What are the main features of the art of archaic. Archaic epoch

The archaic period in the history of ancient Greece (750-480 BC er) occupies a special place. At this time, the foundations of the culture and development of society were laid, which over the next centuries were continuously improved. Greece of the archaic period is the improvement of the craft and shipbuilding, the appearance of real money and the widespread span of iron. Disputes are being conducted about the temporary framework of the archaic period. It is customary to consider it within 8-5 centuries BC.

Economy and Archaic Period Society

Changes in all areas were due to economic lifting. The use of iron made it possible to develop viticulture and increase the number of olive products. As a result, the surplus began to be taken out of Greece, and the profit was stimulated by agriculture. Communications strengthened between the policies, economic transformations changed markedly Greece. As a legitarious result - the appearance of money, and the number of land is no longer an indicator of wealth. In all Greek polishes, the number of artisans, merchants, shop owners, the peasants have implemented products at the national assets - the city of Greece began to form culturally, politically and economically a full-fledged society.

The rate of the economy grew quickly, and also rapidly grew a bundle in society. Social groups and classes appeared in the Greek Polisters. Somewhere such processes processed more intense, somewhere slower - for example, in zones, where agriculture had more importance. The very first elected class of merchants and artisans. This layer gave rise to "tyranny" - coming to power with the use of force. But among Tiranans there were many those who strongly supported the development of trade, crafts, shipbuilding. And only then these despots appeared, and the phenomenon acquired a negative shade.

A special stage of the archaic period is the Great Greek Colonization. The poor, who did not accept the bundle, were looking for a better life in new Greek colonies. It was beneficial to rulers such a state of affairs: it was so easier to spread the impact on new lands. The most common was the colonization of the southern direction: East of Spain, Sicily, part of Italy, Corsica and Sardinia. In the southeastern direction, North Africa and Phenicia were settled, and in the northeast - the shores of the Black and Marmara Seas. The event, subsequently influenced the course of history, was the basis of Byzantium - the city-progenitor of the Great Constantinople. But its development and growth are already related to the other, subsequent epochs.

The result of the socio-political development of the archaic period was the birth of a classic policy - a small city-state: several villages around one city center with a total area of \u200b\u200b100-200 kV and with a population of 5-10 thousand people. (Of these citizens 1-2 thousand). The city was a place of socially significant events - religious rites and festivals, people's assembly, theatrical ideas, sports competitions. The nationality of the polis life was the Central City Square (Agora) and Temples. The spiritual basis of the Polis was a special polis worldview (the ideal of a socially active free citizen, Patriot and Defender of the Fatherland; subordination of personal interests in public). The small framework of the city-state allowed the Greek to sense his close relationship with him and their responsibility for him (direct democracy).

Culture of archaic period

Detailed article -

Ceramics and Vazopis. During the archaic period, the earliest forms of ancient Greek art - sculptures and vases, which in a later classical period become more realistic.

In Vasopysi in the middle and 3rd quarter of the 6th century. BC e. The blackfoot style has achieved a heyday and about 530 BC. e. - Red-breed style.

In ceramics, the orientalizing style, in which the influence of the art of the Phenicia and Syria is noticeable, displaces the former geometric style.

With a late archaic period, such styles of Vasopysi, like black-deficient ceramics, arising in Corinth at 7th century. BC e., and later red-chicken ceramics, which was created by the Andokid Vasopian around 530 BC. e.

In ceramics, elements are gradually appearing, uncharacteristic for archaic style and borrowed from ancient Egypt - such as the post "left foot forward", "Archaic smile", a template stylized image of hair - the so-called "hair-helmet".

Architecture.Archaic - the time of the addition of monumental visual and architectural forms. Doric and ionic architectural orders have developed in the archaic era.

Sculpture.The main types of monumental sculpture are formed - the statues of the naked young men-athlete (Kuros) and the tearful girl (bark).

Sculptures are made of limestone and marble, terracotta, bronze, wood and rare metals. These sculptures are both separately standing and in the form of reliefs - used to decorate temples and as tombstone monuments. Sculptures are depicted both scenes from mythology and everyday life. The statues in full size suddenly appear about 650 BC. e.

The temporary framework of this period still continues to disputes, but most historians agree that it is possible to consider it within 8 to 5th century to our era and the end of considering the conquest of Greece by Persians. This period is interesting in that at this time the foundations were laid in many areas of development of society, spiritual and material culture, which were continued and improved over the next centuries.

Features of the archaic period

Changes in ancient Greek society were prepared by the preceding development of productive forces. Labor productivity has increased due to widespread use of iron, which made it possible to obtain an excess product. From agricultural production there is a separation of artisans - manufacturers of workers of labor and products of everyday demand. In these conditions, the formation of the market begins, and the emergence of the equivalent of exchange is money - the result of increasing trading relations. Earth, as a symbol of wealth, loses its position.

The system of community relations is exposed to decomposition. The appearance of aristocracy is based on the resistance of the labor population, inevitable conflicts arise. Aristocracy, as a special group of people, began to occupy the dominant position in society thanks to the acquired wealth, sought to subjugate other members of society, occupying team posts in public life, especially in justice and in the formation of troops. The formation of the model structure of society says that he began to reduce the layer of free farmers, increase the number of citizens in relation to different circumstances.

For this period, such a phenomenon falls as an outflow of part of the public from the country - the Great Greek colonization is the development of new territories and trade routes. Colonization spurred social - economic development of mainland Greece. Commodity exchange accepted even greater scope. Traders, rejected on the delivery of goods in the colony and back, sought to "take a place under the sun", press the aristocracy in management and politics. Social conflicts in society led to the emergence of tyranny - the sole rule of the ruler, but she was not destined to hold out without support for the main masses of the population. The result was the creation of a Greek policy, essentially the city - the state.

History informs us about two types of passes - Athens, as an example of a democratic policy, where social life was accompanied by reforms carried out by the rulers who were in power (Solon, Piscistrati) and Sparta as an example of a militarized society, obeying the unified rules.

Culture and art of the archaic period

Our idea of \u200b\u200bancient Greece is often formed through the art of the archaic period. Indeed, much, which came to us from that time, it was created during this period. Greek culture and art survived a stormy takeoff, which was reflected in different spheres of life.

The decomposition of primitive-general relations increased the consciousness of the Greeks as a single people. All the rest they began to call barbarians. Only Greeks could participate in the Olympic Games that began to be held during this period.

Polis - a new form of the existence of the community - gave impetus to the formation of collectivist morality. Outside the policy, the life of a separate person was practically no possible. The valor of a citizen was assessed by his contribution to protecting the interests of his policy, provided that the principle of competition. An ordinary citizen had the opportunity to rise in their political rights to the level of aristocracy.

We have undergone changes and religious representations of the Greeks. Formed Pantheon of the Deities, which they worshiped. The animation animation was manifested in the fact that each natural phenomenon was identified with his God. Polisproy fragmentation was reflected in religion, because each policy considered someone from the gods by the patron.

Temple architecture adequately represents this period, since the construction of the temples was paid to the main attention than other buildings. The place of construction of the temple was first elected an elevated place, but later they began to be erected in the centers of policies. The preserved residues of the architecture of that time we can admire and now. Large veneration of temples contributed to the fact that the works of art were given as an offer, and he became their keeper.

We can judge the sculpture of ancient Greece on the statues, which thoroughly transmitting a person's figure like a male and female in all intricacies. Almost all the deities accepted the human appearance (Apollo, Athena, Artemis, etc.)

A huge achievement of that time was the emergence of Greek writing, and she became so affordable, which allowed most free citizens to master the diploma. A simple way to record information was invented. A high-quality jump in the understanding of the world was the emergence of philosophy. The knowledge of the surrounding world was not relying on a religious representation, but for a human mind.

Thanks to the appearance of the letter and the possibility of recording, they reached our time with some passages from the works of Homer, Tirtae, Archidek, Alkey, Anacreonta and other representatives of literature. Initially, these were works closely related to the myths, an artistic prose, records of genealogy of noble childbirth, stories about polishes, recording of legends appear.

The so-called archaic period covering the VIII-VI centuries. BC e., is the beginning of a new important stage in the history of ancient Greece. For these three centuries, so on. For a relatively short historical period, Greece has developed far in its development neighboring countries, including the countries of the Ancient East, which until that time went in the forefront of the cultural progress of mankind.

The archaic period was the time of awakening the spiritual forces of the Greek people after almost four-hour stagnation. This is evidenced by an unprecedented explosion of creative activity.

Again, after a long break, it would seem forever forgotten arts: architecture, monumental sculpture, painting. Erected from marble and limestone colonnada of the first Greek temples. Carved from stone and cast in bronze statues. The poems of Homer and Hesiod, amazing in depth and sincerity of the feelings of the lyrical poems of the archlico, Suffa. Alkey and many other poets. The first philosophies of fools. Anaximen. Anaximandr - intensely reflect on the question of the origin of the universe and the primancy of all things.

The rapid growth of Greek culture during the VIII - VI centuries. BC e. He was directly related to the Great Colonization held at this time. Previously (see "Early Antiquity", lecture 17) It was shown that colonization brought the Greek world from the state of isolation in which he was after the collapse of the Mycenaean culture. The Greeks managed to learn a lot from their neighbors, especially the nations of the East. So, the Phoenicians were borrowed by an alphabetical letter, which Greeks have improved, introducing not only consonants, software and vowels; From here lead their origin and modern alphabets, including Russian. From Phenicia or from Syria to Greece, the secret of manufacturing glass from sand, as well as a method of mining purple paint from the shells of marine mollusks. The Egyptians and Babylonians became Greek Teachers in Astronomy and Geometry. Egyptian architecture and monumental sculpture had a strong influence on the emerging Greek art. The leaders of the Greeks adopted such an important invention as a cash chasing.

All these elements of other people's cultures were creatively reworked, adapted to the urgent needs of life and entered both organic components in Greek culture.

Colonization made Greek society with more movable, more susceptible. She opened a wide space before the personal initiative and the creative abilities of each person, which contributed to the release of the personality from under the control of the genus and accelerated the transition of the entire society to a large level of economic and cultural development. In the life of the Greek policies to the fore, now navigation and maritime trade are put forward. Initially, many of the colonies that were in the distant periphery of the Ellinsky world were in economic dependence on their metropolis.

The colonists kept needed in the very necessary. They lacked such products as wine and olive oil, without which the Greeks did not imagine normal human life at all. Both have to deliver from Greece on ships. From the metropolies in the colony, the clay dishes and other home utensils, then fabrics, weapons, decorations, etc., were also exported. These things are in charge of the attention of local residents, and they offer grain and cattle, metals and slaves in exchange for them. Impaired products of Greek artisans initially could not, of course, compete with high-quality Eastern goods, which were delivered throughout the Mediterranean, Phoenician merchants. Nevertheless, they used in great demand on the Black Sea region remote from the main seawayways, Frakia, Adriatic, where Phoenician ships appeared relatively rarely. In the future, the cheaper, but more massive products of Greek craft begins to penetrate into the "protected zone" of the Phoenician trade - in Sicily.

Southern and middle Italy, even in Syria and Egypt - and gradually conquers these countries. The colonies are little inseminated to be important intermediary centers between the countries of the ancient world. In Greece itself, the main foci of economic activity are the policies standing at the head of the colonization movement. Among them are the city of Islands Eviea, Corinth and Megara in Northern Peloponnese, Aegina, Samos and Rhodes in the Aegean Archipelago, Millet and Ephesus on the west coast of Malaya Asia.

The opening of the markets on the colonial periphery gave a powerful impetus to the improvement of craft and agricultural production in Greece itself. Greek artisans stubbornly improve the technical equipment of their workshops. For the entire subsequent history of the ancient world, so many discoveries and inventions have never been done, as for three centuries, which constitute the archaic period. It is enough to indicate such important innovations as the opening of the method of soldering iron or bronze casting. Greek vases VII -VI centuries. BC e. strike with wealth and variety of forms, beauty of picturesque design. Among them, the vessels of the work of Corinthian masters, painted in the so-called orientalizing, i.e., "Eastern", style (it is distinguished by the colorfulness and fantastic fancy party of the picturesque decor, resembling drawings on the eastern carpets), and later vases of a black-phony style, mostly Athens and Peloponnesian production. Products of Greek ceramic and bronze vehicles indicate high professionalism and far advanced division of labor not only between industries, but also within individual sectors of handicraft production. The bulk of ceramics, exported from Greece to foreign markets, was manufactured in special workshops by qualified potters and artist-vases. Craftsmen have no longer been, as once, self-removed alone standing outside the community and its laws and often did not even have even permanent residence. Now they form a very numerous and fairly influential social layer. This is not only indicated by the quantitative and high-quality growth of handicraft products, but also the appearance of special handicraft quarters in the most economically developed policies, where artisans of one particular profession were settled. So, in Corinth since the VII century. BC e. There was a quarter of Goncharov - ceramics. In Athens, a similar quarter, which occupied a significant part of the old city, arose in the VI century. BC e. All these facts suggest that during the archaic period in Greece there was a historical shift in great importance: the craft was finally separated from agriculture as a special, completely independent branch of commodity production. Accordingly, agriculture is rebuilt, which can now be focused not only on the domestic needs of the family community, but also for market demand. Communication with the market becomes paramount importance. Many Greek peasants had a boat in those days or even whole ships, on which they delivered the products of their farms to the markets of nearby cities (the land roads in Highland Greece were extremely uncomfortable and unsafe due to robbers). In a number of areas of Greece, the peasants are moving from growing grain crops poorly to more profitable long-term cultures - grapes and oilseeds: excellent Greek wines and olive oil enjoyed tremendous demand in foreign markets in colonies. In the end, many Greek states generally refused to produce their bread and began to live at the expense of cheaper bridal grains.

So, the main result of the Great Colonization was the transition of Greek society from the stage of primitive production to a higher stage of inventory, for which the universal equivalent of commodity transactions was required. In the Greek cities of Malaya Asia, and then the most significant policies of European Greece appear their minting standards that imitate Lidia. Even before that, in many areas of Greece, small metal (sometimes copper, sometimes iron) bars called Oboli (letters, "spokes", "spit") were used in many areas of Greece. Six Obolov made up drachma (letters, "handy"), since such their quantity could be captured by one hand. Now these ancient names were transferred to new monetary units, which were also called Oboli and drachmas. Already in the VII century. In Greece, there were two major coin standard - Eginsky and Evinsky. EVBEY STANDARD was adopted in addition to the Island of Eviea, also in Corinth, Athens (from the beginning of the VI century) and in many West-Commission colonies, the other places used the Eginsky. The basis of both the monetary mines was based on the weight unit, referred to as talent (Tal ANT as the weight unit was borrowed from the front Asia; here the Babylonian talent was distributed (Bite, about 30 kg) out of 60 min, or 360 Sikles, and Phoenician talent (Kickkar , about 26 kg, which is equal to the EVBEY talent) of 60 min, or 360 Sikles. Egip talent weighed 37 kg. - Note. Ed.), Which in both cases has been divided by 6000 drachms (drachmas were usually minted from silver, Oolat - from copper or bronze). "Money makes a man" - this is a saying attributed to a certain Spartan Aristorala, has become a kind of motto of the new era. Many times accelerated many times before their appearance the process of property bundle of the community, even more closer and the final triumph of private property.

Purchase and sale transactions are now distributed to all types of material values. Not only movable property: cattle, clothing, utensils, etc., but also the land that is still given by the property of not individuals;, and the genus or the whole community, freely go from hand to hand: sold, laid out, are transmitted by testament or as a dowry. Already mentioned Geesiod advises to his reader regular sacrifices to seek the location of the gods, "so that - he finishes his instruction," you bought the plots of others, and not your - others. "

Sold and bought money themselves. A rich man could give them into debt a poor percentage, according to our concepts very high (18% per annum in those days was not considered too high) (as we saw above, in the ancient front Asia of the previous period, the percentage was significantly higher. The decline in the interest - indicator Increased marketability and, therefore, some reduction of their dependence on the usual loan, the domination of which in Greece turned out to be short. - Note. Ed.). Together with usury, debt slavery appeared. Self-challend transactions become commonplace. Without the opportunity to pay a timely with their creditor, the debtor is in the mortgage of children, his wife, and then himself. If interest and accumulated interest on it were not paid and after that, the debtor with all his family and the remnants of the property fell into Kabalu to the Roshchistka and turned into a slave, the position of which was not different from the position of slaves taken pronounced or purchased on the market. Debt slavery concluded a terrible danger to young and not yet strengthened Greek states. It exhausted the internal forces of the polis community, undermined its combat capability in the fight against external enemies. In many states, special laws were adopted, prohibiting or limiting citizens' challenge. An example is the famous solon seeshahtey ("The shaking of the burden") in Athens (see it below). However, purely legislative measures would hardly be eradicated by this terrible social evil, if the slaves of the tribesmen did not find a replacement in the face of slaves-aliens, shirokov spread this new and for that time, of course, the more progressive form of slavery was directly related to colonization. In those days, the Greeks have not yet been big wars with neighboring peoples. The bulk of slaves came to Greek markets from the colonies, where they could be purchased in large quantities and at affordable prices at the local king. Slaves accounted for one of the main articles of Scythian and Thracian exports to Greece, the masses were exported from Malaya Asia, Italy, Sicily and other areas of colonial periphery.

An excess of cheap labor in the markets of Greek cities for the first time made possible widespread use of slave labor in all major industries. Purchased slaves now appear not only in homes for nobility, but also in the farms of prosperous peasants.

Slaves could be seen in craft workshops and merchant shops, in the markets, in the port, on the construction of fortifications and temples, on mining developments. Everywhere they performed the most severe and humiliating work that did not require a special learning. Due to this, their hosts - citizens of the Polis created an excess of free time, which they could devote to practicing policies, sports, art, philosophy, etc. It was so laid in Greece the foundations of the new slave-owned society and at the same time a new polisyanization, sharply different from previous She is a palace civilization of the Crito-Miknah era. The first and most important feature testifying to the transition of Greek society from barbarism to civilization was the formation of cities. It was the Archaic Epoch that the city first separated from the village for the first time and politically, and also economically subordinate it to himself. This event was associated with the branch of the craft from agriculture and the development of commodity relations (however, the Greeks themselves saw the main sign of the city not from trade and remlict activity, but in the political independence of the settlement, its independence from other communities. In their understanding of the cities (policies ) Unaffected villages who have independence for the reasons of a military political nature could be considered.).

Almost all Greek cities, with the exception of the colonies, rose from the fortified settlements of the Homeric era - policies, while maintaining this ancient name. There was one very significant difference between the Homeric Policy and the archaic polishetic policy. The Homeric Policy was at the same time and the city and the village, since there were no other rival settlements with him on the subject of territory. The archaic policy, on the contrary, was the capital of a dwarf state, which, besides him, also included village (in Greek Coms), located on the outskirts of the territory of the policy and politically depended on it.

It should also be borne in mind that in comparison with the Homeric Time, the Greek policies of the archaic period became larger. This consolidation occurred both at the expense of the natural growth of the population and at the expense of the artificial merger of several village villages in one new city. To least, called Greek Sinaikism, since. "Joint settlement", many communities resorted to strengthen their defense capability in the face of hostile neighbors. In large cities in the modern understanding of this word in Greece has not yet been. Policy with a population of several thousand people were an exception: in most cities, the number of residents did not exceed, apparently, thousands of people. An example of the archaic policy - ancient Smirna, dang in archaeologists; Part of her was on the peninsula, which closed the entrance to the deep bay - comfortable ship parking. The city center was acquired by a defensive wall of brick on a stone counterpart. The wall had a few gates with towers and viewing platforms. The city had the right layout: the ranks of the houses were strictly parallel to each other. In the city there were several temples. The houses were pretty spacious and comfortable, even terracotta baths were found in some of them.

The main life center of the Raniegreic city was the so-called Agora, which served as the destination destination of citizens and at the same time used as a market square. Free Greek spent most of his time here. He was selling and bought here, here in the community of other citizens policy was engaged in politics - solved state affairs; Here, on Agore, he could learn all the important urban news. Initially, Agora was just an open area deprived of any buildings. Later on Pei began to arrange wooden or stone seats, the steps rising each other. These benches housed the people during meetings. In an even later time (already at the end of the archaic period), special canopies were erected on the sides of the square - portico, defended people from the rays of the sun. The portico turned into a favorite refuge of petty traders, philosophers and any celebrating public. Directly on Agora or not far from her, the government buildings of the policy were located: Buleveras - the building of the city council (Boule), trifanya - a place for meetings of the ruling collegium of Prutans, DiCasteries - a courthouse, etc. At Agora, they were exposed to universal familiarization of new laws and orders. Governments.

Among the buildings of the Archaic city were noticeably allocated by their size and splendor of the decoration of the churches of the main Olympic gods and famous heroes. Separate parts of the exterior walls of the Greek temple were painted in bright tones and richly decorated with sculpture (also painted). The temple was considered the house of the Divine, and it was present in it as a form of his image.

Initially, it was just a coarse wooden idol, which had a very distant similarity with a human figure.

However, by the end of the Archaic era, the Greeks have already been so improved in plastic art that they could easily get away from the marble or cast in bronze of the statues of gods (Greeks represented their gods by human-like creatures, endowed with the gift of immortality and superhuman power). On holidays, God, dressed in his best clothes (for such cases in every temple there was a special wardrobe), crowned with a golden wreath, graciously took gifts and sacrifices from the citizens of the Polis, who were in the temple in a solemn procession. Before approaching the shrine, the procession passed through the city under the sounds of flutes with garlands of living colors and burning torches, accompanied by armed escort. The festivities in honor of the deity of this policy were copied with special magnificence.

Each policy had his own special patron or patronage. So, in Athens, it was Athena Pallada. In Argos - Gera, in Corinth - Aphrodite, in Delphi - Apollo. The temple of God, the "town holder" was usually in the city citadel, which the Greeks were called the Achropole, that is, the "Upper City". The state can be kept here: Sha Polis. There were fines who were charged for various crimes, and all other types of state revenues), in Athens already in the VI century. The top of the inaccessible rock of the Acropolis was crowned with the monumental temple of Athens - the main goddess of the city.

It is known how many places occupied athletic contests in the life of the ancient Greeks. Starting from ancient times, special sites for the exercise of young people were arranged in Greek cities - they were called gymnasiums. and Palestra. Boys and teenagers spent whole DPIs there regardless of the year, diligently engaged in God, the struggle, fisting battles, jumps, throwing spears and disk. No big holiday accounted for without a mass athletic contest - agona, in which all free-born citizens of the policy could take part, as well as specially invited alien.

Some agons used by particularly popular turned into inter-plats of utre functions. These are the famous Olympic Games, which have flown athletes and "fans" from all over the Greek world every four years, including even the most distant colonies. States parties were preparing for them no less serious than to the upcoming military campaign. The victory or defeat in the Olympia was the case of the prestige of each policy. The winner of the Olympionics grateful fellow citizens showered truly royal honors (sometimes even disassembled the city wall to clear the path for the triumphant chariot of the winner: it was believed that the person of such a rank could not pass in the usual gate).

These are the main elements from which the daily life of a citizen of the Greek Polish in the Archaic Epoch was developed, as well as at a later time: commercial transactions on agior, words in the People's Assembly, participation in the most important religious ceremonies, athletic exercises and contests.

And since all these kinds of spiritual and physical activity could be engaged only in the city, the Greeks did not imagine normal human life outside the city walls. Only such a lifestyle was considered a worthy free person - real Ellin, and in this special lifestyle they saw their main thing from all the surrounding "barbaric" peoples.

Generated by a powerful surge of economic activity, which was accompanied by the Great Colonization, the earlyGrsic city, in turn, became an important factor in further economic and social progress. Urban lifestyle with a characteristic intensive commodity exchange and other types of economic activities, in which the masses of people of various origin took part, from the very beginning, conflict with the then structure of the Greek society based on two main principles: the principle of the estate hierarchy separating all people On the "best", or "noble", and "worst", or "low-key", and the principle of the strict wasolation of individual generic unions both from each other and from the entire outside world. In the cities, the previously began, in connection with the relocation in the colony, the process of breaking the interdic barriers to the particular rapid pace. People belonging to different kinds, philams and phratrias, not only live now side by side, in the same quarters, but also enter business and simply friendly contacts, conclude marriage unions. Gradually begins to erase the face, separating the old childbirth to know from the wealthy merchants and landowners who came out of the mortension. There is a splicing of these two mess into a single dominant class of slave owners. The main role in this process was played by money - the most affordable and most mobile type of property. This well understood the contemporaries of the described events. "Money in width is universal. Wealth mixed breeds, "exclaims the Megar poet VI in. Feognide.

Progress in the field of domestic and international law is associated with increasing cities. The need for further development of commodity-monetary relations, the whole population of the policy in a single civil team was difficult to agree with the traditional principles of generic law and morality, according to which each stranger - a leaving of someone else's kind or phratria was perceived as a potential enemy to be destroyed or transformation into Slave. In the Archaic Epoch, these views are gradually beginning to give up their place to wider and humane views, according to which there is a certain divine justice that propagates equally on all people, regardless of their generic or tribal affiliation. With this view, we are already confronted in the "works and days" of the Gesiod, the Beotic poet of the VIII century. BC er, although his nearest predecessor-Homer is completely alien. Gods, in the understanding of the Hesiod, carefully follow the right and wrong business of people. For this purpose, the "Three Miriad of the Guardians of the Immortal ... Right and Evil Human Affairs of Begaded, they roam throughout the world everywhere, covered by Muznogo Mole" (hereinafter transferring V. Veresaev here.).

The main chassis of law is the daughter of Zeus - Goddess Dick ("Justice"). The most realistic progress of social skills is evidenced by the oldest collections of laws attributed to the famous legislators: Dragon, Raduve, Haronda, etc. They were similar to the recording of the already existing regular law. Many of these laws leave their roots in the depths of the primitive era, such as, for example, the exotic custom of attracting animal and inanimate objects to the judicial responsibility, with whom we are confronted in one of the fragments that have reached us from the laws of Dracon. At the same time, the fact of writing the right cannot be not assessed as a positive shift, because it testifies to the desire to put the limit to the municipality of influential families and childbirth and to succeed in the submission of the judicial authority of the policy. Recording, laws and the introduction of proper legal proceedings contributed to the publicity of such vintage customs, like blood revenge or MZDA for murder. Now the murder is no longer considered a private business of two families: family killer and family of his victim. The entire community presented by its judiciary participates in the dispute solution.

Advanced moral norms and rights extend to this era not only at compatriots, but also on foreign people, citizens of other policies. The corpse of the dead enemy was no longer subjected to abuse (cf., for example, "oriada", where Ahill was abused on the body of the deceased hetero), but is issued to relatives for the legend of the Earth. Free Hellenes captured in the war in war are usually not killed and do not turn into slaves, but return to their homeland for redemption. Measures are taken to eradicate marine piracy and scatter on land. Separate policies conclude agreements among themselves, guaranteeing personal security and inviolability of citizens' property, if they are in someone else's territory. These steps towards rapprochement were caused by a real need for closer economic and cultural contacts. To a certain extent, it led to overcoming the former closetness of individual policies to the gradual development of general projects, or, as they said, Phallinsky, patriotism. However, further than these first attempts did not go. Unified people, the Greeks still did not become.

It was the cities in the archaic period the main foci of the achievements of an advanced culture. Here, the new letter of the letter was widespread here - the alphabet.

It was much more convenient than a sludge letter of the Mycenaean era: consisted of only 24 characters, each of which had firmly established phonetic meaning. If in the Mycke Society, the diploma was only available to a little dedicated to the closed group of professionals, now it becomes the common property of all citizens of the policy (everyone could master the elementary skills of writing and reading in elementary school). The new writing system was first a truly universal means of transmitting information, which could be applied in the same success in business correspondence, and to record lyrical poems or philosophical aphorisms. All this led to a rapid growth of literacy among the population of the Greek policies and, undoubtedly, contributed to the further progress of culture in all its main areas.

However, all this progress, as usual in history, had its own revolving, shadow side. The rapid development of commodity relations, which caused the first cities to live with their advanced, life-affirming culture, has adversely affected the position of Greek peasantry. The agricultural crisis, which was the main cause of the Great Colonization, not only ness, by, on the contrary, began to raise with even greater force. Almost everywhere in Greece, we see the same irretrievable picture: the peasants are ruined by the masses, they lose their "decens" and replenish the ranks of Batrakov - Fetov. Describing the situation in Athens at the turn of the VII-VI centuries. BC er, before the reforms of Solon, Aristotle wrote: "It should be borne in mind that in general the state system was oligarchic, but the main thing was that the poor were in enslavement not only themselves, but also their children and wives. They were called Pelas and Sixdolons, because on such rental conditions, the fields were treated with the rich (not with the dog, he wanted to say Aristotle this phrase. Sixidolites could give landowner or 5/6, or 1/6 crop. The latter seems more likely, since With existing agricultural machinery, the peasant could hardly feed the seven of one sixth fraction of the harvest from the site of this size, which he could handle with his wife and children.). In general, the earth was in the hands of a few. At the same time, if these poor people did not give the rent, it was possible to lead to Kabalu and their themselves, and children. Yes, and the loans have been provided with personal bondage until the time of Solon. " In one way or another, this characteristic is applicable to all other areas of then Greece.

The root breaking of the usual everyday structure was very painful for the consciousness of the people of the Archaic era. In the poem of the Gesiod "Works and Days", the entire history of mankind is represented as a continuous decline and reverse from the best to the worst. On Earth, on the thought of the poet, four human generations have already been changed: gold, silver, copper and generation of heroes. Each of them lived worse than the previous one, but the most serious lotion went to the fifth, iron generation of people to whom Hesiod himself ranks. "If I could not live with the generation of the fifth century! "The poet exclaims the poet." Formerly, I would like to die, I would like to be born later. "

Consciousness of his helplessness in the face of the "Tsaroye-Duarouds" ("Tsari" (Basiley) at the Lord, as well as Homer, - representatives of the local childbirth, who are at the head of the community.) Apparently, especially oppressed the poet peasants and on the. This is said to be included in the poem of the Hesiod "Basnie about the nightingale and hawk":

Bass now I will tell you the kings as they are unreasonable. This is what once said Solovy's unharmed hawk. Claws alone in it and carrying it in the clouds of high. It was a pity that the soot filled, pierced by the curves of claws, the same deepening with a speech to him turned to him: "What are you unhappy, squeak? After all, much I am stronger than you! As you do not sing, and I will take you, where I'm pleased, and I can have lunch, I am, and put it on freedom. The mind he has no one who wants to measure with the strongest; He will win him - only grief will add to Nunny! " That's what the rapid hawk said, a long-old bird.

In those days, when Hesiod created his "work and days", the power of generic nobility in most Greek policies remained unshakable.

After some hundred years, the picture is radically changing.

We learn about this from the poems of another poet, a native Megara Feognid. Feognid, although by birth he belonged to the highest nobility, feels very uncertain in this changing in the eyes of the world and, as well as Hesiod, is inclined to be quite pessimistic to evaluate his era. Its tormented by the consciousness of the irreversibility of social changes occurring around it:

Our city is still a city, about Kirn, but others are other,

Whoever is led by laws, nor the right task knew who put her body to worn furious goat

And behind the wall of the city passing like a wild deer.

Made notable now.

And people who were notable

Low steel. Well, who would you endure all this?

The verses of Feognid show that the process of property bundle of the community affected not only the peasantry, but also to know. Many aristocrats who vowed by the thirst for profit contributed their condition to various trading enterprises and speculation, but, without having a sufficient practical surrender, ruined, giving way to a more chain and quirky convergence from the bottoms, which, thanks to their wealth, are rising now to the very top of the social staircase. These "attachments" are caused in the soul of a poet aristocrat of wild malice and hatred. In dreams, he sees the people returned to his former, half-state state:

Solid leg stepped on the chest of saving blacks, Bay her copper Bodz, neck prigible under the yoke! .. Not under the all-party sun, there is no widespread people in the world, so that the Lord's strong will voluntarily endure ... (L. Piotrovsky's translation.)

Reality, however, breaks these illusions the herald aristocratic reaction. It is no longer possible to reverse the return, and the poet is aware of it.

The poems of Feognid captured the height of the class struggle, the moment when a mutual feud and hate of struggling parties reached their highest point. The powerful democratic movement covered the city of Northern Peloponnese, including the hometown of Feognid Megara, also an attic, the island policies of the Aegean Sea, the Ionian cities of Malaya Asia and even the distant Western colonies of Italy and Sicily.

Everywhere, Democrats put forward the same slogans: "Redone the Earth and Cancellation of Debts", "the equality of all citizens of the policy before the law") (Isonomy), "Transfer of power to the people" (democracy). This democratic movement was heterogeneously in its social composition. It was also attended by rich merchants from common people, and wealthy peasants, and artisans, and disadvantaged masses of rural and urban poor. If the first one sought up first of all political equality with an old one, then the very idea of \u200b\u200buniversal property equality attracted the idea of \u200b\u200buniversal equality, which meant the return back to the traditions of a community generic system, to regular resellers of the Earth. In many places, the peasants were brought to despair to exercise in practice the patriarchal utopia of the geiode and swallowed humanity back to the "Golden Age". Inspired by this idea, they captured the property of rich and nobility and divided it among themselves, dumped from their fields hated mortgages (these poles were erected by the lender Pa Field of the debtor as a sign that the field was the key to paying the debt and could be selected in case of non-payment. ), burned debris debt books. Protecting his property, the rich is increasingly allowing terror and violence more often, and thus accumulating centuries a class environment develops into a real civil war. The uprisings and government coups, accompanied by brutal murders, mass expulsion and confiscations of the defeated property, become the usual phenomenon in the life of Greek cities-states. Feognid in one of his elegium addresses the reader with a warning:

Let even in full so far our silence rests the city, "believe me, for a short time she can reign in the city. Where bad people begin to strive to strive to benefit from people's passions. For from here - Raissions, civil wars, murders, also monarchs, - from them there are us, fate!

Mention of monarchs in the last line - very symptomatic:

in many Greek states, sometimes the socio-political crisis has been allowed to establish the regime of personal power to decades.

The polis community exhausted by endless internal intersections could no longer be withstanding the claims of influential persons on one-day power, and the dictatorship of the "strong man" was established in the city, which rules, not believing with the law and with traditional institutions: the Council, the People's Assembly, etc. The Greeks were called tyrant of such usurpers (this word was borrowed by the Greeks from the Lountain language and originally did not matter.), Opposing them to the ancient kings - Basileyam, who ruled on the basis of hereditary law or national election. Capturing power, Tyran began to violence with his political opponents. They were executed without trial and investigation. Full families and even gave birth to exile, and their property passed to the treasury Tirana. In the later historical tradition, mostly hostile tyranny, the very word "tyranny" became a synonymal of merciless bloody arbitrariness in Greek. Most often, people from ancient aristocratic surnames became victims of repression. The edge of the terrorist policy of Tiranans was directed against a generic nobility. Not satisfied with the physical extermination of the most prominent representatives of this social group, Tiranians have completely infused her interests, prohibiting the aristocrats to engage in gymnastics, gather on joint meals and boots, acquire slaves and luxury items. To know the most organized and at the same time the most influential and rich part of the community, represented the greatest danger to the sole power of Tirana. From this side, he constantly had to expect conspiracies, attempted, rebellion.

In other things, the relationship of tyrant with the people. Many tyranans of the Archaic Epoch began their political career as prostate that is, leaders and defenders of Demos. The famous Piscistratus who captured the power over Athens in 562 BC. e., relied on supporting the poorest part of the Athenian peasantry, which dwells mainly in the internal highlands of Attica. The "Guard" Tirana, granted to the Potistat at his request by the Athenian people, compiled a detachment from three hundred people armed with doubles - the usual weapons of the Greek peasantry at that troubled time. With the help of these "Dubyonians", the Piscistratus captured Athenian Acropolis and thus became the master of the situation in the city. Being in power, Tirara suffered demos gifts, free treats and sweatings during the holidays. So, the pcsistratus introduced a cheap agricultural loan in Athens, joining the needy peasants inventory, seeds, livestock. He established two new nationwide festivities; Great Panafinees and urban donisians and managed them with an extraordinary pomp (in the program of urban dionysius, theatrical ideas were included. According to legend, in 536 BC er, the first placement of the tragedy was carried out in the history of the Greek Theater.).). The desire to achieve popularity among the people were dictated and attributed to many tyrants Measures on the improvement of cities: the construction of water pipelines and fountains, the construction of new magnificent temples, porticors on agora, port buildings, etc. All this, however, does not give us the right to consider Tiranians themselves "Fighters" for the national work. The main goal of Tiranans was the full strengthening of dominion over the Policy and in the future - the creation of a hereditary dynasty. Tyran could carry out these intentions, only breaking the resistance to know. For this, he needed support for the Demos or at least a benevolent neutrality on his part. In his "pesting" tyrana, they usually did not go further than minor feeds and demagogic crowds to the crowd. None of the most famous Tiranians tried to implement the main slogans of the democratic movement: "Redone the Earth" and "Cancel Debt". None of them did nothing to democratize the State Structure of the Polis. On the contrary, constantly needing money for paying a salary to mercenaries, for their construction enterprises and other necessary, tyranny taxed by unknown taxes. Thus, at the Potistrate, the Athenians were annually deducted in the treasury of Tirana 1/10 of its income. In general, tyranny not only did not contribute to the further development of the slave ownership state, but, on the contrary, he slowed down.

The tactics applied by the Tiranians in relation to the masses can be defined as the "Knut and Gingerbread Policy".

Pleeping with the demos and trying to attract it to his side as a possible ally in the fight with a favor, tyrana at the same time was afraid of the people. To protect yourself from this side, they often resorted to the disarmament of the citizens of the policy and at the same time they surrounded themselves with hired bodyguards from among alien or discovered slaves. Any accumulation of people on urban street or square inspired Tiranus suspicion; It seemed to him that the citizens were silent something, prepare a rebellion or attempt; The dwelling of Tirana was usually located in the city citadel - on the Acropolis. Only here, in his fortified nest, he could feel at least in relative security.

Naturally, in such conditions there was no solid union between Tiran and Demos and could not be. The only real support for the regime of personal power in the Greek cities-states, in essence, was the hired guard of tyranans. Tirande left a noticeable mark in the history of early Greece. The colorful figures of the first tyrants - periandra, piscistratus, polycrata and others - have always attracted the attention of later Greek historians. From the generation to generation, legends were transferred about their extraordinary power and wealth, about their superhuman successfulness, which caused the envy even among the gods themselves, is such a well-known legend about the polycratic perverse, preserved by Herodot (the legend says that the SAMOS has goveling the Polycrat, Tirana, Egyptian king advised him to sacrifice the most expensive thing that he had no gods in order. The polycrate threw his ring in the sea, but the next day the fisherman brought him a painful fish, and the abandoned ring was found in her belly. Egyptian king He left the polycrate, considering it doomed, and soon he really died.). In an effort to give more brilliance to your board and perpetuate your name, many tyrana attracted outstanding musicians, poets, artists to their yards. Greek policies such as Corinth, Sikion, Athens, Samos, Millet, became the rule of tyranans with rich, prosperous cities, decorated with new magnificent buildings. Some of Tiranans led a fairly successful foreign policy.

Periandr, ruled in Corinth from 627 to 585 BC. er, managed to create a large colonial power, stretching from the islands of the Ionian Sea to the shores of the Adriatic. Famous Tyrant O-Wa

Samos Polycrat in a short time submitted to his dominion most of the island states of the Aegean Sea. The Piscistratus successfully fought for mastering an important sea that connected Greece through the corridor of the Straits and the Marmara Sea with the Black Sea. More less the contribution of Tiranans to the socio-economic l The cultural development of archaic Greece can not be exaggerated. In this matter, we may well rely on that sober and impartial assessment of the tyranny, which the Fukidide gave the greatest Greek historians. "All tyrants that were in Ellenic states," he wrote, "they paid their concerns exclusively to their interests, to the safety of their personality and to the alignment of her home. Therefore, when managing the state, they mainly, as far as possible, were concerned about the adoption of secrecy measures; They did not accomplish a single wonderful case, except for the wars of individual tyrants with border residents. " But having a solid social support in the masses, tyranny could not become a steady form of the government of the Greek policy. Latest Greek historians and philosophers, such as Herodotus, Plato, Aristotle, saw in Tiranda, the abnormal, unnatural state of the state, a peculiar disease of the policy caused by political troubles and social shocks, and were confident that it could not continue for a long time.

Indeed, only a few of the Greek tyrants of the archaic period managed not only to keep the throne taken by them, but also transfer him to her inheritance to their children (the reign of the Orphaagorid dynasty in Sikion (670-510 BC). On The second place is Corinth Kiposelids (657-583 BC), on the third - Pisistatids (560-510 BC)).

Tirands only weakened the birth to know, but I could not finally break the power, and it was probably not striving for it. In many polishes, after overthrowing Tarapying, there are no outbursts of acute struggle. But in the cycle of civil wars, a new type of state is gradually emerging - a slave-owned policy.

The formation of the policy was the result of the persistent conversion activities of many generations of Greek legislators. We don't know almost anything about most of them. (Antique tradition reported to us only a few names, among which the names of two outstanding Athenian reformers - Solon and Clisphen and the Great Spartan Likurga legislator occupy a particularly prominent place. As a rule, the most significant transformations were conducted in the situation, acute political crisis. A number of cases are known when Citizens of a particular state brought to the despair endless straight and turmoil and did not see any other exit from the established situation, elected one of its media by the intermediary and the conciliatory.

One of these convisels was Solon. Elected in 594 BC. e. At the position of First Archont (Archonts (letters, "the primary") - the ruling collegium of officials, consisting of nine people. The first Archon was considered the chairman of the board. According to his behalf in Athens, the year was marked with the rights of the legislator, he developed and implemented a wide program socially - economic and political transformations, the ultimate goal of which was the restoration of the unity of the polis community, the split civilian civilians for the warring political groups. The most important among Solon reform was the fundamental reform of debt law, which was in history under the articulated name "Holding the Bremen" (Seismahtey). Solon really dropped the hated burden of debt bonded from the shoulders of the Athenian people, declaring all debts and accumulated interest on them invalid and prohibiting the future of self-challend transaction. Seyakhteiya saved the peasantry of attic from enslavement and thereby made possible further developed democracy in Athens. Subsequently, the legislator itself was proudly wrote about this his merit to the Athenian Paroda: what I'm from in the name of which I

We could say anything to everyone from the mother of black earth, the pillars set

Slave before

(Translation S. I. Radzig.).

the tasks did not fulfill, then the people were swallowed,

before time the court of Olympians is the highest - with which I took a lot of debt,

now free. Freeing the Athenian Demos from the debt over him, Solon, however, refused to fulfill his other demand - to produce redistribute land. According to Solon himself, his intention was not at all "in the harules of their relatives to give thin and noble share of equal to have", that is, to completely equalize both commoners in property and social terms. Solon tried only to suspend the further growth of major land tenure and thereby put the limit of the dominance of nobility in the economy of Athens. The law of Solon is known, forbidden to acquire land over a certain norm. Obviously, these measures were successful, as in the future, during the VI and V centuries. BC e., Attica remained but the advantage of the country of medium and small land tenure, in which even the greatest slaveholders of the software exceeded the area of \u200b\u200bseveral dozen hectares.

Another important step towards the democratization of the Athenian state and the strengthening of its internal unity was made at the end of the VI century. (between 509 and 507) by Clisphen (between Solon and

Clisphen in Athens Rules Tyrant Pectist, and then his sons. Tiras was liquidated in 510 BC. er). If Solop reforms have undermined the economic power of nobility, then Clisphen, although the immigrants itself from the notable kind went even further. The main support of the aristocratic regime in Athens, as well as in all other Greek states, were generic associations - the so-called philas and phratries. From ancient times, the entire Athenian Demos was divided into four philas, in each of which was three phratrias. At the head of each phratry, there was a significant genus, who cited her cult matters. Right members of phratry were obliged to submit to the religious and political authority of their "leaders", providing them with support in all their enterprises.

Care the dominant position in the generic unions, the aristocracy held the entire mass of the demos under its control. Against this political organization Klisfep and directed his main blow. He introduced a new, purely territorial administrative division system, distributing all citizens to ten philams and one hundred more small units. Fili, established by Clisphen, had nothing to do with old generic philas.

Moreover, they were compiled with such a calculation so that the persons belonging to the same kind of birth and phratria were politically disassembled, living in different territorial administrative districts. Clisphen, according to Aristotle, "mixed the entire population of attic", not believing with his traditional political and religious connections. Thus, he managed to solve three important tasks at the same time: 1) Athenian demos, p primarily the peasantry, which was very significant and at the same time, the most conservative part of it was released from under ancient generic traditions, on which the political influence of nobility was based; 2) were discontinued often arising between individual generic unions, threatening the internal unity of the Athenian state; 3) those who had stood outside the phratria and philia and Phil, were attracted to participate in political life, and by virtue of this did not enjoy civil rights. Clisphen reforms are completed by the first stage of the fight for democracy in Athens. In the course of this struggle, the Athenian Demos achieved great success, politically rose and fastened. The will of the Demos, expressed by the general vote in the People's Assembly (Ecclesia), acquires the power of mandatory for all law. All officials, not excluding the highest - archons and strategists (strategists in Athens were called military leaders who commanded the army and fleet. The college out of ten strategists was established by Clisphen.), Choose and obliged to report to the people in their actions, and in the event that If some provinicity is allowed on their part, they can be subjected to severe punishment.

Hand in hand with the People's Assembly, the Council of Five hundred (Boule) and Solon-established Jury (helium) was created by Clephant. The Council of Pyatsota performed with the people's assembly of the function of a kind of presidium, studying the preliminary discussion and processing of all proposals and bills, which then came to the final approval in Ecclesia. Therefore, the decrees of the People's Assembly in Athens usually began with Formula: "Decided the Council and People." As for helieces, it was in Athens of the Higher Judicial Instant, in which all citizens could handle complaints about unfair decisions of officials. Both the Council and the Jury Court were elected the draw for ten philams established by Clisphen. Due to this, they could also come to their composition with representatives of also ordinary citizens. With this, they were in the root differed from the old Aristocratic Council and the Court - Areopag.

However, until the complete celebration of democratic ideals was still far away. The system of government was estimated by ancient as a moderate form of democracy as a result of the reforms of Solon and Clisphen. The greatest value in the political life of Athens, the stroke of the wealthy peasantry, who pushed back to the background as an old land to know and trade and crafted layers of the urban population. The wealthy peasants are zejitis (3Evgitis - from Greek. ZEVGOS - "YURMO", "HOLIDAY". The harness from two oxes was the main workforce in the farm of the peasant (perhaps this word comes from the place that the warrior hired into the ranks. - Note. Ed .).) Compiled a politically active core of the People's Assembly. Of them, he was also formed by a heavy warrior, having a complete set of heavy protective weapons: tttopoash. Pancir, helmet p shield. Unlike the warriors of the Hawmetian era, Goplites fought in a closer building, the so-called phalange.) The militia, which now becomes decisive By force on the battlefields, almost completely pushing out the aristocratic cone. Low-earth peasants, as well as urban poor, active participation in government management at that time have not yet taken, although formally, those n others were considered by Athenian citizens. It should be borne in mind that Pachptaya since Solon's access to many of government agencies was limited in Athens with high property valuable. So, only a person who belonged to the discharge of zevgitov could be a member of the Council, that is, the one who received no less than two hundred years of annual income from his land. The highest valuable was established for the post of Archon - at least five hundred years of annual income. Representatives of the last, fourth discharge of Fetov (fettes - letters, "feeders", "Bathers". In this category included citizens who received less than two hundred years of annual income from the Earth, as well as those who did not have land) were allowed only to the People's Assembly and the Jury Court. It took not one decade of the stubborn political struggle in order for the principle of civil equality to be consistently held in Athens.

Athenian democracy gives an idea of \u200b\u200bonly one of the possible ways to develop a early-growing policy. During the archaic period, many very diverse types and forms of the polis organization appeared in Greece. One of the most peculiar options for the polis was developed in Sparta - the largest Dorian states of Peloponnese. Since the most ancient times, the socio-economic development of the Spartan Society has not yet adopted the usual direction. Founding Sparta Dorians came to Lacon as conquerors and enslavers of the local Ahasey population. From about the middle of the VIII century. In Sparta, as in many other Greek states, a sharp land hunger began to be felt. The problem of an excessive population that arose in this regard, demanded its immediate decision, and the Spartans decided to in their own way: they found a way out in expanding their territory due to the nearest neighbors. The main object of Spartan aggression was a mission, a rich and extensive area in the southwestern part of Peloponnese. The struggle for the mission that happened in the VIII-VII centuries. BC e., ended in the end the full conquest and enslavement of its population. The capture of fertile Messensky lands allowed the Spartan government to suspend the coming agricultural crisis. In Sparta, a wide redistribution of the Earth was carried out and a stable land tenure system was created, based on strict accordance with the number of incidents and the number of full citizens. The whole earth was divided into 9,000 approximately the same in their profitability of incidents, which were distributed to the corresponding number of spartists (Spartians - the usual name of full-fledged Sparta citizens in sources.). In the future, the Sparta's government carefully monitored that the magnitude of individual incidents remained unchanged (they could not, for example, to fragrate when transferred by inheritance), and they could not move from hand to hand through donation, testament, sales, etc. D. The state slaves-Iloti from among the obedient residents of Laconia and Messiah were divided and attached to the Earth. It was done with such a calculation so that each Spartan Claire (Land Puting) accounted for several carnal families, which their work was provided to all the necessary owner of Clera and his whole family.

As a result of this reform, the Spartan Demos turned into a closedlass of professional military warriors who carried out their dominance over the multi-volume mass of Ilotov.

Untile labor Ilotov saved the spartiats from the need to extradite food and left them a maximum of free time for public affairs and with overgrown in military art. The latter was all the more necessary that after the conquest of the Messiament in Sparta, an extremely tense situation was created: the main commandment of the slave economy was broken, formulated by Aristotle subsequently: to avoid clusters of large masses of slaves of one ethnic origin. The Alota, which made up the most among the labor population of Sparta, said Pa by the same language and dreamed only about how to reset the hated Igo of the Spartak conquerors (according to Herodota's testimony, in the Spartan army, who fought against Persians in terms of payments (479 BC. er), for each full-fledged spartym accounted for seven Ilotov.). It was possible to keep them in obedience only with the help of a systematic merciless terror.

The constant threat of a carnal rebellion required the maximum cohesion and organizedness of spartists. Therefore, at the same time, a number of reforms were held in Sparta in Sparta under the name of the "Laws / 1 Circle" (0 life and activities of Likurga, no reliable evidence was preserved. It was not possible to establish with sufficient accuracy and time of reforms. Many of the modern historians consider His fictional personality. It is most likely that "Likurgi Stroy" in the final form developed no earlier than by the end of the VII - the beginning of the VI century. BC. E.- Note. Ed.). The reforms of these in a short time beyond recognition changed the appearance of the Spartan state, turning it into a military camp, whose inhabitants were subject to barren discipline. From the moment of birth and before the death of Spartiat was under the non-saturated observation of special officials (they were called paintings, i.e., "warders") who were obliged to follow the strict execution by all citizens of Likurg's laws.

In these laws, it was allocated to the smallest details, such as cutting clothes and a form of beard and mustache, which was allowed to wear Sparta to citizens. The law of stricter obliges every spiture to give his sons as soon as they are seven years old, in special camps - Ageli (letters, "herd"), where they were subjected to brutal Mushtra, raising endurance, trick, cruelty, the ability to order and obey and obey Other qualities needed by the "Real Spartan". Adult spartists in the general cuisage visited joint meals - sissium, allocating a certain amount of products on their device every month. In the hands of the ruling top of the Spartan State of Sissiism and Ageli were a convenient means of controlling the behavior and sentiment of ordinary citizens. The state in Sparta actively interfered with the privacy of citizens, regulating childbearing and marital relations.

In accordance with the principle of "Likurgov," all full-fledged SPART citizens officially called "equal", and these were not empty words. In Sparta, for almost two centuries, a whole system of measures aimed to minimize any possibilities of personal enrichment and thereby suspend the growth of property inequality among spartists. For this purpose, a gold and silver coin was seized from the appeal. According to legend, the Likurg replaced it with heavy and uncomfortable iron oolas that have long been released outside of the pancas. Trade and craft were considered in Sparta by classes, announcing a citizen. They could only be engaged in Perpequet, (letters, "living around") - the incomplete population of small towns scattered through the territory of Laconia and messenger at some distance from Sparta itself. Almost all the ways to the accumulation of wealth were closed to the citizens of this extraordinary state. However, even if some of them would manage to be a state, to use them under the watchful supervision of the Spartan Police of Malls, he could not anyway. All the Spartians, regardless of their origin and social position - exceptions were not done even for those who stood at the head of the state "kingdoms" (since the oldest times, Sparta managed two "kings", which belonged to two different dynasties. The authorities "kings" was lifelong, by her strongly Restricted the constant supervision of EFOORS. All the completeness of the "kings" was used only during the war as the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Spartan Army.) - We lived in exactly the same conditions, as soldiers in the barracks, wearing the same simple and coarse clothing, ate the same food for the general The table in the Sisticians, used the same homemade utensils. The production and consumption of the most minor luxury items in Sparta was imposed a strictest ban. Craftsmen from among the periods were made only the simplest and necessary utensils, tools of labor and weapons for the equipment of the Spartan army. The importance in Sparta of alien products was categorically prohibited by law. The Spartan government managed to rally the citizens in the face of the enslaved, on constantly ready for indignation of Ilotov. With a large margin of internal strength, the "community of equal" could continue to withstand such serious tests as they were, for example, the great uprising of Ilotov 464 (the so-called III Messenskaya War) or the Peloponnese War 431 - 404. BC e. I brought my fruits and stubborn military training, which Spartans indulgered all their lives with a relaxed zeal. The famous Spartan Falanga (heavy infantry, held in a closer building) for a long time did not know equal in the battlefields and deservedly enjoyed fame invincible. Sparta was able before the V c. BC e. Establish your hegemony over most of the Peloponnese, and later tried to spread it also for the rest of Greece. However, Voland-containing claims Sparta relied only on its military power. In economic and cultural terms, it has greatly lagging behind other Greek states. The establishment of "Likurgova Building" sharply slowed down the development of the Spartan economy, returning it to revershe, almost at the stage of the natural economy of the Homeric era. In the atmosphere of a harsh military police regime, with his ability to the absurd, the cult of equality gradually shuddly, and then completely disappeared and peculiar culture of the Archaic Sparta completely disappeared (the archaeological excavations in Sparta showed that in the VII - first Polonshte VI century. Here was one of the most Significant artistic craft centers in all Greece. Products of Lacée artisans of this time are not inferior to the best products of Athenian, Corinthian and EVBEY Masters.). After Tirta, the features committed by Spartan warriors during the Messenskoy Wars, Sparta did not give any significant poet, not a single philosopher, speaker, scientist. Full of stagnation in socio-economic and political life and extreme spiritual cloaking - such a price had to pay to the Spartans for their domination over Ilotov. The deaf wall of hostility and disbelief, who closed in himself, the deaf wall and distrust, Sparta gradually becomes the main focus of the political response in Greece, the hope and support of all enemies of democracy.

So, we got acquainted with two extreme, most distinguished forms of the early Greek Polis. The first of these two forms, which pretended in Athens as a result of the reforms of Solon and Klisphen, provided citizens with harmonious personality development and turned out to be more capable of development and, therefore, historically more promising in comparison with the second - barren spartan form of the policy. Athens did not know the proper political discrimination of all people of physical labor. It was the Athens that was destined to become in the future the main stronghold of Greek democracy and at the same time the largest cultural center of Greece, the "School of Eldla", as the fucidide will say later.

Speaking of significant differences in the public and state-owned device of Athens and Sparta, we should not lose sight of the total between them, which makes it possible to consider them two varieties of one n of the same type of state, namely the policy. Any policy is self-governing, or, as the Greeks said, an autonomous community, which is most often not overlooking one, usually a small town and its nearest neighborhoods (from here, the translation of the term Polis - "City-State"), which is generally accepted in modern scientific literature). States in excess of its size this common norm for the policy are found in Greece only in the form of an exception (examples can serve as Athens and Sparta, in the territory of which other cities who gave the name of their state, there are also other cities). The main feature of the polis organization, which distinguishes it from all other types of a slave ownership state, is that here in the management of the state is involved in some, although, of course, far from equal, extent, all members of this community, and not only chosen part of them , part of an extremely narrow circle of courtest know, as we most often observe this in the monarchies of the Ancient East, the civil community (demos) is practically merged here with the state (of course, it should be borne in mind that the size and number of the polis communities themselves can fluctuate in very wide The limits depending on the criteria of civil rights that were used in various Greek states. If in Athens: during the heyday of democracy in the second half of the V c. There were about 45 thousand full citizens, then in Sparta their number even during the highest lifting years The powers did not exceed 9-10 thousand people. However, there were also such policies in Greece in which the entire civilian collection tive consisted of several hundred or even several dozen people.).

Even in the most conservative and politically backward Greek policies, like the same Sparta, all full citizens had access to the People's Assembly, which was considered the carrier of the highest sovereign power in the state (this principle was already formulated in the oldest of all political documents that have reached us - the so-called "retro Likurga "(about the VIII century BC). EO Final phrase read:" Strength and power Let them belong to the people. ").). Being an expression of the collective will of the Citizens of the Policy, the decision of the People's Assembly had the power of the general obligatory law. This is the most important political principle underlying a polis organization, the principle of subordination of minority to the majority, personality team. Above, we have already seen on the example of Sparta, which paradoxical forms have happened sometimes this is the omnipotence of the law. Yes, and in other Greek states decorated as the law, the power of the team over the person and property of a separate citizen often extended very far. In Athens, Pelon, anyone, whatever high position in society he occupied, could be expelled outside the state without any provinces from his part only on the grounds that this most fellow citizens wanted (in such cases, a general vote was held in such cases Which bulletins served clay shards. Hence the name of this procedure - Ostrakism, letters, "boxing". Each of the voting participants wrote on his sharp the name of the person who, in his opinion, was at the moment the greatest danger for the state. He. Who collected Such a sapper is the largest number of votes, expelled from Athens for a period of ten years. The invention of Ostracism was attributed to ancient times to Clisphenu. Note that the Institute of Ostracism assumes the magnitude literacy of citizens.). Using its right of supreme control over the life and behavior of individual citizens, the policy actively interfered with the economy, holding back the growth of private property and smoothing, thus, the property inequality within the civil community.

Examples of such an intervention can serve as the Solopovskaya seismichety in Athens, attributed to Likurgu land altered in Sparta and similar economic reforms in other polishes (in many polishes, the state control over the private property of citizens was systematic. The most typical manifestations can be considered various prohibitions. , imposed on the purchase and sale of land, the so-called liturgiyanity in favor of the state performed by the most prosperous citizens; laws against luxury, etc.).

For its time, the Polis can be considered the most advanced form of the political organization of the dominant class. Its main advantage over other forms and types of a slave-ownership state, for example, before Eastern Despoty, is the comparative latitude and sustainability of its social base and in those wide opportunities he gave for the development of private slave-ownership. The polis community united in its composition as large and small owners, rich land and slave owners and simply free peasants and artisans, guaranteeing each of them the integrity of the person and property and at the same time a certain minimum right, and above all ownership of land inside the policy . In the legal capacity of the Greeks, they saw the main feature, distinguishing a citizen from non-citizens. At the same time, the Polis was the military-political union of free owners sent by the passage of all enslaved and operated and pursuing two main objectives: 1) to keep the obligation of already existing slaves; 2) Organize military aggression against the "barbaric" world, thereby ensuring the replenishment of slaveholders in the necessary workforce.

Buildings and sculptures, poems and thoughts of great philosophers are all this components of the Greek Miracle, as scientists call it today.

If you are interested in culture briefly familiarize yourself with it in this article. So, what admires even the most inexperienced in the art of man for four thousand years? Let's deal with more details.

General

An antique period, which is characterized by the rise and flourishing Ella (so the ancient Greeks called their country), for most art historians is the most interesting. And not in vain! After all, at this time there was a birth and formation of the principles and forms of almost all genres of modern creativity.

All scientists share the history of the development of this country for five periods. Let's look at the typology and talk about the formation of certain types of art.

Aegean epoch

This period is most brightly represented by two monuments - Mycena and Palaces. The latter is more famous today as a labyrinth from the myth about theses and minotaur. After archaeological excavations, scientists have confirmed the truthfulness of this legend. Only the first floor has been preserved, but it has more than three hundred rooms!

In addition to the Palaces, the crotto-mycean period is known for masks of the Ahase leaders and critical sculptures of small form. Figurines found in the caches of the palace are striking with their filigree. Women with snakes look very realistic and elegant.

Thus, the culture of ancient Greece, the summary of which is presented in the article, originated from the symbiosis of the ancient island civilization of Crete and those who came to the Ahasey and Dorian tribes that dated the Balkan Peninsula.

Gomera period

This era differs significantly in the material plan from the previous one. From the XI to the IX century, many important events have occurred to our era.

First of all, the previous civilization died. Scientists suggest that due to the eruption of the volcano. Next, the statehood there was a refund to the community device. In fact, the formation of society re-appeared.

An important point is that against the background of material decline, spiritual culture is fully preserved and continued to develop. We can see this on the example of the works of Homer, which reflect this fracture era.

Refers to the end of the Mina period, and the writer himself lived at the beginning of the archaic era. That is, "Iliad" and "Odyssey" are the only testimonies about this period, because besides them and the archaeological findings are not known about him today.

Archaic culture

At this time, there is a rapid growth and formation of policies. The coin begins to minimize the alphabet and the formation of the letter.

Olympic games appear in the archaic era, a cult of a healthy and athletically folded body is formed.

Classic period

All the culture of ancient Greece is increasing today (there is a summary in the article), it was in this era.

Philosophy and science, painting and sculpture, and poetry - all these genres are experiencing takeoff and unique development. The apogee of creative self-expression was the Athenian architectural ensemble, which still amazes the audience with its harmony and the grace of forms.

Hellenism

The last period of the development of Greek culture is interesting thanks to its ambiguity.

On the one hand, the Association of Greek and Eastern traditions occurs due to the conquests of Alexander Macedon. On the other hand, Rome captures Greece, but the latter conquers it with its culture.

Architecture

Parthenon, probably, one of the most famous monuments of the ancient world. And Doric or Ionian elements, such as columns, are inherent in some later architectural styles.

Basically, the development of this type of art we can trace the temples. After all, it is in this kind of buildings that the most power, means and skills were invested. Even the palaces were valued less than the place for sacrifice to the gods.

The charm of the ancient Greek temples is that it was not the formidable capital of mysterious and cruel carens. According to the internal device, they resembled ordinary homes, only equipped with elegant and coated richer. And how differently, if the gods themselves were portrayed like people, with the same problems, quarrels and joys?

In the future, three orders of the columns will form most of the styles of European architecture. It is with their help that the culture of ancient Greece briefly, but very exccoation and durable entered the life of a modern man.

Vazopis

The works of this type of art are most numerous and investigated today. In school, children learn information about what the culture of ancient Greece (briefly) was represented. Grade 5, for example, is a period of dating only with myths and legends.

And the first monuments of this civilization, which students see, is a black-shaft ceramics - very beautiful and copies of which served as souvenirs, decorations and collectibles in all subsequent epochs.

Painting of the vessels passed several stages of development. Initially, these were simple geometric ornaments, known since the times of the Minoan culture. Next, they are added spirals, meanders and other details.

In the process of becoming a vasopcript acquires the features of painting. The vessels appear plots from the mythology and everyday life of the ancient Greeks, human figures, images of animals and household scenes.

It is noteworthy that the artists managed not only to pass the movement in their paintings, but also to give personal features of the characters. Thanks to its attributes, there are easily recognizes individual gods and heroes.

Mythology

The peoples of the ancient world perceived the surrounding reality a little differently than we used to understand it. The deities were the main force that was responsible for what was happening in a person's life.

At school, they are often asked to make a brief message on the topic "Culture of Ancient Greece", briefly, interesting and describe in detail the legacy of this stunning civilization. In this case, the story is better to start with mythology.

The ancient Greek Pantheon included a lot of gods, demigods and heroes, but the main ones were twelve Olympians. The names of the part of them were already known during the critical-mix civilization. They are mentioned on clay signs with a linear letter. It is noteworthy that at this stage they had female and men's analogs of the same character. For example, he was Zeus-He and Zeus-she.

Today we know about the gods of ancient Greece thanks to the monuments of visual art and literature, which remained in the centuries. Sculptures, frescoes, figurines, plays and stories - the worldview of Ellinov found in all this.

Similar views survived their time. Artistic culture of ancient Greece, briefly, has presented a paramount effect on the formation of many European schools of various types of art. Artists of the Renaissance resurrected and developed the ideas of style, harmony and forms, known in classical Greece.

Literature

Many centuries separate our society from the society ancient Ellala, besides, in fact, only crumbs have reached us from what was written. "Iliad" and "Odyssey", probably, the most popular works, thanks to which the culture of ancient Greece is known. A summary (about Odyssey and his adventure) can be found in any readstatology, and the feats of this wise person are impressive society so far.

Without his advice, there would be a victory of the Ahaseians in the Trojan War. In principle, both poems form a ruler's image in perfect light. Critics are perceived as a collective character, which is in place of many positive features.

The work of Homer refers to the eighth century BC. Later authors, such as Eurypid, made a completely new jet into their works. If they were the main relationship between the heroes and gods, as well as the trust of the celestial and their interference in the life of ordinary people, now everything changes. The tragedies of the new generation reflect the inner world of man.

Culture Briefly speaking, in the classic period, trying to penetrate deeper and answer most of the eternal questions. In this "study", areas such as literature, philosophy, visual art participated. Speakers and poets, thinkers and artists - everyone tried to realize the many-sidedness of the world and convey to the wisdom to descendants.

Art

Classification of art is based on elements of vases. The Greek (Ahaseco-Mina) period is preceded by Crito-Mysensky, when a developed civilization existed on the islands, and not on the Balkan Peninsula.

Actually the culture of ancient Greece, a brief description of which we give in the article, is formed at the end of the second millennium BC. The most ancient monuments were temples (for example, the Apollo temple on the island of Fera) and the painting of the vessels. The latter is characterized by an ornament in the form of the simplest geometric shapes. The main era was a ruler and a circulation.

In the archaic period, which began near the seventh century to our era, art becomes more developed and bold. Corinth Chernolak ceramics appears, the poses of people depicted on vessels and bas-reliefs are borrowed from Egypt. There is a so-called archaic smile at sculptures that are becoming increasingly natural.

In the classic era, the "relief" of architecture occurs. Doric style is replaced by Ionian and Corinthian. Instead of limestone, marble is beginning to apply, and buildings and sculptures become more air. This civilization phenomenon is completed, by Hellenism, the heyday of the Empire of Alexander Macedonsky.

Today, the culture of ancient Greece is studied in many institutions - briefly for children, more fully for adolescents and deeply for researchers. But even with all the desire, we do not fully cover the material left to us by representatives of this solar people.

Philosophy

Even the origin of this term is Greek. Ellinov distinguished the strongest love for wisdom. Not in vain in the whole ancient world, they were considered the most highly educated people.

Today we do not remember anyone from the scholars of Mesopotamia or Egypt, we know the units of Roman researchers, but the names of the Greek thinkers at all on hearing. Democritis and Protagor, and Pythagoras, Socrates and Plato, Epicur and Heraclit - they all made a huge contribution to the World Culture, enriched the results of their experiments to civilization so much that we still use their achievements.

Pythagoreans, for example, absolished the role of numbers in our world. They believed that with their help, it is possible not only to describe everything, but even predicting the future. Sofists basically paid attention to the inner world of man. Good was determined by them like what is nice, and evil - as a thing or an event causing suffering.

The democritus and epicurus developed the teaching of the atomism, that is, the fact that the world consists of meager elementary particles, the existence of which has proven only after the invention of the microscope.

Socrates transferred the attention of thinkers from cosmology to the study of a person, and Plato idealized the world of ideas, considering it the only real.

Thus, we see that the features of the culture of ancient Greece, briefly, they reflected through the prism of the philosophical worldview on a modern life of a person.

Theatre

Those who visited Greece for a long time remembered a stunning feeling that a person is experiencing, being in the amphitheater. His magical acoustics, which even today seems miracle, conquers the hearts for more than one thousand years. This is a structure in which there is not one tens of rows, the scene is located under the open sky, and the viewer sitting at the furthest place is able to hear how the coin falls on the scene. Isn't a miracle of engineering thought?

Thus, we see that the culture of ancient Greece, briefly described above, formed the foundations of contemporary art, philosophy, science and social institutions. If it were not for the ancient Ellity, it is unknown, no matter how modern lifestyle was.

The archaic period in Greek history occupies a special place. At this time, the foundations of the culture and development of society were laid, which over the next centuries were continuously improved. Greece of the archaic period is the improvement of the craft and shipbuilding, the appearance of real money and the widespread span of iron. Disputes are being conducted about the temporary framework of the archaic period. It is customary to consider it within 8-5 centuries BC.

Culture and crafts

The archaic period was updated by the culture of Greece. The center of the new value system was the human personality, new literary genres appeared. A lyric poetry came to the change of epos, which described joy, grief and feelings. Philosophy originated as a science as a result of attempts by Greek thinkers to understand what place in this world a man is assigned.

In Greece, painting developed painting, and the best example is ceramics, which preserved an amazing painting painting. The main types of ancient Greek VAZ were widely developed in the archaic era: hydria for wearing water, volumetric craters for mixing wine with water, oval amphoras with two handles and a narrow neck, in which grain stored, oil, wine and honey. The form of vessels fully corresponded to their purpose, and the painting acquired flexible lines. In ceramics, the story scenes and vegetable motives were increasingly depicted.

Especially the development of painting on vases is noticeable during the late Archaician period, when the black-phi-edge style gets the spread, and the excavory ornament completely loses its value. The technique of execution is gradually complicated - it requires a greater skill.

Greek sculpture and architecture

Architecture in the archaic period developed rapidly. More attention was paid to the decoration of churches and public buildings. Temples were built in the most prominent places, since they were the center of not only spiritual, but also political activities. It was at that time that created a warrant system that predetermined the development of Greek architecture. During the archaic period, two orders were distinguished: ionic and doric. The latter is characteristic of the Greek colonies in southern Italy and on Peloponnese, and its origin is associated with the cities of Ionia.

The temples of the archaic era are decorated with sculptures of mythological heroes and gods. In them, the Greeks embodied their ideas about physical perfection. As a means of expressiveness, the so-called archaic smile was used - limited mimic, playful and not quite a natural smile. Therefore, the sculptures began to resemble a living person. Artists at that time sought to heat the image and fill it with its content. Realism has intensified thanks to a bright coloring - the archaic sculptures that have reached us remained only traces of paint.

Economy and Society

Changes in all areas were due to economic lifting. The use of iron made it possible to develop viticulture and increase the number of olive products. As a result, the surplus began to be taken out of Greece, and the profit was stimulated by agriculture. Communications strengthened between the policies, economic transformations changed markedly Greece. As a legitarious result - the appearance of money, and the number of land is no longer an indicator of wealth. In all Greek polishes, the number of artisans, merchants, shop owners, the peasants have implemented products at the national assets - the city of Greece began to form culturally, politically and economically a full-fledged society.

The rate of the economy grew quickly, and also rapidly grew a bundle in society. Social groups and classes appeared in the Greek Polisters. Somewhere such processes processed more intense, somewhere slower - for example, in zones, where agriculture had more importance. The very first elected class of merchants and artisans. This layer gave rise to "tyranny" - coming to power with the use of force. But among Tiranans there were many those who strongly supported the development of trade, crafts, shipbuilding. And only then these despots appeared, and the phenomenon acquired a negative shade.

A special stage of the archaic period is the Great Greek Colonization. The poor, who did not accept the bundle, were looking for a better life in new Greek colonies. It was beneficial to rulers such a state of affairs: it was so easier to spread the impact on new lands. The most common was the colonization of the southern direction: East of Spain, Sicily, part of Italy, Corsica and Sardinia. In the southeastern direction, North Africa and Phenicia were settled, and in the northeast - the shores of the Black and Marmara Seas. The event, subsequently influenced the course of history, was the basis of Byzantium - the city-progenitor of the Great Constantinople. But its development and growth are already related to the other, subsequent epochs.