Legends represent it as a descendant of an ancient aristocratic race. Meng-Tzu was a student of Tzu-Si, the grandson of Confucius. It is known that the sage visited a number of states in Central China in order to influence their rulers.
The philosophical ideas of the Great Predecessor had a great influence on the thinker who had become the successor. Accordingly, their policies and ethical rules were associated with thoughts expressed in the books of Confucius. The scientist always emphasized that the root of management in the state is moral qualities. The relationship of the subject and his Mr. Man-Tzu liked the relations of children and fathers. He tried to teach rulers, like parents in the family, take care of the people. The Great Chinese philosopher inspired people, what should be treated to their rulers, as to parents, with respect and concern.
In the 70th age, these attempts were left by the thinker. It is known that he returned to private life and together with students engaged in creating a treatise "Mainic Tzu". According to experts, the work was written with a big sweep. Many note the presence of deep senses, bright explanations, acute irony and in-depth criticism. After a millennium, the readers of the book "Men-Tzu" are keenly feel how strong feelings owned a philosopher. In the treatise, the character of the thinker is clearly revealed, its living image is visible.
Men-Tzu Biography: Birth
According to Sum, the founder of Chinese historiography (2-1 centuries BC), the philosopher was born about 389 BC. e. His homeland was the ownership of Zou, culturally and historically connected with the state Lou (Persh, from where the great Confucius came from. From his teacher Tzu, the grandson of the great thinker, Men-Tzu was directly perceived by his living covenants.
Mother
The mother of the future philosopher was a widow, like Mother Confucius, in China traditionally they are considered to be exemplary, because it is known that she moved three times in search of a more suitable environment to raise the younger son (from the cemetery, near which they lived with her son, moved to the market, And then to school). This woman also knows that she continued to raise his son even after he married. But in the end, she followed the "Ways of Women" and became, as she applies to the widow, they obey the Son. After her death, Mainic Tzu was accused of being buried ample as his father.
Save the subnet
From youth, young Meng Tzu set forth the goal to save his country. The means for this, he considered the "clarification of the consciousness of people." The entire subsequent life of the philosopher devoted the exposure of false ideas, the eradication of bad behavior, the propaganda of the refusal of the "seductive speeches".
"Second Confucius"
It is known that Mainic Tzu was not shy to call himself. The researchers of his biography and teachings do not exclude that it was because of this that he later walked out the "second sage" in China. At the time of the Tang dynasty, his treatise "Men-Tzu" was recognized as an exemplary work. One of the highest achievements of the Ancient Chinese philosophy.
It is known that the sage studied the books of Confucius and, like him, visited several states in Central China. In the capital of Qi, where he lasted at the Ji Academy, the philosopher tried to influence the rulers. He read the authorities of the quotation of philosophers, including the great confusion, but did not succeed in their "enlightenment". According to the Testament of the teacher on the slope of the Yean-Tzu, following the "desires of his heart," he left attempts to re-educate the kings and was entirely dedicated to the theory. The philosopher died, according to his life positions, in the period from 289th to 305 BC. e.
Treatise
The main book of his life "Men-Tzu" is the final treatise of the Confucian canon of thirteentics. Researchers express the opinion that the treatise was compiled after his death by students. The book includes the statements of the teacher, other quotes of China's philosophers, its livelihoods and facts from the life of prominent political figures. The book consists of 7 chapters, each of them, in turn, is divided into 2 parts.
According to experts, the value of the treatise is largely lies in the fact that it, as a mirror, reflects the identity of the author. Meeting one after another with short paragraphs, of which there are chapters (each of them is dedicated to a separate topic - a dispute, legend, teaching, a casus, historical fact, reminiscence, frank invention, or justifying its own behavior in some cases), the reader penetrates Not only with the estimates and thoughts of the philosopher, but also the style of his thinking and management of the dispute. In addition, during the reading, there are very difficult traits, somewhere arrogant, sometimes hot-tempered and doried philosopher's character.
His doctrine: Basic ideas
The man, taught the philosopher, is in its nature good, on Mainic Tzu, the nature of man is originally characteristic of many virtues, the main of which he called humanity and debt, justice.
To implement their virtues, a person is obliged to engage in their cultivation. This meant that every person at the beginning of life is endowed with certain moral potential, but only if congenital deposits are fully developed to them, the person is destined to become a real sage. Many researchers of Chinese philosophy believe that without Maine Tzu, he would never fully revealed such a phenomenon as Confucianism.
But in this case, where does the evil come from the world? Mainic Tzu explained his existence that a person sometimes turns out to be unable to develop its natural deposits, or his nature is generally lost.
About moral virtues
The main virtues of the person, the philosopher believed "Zhen" and "and", which the follower of Confucius is combined into one. "Zhen" is determined by him as a "human heart." In modern China, Zhen is often translated as "humanity". The category "and" Men-Tzu was determined as a "path to follow." In his ethics, "and" even more significant than "Zhen". He taught that the essence of "and" lies in the awareness of a person of the need to certainly fulfill his moral debt, otherwise he will have to sacrifice his own life.
According to researchers, Mainic Tzu was based in such judgments on examples of numerous martyrs who gave life for the sake of evidence of devotion to their Mother or the ruler. Confucus was created only by the general philosophical paradigm. Maine Tzu was able to fill her flesh and blood, create an inspiring pattern, and connecting the action and knowledge, turn philosophy into a similarity of religion.
About metaphysics
According to Mainic Tzu, each person can be achieved the state of the sage. But for this it is necessary to overcome a certain spiritual path, which is preferably a long and thorny and applies not to the field of religion, but to the sphere of metaphysics and ethics. Meng-Tzu is indicated as "improving his qi", that is, the spirit and morality. This is possible only by constant systematic commitment and accumulation of good actions. It is impossible to achieve the improvement of "qi" by committing good deeds from time to time.
A similar spiritual feat of Confucius closely connected with the idea of \u200b\u200ban ideal personality, so H. "Junja" (translated from the Chinese "noble husband"). Mainic Tzu went further by the teacher and created the image of "yes Zhangfu" (from Kit. "Great Husband"). This ideal person is not able to destroy nor poverty, nor wealth, nor glory, it opposes any pressure and violence. "Great Husband" in Middle Kingdom, as the philosopher believed, the great field was destined.
About politics
The political views of Mainic Tzu were in many ways under the strong influence of Confucius, which considered the ideal Board with the help of "Zhen" (heart). He is following the teacher and distinguishes "Van Dao" ("Tsarsky Way", or the "Ruler's Path", which is based on the principle of "Zhen") and "Ba Dao" ("The Way of Hegemon", the Board of which is based exclusively on strength and coercion ). During wandering around the country, Mainic Tzu convinced the rulers who had a bed, manage with the help of "Zhen". But any of them were taken by his views. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe "royal way" remained in Confucianism unrealized.
Meng-Tzu was well familiar with the political structure of the modern state to him. His political ideal was the golden age of the existing dynasty. According to the convictions of the philosopher, a rigid hierarchy must be installed in society, in which everyone from the ruler to the last subject - their place must be occupied and the relevant duties are performed. Exalted by the "people", the solid about its value in the state, the philosopher principally defended the estate interests and borders, the democratic ideas of equality and self-government were alien to him.
In addition, it is known about the skepticality of Men-Tzu to foreign influences. The philosopher insisted on a purely Chinese state model Zhou - exactly what it was described by Confucius himself.
About economics
Today it is thoroughly not known about the economic views of the Confucius, but the essence of the Economic theory of Mainic Tzu is perfectly known. Most likely, his guideline was a Zhowa lands distribution model. Anyway, the concept of T. N. "Well fields." This system suggests a square member of a single-mile side by 9 smaller squares. Eight of them, peasant families should handle for themselves, and the central square, ninth, must be declared the land of public, harvest with it, in accordance with the theory of Mainic Tzu, should go to the needs of the state and belong to the ruler. According to modern historians, this land use system has never been used in China.
About disputes with representatives of other schools
In the treatise "Men-Tzu" there are many chapters that describe his author's disputes with representatives of other philosophical directions that existed in China. Particularly strong there were disagreements with myself, as well as followers of Xu Sina and Yang Zhu.
The latter, being a supporter of Taoism, argued the need to save forces, preserving the reserves of vital energy. They were raised to the shield idea of \u200b\u200bmoral egoism. Supporter of Altruesma Men-Tzu True considered the category "Zhen" and the concept of a public hierarchy.
Xu Sin, a representative of the Agrarian School, who expressed the views close to the ideas of early communism, was argued that the ruler, together with his subjects, should steal land and consume their own labor. Men-Tzu, as a supporter of a hierarchical society, inspired contemporaries that the lot was smarter - to rule, the lot of subjects is labor. At the heart of the division of social labor, in accordance with the views of the philosopher, individual characteristics should be laid - a great ability to physically or mental labor.
Mo Tzu (Junior Contemporary Confucius) adhered to the views of utilitarianism. At one time, his philosophy was very authoritative. The Confucian ritual denied the mysts, in particular, they considered the wasteful rituals of lush funerals for society, as well as a long-lasting mourning. Man-Tzu to similar criticism brought his arguments and reminded that in ancient times, people threw the corpses of dead parents just in a ditch at the house where their foxes and insects were corrosive. Over time, the picture has changed. Natural good in man took over, and he began to bury the bodies of the dead in the ground. In a modern respectful son, especially if he practices "Zhen", feelings for dead parents are even higher, so he gives them all sorts of honors. Such an argument appealing to psychology and human feelings is very characteristic for Confucianians.
On the characteristics of the character of the thinker
As can be seen from his treatise, as well as studies of his biographers, Mainic Tzu in his judgments was quite cut. In estimates, he showed a considerable determination, the philosopher clearly lacks softness and tolerance, distinguishing Confucius. About the great teacher also knows that he could be sharp, uncompromising and uncompromising. Mainic Tzu also surpassed his famous predecessor.
His uncompromising was sometimes angry and bordered by the audacity. It is known that the sage could naise the kings, which, as a rule, not only belonged to him with great respect, but also took the risk. In addition, they had no hundreds of students and assistants of the philosopher, always accompanying him, as well as households moving after the famous relative with their scharbla on dozens of wagons.
In the history of China, the rulers who are not virtuous (of course, from the point of view of Confucianism), have never had such a terrible opponent. Mainic Tzu openly urged to overthrow them from the throne, having fallen into "unworthy" with all the temperament and anger inherent in him, which was only capable of. Despite the non-lawn charm inherent in him, he aroused the awkwardness of his regal interlocutors. They were expensive to pay for the philosopher to do not bother them. It is known that in recent decades of life, the sage was removed from the current affairs and thereby deprived of the opportunity to try to influence the fate of the state, the participation of his rulers.
The first attempts of a person to comprehend the world around the world - a living and non-living nature, the outer space, finally, belong to the period of human existence (presumably it can be given to the second millennium to our era), when a person in the process of evolution, first of all mental, began to differentiate Nature as a means of habitat, gradually highlighting itself from it. It is due to the fact that the person began to perceive the animal and plant world, space as something excellent and opposing him, he began to appear the ability to comprehend reality, and then philosophice, i.e. Make conclusions, conclusions and nominate ideas about the world around him.
The philosophical thought of mankind was born in the era, when the first class societies and state came to replace the generic relations. Separate philosophical ideas that generalized the many thousands of humanity can be found in literary monuments of ancient Egypt, ancient Babylon. The most ancient is philosophy that emerged in India and China.
The purpose of this work is to familiarize yourself with the basic ideas of the Ancient Chinese philosophy, as well as an attempt to figure out what attractiveness and the vitality of these ideas.
I. Philosophy of Ancient China
China is a country of ancient history, culture, philosophy; Already in the middle of the second millennium BC. e. In the state of Shan-Yin (XVII-XII centuries. BC. E.) There is a slave-owned economy. The work of slaves in which they paid captured prisoners were used in cattle breeding, in agriculture. In the XII century BC e. As a result of the war, the state of Shan-Yin was defeated by the Zhou tribe, which equipped his dynasty that existed before III century. BC e.
In the era of Shan-Yin and in the initial period, the existence of the dynasty of the JOK dominant was a religious and mythological worldview. One of the distinguishing features of Chinese myths is the zoomorphic nature of the gods and spirits acting in them. Many of the Ancient Chinese deities (Shan-di) had an explicit similarity with animals, birds or fish. But Shan-di was not only the Supreme Divine, but also their source. According to myths, it was he who was the ancestor of the Yin tribe.
The most important element of the Ancient Chinese religion was the cult of ancestors, which was built on the recognition of the influence of the descendants of the dead and fate.
In ancient times, when there was no sky, neither the land, the universe was a gloomy informal chaos. Two spirits were born - Yin and Yang who took up the streamlining of the world.
In the myths about the origin of the universe, there are very vague, timid rustling of natural philosophy.
The mythological form of thinking, as the dominant, existed until the first millennium BC. e.
The decomposition of the primitive community and the emergence of a new system of social production did not lead to the disappearance of the myths.
Many mythological images go to later philosophical treatises. Philosophers who lived in the V-III century. BC e., often turn to the myths in order to justify their concepts of true rule and their norms of proper behavior of a person. At the same time, the Confucians carry out the historization of the myths, demicing of plots and images of ancient myths. The historization of myths concluded in the desire to think about the actions of all mythical characters was the main task of Confucianians. In an effort to bring mythical legends in line with the dogma of your teachings, the Confucianians did not have little to turn the spirits in people and for the myths themselves and legend to find a rational explanation. So myth became part of the traditional story. Rationalized myths become part of philosophical ideas, exercises, and the characters of myths - historical personalities used to serve the Confucian teaching.
Philosophy was originated in the depths of mythological representations, used their material. It was not an exception in this regard and the history of the Ancient Chinese philosophy.
The philosophy of ancient China is closely related to mythology. However, this connection had some features that aroused from the specifics of mythology in China. Chinese myths appear primarily as historical legends about past dynasties, about the "golden age". They contain relatively little material reflecting the views of the Chinese on the formation of peace and its interaction, the relationship with man. Therefore, naturophilosophical ideas did not occupy the main place in the Chinese philosophy. However, all the natural philosophical teachings of the Ancient China, such as the teachings on the "five primaryness", about the "great limit" - Taiji, about the forces of Yin and Yang and even the teachings of the Dao, began their origin from the mythological and primitive religious buildings of the ancient Chinese about the sky and Earth, about "eight elements".
Along with the advent of cosmogonical concepts, which was based on Yang and Yin's forces, naive-materialistic concepts arise, which, first of all, were associated with "five primary": water, fire, metal, earth, wood.
The struggle for the domination between kingdoms led in the second half of the III century. BC e. To the destruction of "battle kingdoms" and the unification of China to a centralized state under the auspices of the strongest kingdom of Qin.
Deep political shocks - the decay of an ancient single state and strengthening individual kingdoms, the acute struggle between major kingdoms for hegemony - they reflected in the turbulent ideological struggle of various philosophical and ethical schools. This period is characterized by the dawn of culture and philosophy.
In such literary and historical monuments as "Shi Jing", Shu Jing, the philosophical ideas arising from the generalization of the immediate labor and social and historical practices of people are traced. However, the genuine flourishing of ancient Chinese philosophy is for the period VI-III in BC. e., which is rightly called the Golden Age of Chinese Philosophy. It was during this period that such works of philosophical and sociological thought appear as "Dae De Jing", "Lun Yuy", "Mo Tzu", "Men-Tzi", "Zhuang-Tzi", speak with their concepts and ideas great thinkers Lao Tzu, Confucius, Mo Tzu, Zhuang-Tzu, Xun Tzu, and form schools - Taoism, Confucianism, Moism, Leganism, Naturophilosophical School, which then provided a huge influence on all subsequent development of Chinese philosophy. During this period, those problems, those concepts and categories, which are then becoming traditional for the entire subsequent history of Chinese philosophy, up to the newest time.
1.1. Features of the development of philosophy in China
The two main stages of the development of philosophical thought in ancient China: the stage of the nucleation of philosophical views, which covers the period of the VIII-VI centuries. BC e., and the heyday of the philosophical thought - the step of rivalry "100 schools", which traditionally refers to the VI - III centuries. BC e.
The period of formation of philosophical views of the ancient peoples who lived in the Swanheh River basins, Huihehe, Hanshui (the VIII-VI centuries before. AD) and laid the foundations of Chinese civilization, coincides with the same process in India and Ancient Greece. On the example of philosophy in these three districts, the community of regularities can be traced in which the development of the human society of world civilization went.
The history of the formation and development of philosophy is inextricably linked with the class struggle in society. Therefore, the struggle of various classes in society, the confrontation of the progressive forces by the reactionary directly affected the development of philosophy and led to the struggle of two main directions in philosophy - materialistic and idealistic - with one degree of degree of realization and the depth of expression of these areas.
The specificity of Chinese philosophy is directly related to its special role in the acute socio-political struggle, which took place in the numerous states of the ancient China periods of the "Spring and Autumn" and "battle kingdoms". The development of social relations in China did not lead to a clear separation of the areas of activity within the dominant classes. In China, a peculiar division of labor between politicians and philosophers was not pronounced pronounced, which led to the direct, direct subordination of political practice philosophy. Issues of public management, relations between different social groups, between kingdoms - this is mostly interested in the philosophers of the ancient China.
Another feature of the development of Chinese philosophy is that the natural science observations of Chinese scientists did not find, in a slight exception, more or less adequate expression in philosophy, as philosophers, as a rule, were not considered necessary to refer to the materials of natural science. Perhaps the only exception in this kind is the Mystov School and the School of Naturophilosophers, who, after the chousand era, ceased to exist.
Philosophy and natural science existed in China, as if an impassable wall from each other, which caused them irreparable damage. Thus, the Chinese philosophy deprived himself a reliable source for the formation of a whole and comprehensive worldview, and natural science, despised by the official ideology, experiencing difficulties in development, remained the lot of single and seekers of the elixir of immortality. The only methodological compass in Chinese naturalists remained ancient naval vehicle ideas of natural philosophers about five primies.
This gaze arose in ancient China at the turn of the VI and V centuries and existed until the new time. As for such an applied industry of natural science, such as Chinese medicine, it is also guided by these ideas to this day.
Thus, the conclusion of Chinese philosophy from specific scientific knowledge narrowed its subject. By virtue of this, the natural philosophical concepts of the explanation of nature, as well as the problems of the essence of thinking, the nature of the nature of human consciousness and logic did not receive large development in China.
The withdrawal of the ancient Chinese philosophy from natural science and the invertation of logic issues is one of the main reasons that the formation of a philosophical conceptual apparatus went very slowly. For most Chinese schools, the logical analysis method remained in fact unknown.
1.2. Schools in chinese philosophy
In "Shi Ji" ("Historical Notes") Cyan Sum (II-I centuries. BC. E.) The first classification of the philosophical schools of the ancient China is given. There are six schools: "Proponents of the doctrine of Yin and Yang" Naturophilosophers), "School of Services" (Confucians), "Mystov School", "School of Nominalists" (Sofists), "School of Lawnants" (legists), "School of supporters of the teaching About Dao and De "- Daosistov.
Later, at the turn of our era, this classification was complemented by four more "schools", which, however, with the exception of the CSJA, or the "school of eclectics", in fact, the China's philosophy does not have a relationship. Some schools are named by the nature of the social activity of the founder of the school, others by the name of the founder of the exercise, the third - on the main principles of the concept of this teaching.
However, despite all the specifics of philosophy in ancient China, the attitude between philosophical schools was committed to the struggle of two main trends - materialistic and idealistic, although, of course, it is impossible to present this struggle in its pure form.
In the early stages of the development of Chinese philosophy, for example, even during the time of Confucius and Mo Tzu, the attitude of these thinkers to the main issue of philosophy was not expressed directly. Questions about the essence of the human consciousness t His relationship to nature, the material world was not defined quite clearly. Often, in the views of those philosophers we consider to materialists, there were significant elements of the religious, mystical ideas of the past and, on the contrary, thinkers who generally occupied idealistic positions, were given to a materialistic interpretation.
Heaven and the origin of all things.
One of the important places in the struggle of ideas during the VI-V centuries. BC e. He held the question of the sky and the root cause of the origin of all things. At this time, the concept of the sky included both the Supreme Lord (Shan-Di), and the fate, and the concept of primary acquisitions and the root cause of all of the existing and at the same time as if the synonym of the natural world, the "nature" surrounding the world as a whole.
All their thoughts, aspirations and hopes turned the ancient Chinese to the sky, for, according to their ideas, the personal life and the affairs of the state, and all natural phenomena depended on their sky (Supreme).
About the huge role of the sky in the life of the ancient Chinese, their faith in his power say many pages not only "Shi Jing", but also "Shu Jing".
The decline of the domination of the hereditary aristocracy was expressed in decline of faith to the omnipotence of the sky. The former, purely religious look at the heavenly way began to be replaced by a more realistic view of the environment of the Universe - Nature, society. However, the basis of all religious superstitions was the cult of ancestors, because this cult was the pedigree of the ancient Chinese state.
The ideology of Confucianism as a whole shared traditional ideas about the sky and heavenly fate, in particular, set out in Shi Jing. However, in the conditions of widely extended doubts about the sky in the VI century. before. n. e. Confucians and their chief representative of Confucius (551-479 BC. er) did not fit not to preach the greatness of the sky, but for fear of heaven, before his punishing force and the inevitability of heavenly fate.
Confucius said that "everything is initially predetermined by fate and here nothing can not be reduced, nor add" ("Mo Tzu", "against Confucianians", Part II). He believed that "a noble husband should feel the fear of heavenly fate," and emphasized: "Who does not recognize fate, he cannot be considered a noble husband."
Confucius read the sky as a formidable, enmanent and supernatural lord with the famous anthropomorphic properties. The sky of Confucius determines for each person his place in society, awards, punishes.
Along with the dominant religious look at the sky, confusion has already contained elements of the interpretation of the sky as a synonym for nature as a whole.
Mo Tzu, who lived after Confucius, in about 480-400. BC, also perceived the idea of \u200b\u200bfaith in the sky and his will, but this idea received a different interpretation.
First, the sky of the sky at the Mo Tzu is learned and everyone knows - this is universal love and mutual benefit. The fate of the same Mo Tzu rejects in principle. Thus, at the Mo Tzu interpretation of the sky of the sky is critical: the denial of the privileges of the dominant class and the approval of the wills of commoners. Mo Tzu tried to use weapons of dominant classes, and even superstitions of ordinary people of ordinary people for political purposes, in the fight against the dominant class.
MOYSHES, subjected to fierce criticism, the views of Confucian women on the heavenly struggle, at the same time considered the sky as a sample for the Middle Kingdom.
In the statements of the Mo Tzu about the sky, the remnants of traditional religious views with the approach to the sky as the phenomenon of nature are combined. It is with these new elements in the interpretation of the sky as the nature of the mysts connect Tao as an expression of a sequence of changes in the world around the world.
Yang Zhu (vi in. Before. N. Er) rejected the religious elements of the views of Confucians and the early mysts on the sky and denied his supernatural essence. To change the sky, Yang Zhu puts forward a "natural necessity", which he identifies with fate, rethinking the initial meaning of this concept.
In the IV-III centuries. BC e. Further development receives a cosmogonical concept associated with the forces Yang and Yin and five initials, elements - efferves.
The relationship between the initials was characterized by two peculiarities: interaction and mutual solutions. Mutigation had such a sequence originated: wood, fire, earth, metal, water; The tree generates fire, the fire generates the earth, the earth generates a metal, the metal generates water, water again generates a tree, etc. The sequence began in terms of mutual solutions was different: water, fire, metal, wood, land; Water overcomes fire, fire - metal, etc.
Back in the VI - III centuries. BC e. A number of important materialistic provisions were formulated.
These provisions are reduced:
1) to the explanation of the world as the eternal formation of things;
2) to recognize the movement inherent in the objectively existing real world of things;
3) To finding the source of this movement within the world in the form of a permanent mutual mutuation of two opposite, but interrelated natural forces.
4) to the explanation of the change of diverse phenomena as the cause of patterns subordinate to the perpetual movement of contradictory and interrelated substance forces.
In the IV-III centuries. before. n. e. Materialistic tendencies in understanding the sky and nature developed representatives of the Taoism. The sky itself in the book "Tao CE Jing" is considered as an integral part of nature opposite to Earth. The sky is formed from the light particles of Jan-qi and varies according to Dao.
"The Sky Function" is the natural process of the occurrence and development of things, during which a person is born. A man Xun Tzu considers as an integral part of nature - the sky and his senses, the senses themselves and the soul of the person calls the "heavenly", that is natural. Man and his soul are the result of the natural development of nature.
In the most sharp form, a philosopher is expressed against persons praising the sky and vague mercies from him. There can be no influence on the fate of man the sky. Xun Tzu condemned the blind worship of the sky and urged people with his work seeks to conquer the nature of the will of man.
So there was the formation of the views of the ancient Chinese philosophers about nature, the origin of the world, the reasons for its changes. This process proceeded in a difficult struggle of the elements of naturally scientific, materialistic ideas with mystical and religious idealistic views. The naivety of these ideas, their extremely weak natural scientific justification is explained primarily by the low level of productive forces, as well as the undeveloped social relations.
1.3. The main problems set by the Ancient Chinese thinkers
Society and man
Socio-ethical problems were dominant in the philosophical reflections of the Chinese.
In China, unlike ancient Greece, cosmogonical theories have been put forward not so much to explain the origin of the infinite variety of natural phenomena, the earth, the sky, how much to explain the first acquisition of the state and the authorities of the ruler.
One of the main places in the socio-political and ethical views of the ancient Chinese thinkers was the problem of the peace of society and effective government management.
Confucianism, expressed by the advantage of the interests of a generic nobility, whose domination was designed, was subjected to serious blows from the "new breedes" from among the prosperity communities, merchants, etc.
Confucius set a two-way target:
1) Sort the relationship of kinship among the birth itself, to streamline its mutual relationship, to rally the generic slave-owned aristocracy in the face of the authorities of the loss of power and the capture of her "lower" people.
2) justify the ideologically privileged position of the generic nobility
Confucius condemned those who attracted other people's people to the authority and removed their relatives. And, in his opinion, this weakened the domination of the hereditary aristocracy.
Mo Tzu opposed the inheritance of power on the principle of kinship. For the first time in the history of China, he put forward the theory of the state and power on the basis of the general agreement of people, according to which the government was handed over to the "wisdom of people" regardless of its origin. In many ways, the views of the Mo Tzu on the state are echoing with the ideas of Plato, Epicura, Lucretia.
The central in the teachings of Mystoes is the principle of "universal love", which are a ethical substantiation of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe equality of people and the requirements of the free bottom of the ancient Chinese Society for the right to participate in political life.
In the teachings of Xun Tzu, traditional ideas about the management of the management that set forth by Confucius and Meng Tzui were rethought in the spirit of compromise between the ancient rituals and a single modern centralized legislation.
At the end of the Board of the Zhowa dynasty, the school of the so-called legists (legislates) appears. The legists are the main representatives who were Tzi-chan, Shang Yang and Han Fei-Tzu, resolutely opposed the remnants of the generic relations and their main carrier - hereditary aristocracy. Therefore, the legists are no less sharp than Moes, criticized Confucianism. The legists rejected the methods of management based on ritual and coding traditions, allocating the main role in one, mandatory for all laws and absolute, unlimited, ruler authorities. They pointed to the two sides of the laws - remuneration and punishment, with the help of which the ruler subordinates the subjects.
The legislation, a well-thought-out system of awards and punishments, a circular law system and universal surveillance - this is what was to ensure the unity of the state and the strength of the ruler's power. The legists divided the views of the Mo Tzu on the nomination of talented independence people from rank and related relationships with the ruler. Theoretically, the legists, like Moes, performed for equal opportunities for the elevation in the country of each person.
A significant place in the history of the ancient Chinese thought occupied utopian views. The basis of the ancient Chinese utopian about the ideal society was the ideas of equation and peace.
In the III century. BC e. With the preaching of the ideas of egalitarianism, Su Sin, a representative of the so-called school of "Agrarians". In the utopian concept of Xu Sina, the representations of the disadvantaged and oppressed masses of Zhowa society are reflected. The importance of the concept was that it undermined the dogmas of Confucianism about the inviolability and justice of public order in the Middle Kingdom.
Maine Tzu, from the point of view of Confucian, considers the best system of organizing labor - joint processing of public fields and mutual assistance of community members.
Lao Tzu performed with the idea of \u200b\u200bcreating a society without exploitation and oppression, but his ideal was a patriarchal community.
The progressive moment of social utopia and the major conquest of the political thought of the ancient China is the idea of \u200b\u200bnatural origin of state power as the result of public agreements of people. The period preceding the emergence of the state, with all thinkers, with the exception of Confucianians, is depicted in the most unsightly light.
Nature man
In the ancient Chinese society, due to the stability of the blood-related community (patronimia), a person was considered as a particle of community, kind, clan. Therefore, when considering the nature of man, the ancient Chinese thinkers were taken as an object not an individual, but some abstraction, "man in general."
However, in China, as the class struggle and growth in the property differentiation of the community was developing inside the community, the process of distinguishing a person as an individual; He gradually became the subject of reflection of philosophers.
The first question about the nature of man put Confucius in his concept of upbringing and learning.
The very idea of \u200b\u200bConfucius was very fruitful, its further development led to the emergence of two opposite concepts - about "good nature" and "angry nature". A common concept was that the nature of a person with the help of education, improving society, laws can be changed. Mystone developed the idea that the circumstances of the life of people make them good or evil, and the very original nature of a person is very unstable and may be both kind and unfair.
For the first time, a question about a person as an individual put Yang Zhu. Ethical views are reduced to the provisions on the disclosure by the person of those properties that are laid in it from the birth of nature. He considered life and death as a form of existence of nature.
Rejecting the ideas of Yang Zhu, the Confucianis leads to the system of conclusion of education and management. They argued that the nature of man is initially congenital well. The highest criteria of kindness, according to Maine Tzu, is the Confucian ethical principles.
Ancient Chinese thinkers, especially expressing the interests of the forces, opposition hereditary aristocracy, in their views on a person did the emphasis not only for the opportunity to redo its nature, but emphasized the active transformative role of human activity. For the first time, this question put Mo Tzu, who in the ability of people to conscious activities saw the main difference of a person from the animals and the condition for changing the life of the people themselves. Subsequently, a similar point of view was expressed by Xun Tzu and representatives of the schools of the legists: "People are the same in nature and" noble husband and commoner "from nature are equal, but the difference between them arises as a result of the accumulation of good qualities and overcoming evil." Xun Tzu justified the social role of the educator, with which you can "remake the initial nature of man."
The views of the Supporters of Taoism on the nature of a person flow out of their teachings about the Fartridge. The nature of a person corresponds to Tao, it is empty, unrecognizable, the meaning of life is in the following naturalness and notion.
Zhuang-Tzu believed that the nature of a person and the world around us as a result of their infinite and vehicles of informative.
Nature of knowledge and logical ideas
Human consciousness, thinking in Chinese philosophy became the subject of a special study only at the end of the IV century. before. n. e. Until that time, there were only separate statements about the nature of thinking.
The question of knowledge and its sources was completed mainly to the study of ancient books to borrow the experience of ancestors. Ancient Chinese thinkers did not interest the conceptual and logical basis of knowledge.
Confucius considered the main method of obtaining knowledge - training, and the source of knowledge is ancient giving and the chronicle. He preached a way to perceive knowledge through the prism of traditional establishments and fit new knowledge, a new experience to antiquity authorities. Turning the tradition and habit of consecrated by the authority of the centuries, the Confucian image of thinking became a serious obstacle to the development of science and thought in China.
Antipode of Confucianism was a school of early and late mysts. Their views on cognition were not only a generalization of the achievements of Chinese thinkers V-III. BC e. In the field of studying thinking and the process of knowledge, but also the top of the achievement of Chinese philosophy in the field of gnoseology and logic until the end of the XIX century. The merit of Mo Tzu and Moist in the history of Chinese philosophy is that they first began to study the process of knowledge, they had a question about the criteria for knowledge, about the source of knowledge, about the way of knowledge of the people of the surrounding world and himself. They considered issues about the goals and practical meaning of knowledge, about the criteria of truth and tried to give answers to them.
Conclusion
Historically, China's development for a long period of time went apart from the development of European countries. Knowledge of the Chinese about the world around them were very limited. This contributed to the appearance of ideas in ancient China that China is the center of the world, and all other countries are in vassal dependence on it.
As for Europe, it truly "discovered" China only in the period of late Middle Ages, when, after traveling, the polo brand in China began to arrive missionaries to circulate the multi-millionth mass of the Chinese in Christianity. Missionaries poorly knew the history of the country, her culture, failed to understand her traditions. This led to the distortion of the true appearance of Chinese culture, including the main part of philosophy.
With the mild hand of Missionaries, China also appeared as a country of special, unique in its originality of tradition and culture, where people always lived according to other social laws and moral standards than in Europe, how the country is allegedly in the pristine purity have been preserved in the West true moral Principles. This led to the emergence of two diametrically opposite points of view on the history of Chinese culture and philosophy. One of them came down to the opposition of Western and Chinese culture and philosophy by bringing the latter, and the other to turning individual elements of Chinese culture, including philosophical teachings (Confucianism), to a sample to follow.
The formation of ancient Chinese philosophy, as well as Old Indian, is connected with the breakdown of traditional community relations caused by economic progress, the emergence of money and private property, the growth of scientific knowledge, primarily in the field of astronomy, mathematics and medicine that have created a favorable soil for spiritual
change. It is noteworthy that both the first "oppositionists" were ascetic wise wise people who prepared the onset of the "golden age" of Chinese philosophy in the era of "Zhan GO" ("struggling kingdoms"). Although the individual philosophical ideas are fashionable to detect in even more ancient monuments of culture, which in India were Upanishads and partly Rigveda, and in China - "Shi Jing" ("Canon Poems") and "and Jing" ("Book of Change"), philosophical schools Here we add up at the same time - approximately in the VI century. BC. Moreover, in both regions, philosophy, a long time developed anonymously, from now on, becomes a copyright associated with the names of Gautama Buddha, the founder of Jainism. Mahavir, the first Chinese philosopher - Confucius, the Taoist sage - Lao Tzu, etc.
If in India, numerous philosophical schools have somehow correlate with Vedism, then in China - with Confucian Ortodoxy. True, in India, as noted above, the placement for individual schools did not lead to the official recognition of the priority of any one of the philosophical directions, while in China Confucianism in II century. BC. I achieved the state status of ideology, sowing to keep it to the new time. Along with Confucianism, the most influential in the rivalry of the "St School" was Taoism, Moism and Lead.
There are ancient Chinese philosophy and other distinctive features:
The specific feature of Chinese philosophy was the principle of consideration of the world (nature, man and his society) as a single universum, all the elements of which are interrelated and are in dynamic equilibrium.
Practicality, orientation is not to find and develop an ideal, according to which it would be necessary to change the reality, and to maintain reality, what it is. Hence the absence of any serious appeals (from Lat Appeliasio - appeal) to supernatural, basing on a fully achievable ideal of a social, ethical and political system. This ideal, of course, is lit by the blessing of the sky, but nothing impossible was required to implement it. All theories should simply focus on maintaining order. Therefore, in Chinese written monuments, the ways of managing the state and methods of human self-improvement are considered.
The specificity of the ancient Chinese philosophical thought is also due to the use of figurative-symbolic signs in the written speech - hieroglyphs. Pictographic (from Lat. Pictus - drawn and Greek. Grafo - I write; Picturesque) The letter produced an aesthetic-philological attitude to the text. It inevitably affected the meaningful features of the ideas about the world and man, on the culture of thinking of the ancient Chinese philosophers in general.
Lack of conceptual apparatus, abstract speculation of naturalistic and ideological order. Hence, a weak link with science, undeveloped logic.
Internally, Chinese philosophy is unusually stable. The basis of such stability was the constant underscore of the exclusivity of the Chinese method of thinking. The result was a gradual emergence and consolidation of a sense of superiority of Chinese national aging, its intolerance to all other philosophical views.
An excellent illustration of what was said to serve as philosophical views of the above-mentioned Ancient Chinese schools.
Confucianism. The founder of the Confucius scale (Kit. - Kun Tsu, Latinized version of Kun Fu Tzu-Teacher Kun; 551-479 BC). It is considered the first Chinese philosopher, and his livelihood of a centuries-old history, naturally enriched in later legends. It is known that at first he was a lower official in the state of Lou, then a number of years. Wood on East China, and the end of life devoted exclusively to his students. The main reliable source for studying his views is the preserved records of the design of the Confucius and its students in the book "Conversations and judgments" (Lun Yu).
The concept of "sky" and "heavenly rally" (order, i.e. fates can be considered initial for Confucius. "Sky" is a part of nature, and the highest spiritual force, which determines the nature and man ("Life and death are determined by fate, wealth and nobleness depend on the sky"). A person who endowed with certain ethical qualities must come in harmony with them, with moral law (DAO) and improve them with learning. The purpose of improvement is to achieve the level of "noble husband" (Jun-Tzu), who keeps the Lee etiquette, good and fair towards the people respectful to the elder and higher.
The central place in the teaching of Confucius is occupied by the concept of Jen (humanity) - the law of the ideal relationship between people in the family, society and the state. It includes two basic principles governing human existence: a) help others achieve what you yourself wanted to achieve; b) What you do not want yourself, do not do others.
For compliance with the subordination and the procedure for Confucius, the principle of justice and health (s) has developed. A person must act as his position and order. Good behavior is the behavior in compliance with the order and humanity, for "a noble husband understands that there is a good thing, as small people disassembled what is profitable." This is the path (Tao) of all formed who possess moral strength (DE) and which should be entrusted to the management of society.
These ethical principles underlie the political views of Confucius. He advocated a strict, clear, hierarchical division of duties between members of society, a model for which the family should serve ("the ruler should be the ruler, and the subject - the subject, father, and the Son - Son").
The main method of managing the people is the force of example and belief. "Noble husband", a member of the ruling elite, should not be angry, greedy, proud and cruel. The persecution and murder of distemper and reconcile confulations condemned. If the tops follow the right path "(Dao), he taught, then" people with children behind their backs will follow from all sides. "
After the death of Confucius, his teaching fell on eight schools, only two of them are important: Men-Tzu idealistic school (372-289 BC) and Materialist - Xun Tzu 298-238. BC.). According to the teachings of Men-Tzu, the lives of people are subordinate to the law of the sky, who fulfills the wise ruler - the son of the sky. He must love the people as children, and the people honor him as a father. A man from nature is kind, four qualities are inherent: compassion, shame, modesty, the ability to distinguish the truth from lies. Human abnormality is unnatural, she is a consequence of need and undevelopability.
Auditious (Hents), justice (s), favorabling (Li) and knowledge (Ji), according to Man-Tzu, are also congenital man. HEN and and are the basis of the developed Men-Tzu concept of "humane management" (Zhen Zheng) by the state in which the main role was assigned to the people ("People are the main thing in the state, followed by the spirits of the Earth and grain, and the sovereign takes the last place"). If the sovereign ignores the principle of humanity, and the personal force coming from knowledge replaces tyranny (BA), the people have the right to overthrow it.
In the teachings of Men-Tzu, for the first time, the question of the question of the ratio of the ideal (blue - the heart, soul, mind or Ji - Will) and the material (qi) began in the nature of man, and he took the challenge (Ji).
Xun Tzu proceeded from the concept of Qi - primaria, or material forces with two forms: Yin and Yang. The world exists and develops in harmony with natural knowledgeable patterns. The sky is an active natural element of the world, it does not manage a person, but, on the contrary, may be subordinate to them and used in the interests of people. From a person as part of nature, happiness and misfortune, wealth and poverty, health and illness, order and troubles are dependent. The man by nature is evil (criticism of the Mainic Tzu). It is born envious and evil, with an instinctive sense of profit. It is necessary to influence it with the help of education (Lee-etiquette) and the law (Confucius rejected the law), to comply with the ritual, to carry out debt, and then it will appear virtue and culture. Perfection is achieved through the doctrine of the whole life.
The main links of the country of Xun Tzu considered fair orders and love for people, reverence of Ritual 1 and respect for scientists, reading wise and attracting capable people's capable, and Meril of the Board - justice and peace.
Taoism. Along with Confucianism, one of the two main flows of Chinese philosophy. The legendary founder is Lao Tzu (Bit., Letters. - Old teacher; his own name - Lee ER; VI century BC). He is attached to the compilation of the book "Dae Dha Dzin" ("Book O Tao and DE"). In Taoism, in contrast to other schools, on the foreground are ontological problems. Tao is the natural path of the emergence, development and disappearance of all things and at the same time their material principle. Tao is infinite, it can not be covered by the mind or feeling. Tao precedes God and dictates the laws of the sky, the sky - the earth, the land - man. DE - an indefinite, secondary principle, thanks to which Tao is manifested in the world of things and fills them with energy.
The ethical ideal of Taoism is expressed in the concept of U-Wei (letters. - Non-defense, inaction) and directed against the lawniers and Confucianians. U-Way meant submission to the natural process, harmony with Dao, the absence of any action going against him and leading to freedom and happiness. The purpose of the behavior is to become like a Tao, which does not fight, but knows how to win; Victorious inaction, the rest is a fuss.
The universe cannot be put in order at an artificial manner, it needs to be given freedom to its inborn qualities. Therefore, the best ruler is the one who does not interfere in anything and follows the Dao, driving the country, and then it flourishes, staying in peace and harmony; The people know only the fact of its existence. The public ideal of Taoov is a patriarchal, unenmended life, as it is difficult to manage a multi-rismicious people; Lack of external contacts, peace with neighbors.
Moism. The school was named by the name of the founder of MO Di (MO Tzu; V c. BC) and was a clearly built militarized organization, strictly fulfilled the orders of her chapter. The main idea of \u200b\u200bthe philosophy of Mysma is "Universal Love", i.e. The abstract love of everyone to everyone, unlike the Confucian reciprocity, interpreted as love for relatives. The lack of universal love is the cause of the riots, and the "separate" love is "mutual hatred." Mystone also denied the Confucian doctrine of fate. The life of a person, they claimed, determined by his free actions, and not the orders of the sky, which only wishes that people help each other, so that the strong did not oppress the weak, but no noble silent. Mo Tzu strongly condemned the "aggressive wars", declaring them the greatest and most severe crime. The highest value, according to the doctrine of Myshm, is the people who rulers should love. The recognition of the existence of the "spirits and ghosts" (punished evil and reward good), "the will of the sky" (the landmark of the behavior of people) Mo Tzu introduced a religious jet into his teaching.
Lead (from Lat. Legi - Law). The school of laws (the 2nd name of Legia) originated and undertakes in the VI - III centuries. BC. Actively participated in the development of the teachings of Guan Zhong, Shang Yang, Han Fei and others. Philosophers.
Leganism developed in a tense struggle against early Confucianism, together with whom she strived for creating a powerful, well-managed state, consulting, however, in the philosophical justification and methods of its construction. If the Confucianism on the forefront made the moral qualities of people, then Leganism proceeded from the laws and argued that the policy is incompatible with morality. The ruler needs to be well intended to the psychology of people, in order to successfully manage them. The main method of impact - rewards and punishment, and the second must prevail over the first. The state should be strengthened due to the development of agriculture, creating a strong army capable of expanding the borders of the country and the laughter of the people.
The legists created the concept of a despotic state, in which everyone is equal to the law, with the exception of the ruler itself - the only creator of these laws. This teaching has played a decisive role in the formation of an imperial-bureaucratic management system. The main ideas are: state regulation of economic processes in the country; systematic renewal of the state apparatus by appointing officials (instead of the traditional principle of inheritance); Introduction of a single principle of assigning knowledge of knowledge, posts, privileges and salaries for the service in the army and military merit; equal opportunities when extending to administrative posts; Clear gradation within the ruling class; Unification (from lat. Calm - one and Fazio - I do; bringing to uniformity) thinking of officialhood; personal responsibility of the official; Tsenor supervision over the activities of state administration.
In the era of Han (206 BC- 220 AD) Confucianism assimilated (from lat. Assymigio - likelihood, merger, assimilation) The idea of \u200b\u200bLegianess, became the official ideology, and Legher knead his existence as an independent teaching .