Raphael

All Italian art is 15-16 centuries. In its very essence, harmony, grace, a sense of measure; Mind and logic dominate it over a sense, humble the most unrestrained impulses. And there is an artist, while from the greatest in the whole world history, which found a point of support for his highest aspirations.

This artist is Rafael. The son of the artist and the poet - Humanist, Rafael Santi early reached the highest honors. Already the earliest works are noticeable of the new ideal.

An example of this can serve as "Madonna Concatented". This is one of their smashing early in Raphael's embodiments of the image of Madonna, who occupied an important place in his art. Unlike the masters of the 15th century, in the picture of the young Raphael there was new qualities, when the harmonic composite construction not only does not shine images, but, on the contrary, perceived as a necessary condition for the feeling of naturalness and freedom that they generate.

To even higher, these qualities affected the best of its early works - "Mary's hoising", in which the artistic organization of all elements of the picture was very clearly manifested.

The creative progress of Raphael was so fast that Perugino's workshop became too close for him. In 1504, the painter moved to Florence. He with passion studies the creation of such masters as Leonardo and Michelangelo. Art for Raphael is to imagine with all the evidence and perfect clarity of the truth of theology and history. From the point of view of the painter, art repeats the act of Divine Revelation. The correctness of the Forms depicted by Rafael displays not from ideal representations, but from life experience. Beautiful is nothing but the best among what exists in nature and is searched by selection and comparisons.

In general, the successes of Rafael in Florence were so significant that they made his name widely known. In 1508, he is invited to Rome to the Papal Dvor. Becoming as if the official painter of the papal court, he involuntarily approaches his creatures to the expression of a comprehensive religious ideal, is the ideal of unearthly, peaceful beauty and general harmony of the soul and body.

Rafael was charged with paintings of the apartments of Pope - the so-called stanits (that is, the rooms). The best of the Vatican frescoes of Rafael belong to the greatest creatures of renaissance art. They give the opportunity to trace the basic patterns of the evolution of the creativity of Rafael and the art of this period as a whole.

Instead of mythology, decorated with these walls, Rafael immediately made a revival atmosphere here. In four extensive compositions, he depicted allegorically religion, art, philosophy and right.

Each of the frescoes is the apotheosis of eternal beauty. Each - apotheosis of man happiness, transformed, ascending the soul and thought to the Divine. It is difficult to find in the history of the arts of any other art ensemble, which would have made the impression of such a figurative saturation in the plan of ideological and fine-decorative as the Vatican rafael villages. Unlike Leonardo, Rafael will not tear us with his secrets, does not crush up with his all-way, but gently invites you to fall in earthly beauty with him.

"Rafael was aware," Vazari writes, "that in anatomy he cannot achieve superiority over Michelangelo. As a man of a big reason, he realized that painting was not only in the image of a naked body, that its guardianship is wider ... Not being able to compare with Michelangelo in this area, Rafael tried to be equal to another. "

Raphael sought to the highest synthesis, to the radiant completion of everything that was reached before him, and this synthesis was found and embodied.

The past merges with the present. Poets of classical antiquity communicate with Renaissance Poets ("Parnas"). Praise ("jurisprudence") is given to secular and church legislation.

But the best fresco and the greatest work of Rafael should generally be recognized as "Athenian school". This composition is one of the most vivid evidence of the celebration in the Renaissance art of humanistic ideas and their deep ties with ancient culture. The image of a perfect person gained a concrete expression it is Aristotle.

In the picture, the extensive portico in the style of the Renaissance. At the top of a wide staircase stand next to Platon and Aristotle, busy dispute. Plato is a representative of idealism - indicates hand on the sky. It looks like a biblical prophet. Aristotle, on the contrary, stretches his hand down, pointing to the ground, and as if proving that the basis of the system should be the study of nature phenomena on Earth.

Aristotle is the most beautiful creation of the Earth. His face turned towards Plato, against the background of floating clouds, glows with reason and kindness. Calm, moderation, genuine power that commands human passions is captured in its image. The ideal type of man born by the inspiration of Baldassare Castiglion and the genius of Rafael ascended to true perfection, found the most integral, complete personification in it.

On all sides, these figures are surrounded by groups of philosophers, scientists and students. They greedily listened to the dispute of two great teachers, others are busy with their disputes. Special relief acquired characteristics of acting persons.

Different schools appear here. Pythagoras, Heraclit, Democritus, Socrates, etc. It is impossible to list all alive and expressive poses here.

The whole picture is a whole world of science, philosophy and will always be delighted and surprisingly the viewer of the unusual beauty of the harmonic whole and lying on it the seal of the inspired author.

As before, an important place in the subject of Raphael was occupied by the image of Madonna. Florentine Madonna Rafael is also beautiful, pretty, touching and charming young mothers. Madonns created by him in Rome, that is, in the period of complete artistic maturity, acquire other features. This is already the lords, the goddesses of good and beauty, which enhance the world that spiritualized harmony, which they express themselves. "Madonna in a chair", "Madonna with fish", "Madonna del Foligno" and others, mean new quest for Rafael, his way to perfection in the embodiment of the ideal image of Our Lady.

"Sicstinskaya Madonna" (so called by the name of the monastery for which this altar image was written) is the most famous picture of Raphael.

Maria goes on the clouds, carrying his child. Glory is not emphasized by anything. Legs of Bosa. But as a lady meets her, holding his knees, Pope Sikst, dressed in a pass; Holy Varbara lowers eyes with awe, and two angels rush up dreamily thoughtful eyes.

She goes to people, young and magnifying, something anxious hopping in his soul; The wind pegs a child's hair, and his eyes look at us, as if he sees his fate, and the fate of the whole human race.

This is not a reality, but a spectacle. No wonder the artist himself spread the heavy curtain in the picture. The spectacle, transforming reality in the greatness of things, wisdom and beauty, the spectacle towering the soul of its absolute harmony, conquering and refining us, the most spectacle that has eager and gained, finally, Italy is high rebirth in a dream about the best world.

In the view of the same sequence Madonna there is something that as if it allows us to look into her soul. She looks not on us, but by or through us, - there is a shade of anxiety and the expression that appears in a person when his fate suddenly opens. The drama of the image of the mother is shared in his unity with the image of the Baby of Christ, whom the artist has endowed a nonsense seriousness and turning.

Sicstinskaya Madonna gives a visual example inherent in Rafaelevsky images of movements and gestures. In the movement of her hands carrying a baby, an instinctive gust of the mother, pressing the child, is guessed, and at the same time the feeling that her son does not belong only to her that she is sacrificed to people.

Rafael drew the image of Madonna from the narrow sphere of Catholic views and crossed it into flesh and blood. On the other hand, in the beauty of man, he found a deity.

The state of the soul that has already left the earth and a decent sky, there is a deep, constant feeling, an elevated, who has begun the mystery of the sky, the silent, immutable happiness that everything lies in words: I feel and know!

"Sikstinskaya Madonna" - the embodiment of the ideal of beauty and good, who vaguely inspired the people's consciousness in the age of Raphael and who Rafael expressed to the end, spreading the curtain, the one that separates everyday life from the inspired dream, and showed this ideal to peace, all of us and Those who come after us.

The creativity of Rafael had a great influence on the development of European painting. Fair words belonging to a friend of the artist Castiglione: "He ended up his first life: his second life - in his posthumous fame - will continue forever in his works and that scientists will say in his praise."

North Caucasus State Technological University

ESSAY

On the topic: "The history of the idea of \u200b\u200bhumanism"

Student Group ACSU 01-2

Barasheva Vasily.

Vladikavkaz, 2001.

The term "Humanism" comes from Latin "Humanitas" (humanity), which was still in the I B. BC. Famous Roman speaker Cicero (106-43 BC. er). For him, Humanitas is the upbringing and education of a person who contributes to its elevation.

The principle of humanism intended to attribute to a person as a higher value, respect for the dignity of each personality, her right to life, free development, the realization of their abilities and desire for happiness. Humanism implies recognition of all fundamental human rights, approves the benefit of personality as a higher criterion for assessing any social activity.

Like a trait of world culture, humanism manifested himself in ancient world. Already from the era of the ancient kingdom in Egypt (III millennium BC) to us reached us the type of inscriptions of the priests of the Sheshi: "I saved the unfortunate from the stronger ... I gave the bread hungry, the robe naked. I transported the boat without having Her. I buried not having my own son ... "A large number of similar texts indicates the existence of a strong humanistic jet, permeating the culture of ancient Egypt.

The ancient Egyptians managed to develop wonderful principles of the moral behavior of an individual, humanism. Books of wisdom amenmona testify to a very high level of morality. In ancient Egyptian culture, everything is immersed in the atmosphere of religiosity, but at the same time, all at the same time has powerful roots in the depths of pure humanity.

As a direction in culture, humanism arose in the XIV century in Italy and spread in Western Europe from the XV century. Revival, or Renaissance (from FR. Renaitre - reborn) has become one of the brightest eras in the development of European culture, covering almost three centuries from the middle of the XIV century. until the first decades of the XVII century. It was the era of large changes in the history of the peoples of Europe. Under the conditions of a high level of city civilization, the process of the origin of capitalist relations and the crisis of feudalism began, the nations and the creation of large national states began, there was a new form of political system - an absolute monarchy, new public groups of bourgeoisie and the hired working person were formed. The spiritual world of man changed. The Renaissance man was covered by the thirst for self-affirmation, great accomplishments, actively involved in public life, re-opened the world of nature, sought to deeply comprehend, admired her beauty. For the culture of the Renaissance, the secular perception and understanding of the world is characterized, the approval of the value of the Earth Being, the greatness of the mind and the creative abilities of a person, the dignity of the individual. The ideological basis of the culture of Renaissance was humanism.

Humanists opposed the dictatorship of the Catholic Church in the spiritual life of society. They criticized the method of scholastic science, based on formal logic (dialectic), rejected her dogmatism and faith in authorities, thereby clearing the path for the free development of scientific thought. Initially, he manifested itself in the form of protection of secular values \u200b\u200bagainst oppression by the ascetic medieval church. In some Italian universities, they returned to a semi-free and rejected in the Middle Ages an ancient cultural and scientific heritage. In improving the human spiritual nature, the main role was assigned a complex of disciplines consisting of grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, ethics. It was these disciplines that became theoretical base of the Renaissance culture and got the name "Studia Humanitatis" (humanitarian disciplines). The Latin concept of "Humanitas" then meant the desire to develop human dignity, contrary to the long-term accuracy of the value of everything that is associated with human life. The ideal was seen in harmony between enlightened and activity.

Humanists called for the study of ancient culture, which the Church denied as a pagan, perceiving from it only that did not contradict the Christian doctrine. The restoration of the ancient heritage was not for them in itself, but served as the basis for solving topical problems of modernity, to build a new culture. The origin of the renaissance literature in the second half of the XIV century. associated with the names of Francesco Petrorski and Giovanni Boccaccio. They argued the humanistic ideas of the dignity of the individual, tieting him not with trickyness, but with the valiant acts of man, his freedom and right to enjoy the joy of earthly life.

The Poet and Philosopher Francesca Petrack (1304-1374) is unanimously considered by the Humanism. Petraka was the first great humanist, a poet and a citizen who managed to overlook the wholeness of the foresight of thought and combine them in the poetic synthesis, which became the program of the upcoming European generations. With his work, he managed to instill in this upcoming generation of Western and Eastern Europe consciousness - albeit not always a clear - some spiritual and cultural unity, whose beneficialness affects the modern our century.

In his work - the beginning of many paths that the development of Renaissance culture in Italy went. In the treatise "On ignorance of his own and many others", he strongly rejects an inherent scholastic scholarship, in relation to which defiantly proclaims his alleged ignorance, because it considers such a scholarship of a completely useless man of his time.

In the mentioned treatise, a fundamentally new approach to the assessment of an ancient heritage is manifested. According to Petrarch, come to a new flowering of literature, art, science will allow not blind imitation of the thoughts of remarkable predecessors, but the desire to rise to the heights of the ancient culture and at the same time rethink and transcend it into something. This line, scheduled by Petrarch, has become leading against humanism to the ancient heritage.

The first humanist believed that the content of genuine philosophy should be the science of man, and in all his work he sounds a call to reorient the philosophy on this worthy object of knowledge.

His arguments of Petraque laid the foundation for the formation of a personal self-awareness of the Renaissance. In different epochs, personality is aware of themselves in different ways. The medieval person was perceived by the more valuable as a person, the more his behavior corresponded to the standards adopted in the corporation. He argued himself through the most active inclusion in the social group, to the corporation, in an invalid order is such a public value demanding from the individual. The Renaissance man gradually refuses universal medieval concepts, referring to a specific, individual.

Humanists produce a new approach to understanding a person in which the concept of activity is played a huge role. The value of the human personality is determined not by origin or social affiliation, but personal merit and the fruitfulness of its activities.

The vivid embodiment of this approach can serve, for example, the versatile activities of the famous humanist Leona Battists Alberta (1404-1472). He was an architect, a painter, the author of treatises about art, formulated the principles of the pictorial composition - the equilibrium and symmetry of color, gestures and poses characters. According to Albert, a person is able to defeat the vicinity of fate only with its own activity. "Easily defeats the one who does not want to be defeated. Tolerates the head of fate who is used to obey. "

Humanistic thought of the second half of the XV century. It was enriched with new ideas, the most important of which was the idea of \u200b\u200bthe dignity of the person, pointing to the special properties of a person compared to other creatures and its particular position in the world. Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494) In his bright "speech about the dignity of a person" places it in the center of the world:

"We do not give you, about Adam, nor of your place, no definite image, nor special duties, to the place, and the person, and the duties you have at your own request, according to your will and your decision."

It is argued that God (contrary to the Church Dogma) did not create a person in his image and likeness, but provided him with the opportunity to create himself. The culmination of humanistic anthropocentrism becomes the idea of \u200b\u200bPico that the dignity of a person is concluded in his freedom: he can be the one who wishes.

By glorifying the power of a person and his greatness, admiring his amazing creations, the thinking of the revival era inevitably came to the rapprochement of a person with God.

"A person tame winds and wins the sea, knows the bill of time ... In addition, he turns the night with a lamp on day. Finally, the divinity of a person reveals our magic. It creates wonders with hands, like those that can create nature and those that only God can create. "

In such reasoning, Dzhannozzo Manetti (1396-1472), Martilyo Fechino (1433-1499), Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639), Pico (1463-1494), etc. The most important characteristic of humanistic anthropocentrism was manifested - a tendency for man deification.

However, the humanists were neither heretics nor atheists. On the contrary, in the overwhelming majority they remained believers. But if a Christian worldview argued that God should be in the first place, and then a man, the humanists put forward a person to the fore, and then talked about God.

The presence of God in the philosophy of even the most radically conquered thinkers of the Renaissance was imposed at the same time critical attitude towards the Church as a Social Institute. The humanistic worldview, thus, includes anticlerical (from lat. Anti - against, Clericalis - church) views, that is, the views directed against the claims of the Church and the clergy for domination in society.

In the writings of Lorenzo Valya, Leonardo Bruni (1374-1444), Pozho Bracolini (1380-1459), Erasca Rotterdam (1469-1536) and others contain performances against the secular power of Roman dads, exposure to the eligibility of ministers of the church and moral depravity of monasticism. However, this did not prevent many humanists to become servants of the church, and two of them are Tommaso Parentechelli and Enia Silvio Piccolomini - even were erected in the XV century. on the papal throne.

I must say that until the middle of the XVI century. Pursuit of Humanists from the Catholic Church - the phenomenon is extremely rare. The advocates of new secular culture were not afraid of fires of the Inquisition and were heard of good Christians. And only the Reformation - (from Lat.Reformatio - transformation) Movement for updating faith, addressed against the papacy - forced the church to go to the offensive.

Relationship relations and renaissance contradictory. On the one hand, the Humanists of the Renaissance and representatives of the Reformation of the relatral dislike for scholastics, the thirst for religious renewal, the idea of \u200b\u200breturning to the origins (in one case - to antique, in the other - to Evangelical). On the other hand, the Reformation is a protest against the Renaissance exaltation of a person.

In total, this inconsistency is manifested in comparison of the views of the generic team of the Reformation of Martin Luther and the Dutch Humanist Erasma Rotterdam. The thoughts of Erasma often echo with the arguments of Luther: this is a sarcastic look at the privileges of Catholic hierarchs, and stinging remarks about the image of the thoughts of Roman theologians. But they dispersed in relation to freedom of will. Luther defended the idea that a person had no will in the face of God, nor dignity. Only if a person realizes that he cannot be the Creator of his destiny, he can escape. And the only and sufficient condition of salvation is faith. For Erasma, human freedom meant no less than God. Scripture for him is a call faced by God to a person, and the latter will respond to him or not.

Anyway, the era of the Renaissance, replaced by the Middle Ages, "touched" Christian ethics and contributed to the further development of humanism.

The development of ideas of humanism in Russia.

Already at the first significant Russian poets of the XVIII century - Lomonosov and Derzhavin - we find secularized nationalism, connected to humanism. No longer holy rus, but the Great Rus inspires them; National Eros, the use of Russia's magnitude relate to the empirical existence of Russia outside of all historiosophical justification. In this appeal to Russia, there is, of course, the reaction against the blind worship of the West and the dismissive attitude towards the whole Russian, which was so brightly manifested in Russian tightness. Lomonosov was a hot patriot and believed that:

Can own Platonov

And rapid mind of nonsense

Russian land give birth.

Derzhavin, the true "singer of Russian glory", protects the freedom and dignity of man; In verses written on the birth of the grandson of Catherine II (the future of Emperor Alexander I), he exclaims:

Whether the passions of your lord,

This motive of pure humanism is increasingly the crystallization core of the new ideology. In order not to stop in immeasurable material, here we are related, we will dwell only at the two bright representatives of the Russian humanism of the XVIII century - Novikov and Radishchev.

Novikov (1744-1818) was born in the family of a poor landowner, he received a rather weak formation of the house, but a lot of worked on his self-education. At age 25, he took the publication of the magazine ("Drone"), in which he manifested himself with a man of a large public, a passionate accuser of various innocents of Russian life, a hot idealist. Fighting with blind worship of the West, ridicuing the cruel morals of the Russian life of that time, new sorrow writes about the gravit of Russian peasants. The work of thought was under the sign of the reaction to the then "Wessengers" and the development of a new national self-consciousness. But in the humanism of the XVIII century, Russians increasingly begins to move the main importance of morality and even preached the championship of morality over the mind. In pedagogical dreams, so close in Russia of the XVIII century to the utopian plan for the creation of a new breed of people, "the development of an existent heart", and not reason, the development of "intonabling to good" was put forward to the first place. Fonvizyn in the "inexpensive" expresses such aphorism: "The mind, since he is only the mind, - the very strap; the direct price of the mind gives reluctance." In these words, moralism is very typically expressed, as a new feature of Russian consciousness.

Let us turn to another bright expressive of the Russian humanism of the XVIII century - A. N. Radishchev, from which we will find even more philosophical content.

Radishchev's name is surrounded by a halo of martyrdom (like Novikov too), but, in addition, for subsequent generations of the Russian intelligentsia, Radishchev became a kind of banner, as a bright and radical humanist, like a hot supporter of a primacy of a social problem.

In the face of Radishchev, we are dealing with a serious thinker, which under other conditions could give a lot of valuable in the philosophical region, but his fate was unfavorable. The creativity of Radishchev received one-sided lighting in the subsequent generations - he turned into a "hero" of the Russian radical movement, in a bright fighter for the liberation of peasants, a representative of Russian revolutionary nationalism. All this, of course, was in it; Russian nationalism, and before it is secularized, Radishchev absorbs the radical conclusions of "natural law", becomes a seatingman of that revolutionary enzyme that first manifested himself from Rousseau for the first time.

The heavy fate of Radishchev gives him the right to the exclusive attention of historians of the Russian national movement in the XVIII century - he is undoubtedly the top of this movement, as a bright and hot representative of radicalism. The secularization of thought was in Russia the XVIII century very quickly and led to the secular radicalism of descendants of those who used to stand for church radicalism. Radishchev brighter than others, somehow more than others relied on the ideas of natural law, which in the XVIII century stood with russia, with criticism of modern inappropriate. But, of course, Radishchev is not alone in this - he only brighter than others expressed a new ideology, fulfiguously approved the primacy of a social and moral topic in building a new ideology. But Radishcheva must be put primarily in connection with the last task - with the development of free, extracurric, secularized ideology. The philosophical substantiation of this ideology was on the queue - and the Radishchev first tries to give an independent her substantiation (of course, relying on the thinkers of the West, but their synthesizing them in their own way). Developing within the boundaries of nationalism and humanism, Radishchev will penetrate the hot pathos of freedom and restoration of the "natural" order of things.

In the spiritual mobilization of the creative forces of Russia played a huge role of Russian Freemasonry of the XVIII and early XIX centuries. On the one hand, it attracted people who were looking for a counterweight to the atheistic currents of the XVIII century, and in this sense, the expression of the religious demands of Russian people of this time. On the other hand, Freemasonry, fasciating with their idealism and noble humanistic dreams of serving humanity, itself was the phenomenon of extincing religiosity, free from all church authority. Capturing the significant layers of the Russian society, Freemasonry, undoubtedly raised creative movements in the shower, was a school of humanism, and at the same time awakened mental interests. By giving the spacious, free-looking spirit, Freemasonry dismissed from superficial and vulgar Russian Validation.

Humanism that eats from Freemasonry, we already sign on the figure N. I. Novikov. The basis of this humanism was the reaction against one-sided intellectualism of the era. The beloved formula was the idea here that "the enlightenment without a moral ideal carries the poison." Here, of course, there is a proximity to the preaching of Rousseau, to chanting feelings - but there is an echo and the current in Western Europe, which was associated with English moralists, with the formation of an "aesthetic person" (especially in England and Germany), i.e. With all that preceded the appearance of romanticism in Europe. But here, of course, influenced the various occult flows, raised the head just in the midst of European enlightenment. In Russian humanism associated with Freemasonry, the motives were played purely moral. In this regard, the humanism of the XVIII century is in a close connection with the moral patimate of Russian journalism of the XIX century.

Turning to the religious and philosophical trends in Freemasonry, we note that the Freemasonry applies from our mid-XVIII century - to the reign of Elizabeth. Russian Higher Society by this time has already finally moved away from his native antiquity. Some of them were fond of cheap "coolness", as boltons expressed, someone went to nationalist interests, in pure humanism, occasionally - in scientific training (especially Russian history). But there were people and other warehouses that had spiritual requests and painfully experienced the emptiness created with a departure from church consciousness. The successes of Freemasonry in Russian society showed that there were a lot of such people: Freemasonry opened them the way to a concentrated spiritual life, to serious and genuine idealism and even to religious life (outside the church, however). In the translation and original Masonic literature, the main religious and philosophical theme is quite clear: the doctrine of the innermost life in man, about the innermost sense of life in general. Here, theoretical and practical interest merged together; The special attractiveness of this mystifsis was attached to its independence from the official church doctrine, and at the same time, obvious superiority, in comparison with the walking scientific and philosophical teachings of the era. For the Russian society, the teachings, which were opened in Masonry, were shown by the manifestation of precisely - in her deeper flow. Freemasonry, like the whole secularized culture, believed in the "golden age in front," to progress, called for creativity, to "philanthropy". In Russian Freemasonry, all the main features of the future "advanced" intelligentsia were formed - and in the first place there was a primacy of morality and the consciousness of the debt to serve society, in general practical idealism. It was the path of ideological life and an effective serving ideal.

In modern philosophy, with changes in life and thoughts, which occurred from the end of the XIX century with increasing acceleration, many principles, including classical humanism, were questioned.

The peculiar humanism of the new wave seems to be the philosophy of existentialism (from Latelatinsky Existentia - existence). Martin Heidegger became the father of existential thought for modern existentialism. He had a decisive influence on French existentialism.

The central thesis of existentialism is the statement according to which "Essence of Human Being is Eksistence, in a crime", in exit of all other creatures and himself .. This means not only what I wanted to show Sartre in the composition "Existentialism is Humanism, "a person is open to the world, and not busting predestinability ... but also that inside itself is a person - a constant pre-step, an infinite confusion.

Hydegger opposes its concept to traditional humanism in rational and optimistic form of the XVIII-XIX centuries, as well as the dogmatic form of approval of unchanged values. However, Humanism, he refutes not in the name of antigumanism, but in the name of the Eksistence of a person, his incompleteness, its creative knowledge.

Existentialism - the philosophy of harsh and sober, in the center of his research costs a person who has become the experience of two world wars hostile ideology, a person whose forces only enough to exist and pursue the only goal: externally and internally cope with the burden of his fate.

Humanism brought to the ethical thought recognition of the intrinsication of the human person and earthly life. Hence, the ideas of happiness, justice and equality of people were gradually developed. Volto or unwittingly, but the humanistic current of the Renaissance has contributed to the approval of the personal rights and, in particular, recognizing the right to a happy life. It is not to be surprised that in the future, humanism was organically transformed in humanity, promoting softness in relations, compassion, mercy, friendliness, and with time and tolerance for dissenters. Many philosophical flows absorbed humanism features. Humanism as a phenomenon turned out to be a historically changing system of views. Observing in art, he opened the road to science, the scientific and technical revolution, contributed to the economic boom, education, social transformations and revolutions.

List of references:

1. L.M.BRARNA "Socially - the ethical views of the Italian Gum

nists "(II half of the XV century) Publishing house MSU, 1983

2. Essays of the history of Russian ethical thought. M., "Science", 1976

3. From the history of the culture of middle ages and rebirth. Publisher "Nauka", M., 1976

4. Aesthetics. Vocabulary. Politicization, M., 1989

· Anti-carbon orientation;

· Recognition of a person with harmonious unity of bodily and spiritual began, mind and passion;

· Understanding a person as a activity, active person;

· Recognition of freedom of mind and thoughts;

· Recognition of creativity by the highest manifestation of human abilities;

· Optimistic worldview, desire for the completeness of life.

"Talented, restless, unbridled minds, quickly working, are prohibitively proud, never satisfied, with stoic speeches in the language, but fell on money, on the good of life, for honors and respect, unwarkedly embarrassing to noble and rich, viciously rival among themselves" - such is the portrait of these new breed people, proudly called themselves humanists (A.STEPANOV).

F. Petrack, the spiritual father of the Humanists, exclaimed: "As far as the eloquence is more expensive than life itself for all of us, rotating in the dust of the literary palist, we strive to glory so hotly than the virtue!".

The ideas of humanism that his personal qualities are important in man, such as mind, creative energy, enterprise, feeling of self-esteem, will and education, and not a social status and origin, will become the basis of the culture of the new time.

Evidence of new views on a person is even the name of the treatises of the Renaissance: "On the advantage of man's advantage" (Fazio) or "Speech about the dignity of a person" (Pico della Mirandol) (for comparison, you can recall the medieval message of the Roman Pope: "On the negligence of the human condition" ).

An example of a new personality can serve as an Italian philosopher-humanist Pico della Mirandola (1463 - 1494). At the age of 20, he knew 28 languages, and his belief in the infinity of the human mind and his own education was so great that he agreed to invite 20 intelligent people from all over the Earth to answer 700 of the most difficult issues. Such self-confidence did not know European culture, especially after a thousand years of rejection of a medieval person.

The era of the Renaissance brought the rationale for such an exaltation of man. Pico Della Mirandol in a new way interpreted the story of creating a man by God: Having created a man and "... putting it in the center of the world, God turned to him with such words:" We do not give you, about Adam, nor a certain place, no own way, nor special obligations So that the place and face and the duty you have at your own request, according to your will and your decision. "

Freedom and independence were declared, thus, the inalienable features of a person, but even more significant was the thought of man as the center of the world. It was she who became the basis of the new worldview - anthropocentrism, according to which the person was considered the highest goal of the universe.

5. Appeal to antiquity.

Antique culture has become for the era of reviving the source of inspiration and new ideas. Humanists saw in the antiquity sample of harmony, a reasonable social device and tried to get closer to the globility of the ancients. Return to the forgotten achievements of ancient culture occurred in the field of science, philosophy, literature, art, classical Golden Latin. Thus, in Italy, the manuscripts of ancient writers were wanted, removed from the oblivion of the work of an antique sculpture, architecture and became samples for studying and imitate (for example, Michelangelo depicts biblical David in the image of an antique hero).

In Florence in the XV century. A Platonov Academy was formed, where the enlightened aristocratic audience studied eloquence, the ownership of Latin and Greek, the grace of the manner and the art of love.

The imitation of antiquity was often paradoxical. For example, the Alberti architect created in Rimini in the Gothic Temple of the tomb of a notable lady, on which Latin inscription was: "Divae Isotta Sacrum", i.e. "Divine isa", as they wrote in Roman tombstones. This example is very indicative: on the one hand, the Renaissance era tried to revive the pagan antiquity, but on the other hand, the Creators of Renaissance were people of Christian culture, and antiquity could not become organically close to them.

The era of the Renaissance was thus the experience of the compound of unsecast: pagan and Christian cultures. A vivid example of such experience can be called the work of Botticelli, who depicted the pagan goddesses with the faces of Madonna.

It is noteworthy in this regard, the point of view of O. Spengor, who considers the era of reviving by cultural regress: Europe did not create anything new, but only mechanically repeated old discoveries.

6. Understanding creativity.

The era of Renaissance was not unfounded, putting a person to the center of the world, to the place of God. Renaissance thinkers found that convincing evidence: a person is like God, because He is able to create. The ability to work has become for the era of the revival of the main advantage of man. Creativity was valued above wealth and titles (a peculiarity of humanism can be called a kind of hostility to the power of gold and wealth).

A lot of examples of recognition for the artist of higher status represents the Renaissance, among whom Jotto, who allowed himself to be keen and comments against the Neapolitan King, or Michelangelo, whose fame was so great that his name did not need titles and even the names.

The ideal of the Renaissance is a person - the creator, a universal genius, who does not know the boundaries, seeking to cover the impossible, unite the divine and human. An example is Michelangelo, who, as the Creator, creates a new world in the frescoes of the Sistine Chapel. Such an understanding of man received the name of the revived titanium. The best example is the figure Leonardo da Vinci.

In his work, he seemed to competed with nature and the Creator, as if designed and built the world from Nature Chaos. His "Joconda" is an example of "higher synthesis" based on all knowledge of nature and man. When the viewer is trying to put it with certain emotions or is attributed to her or another state of state, he destroys the design of Leonardo: For Leonardo, these categories of crayons; Ethics, soul, faith are too human. His intention is predicted - all immediately and nothing specifically: personality, age and floor of Joconda (there is a version that it is Self-portrait Leonardo at a young age and the image of a woman), time of day, time of year, the geography of the landscape and even his earthly origin remains a question for the viewer. "Mona Lisa smiles like the Universe itself" (A.Yakimovich).

7. "The reverse side of titanism."

Unprecedented to the era of the revival of the artist's attempt to get over nature turned around and an attempt to get over the person. "Satanian temptation" called this researcher of Culture A.F. Solev and saw the manifestation of immoralism in the revived ideas.

Indeed, the daily reality of the era very peculiarly embodied the ideas of humanists about human freedom. Not limited freedom has become permissiveness and contempt for all sorts of moral norms. There are many examples. For revenge in churches poisoned bowls with holy water. Pope Alexander IV himself accidentally poisoned poison of his own preparation. Orgies were arranged in the residence of the Roman Pope, the Roman dads with a retainer went to hunt. The priests were forbidden "for the sake of money to be made by the buddies of prostitutes," the monks were indulging in Orgiy, and writers compared monasteries with verteps. The Neapolitan King of Ferrandte kept his enemies in the cells, refused, killed, caught them and served his own enemies to the table, and Ferrarsky Duke had used to walk around the city naked. "The revolving side of the titanism" called this A.F. Solev.

Antiquity gave a peculiar base for double morality: leaning, looking through circumstances, then on Christian, then on antique authorities, an Renaissance person could easily justify any thoughts, any act.

Antipode of humanism became, in fact, the views of the Italian thinker Nikolo Makiavelli (1469-1527), justifying the use of any means to achieve the goal. Machiavelli in her book "Sovereign" expressed the idea that the politician was free from the prohibitions of morality, comparing him with a centaur: "A new state needs to own the nature of both the beast and a person." This was the first awareness of the tragic contradiction between universal morality and political interests.

The self-denial of reviving humanism was also the ideas of the English Humanist of Thomas Moura (1478-1535) and the Italian philosopher Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639), who saw the ideal of social harmony in society built along a rigid hierarchical system regulating all spheres of life. Subsequently, this model will be called "barrage communism." At the heart of this metamorphosis lies a fairly deep feeling of thinkers of the revival of the dual nature of freedom.

The Italian Revival Epoch is conventionally divided into a number of stages:

PRATINESSANS (KRIPITO) - the end of the XIII - XIV centuries.

Early rebirth (quatrocheto) - XV century.

High revival (Ginkovento) -1 Half XVIV.

Later Revival - 2 Half XVI - the beginning of the XVII centuries.

PRASTORESANS (The period XIII - the beginning of the XIV centuries) largely prepared the soil for the art of revival. This period was marked by the work of the great poet Dante Aligiery, Arnolfo Disc Cambio, Sculptor Nikolae Pisano, and the author of the frescoes of Jotto di Bondone (1266/1267 - 1337) with whose name is the turn to realistic art,

Early Renaissance. By the period of the early Renaissance refers literary creativity Francesco Petrarca(1304-1374). He remained in the history of Renaissance as the first humanist and a passionate popularizer of the heritage of ancient authors, as evidenced by his treatise "On the great husbands of antiquity". The worldwide fame received sonnets Petrarchs on the life and death of Madonna Laura, chanting the sublime love for a woman.

Pupil and follower of Petrarch was Brokeccho (1313-1375) - The author of the collection of realistic novel "Decameron", which became satire over the church, rich in subtle observations, excellent knowledge of psychology, humor and optimism.

The legacy of an outstanding wizard of the early Renaissance of Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510), who worked at the courtyard of Medici in Florence, distinguish a thin flavor and mood of sadness.

Sculptor Donatello (OK.1386-1466), reviving the ancient traditions, first introduced a naked body in sculpture. For his art is characterized by realistic manner.

One of the founders of the Renaissance Philippe architecture Bruneland (1377-1446) revived the main elements of the ancient architecture, talentedly solved the most complicated technical tasks (construction of the Dome of the Florentine Cathedral), made a great contribution to the fundamental science (the theory of the linear perspective).

High Renaissance. The high Renaissance period was relatively short. It is primarily connected with the names of three ingenious masters, the titans of Renaissance - Leonardo da Vinci, Rafael Santi and Michelangelo Buonarot. In the work of high revival representatives reached the top of the realistic and humanistic foundations of the Renaissance culture.

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) hardly has equal to themselves according to the degree of genusity and versatility among representatives of the Renaissance. Leonardo was simultaneously an artist, theorist of art, sculptor, architect, mathematician, physicist, mechanic, astronomer, physiologist, botany, an anatom, enriching these and many other areas of knowledge discoveries and ingenious guesses.

In the works of Leonardo, the universalism of representatives of the Renaissance was most fully expressed, where it is difficult to discover the sharp faces between the science, fiction and the embodiment of the intentions.

Junior Contemporary Leonardo Great Painter Italy Rafael Santia (1483-1520) entered the history of world culture as the creator of pictorial masterpieces, imbued with grace and soft lyricism ("Sicstinskaya Madonna"). The master is also famous for paintings of the Paradinary halls of the Vatican Palace (Fresco "Athens School") and architectural projects.

The last Master of High Renaissance was Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) - Great sculptor, painter, architect and poet. Despite his versatile talents, it is called primarily the first drawrower of Italy thanks to the most significant work of a mature artist - the painting of the Sistine Capella in the Vatican Palace (the total fresco area is 600 square meters).

As a sculptor Michelangelo became known thanks to his early work "David". But genuine recognition as an architect and sculptor Michelangelo gained as a designer and head of the construction of the main part of the building of the Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome, remaining and so far the largest Catholic temple in the world. No less fame brought him architectural and sculptural work in Florence, in particular, the sculptural composition in Capelli Medici. Four naked figures on the sarcophagas of the ruler of Florence "Evening", "Daughter", "Morning" and "Day" very brightly illustrate awareness of the Master of Limit of Human Features, despair before a rapid tower. These tragic moods sound in the poem of the last titanium of Renaissance, written on behalf of the sculpture "Night":

"It is gusting to sleep, there is an express stone to be

Oh, in this age, criminal and shameful,

Do not live, do not feel - the lot of enviable.
Please, silently, do not dare to wake me up. "

Art of Venice. For the period of high and late revival, the flowering of art in Venice had fallen. In the second half of the XVI century. Venice, which preserved the republican device, becomes a kind of oasis and the Renaissance Center. Among the artists of the Venetian school - Georgeon (1476-1510), desister than his name, the "Judith" canvases, "Sleeping Venus", "Rural Concert". The greatest representative of the Venetian school - Titian Veverielio (1477 or 1487 -1576). During his lifetime, he received recognition in Europe. The works of Titian attract a novelty decision primarily of colorful and composite tasks ("Little Magdalene", "Love earthly and heavenly", "Venus", "Dana", "Saint Sebastian", etc.)

Late Renaissance. The late revival period was noted by the onset of the Catholic Church. The church tried to restore the partially lost undivided power over the minds, encouraging cultural figures, on the one hand, and using repressive measures regarding unprofitable - on the other. So, many painters, poets, sculptors, architects abandoned the ideas of humanism, inheriting only the Manera, the technique of the Great Masters of Renaissance (the so-called mannerism). Among the largest artists of Manherism Jacopo Pontormamo (1494-1557), Francesco Parmjanino (1503 - 1540), Angelo Brozino (1503-1572), for which the ideal of cold and at the same time sensually mysterious beauty is characteristic.

Renaissance rejected philosophy, based on the concept of a slave person and opposed a different philosophy based on the concept of Lord man, a person who knows and conquering peace (S. D. Artamonov).

The art of revival arose in conditions of transitional time from feudalism to capitalism. As the further approval of capitalist relations in Europe, the Renaissance culture was inevitably had to disintegrate. Its flourishing was associated with the period when the foundations of the feudal public lifestyle and the worldview were, especially in cities, thoroughly loosened, and bourgeois-capitalist relations have not yet been formed in their entire trades, with all their subsection "morality" and a soulless hypocrisy.

At the first stage of the revival, the personal work of the artisan, especially in the field of production of household items, has not yet been fully ousted, destroyed by manuff; An enterprising merchant or banker did not turn into a faceless appendage to his capital. Personalizing, courage, resourcefulness has not yet lost its meaning. Therefore, the value of the human person was determined not so much the "price" of its capital, but also by its valid qualities. The active participation of each citizen in public life created especially favorable circumstances for the flourishing of the personality of active, full energy.

To change the criteria of the church morality, the ideal of a man of the Middle Ages (the monk-asket or the Warrior-Knight "without fear and reproaches") comes the ideal of a bright strong person, striving for happiness on Earth, covered by a passionate desire to develop and approve the creative abilities of its active nature.

Huge importance in the formation of the culture of Renaissance was the appeal to the Great Heritage of Antiquity, not fully lost in medieval Europe. Paphos of ancient culture was a joyful and passionate desire for the knowledge of the real world in all his sensual charm. But the image of a person of revival from the very beginning differed more individualization and psychological concreteness than in the art of an antique classics.

In the XVI century In Italy, the term Humanist appeared for the first time, and in the XIX century. - Humanism (translated from Latin "Humanity:"). Representatives of the new (directions by these terms wanted to show the secular nature of their spiders and literature, the liberation of them from the ambulance of theology.

The beauty of natural human feelings, the poetry of the real human life is permeated by all the art of the revival of the XV-XVI centuries.

In the architecture, the ideals of life-affirming humanism, the desire for harmoniously clear beauty forms manifested themselves in the structures of secular purpose. Town Hall, Loggia, Market Fountains, Charity Houses are especially widespread and monumental and secular character acquire. A bright example of a new type architecture can serve as an educational house of Italian architectural Filippo Brunlelleski (1377-1446). Built in Florence. Its opened in the direction of the colonnade square with beautiful semi-curvous arches expressed his friendly and hospitality.

Along with the civil architecture serving public interests of the city, there is a completely new type of architecture. The dwelling of the rich Burger turns into a monumental, permeated by the spirit of festive cheerfulness of the palace - Palazzo. Palazzo Along with the town halls and temples, the architectural appearance of the Renaissance city in Italy was largely determined.

There was a particular importance to appeal to the ancient order system, the rationality, the logical of the construction of the architectural structure, the identification of the tectonic logic of the building. The humanistic base of the order system, the correlation of its scale and proportions with the scale and proportions of the human body has no less important.

The student and follower of Bruntelleski Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472) developed the systematic use of antique or-deris and showed in his construction Palazzo Perechelai in Florence methods of their use and combination.

It is very characteristic of reviving a wide appeal to festive-solemn architectural facilities, against the background of which acts in the monumental sculptural and picturesque works of a person who dominates the world or actively struggling in it to achieve its goals. From here and earthly, secular character, peculiar to most church structures created in Italy throughout the 15th centuries.

A vivid example of this can serve as the Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome. Designed by the great Italian architect Donato D "Angelo Bramte (1444-1514) in the form of a central-dome structure in the form of a Greek cross with rounded branches, a powerful spherical dome over a medium, the cathedral was to represent a completely new type of the Catholic church, where the space prevails over the mass, Creating an unusual effect of "airiness" and ease of construction. After the death of Bramte in the construction of the cathedral, almost all the well-known architects, located in Rome in the first half of the XVI century, was taken. The construction of it was particularly important in connection with the desire of dad to strengthen the positions of Catholicism and the Papal State. Building It was supposed to eclipse the ruins of the pagan temples and the Christian buildings preceding him.

In 1546, the management of the construction of the Cathedral was transferred to the great genius of the Italian revival of Michelangelo Buonaroti (1475-1564). Despite many changes brought to the draft predecessors, Michelangelo has reached a greater fusion of the whole composition, where the main space (the central dome with the drum, surrounded by colonnade) obtained an unconditional predominance of secondary cells of the structure (four small domes). Thus, Michelangelo returned to the centric plan, which was manifested by the celebration of humanistic ideals.

If in Italy, the gap with medieval architecture was more open and consistently, then north of the Alps (Netherlands, Germany), the new type of Renaissance city architecture was created mainly by processing gothic architecture in the spirit of greater harmony and increased festivity forms.

In the era of the revival, art played an exceptional role in culture and determined, to a large extent, the face of the era. Separate goals, competing with each other, decorated temples and squares with beautiful works. Representatives of rich patrician giving birth both from personal ambition and political calculation, and from the desire to complete the pleasure of pleasure with their wealth, the magnificent palaces erected, built expensive public structures, arranged lush festive spectacles and processions for citizens.

Painters, Wawie, the architects, moving the spirit of noble competition, sought to achieve the greatest perfection in their works.

The characteristic feature of the art of the Renaissance was an unprecedented flourishing of realistic painting. Painting for the first time reveals the possibilities of a wide coverage of life, the image of human activity and its surrounding environment.

The passion for science contributed to the mastery of human anatomy, the development of a realistic perspective, the first success in transferring the air environment, the skills of building angle, that is, the necessary amount of knowledge, which allowed painters to realistically truthfully depict a person and the surrounding reality. Therefore, the brilliant artist Leonardo da Vinci was and a great scientist. And the works of the best scientists and thinkers were not only imbued with the spirit of peculiar poetry and imagery, such as Francis Beckon in his "New Organon", but often the intimate essence of these scientists to society was expressed in the form of fiction ("Utopia" of Thomas Mora ).

Italian scientists have advanced an ideal of a universal person who has basic knowledge in all areas of culture. The idea of \u200b\u200buniversalism inherent in Renaissance led to the thought of the culture of the universal, overcoming the narrow framework of countries and nations. "He who has learned everything, not anywhere else; Even without a state and friends, he is a citizen of every city and safely can despise all the vicissitudes of fate, "Hibey wrote, one of the Humanists of the XV century.

The art of revival for the first time in the history of realism found the way to create an image, which combined the bright disclosure of the individual identity of the person with the identification of the most typical and characteristic qualities of a person. The realistic portrait of revival is inextricably linked with the period of his highest heyday, with the names of Wang Eyka, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Durera, Titian. A portrait of revival permeated by Paphos of the person's approval, the consciousness that the diversity and brightness of the individuality of it is the necessary condition for the normally developing society.

Solving new tasks in its nature, painting developed and improved its technical means. Wide development, especially in Italy, in monumental painting received fresco (Jotto, Mazacho, Rafael, Michelangelo). Mosaic has almost completely disappeared, reaching rich color effects, but less adapted for realistic transmission of volumes and forms. Tempera technique, especially in the art of early revival, reaches its highest perfection.

The Vatican frescoes of Rafael belong to the greatest buildings of Renaissance art. The total ideological program of the frescoes in the stans (rooms) of the Vatican, according to the plan of Pope Julia II, was supposed to be the glorification of the authority of the Catholic Church and its heads - the Roman high priest.

The topic of the painting station Della Senyatura (Signature Room - Papal Decutions were bonded here - four areas of human spiritual activities. Theology represents the fresco "Dispan", philosophy - "Athens School", poetry - "Parnas", justice - "wisdom, moderation and power."

Athens school should be considered the best fresco and the greatest work of Rafael. The famous philosophers of the past - Diogen, Zenon, Socrates, Pythagoras, Plato and Aristotle - personify the world of creative creative energy in the name of spiritual freedom and knowledge of the universe.

Further development of stansova painting, interest in plastically expressive shape modeling, and also awakened in. 20-30s. XVI in. Interest in an emotionally pointed smear caused the enrichment of oil painting techniques. In its development, the Master of the Northern Renaissance was played by the Master of the Northern Renaissance: Yang Van Eyk, Rogir Van der Wayden, Boauts, Jerome Bosch, etc.

In the XVI century Oil painting technology becomes dominant. The greatest masters of this technique were representatives of the Venetian school: Georgeon, Titian, Veronese, Tintoretto.

The expansion of the circle of consumers of art led, especially in the northern countries of Europe, to the flourishing of engraving. Improved by engraving on a tree, the cutting engraving of Pa Metal, originates and reaches its first success. Engraving and etching took a significant place in the work of Rembrandt, Durera, Golbien and Bruegel.

The opening and widespread print of typography was of great importance for the heyday of the engraving. The engraving was widely used for decoration and illustrating a printed book. A number of publishers in Italy, the Netherlands, Germany, France creates unique artistic publications in their high skills. The French lawyer de Tu wrote: "France is more obliged to Robre Etienne, an improved book publishing than the greatest commander expanding its borders."

Regarding the circle of plots, the visual art of revival mainly continues to refer to traditional motifs, hoped from Christian myths and testes, which are widely complementing their plots from ancient mythology.

The great artist of the German Renaissance Albrecht Dürer wrote, referring to the authority of the ancient masters: "Do not kill with the evil of noble art, which was found and accumulated with a great difficulty and effort. After all, art is great, difficult and noble, and we can turn it into the glory of God. For, as they gave their idol Apollon proportions of the most beautiful human figure, so we want to take advantage of our Christ for the Lord, the most beautiful worldwide. " Further, Durer approves his right to embody Mary's image in the appearance of the most beautiful woman Venus and Samson in the appearance of Hercules.

Essentially, this meant a decisive change in the entire content of old Christian plots and motifs. The beauty of natural human feelings, the poetry of real life resolutely displaced the mystical alienation of the images of the Middle Ages.

A significant part of the works written on religious topics had a cult destination, that is, it was intended for churches and cathedrals. But in its content, these works were stressed by realistic character and essentially were devoted to the approval of the earthly beauty of a person.

Such is, for example, the Sistine Madonna Rafael Santi (1483-1520), executed for the monastery in Piacense. The unusual charm of Madonna contemporaries designated the term "grace" (grace). "In order to write a beauty," says Rafael in one of his letters, "you need to see many beautiful women; But since the beauties are rare, and the right choice is difficult, the artist enjoys a "some idea", which develops in his head and which he tries to follow. "

However, they arise as independent genres and purely secular birth of painting: an individual and group portrait. In the late revival period, genres of landscape and still life are beginning to be formed.

In sculpture, especially in the status devoted to mythological, biblical, as well as real modern figures, are approved in the heroisan and monumental form of typical features and qualities of the person of that time, the passionate force and the energy of its character is revealed.

A bright example is the giant marble statue of David (5.3 m) Michelangelo. The great sculptor, contrary to the biblical myth and the established tradition, depicted this winner is not a boy, but young men, and not after the victory, but before the battle. The special commission of the largest artists in 1504 decided to establish this statue in front of the Palace of Signoria in Florence as a symbol of what "rulers must courageously protect the people and rightly manage them."

Wide distribution is obtained by a promising multifigure relief. In it, the artist combined the plastic clarity of the sculpture and characteristic of painting the depth of promising space, sought to portray complex events with the participation of a large number of people.

A bright illustration can be the relief of the "Battle of Centaurs" - one of the first, which came to us, sculptural works Michelangelo. Despite the fact that the work was performed by the seventeen-year-old young men, in it the main topic of the art of Michelangelo is put forward - the topic of the struggle as an apotheosis of a heroic person, his strength and beauty.

If at the initial stages of revival, all types of art are still closely related to artistic craft, then the painter and sculptor from the medium of artisans occurs to the beginning of high revival. Master of painting or sculpture is an artist, a bright, gifted creative personality, fully separated from the rest of the masses of artisans. In case of success, he is the rich, which is prominent place in society. But the freedom of creativity taled in itself and the danger of unallowability of personal destinies, elements of competition and rivalry. The new position of the artist in public life also taled the danger of the gap between the "high" and "handicraft" art.

Significantly later, this danger is particularly adversely affected by applied arts. In the period of revival, the relationship was not completely broken. For example, it is worth only to recall the wonderful jewelry of the wjaber of the late revival of Cellini, the activities of the Frenchman Palleyi, who connected in his face a large Humanist and Master of Mayolics.

It is not by chance that in the era of the Renaissance, almost all the types of applied arts that have previously known previously known were further developed by its industry such as a jewelry, art glass, painting on faience, etc. Cheerfulness and sophistication of paints, elegant nobility Forms, deep sense of style unity characteristic of the applied art of revival.

You can summarize all the above with the words of the Great Hegel: "The revival of sciences, the flourishing of fine arts and the opening of America and the way to Ost Uordy can be compared with the morning zage, which after a long storm for the first time foreshadows a wonderful day. This day was the day of the celebration of universality, which, finally, comes after the long, rich consequences and the terrible night of the Middle Ages. This day is marked by the development of science, art and desire for discoveries ... "

5. Old Russian art (IX-XVII century)

Old Russian art is the creation of a collective long-fashioned genius of folk tradition.

N. A. Dmitriev

More seven hundred years covers the period of the ancient Russian artistic culture. Its origins goes back to the life of the East Slavic tribes of the Docyan period. The common features are also viewed through the variety of cultural phenomena and forms: common features: a strong influence of religion (christian-pagan duality), traditional and closedness (locality), as well as predominant adherence canon and anonymity (impersonality).

The art of ancient Russia includes the art of the Kiev Power, a powerful Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, the Novgorod Boyar Republic and the Art of Moscow, who headed the struggle for the union of the country after the serious tests of the Mongol-Tatar invasion.

Ancient Russian state is our national pride, the bright embodiment of the ideals of the Russian people. The desire for spiritual purity and the ability to compassion, durability and heroic scope, love for native land, hardworking, tolerance and susceptibility - these best features of the national nature felt the great creations of Old Russian art.

Truthfulness and sincerity, thrust for harmony and unity with a folk life, with native nature, special cordiality and implacing, deep penetration into humans and its purpose constitute the original contribution of the ancient Russian masters in the treasury of universal values.

Rus Domongolskaya (IX - early XII centuries)

The formation of ancient Russian state - Kievskaya Rus - ended to the IX century. One of the largest states of medieval Europe - Rus-historically represented a zone of political, trade and cultural contacts between Scandinavia Byzantium, Western Europe and the Arab East and creatively learned the influence of the outside, relying on their own culture that pretended to the era of paganism.

Unknown Russian author "Words about idols" (XII century) allocated three stages of the development of Slavic paganism. At the first Slavs "put the demands (victims) with the gibs and tregries, evil and good spirits that managed the elements. At the second stage they worshiped the ancient agricultural deity of the Universe and Rozhannikam, the deities of well-being and fertility. The feast of the genus and rolling is a harvest festival. The genus gave life to the whole living and became the source of root concepts: the people, nature, relatives, the Motherland ... In the third stage, the state cult of the princely-doubtic god of the war of Perun, who had previously revered the godfast, and the genus became a patron saint of the family, at home. "

Among the most important deities in Pernoranov, the time - Svarog (the god of the sky and the heavenly fire), his sons - Welsh (God of earthly fire) and Dazhbog (the God of the Sun and Light, the submitter of all goods), among the solar gods (solar) - the block, caught, Yarilo , Later - Horse. Striboga was revered by the god of air elements, and Veles (hair) is a patron saint of livestock and wealth. The cult of Veles was distributed in all Slavic lands, his name was swore. In the Druzhnaya Wedes, they considered the patron of art - music and songs; No wonder in the "Word about the regiment of Igor" the legendary singer Boyang is named with a velel grandson.

The place of departure of the cult was the Kapieche, Tribus, temples, in which the Magi (priests) prayed, making rites, and brought the gods of the victim.

The spiritual aspirations of our ancestors were brighter in the cult of nature, deeply poetic and developed. The life of ancient Slavica obeyed the calendar and agricultural circle and was accompanied by solemn festivals. The new year of Slavs began from March, when, by legend, the bright gods proceeded to the creation of their fertile kingdom, the world and the first person was created. Maslenitsa and spring cursing, a semit, or a ruleless week, the summer holiday Ivan Klapala, winter strides, etc. were accompanied by ritual playing with choral songs and dances. It is in folklore and decorative and applied folk arts, most of all the artistic culture of the ancient Slavs, the centuries that fed and musical culture and Russian literature were preserved. After all, the birth and fairy tales are connected with the pagan past, and the epic epic.

The artistic culture of Slavic tribes, as well as the ancient and Scythian Black Sea region contributed to the creation of the original culture of medieval Russia. On the other hand, it was formed in the process of creative perception of the Christian culture of the Byzantine sample.

The transition from the pagan polytheism (polyterism) with its primitive equality to the monotheism (monotheism) of the Christian religion, consecrated centralized power and social inequality, continued with centralized power and social inequality, continued. Christianity in Russia was sometimes argued by force, but more often it adapted to the pagan worldview.

According to the chronicles, in 980, Kiev Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich, seeing the "delusions of paganism", made a second, decisive (after the adoption of Christianity by the Kiev princes Askold and Dirz in the 860s.) Baptism of Russia. The choice of faith, according to legend, was aesthetic character: Vladimir's ambassadors shocked the beauty, greatness and magnificence of Byzantine worship.

With the adoption of Christianity, the formation of official, state culture and a complex process of interaction with the folk culture begins.

The adoption of Orthodoxy, who admits worship in national languages, contributed to the spread of writing, as well as the formation of ancient Russian literature, it was fed both by oral folk creativity, and the translation literature of Greece, Egypt, Judea and Syria. Among the literary genres are the chronicle of the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery of Nestor), the life of the saints ("Life of St. Feodosia Pecoresky" Nestor), teaching (Vladimir Monomakh) and "walking" (Igumen Daniel about pilgrimage in Palestine). Some of the literary monuments of Kiev Rus survived, but they testify to citizenship, patriotism, nobility of images of real historical persons and events.

In general, the art of the early Middle Ages, the Domongol Pore, is inherent in such a distinctive feature as the monumentality of forms. The architecture occupies a special place. Using the Byzantine Cross-Domed Form of the Temple, Russian masters also used the tradition of wooden architecture - multidropions.

The first, mentioned in the chronicle, the famous stone temple of Kievan Rus - the Temple of the Assumption of the Virgin, or the Tenty Church - a huge 25-chapter six-pillar structure. Around him there were the Princely Palace, chorus squirrels and urban nobility. During invasion, the church was destroyed.

The most famous of the monuments is Sofia Kievskaya. This chief cathedral, built under Yaroslav Mudrome, is a five-way, five-plaster, 13-dome temple. The interior is rich and picturesque. Sophia cathedrals in Novgorod and Polotsk were built according to Sofia Kievskaya. Although stone construction was conducted in Russia X-XI centuries. Mostly Byzantine architects, these buildings were distinguished from the Byzantine multidropions, pyramid and new construction materials.

Painting Kiev Rus is also represented by monumental forms - mosaic and fresco. Temples painting system Russian masters were perceived from Byzantines, making national traits. The picturesque canon is a "gospel for illiterate." Mosaics covered the central dome, bribing space (Christ Almighty in the Central Dome and the Virgin Oranta in the Altar Apside). The rest of the temple is decorated with frescoes (scenes from the life of Christ, the Mother of God, preachers, martyrs, etc.). Unique secular murals. For example, two group portraits of Yaroslav Wise with family, fragrances, musicians, etc.

In the XI century The first heyday is moniturable. Many works of this type of machine painting were created. The name of the famous icon painter Alimpia Pechersky is preserved, he is attributed to the creation of an icon Oranges Yaroslavl, or Great Panagi. Icons read as a visible symbol of the invisible world. By giving, the most ancient icons were miraculously ("saved the wrong") or written from nature (the Virgin Evangelist Luke).

The church required compliance with the icon painting canon. Writing conditionality: flatness, elongation of figures, inverse perspective and highness, golden background as a symbol of divine light - emphasized the elevated spirituality of images. Theology in the images, paints, gestures, inscriptions and texts - such is the purpose of the icon. To follow the iconographic canon, the masters used icon paintings, as well as intelligent (verbal description of the plot) and facial darishes.

The flowering of the culture of the Domongolian Rus (XII - the beginning of the XIII centuries)

After the collapse of the Kiev state, a number of independent principalities were formed - Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod Republic, etc.; The unified historical and cultural process was divided into several streams, but the original spiritual unity of Russia was preserved.

At that time, the Great "Word about Igor's regiment" and "Daniel Charpeter" was born. Architecture is characterized by a decrease in volume and simplifying the configuration of stone buildings. In Novgorod, there was own type of church. The trading factor was alien to Kiev exquisite luxury. A small cubic, molding church with one or one becomes traditional. Three apsides without a carved decor, since the local stone was badly threaded (the church of the Savior in Neretric).

In Vladimir - Suzdal principality, stone construction was particularly active under Andrei Bogolyubsky. Famous Assumption Cathedral is a majestic five-key temple, decorated with a carved arcate belt - the House of Our Lady. And when the nerve is shifted in Klyazma, the church of the Intermediation, a monument of world architecture, was ascended on a high artificial hill. Dedicated to the new holiday of the Virgin Cycle, this temple, by legend, built the prince Andrei Bogolyubsky, sad about the death of the son of Iaslav. The single church of the Intercession is striking the harmony of proportions and the poetchiness of the image, aspiring to the sky.

With a sunset of the Kiev Power, the past and expensive art of mosaic, or "flickering" painting.

At this time, the icon "Our Lady Lening" appears in Russia from Byzantium, called the "Vladimir Magnifier", (GTG), which was built by the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. Dramatic fate icons and amazing beauty and penetration made it one of the most famous in Russia.

The Novgorod school of this period can be represented by the icons of the Byzantine-Kiev tradition. It "saved non-manual" (GTG). At the Russian military horugets, it was this image of Christ-triumph. Monumental icon "Ustyugovsky Annunciation" (timing). The icon "Angel of Zlagy Vlassee" (TRM) is widely known. The severity and impressivity of images, a combination of contrasting colors, the consolidation of forms - distinctive features of the Novgorod school.

At the highest level, the development of ancient Russian culture was interrupted by the Mongol-Tatar invasion.

Russian culture of the second half of the XIII-XV centuries.

If time from 1240 to the middle of the XIV century. Noted by a noticeable decline in all areas of culture due to invasion and invasion of Western feudalists (German, Tver, Danish, Hungarian, Lithuanian and Polish), then the period from the 2nd half of the XIV century. until the end of the XV century. It is the rise of a national self-consciousness, the desire for the unification of the Russian land led by Moscow. The defeat of the Byzantium and the establishment in the Balkans of the Turkish rule strengthened the meaning of Moscow Russia as the center of Orthodoxy.

The struggle against Mongol-Tatars became the main theme of the folklore in the eponym and the new genre of historical song (for example, about Avdiet-Ryazanchka, heading the construction of a new Ryazan). The leading genre in the literature, the military story becomes ("The Word about the land of Russian land", "The Tale of Ryazan Ryazan"), and later there are historical works about the victory over the Tatars ("Tale of Mamaev Battle", the chronicle of the Kulikovsky battle, " Zadonchina ", close to the" Word about the regiment of Igor ").

Independent development of Novgorod architecture led to the creation of a simple and constructive clear, classic type of one-eyed temple with a rich outer decor (Church of Fyodor Prattylate, the Savior Transfiguration of PA Ilyin), there is no analogue in the architecture of other countries.

Pskov developed basically defense architecture. Fortress Izborsk - one of the largest structures of ancient Russia. XV century - The time of the rapid development of Pskov architecture, 22 churches were erected.

In the "Postchelikovsky" period, stone construction and in the Moscow principality acquires great scope. Churches in Moscow, Kolomna, Zvenigorod, Mozhaysk, Dmitrov, Rannonoskovskoye architecture created a new type of one-eyed Temple of the tower-like design on a high base, with a complex riding, topped with cosar tiers and kokoshnikov, with a dome on a high drum and a system of stairs to promising portals (Troitsky Cathedral of the Trinity Sergius Monastery, Spassky Cathedral of the Savior Andronnikova Monastery in Moscow).

Long-term isolation of Russia from Byzantium and the separation of Russian lands pushed the formation in the XIII century. Novgorod and Rostov schools of painting, and in the XV. - Tverskaya, Pskov, Moscow and Vologda. Most of all preserved Novgorod monuments. A peculiar "riot" against the Byzantine tradition was the redfound icons ("Sainry John Distrownger, Georgy and Mills", MRM). From the front art in them, bright paints, ornamentality, graphic formation of form ("Nicola Lipensky", Novgorod Museum).

In the XV century Monumental fresco painting Novgorod is experiencing flourishing. A great influence was on her the Great Byzantian Faofan Greek. In 1378, he painted the church of Sava Pa Ilyin.

In the dome - Christ Pantokrator (Almighty), and the drum - about Rocky, in Apsid - Communion (Eucharist) and St. Picturesque Mae Nera F. Greek is cast by power and courage: wide blows of the brush, confidently laid glare (as the signs of divine energy), the predominance of red-brown and yellow ocher - all expressive means are on-ruling on the embodiment of passionate spiritual burning.

According to the original icons, the Novgorod "Fatherland" belongs, whoaring the trinity is not in the form of three angels God, the old man on the throne, the god-son-son - the Pattern, the Holy Spirit - the Pigeon. Such a specific form was needed to combat heresy, rejected the dogma of the Holy Trinity. In the XV century A new type of two-three-hour icon is appearing, perceived as a historic picture ("Miracle from the icon of the sign of the Most Holy Virgin" PLI "Battle of Novgorod, with Suzdaltsy").

Moscow painting on scope and branching in the XIV-- XV centuries. I did not know yourself equal. By the time of moving F. Greek to Moscow, an original art tradition was developed here. Moscow masters learn from Feofan, but do not imitate him. Under the leadership of the Greek Masters, the Church of the Assumption of the Virgin, Arkhangelsky and the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin were painted. The best of the preserved icons of the circle of Faofan is the "Our Lady of Donskaya" from the Assumption Cathedral of Kolomna with the "The Assumption of the Virgin" on the turnover (GTG).

In the work on the creation of the iconostasis of the Kremlin Annunciation Cathedral, Feofan Greek and Andrei Rublev - the greatest artist of ancient Russia met. High iconostasis is a Russian national phenomenon, these outstanding icon paints played a major role in its formation.

Completeness of unity with God in prayer - this idea in choir sound embodies the composition of the iconostasis, and soldered as well as artistic rhythm and color building. Rows of icons (ranks) correlated with the architecture of the temple and painting on the walls. Pyhyraulic iconostasis "Chronologically" is read: from above - the French row of the Old Testament Church from Adam to Moses with the New Testament Trinity in the center; Below - Double row and the Mother of God with a baby on the central icon; Further, a festive rank of events from the life of Christ and the Virgin from Christmas to Assumption; then a deesus series of icons of praying rescue (in the center) about grace; The local rank was located at the bottom - glad icons, especially revered in this area, and the temple icon (to the right of the royal gates).

Grek's Faofan Brushes in the Blagoveshchensky Cathedral belongs to 7 icons of Deesus, and 7 holiday icons apparently written by Andrei Rublev. A little bit known about this ingenious icon painter. In the Assumption Cathedral of Vladimir, he participated in the creation of a monumental iconostasis in 6 m high of 61 icons, among the best Icons "Our Lady Vladimir". Miraculously preserved Zvenigorodsky Chin: "Archangel Mikhail", "Apostle Paul", "Savior" - the brilliant image of Christ - the teacher of truth.

The most perfect creation of A. Rublev - "Trinity", written in the praise of the spiritual teacher Sergius Radonezh for the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergian Monastery. The content of the icon is not limited to theological ideas about the sacrament of the communion and the trinity of the Divine, it carries in itself the majestic idea of \u200b\u200bthe Cattle, spiritual unity of people as the conditions of genuine freedom of mankind.

Russian culture of the late XV-XVI centuries.

After two and a half centuries of almost complete isolation, the culture of the young Russian state entered into contact with the Renaissance Culture of the West, strengthening its position among European states.

Along with the historical song, a folk ballad appears ("Anger of Ivan the Terrible for Son", "Defense of Pskov"). Sex publicism and historical literature, imbued with the idea of \u200b\u200bstrengthening the autocracy and his union with the Church, develops. A new genre of israging story appears, his hero has become an active trading person.

The nomination of Moscow was accompanied by the scope of construction. Next to the most beautiful masters, the best architects of Europe worked with all over Russia, creating a communional architectural style. In the Kremlin, on the site of the old temples of the time of Ivan Kalita, new ones were erected. The first was built by the Assumption Cathedral (Italian architect Aristotle Phioravanti) is a majestic cross-domed five-key temple with a single internal space. The Blagoveshchensky Cathedral, the Pskov Master of the Great Princes was built. Among the traditional images of the saints, conditional portraits of the great Russian princes and the Byzantine emperors. The Archangel Cathedral (Italian architect Aleviz is new) combined traditional elements and features of the Italian palace architecture XV century. (Shells in the heads, ornamented portals, round Venetian windows). In this cathedral - the state necropolis - buried the great princes and kings. Completes the ensemble of the Cathedral Square of the Granuisa Chamber (Marco Ruffo, Pietro Antonio Solari), which had a 500-meter square room, overlapped with four crusades with a powerful reference post in the middle.

At the beginning of the XVI century. A new type of tent church arises in stone architecture, which revived the tradition of Russian wooden architecture. Famous two temples associated with the name of Ivan the Terrible. The Church of Ascension in Kolomensky is erected in honor of the birth of a small Ivan IV (the future of Grozny) - the heir to the throne; Church-monument to the glory of the native land. An optional of the tent church was the Cathedral of Basil Blessed

(Cover on the Ravy) - the Temple of Memorial in memory of the conquest of Kazan Khanate, built by the architect Barma and the stayer under the walls of the Kremlin. Around the central tent "pillar", eight smaller, crowned with bizarre chapters - a multinational fabulous stone poem. It was a rise of the architectural genius of the Russian people. The 100-stroke Cathedral of 1551 tent buildings as contradicting Byzantine samples were prohibited.

Among the painters of the second half of the XV century. Dionysius is allocated. He continues "Rublevskoye" direction, and retreats from him. The layman, apparently, of noble origin, Dionysius headed a big artel, who performed princely, monastic and metropolitan orders. His icons are known "Savior in the Forces" and "Crucifixion" (GTG) and Zhith-Metropolitan Peter and Alexy. The most wonderful monument Dionysius is the frescoes of the Ferrapontov Monastery of the Monastery of the Monastery of Pavoga, united by a brightly azure tone - the licking of the novice in the colors. The place of ruble depth and simplicity occupies a festive solemnity, balanced and decorative. After Dionysius, the epic song of ancient Russia gradually subsides. The decisions of the precision cathedral, art becomes an instrument in the hands of the church, and she herself is a tool of despotic autocracy. In the conditions of church supervision, this creativity was blown, the template and handicraft prevailed.

The state of art sought to exalt the official political ideas in the iconopys of the historical and allegoric genre about the solemn return of Ivan the Terrible from the conquered Kazan - "blessedly of the war of the heavenly king." The idea of \u200b\u200b"Moscow - the Third Rome" was embodied in the painting of the Novodevichy Monastery.

It is in the XVI century. There was a culture of the Great Russian Nature and the history of the culture of the Russian people begins in his own sense of the word, and the development of ancient Russian artistic culture enters into the final phase.

6. Art culture of ancient Rome

Centuries and tribes humming disputes, ... let's give a fate on the universal feather. Rome over the ground wing his shock. All truths that played to the light, under the hum of victories, under the Senyu Roman rights, melted powerfully into a new alloy. -... Rome to the end performed the work of Vladyka, he was achieved when the empire dumped the empire to the scream and screams.

V. Bryusov. "Sveta thoughts"

Freedom Rome has increased, and Slavei Putublin.

A. Pushkin. "Licinia"

Roman civilization has become the epoch of the highest flourishing of ancient culture and at the same time its last page. The Roman state passed the way from the rural community on the river. Tiber to world powers. The "Eternal City" extended its power from the British Isles to the shores of North Africa, from Hercules pillars (Gibraltar) to the deep regions of Asia.

Roman culture (VIII century. To p. E. - V. P. E.) was a matter of much more complex than Greek. In its formation, many tribes and peoples took part, submitted by the Roman power - the population of Italy, the Greek regions, the Hellenistic states (Egypt, Pergami, etc.). The synthesis of Greek and Roman cultures was formed - the Lateant Greco-Roman Culture (I-V centuries. N. e.). It was she who formed the basis of the medieval civilization of Byzantium, Western Europe and many Slavic states.

The word "Rome" itself became synonymous with greatness, fame and military valor, wealth and high culture. "All roads lead to Rome," said the famous saying about the capital of the world. And the news of the fall of the "Eternal City" (476 N. E.) was similar to the strike of thunder, hitting contemporaries.

In Rome, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe special boganism of the Roman people and the fate of victories herself was always dominated. Patriotism, willingness to sacrifice life for their homeland, respect and love for the heroic past, the traditions of ancestors - on this there was a Roman ideology.

Affairs, the only worthy of Roman, especially noble patrician, recognized politics, war, agriculture and lawmakes. State administration and law, road construction and military art reached perfection from the Romans, literature and art have been successfully attached to the Greek trunk. However, the sculptor's work was watched as a craft, as evidenced by the anonymity of the Roman sculptural portrait, in particular.

The antique humanism of the Romans made the features of analytical worldview: harsh prose, accuracy and historicism of thinking were based on the basis of culture, far from the sublime poetry of the myth-making Greek. Practition permeates all spheres of Roman culture.

If the genius of the Greek people is a genius artistic, then the Roman genius-political, constantly striving to expand its influence and government interests. The external history of Rome is the story of continuous wars. Inner history is restless and bloody. The struggle between the plebies and patricians was not dying, between political parties, aristocratic families.

All written history, legends and religion, various types of art were to approve the idea of \u200b\u200bMilitary Power of Romans, allegedly initially predetermined, eternal and unshakable.

A religion has been particularly particularly influenced by a religion of development from the religion of communities (family, neighbor and civil) to the world religion of Christianity in the era of the crisis of the slave-owned empire.

"Greece, captured, wildly captured winners" - This phrase of the Roman poet Horace says about borrowing the greek pantheon of the gods.

It is at the Greeks that Romans adopted the custom to raise the gods of the statue and worship them and temples. Greek Zeus was identified with Roman Jupiter, his wife, Hera with Junoa, Aida with Pluto, Aresa with Mars, Aphrodite with Venus, Artemida with Diana, Athena with Minerway, Hephaesta with a volcano, Hermes with Mercury, Poseidon with Neptune, Dionysus with Vakhich and T d.

It was a Greek sculpture, more precisely, its copying of Roman masters, played a special role in the approval and distribution of the imperial cult since the octaviana of Augustus. However, in the center of Roman mythology and religion - the Roman Myth, which was formed on the eve of the victorious Punic Wars with Carthage and after them. Despite the tremendous military superiority of Rome, the countries with more ancient culture considered the Romans "Barbarians". The need to substantiate the "legitimate" place among the "great powers" was ripe. Hence the passion for Greek culture, the desire to link the origin of the Romans and Italiks with the Greeks and Trojans. There were stories about the heroic acts of "ancestors": about Hero Ether, the son of the Goddess of Love Venus, escorted from under the Troy, about his descendants of Romule and Rememe, focused by the Wolf, and so on.

The ancient tradition attributes the foundation of Rome, which happened in 753 BC. er, legendary Romulu, when Rem rearranged the furrow, marked the borders of the new city, and was killed by his brother during a quarrel. Romulus became the first Roman king, and the new city received his name.

With the spread of the Caesey's imperial cult, the Senate also ranked the emperor to the host of the gods, establishing temples for him. The personality of the Lord has symbolized the power of Rome. His cult united with the cult of the goddess Roma, who caught the eternal city.

The conquered Etrury and Greece gave Rome achievements in the architecture that Roman architecture embodied with unprecedented ulusing urban planning in accordance with strategic plans and imperial ambitions. The Roman architecture of Grandinian, majestic, pompous and has a specific historical content, as well as a high degree of practical expediency, novelty construction methods and constructive solutions. Roman achievements include the invention of concrete, widespread use of the Arch and the construction of the spherical dome.

The needs of the Roman society gave rise to new types of structures: Amphitherators for gladiator games and animal persecution, Terms - Grand Roman Baths, Triumphal Arches and Columns, Imperial Forums and Sanctures (Baalbek), etc. Palaces, Mansions, Villas, Theaters, Temples, Bridges, Tombstones Monuments, etc. Received a new architectural solution on Roman soil. The rationalism underlying the Roman architecture was manifested in spatial diff, the integrity of the giant architectural complexes, strict symmetry of geometric forms.

The world famous Roman aqueduct waterways, the first of the paved roads - Appeiyev - "Queen of Roads", which was built over 100 years old, from 312 BC. er, and named in the VII century. One of the wonders of the world.

The memorial triumphal arches of the imperors of the title (in honor of the capture of Jerusalem) and Constantine Great were preserved. The original monument was the 30-meter column of Emperor Trajan in front of his temple, decorated with a two-hundredth ribbon relief, which gave bright samples of historical relief, with the documentary accuracy of the transmitting picture of the campaign life and episodes of wars with fights.

Undoubtedly, the most ambitious monuments of an ancient Rome Colosise and Pantheon.

The most giant spectacular structure of the ancient Rome is the Amphitheater of Flaviev (75-82. N. Er) - about 50 thousand spectators accompanied in his stone bowl.

The name of the Colosseum occurred from the colossose standing nearby - Statues of Nero, later converted into the figure of Helios. The appearance of the Colosseum with its powerful elastic oval is performed by severe energy. This feeling give birth not only the scale of the building (height is about 50 m, the diameter is 156 m and 188 m), but also the solemn power of simple arched rhythms. Four tiers are decorated with elements of three orders: below - Tuscan (borrowed watroys), above - ionic semi-column, third tier and fourth (powerful stone belt above) in Corinthian style; The stone ring completing the arched amphitheater composition, creates a feeling of restrained power. Even in ruins, without statues, once adorned, the Colosseum breathes the uncomplicated power.

According to the grandinality of the plan and the breadth of spatial solution with the Coliseum, the Pantheon (118-125) - the "Temple of all the gods", built by Greek architect Apollodor from Damascus under the emperor Adriana and dedicated to the main Roman gods.

Inside in seven niches, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, Roma and other deities were squeezed. Pantheon is a monumental smooth-beed rotunda, topped with a hemispheric dome, the entrance to the temple is decorated with a wide six-filled portion: composite (mixed) warrant. Some heavyweight, the massiveness of the appearance of the temple is bypassing the unprecedented space of the light from the round nine-meter hole, the nicknamed "OKO Pantheon", the magnificent ball space (the diameter of the round temple and the height of just over 40 meters). The interior of the Pantheon causes a feeling of peace and a magnificent sublime harmony. Until the end of the XIX century. His dome remained the largest in the world. In the era of the Middle Ages, Pantheon was turned into a Christian church, and B, 1520. They were buried in him by the Great Rafael. This is a majestic building, as if particle of the universe, ancient space, was the last masterpiece of architecture during the heyday of the empire and the top of the Roman architecture.

Also, the phenomena of world importance and value include the Roman sculptural portrait - the history of the ancient Rome in the faces, the historical "document" of the unprecedented elevation and the tragic death of the Great Empire. The Roman portrait is associated with the burial cult of conquered Etruscans, with a Greek Hellenistic sculpture, as well as with a Roman cult of ancestors: We are customary to shoot with the deceased wax mask and keep sculptural portraits of family members. Hence the striking accuracy, even "naturalism" and the merciless truthfulness of plastic characteristics. This is especially true of the extensive gallery of the Roman emperors.

In the Epoch of the Early Empire, Roman art, fulfilling the official order for the elevation and deification of the identity of the emperor, learned to flatter the authorities.

The sculptural portraits of Augustus are preserved to the image of the Republican commander (from the port of the port), sculpture in the traditions of heroised Greek classics, August, which makes the solemn rite of the sacrificial lap in Toga, pounded on his head, and finally. August in the image of Jupiter (according to a sample of the Olympic fidiyevsky zeus). On one pole merciless portraits of vicious tyranans of Nero, Caligules, Karakalla, the gallery of "soldier's emperors", and on the other - the sculptural images of Trajan, Vespasian, Adriana, Anthony, Fiuma, who sought a reasonable state activity. The emperor-philosopher Mark Aurelius also belonged to the best people of Rome, the calm of the once confident Roman, the ruler of the world disappeared in his philosophical reasoning, the sorcerer of the world, seeking supports of the thought of feverishly, who is more accurately leaning towards stacks preached by stacks. However, it was Mark Azeri, by no means a heroic emperor, the first one of the equestrian monument has been created.

Undoubtedly, the sculptural emblem of Rome is the famous bronze Capitol Wolf, cast, allegedly, an Etruscan Master. It was put on the Capitol Hill to commemorate the overthrow of the Etruscian kings after almost centenary wars.

An outstanding page of the ancient Roman artistic culture is connected with Golden Latin. The most fruitful "Age August" turned out to be precisely for Roman poetry. Its flourishing is associated with the names of Vergilia, Horace and Ovid.

Virgil Marona is called "Roman Homer" for the creation of the epic poem "Aneida" about the wanders "of the Trojan of the Enai and his companions. At the same time, there is another hero of Rome in the poem. In the center of" Aneida "the ideal of his immortality based on divine fishery. The death of Troy, the tragic love of Eneja and the queen of Carthagen Didona, the journey of the hero on the afterlife kingdom, where his mission opens - the foundation of the Grand City, and other events are recreated in the national epic of the Roman people. In the twelve books of "Aneida" inextricably wake up the glove of Rome and Emperor Augustus. , praising mythical ancestors, patriotism and heartfelt understanding of human feelings.

If Vergili created a classic Roman epic, then Horace (Quinte Horace Flycc), a friend and contemporary Vergil, created a classic Roman lyrics.

Horace also challenged the prowess of the ancestors, called contemporaries to be worthy of fathers, but he was swept away about the ancient beauty of the morals, he taught to enjoy the "golden mean" of modest wealth, wrote about love, about merry pirushi with friends. Hardly the best poems of Horace devoted poetry, among his "OD" there is a famous "monument"; Inspired by this Odoy A. S. Pushkin wrote a poem "I am a monument to myself erectific ..."

The work of Vergilia and Horace paved the way their younger contemporary will publicly public Ovid Noron. "Singer of Love and Passion tender", a brilliant poet, Ovid's sufferer ended his century, referred to as octavian Augustus on the harsh of the Black Sea and forgotten. Apparently, the emperor was dissatisfied with Ovid's poetry, which did not meet his politics.

The main poetic work of Ovid "Metamorphosis" is a collection of antique myths about the transformations of some tel to others. So, narcissus narcissus became a flower; A wonderful statue of the girl came to life, which Pygmalion was picked up and put love to her; Daphne's nymph, pursued by Apollo, turned into a laurel tree, etc., as a result, the richest assembly (over two hundred) of the most poetic images of Greek and Roman mythology was born.

Latin language is dead, but without it is unthinkable modern, world culture. He who studies Latin assimilates world culture. At the beginning of the X century. BC e. On Latin, only the population of a small area on Appennes said, then the archaic Latin changed the classic, this language reached a heyday in the prose of Cicero and Caesar, in Roman poetry. Romanesque languages \u200b\u200b(Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, etc.) were formed in the Latin-based Middle Age (Italian, etc.), and Latin becomes the language of the Catholic Church and Spider. And modern science is closely connected with Latin; Along with Greek, it serves as a source of education of scientific terminology.

The winged Latin sayings decorate and enrich the speech of a modern cultural person. Through Latin "Terra incognita" ("Unknown Earth") of Roman culture and history becomes more and more understandable. "Urbi-Orbi" ("CITY AND MIRU") - Caesar's elephant sounded to universal information: "Veni, visa, Vici (" came, saw, won "), as well as the law of politics:" DIVIDE EMPER "(" Divide and rule "). However, "Roman Sao-Yense") of the Roman society understood that the main thing in life is to know himself ("TE IPSUM WOOD"), life moves through overcoming, through thorn to the stars ("Pern Asper Astra") . And forever in the soul of a person's spark of hope - "So far I breathe, I hope" ("Duma Spira, Spher"), although I know that "the earth glory passes" ("Sik Transit Gloria Mundi"), and then Silentium is silence and silence.

Perhaps a spiritual testament: the Greek-Roman world can become the Words of the Greek Wise Biant - "MEA MEKUM PORTO" ("All my wear with you") is the true wealth of a person in its internal content.

7. Art Culture of Ancient Greece

On Earth ancient Ellala Childhood of mankind ... It all became more beautiful and has an eternal charming for us, as never a repetitive step.

"The artistic culture of ancient Greece is called an antique (from Lat.," Ancient "). So began to call the Greek-Roman cultural cultural humanists of the Renaissance as the earliest of the well-known. The concept has been preserved as a synonym for classical antiquity and separates the Greco-Roman culture from the Ancient East.

The history and culture of the ancient world is customary to divide for several periods.

1. Aegean art (Crito-Miktena culture) - 3-2 thousand BC. e.

The art of Greece is the Homeric period - the XI-VIII centuries. BC e.; Archaic - VII-VI centuries. BC e.; Classic - V-IV centuries. BC e.; Hellenistic - end of IV-i centuries. BC e.

Art of Etruscov - VIII-II centuries. BC e.

The art of Rome - the era of the kings - the VIII-VI centuries. BC e.; republic - V-i centuries. BC e.; Empire - I B. BC. AD

Aegean culture prevailing in the Aegean Pool covers about. Crete, mainland Greece (Mycenae and Tirinf), the coast of Malaya Asia (Troy) and the Cycladic Islands.

Excavations of the Englishman Arthur Evans in Crete (from 1900 to 1941) discovered the world an unknown dotol "Dogreic" culture, named by him Minoan named by the legendary king of Mi-Nosa.

The powerful marine power with the capital in Knosse created the original palace culture, in which natural and religious motifs were organically awake. The most interesting page of Aege-art is the Knos Palace, by legend associated with the king Minos, a labyrinth and a terrible minotaur.

Apparently, this palace was an administrative and religious center of the state, its main resident and the "home" of trade. The central extensive courtyard was surrounded by 300 different premises located at different levels and connected by many stairs, near which light wells were located. The so-called irrational wooden columns served the most important structural element of the architectural composition of the palace, they were frustrated and brightly painted (in red - trunk, black - a round cap). The palace terracely growed up, as if repeating the outlines of the mountainous terrain, fitting on the Cretan landscape.

The main decoration of the palace chambers was the fresco painting, which in the form of friezes or panels filled the walls. The bright colorful palette of Cretan artists is close to color overflows of the sea wave. Painting (unlike Egyptian) gives the impression of absolute discrepancy and inner freedom of the Creator. Famous frescoes telling about the festivities: "Ladies in Blue", "Parisian", "Tsar-Priest", "acrobats with a bull".

Cretan ceramists also created elegant works. Among them are the Vases of the style of "Camares" (found in the eponymous pep-shr). For example, a vase with the octopus, where the spherical form of the vessel is harmoniously combined with winding lines in the image of the marine animal. Unknown monumental monuments of Crete. We reached us only samples of small plastics from color faience and ivory ("Goddess with snakes"). In general, the art of Crete leaves the impression of a festive, colorful, decorative and oriental plane and ornamental.

The death of Cretan civilization is due, apparently, two reasons. In the middle of the XV century. BC e. Crete experienced the strongest earthquake and the consequences of the eruption of the submarine volcano Santorin on. Fera. He played the role and conquest of the island of the Greek Ahetis. The baton of the Aegean culture was adopted by continental Greece.

Unlike Cretan, mycken civilization was more severe and courageous. It has created a monumental defensive architecture (acropolis in the mixes and tyrinfs with a "cyclopic" masonry step, a grand lion's gate in the mixes, decorated with a heraldic composition with two lionesses).

Back in 1876, the German archaeologist Henry Schliman opened the rocky "Mine tombs" in myxa with a variety of gold, silver and ivory products; Grand "dome tombs", or Tolzoli found.

A new type of premises - Megaron appears in the palace architecture. His composition with a portico, the lobby and the hall, in the center of which was located the hearth, surrounded by four columns, anticipates the architecture of the Greek temple.

The Mycenaean Power was intended at the turn of the XII-XI centuries. BC e. New invasion from the north: Dorians fire and sword were held on Peloponnese, later founded Sparta. However, the Dorian wave passed the area of \u200b\u200battics, inhabited by Ionian tribes, which played a special role in the flourish of Eldlas.

Against the background of the overall decline of Greek culture and slow revival, two types of art are allocated in the Homeric period: Vazopanis and epic literature. The best samples of vases are large diplonil vases (found near the Dipilon gates in Athens) - gravestone amphoras and craters, decorated with geometric ornament ribbons with plot schematic compositions between them.

The main source of knowledge about this epoch is two masterpieces of ancient Greek literature - "Iliad" and "Odyssey" of Homer. The first one tells about the events of the last year of a decade of the Greek-Ahetsevs war with the Trojans and about the upcoming Troy taking. Until the middle of the XIX century. Troy (Ilion) was considered a fictional, but its existence proved Henry Schliman, having completed the dream of his life. In the second poem of the siege of the king Island, Ithaca Odyssey unfold against the background of fantastic stories of the first Greek nautical seasons about the colors of the unknown western seas. It is believed that both poems have grown from epic songs of ancient Greek singers (rapes, or regulations), they can be called "encyclopedia of antiquity" on the wealth of historical, mythological, moral and philosophical, legendary and aesthetic content.

In Iliad, three groups of existing persons: 1 - Trojans, headed by the king of the Kingdom, his sons - the great hero Hector and Paris (after the abduction of Elena, the wife of the Spartan Tsar Mellaya, and the Trojan War begins), the Trojan war begins), Hector Tsar, Androma . 2 - Greeks-Ahaeis, headed by Agamemnon, the Great Hero Achill, at the beginning of the poem angry at Agamemnon, refuses to fight the Trojans, which leads to the death of his friend Patrole from the hand of Hector, Movey for a Friend, Ahill kills a courageous Trojan, later returning (for redemption ) His body is an old man; Tiezna in hector and the poem of the condemnation of war and cereal revenge is completed ... 3 - Olympic gods, actively interfering with people.

Greek philosophy and science, main genres of literature, theater, warrant architecture and archaic sculpture originated in the era of Archaika.

A distinctive feature of the culture of the ancient Greeks was agon - competition. In 776 BC e. For the first time, Olympic Games were arranged (in the Olympia, named after Zeus). For five days the sacred world proclaimed. "Olympionics" (three times won) was awarded the olive branch and the right to install a statue in the sacred grove of the temple of Zeus Olympic. In honor of Apollo, the athletes competed in the Pythi Games in Delfa, the reward served as a laurel wreath. In the Istimi - in honor of the sea god Poseidon the award was a pine wreath. Also in honor of the Supreme Lord Zeus arranged by Nemyei games. The beautiful Athlete body served as an incentive to develop an ancient sculpture.

The era of the heroes left with Homer. The art of the word appealed to the feelings and experiences of a separate person - Lyrics were born (the declaration of poems accompanied by the Lyra). Great lyrics call the passionate archologist with about. Paros, cheerful Anacreonta, sublime alkey and thin poetess Safo. In the ancient Sparta, choral lyrics developed (Diffirable in honor of God Dionysus). Great was the glory and poet Pindara.

At this time, its state system was created in Greece, which led to the establishment of slave-owned democracy. Compared to oriental despots, it was a progressive step. Free, Greeks saw the ideal in their own improvement, as a person and a citizen of the Polish, the Valiant Spirit and a Great Body.

Artistic creativity Ellala, for the first time in the history of the world, approved realism as an absolute norm of art. Not exact copying of nature, and the desire for completely excellent images to which nature only hinted. Who are the Gods of Olympus (Zeus, Aphrodite, Athena), as not people who have involved in their human perfection of immortality? Following the myth-making art, art began to portray a man endowed with that valor and beauty that he should reveal in himself.

The archaic sculpture has developed two types: these are the karos (sculpture of the naked young man who had a cult value as an image of Apollo, as well as a developed male figure in general) and the bark (the cult sculptures of the male in the decorative drapery of clothes and brightly degraded; later the bark steel in the architecture of the Caryatids - columns in the form of a female figure). Borrowing samples in Egypt and Mesopotamia, the archaic monumental sculpture (up to 3 m high) was very quickly improved in the realism, while maintaining the faces of the kouros and the king the famous "archaic smile" as an attempt by the artist to heat up, highlighting still static image from the inside.

Architecture Architecture is predominantly temple. Gradually, the Greeks have developed a system that later, in the Romans, the name of the order (order, system). However, each temple gives rise to a sense of uniqueness, since the warrant system was used creatively, taking into account the natural and architectural environment. Archaica formed two options for the Greek order: Massive Doric, embodied the idea of \u200b\u200bmasculinity, harmony of strength and rigor, and slender, elegant ionic. Later (in V c. BC. E.) Appeared a lush, spectacular Corinthian order. All three orders differed by the proportions and features of the decor of the columns (supports) and antablement (overlap).

At this time, there was a classic type of Greek chrome-peripter (the opened), rectangular in the plan, surrounded from all sides by the colonnade. The Greek Temple served as a "housing" for the statue of the Divine, which was established in the sanctuary (Nao).

As well as the nature of Eldla, Greek art was bright and multicolored and festively shone in the sun. Architectural parts and sculptural decorations of the temple, polychrome was also a marble sculpture, which stood in all public places of the city, as well as the golden glitter of the plazy of bronze sculptures with color inlays. Now all this is almost lost, and the bronze lost its original shine.

Color in Greek plastic indicates its connection with painting and the desire to transmit the beauty of the visible world. A bright reflections of Greek painting is a vase. Amphoras, crater, elegant hydria, flat cylints, elongated lectures - not only perfect in shape, but also harmoniously painted by mythological scenes. Initially, a black and figure painting developed, and later the more perfect redfigure appeared.

The golden age of Greek culture, marking the "highest internal flowering of Greece" (K. Marx), was preceded by the great test of ELDA formidable invasion of Persians and the ruin of Athens.

The glory of the Greek victories in Athos, during the marathon, during Salamine and payments, as well as in the Farmopil Gorge, illuminated the history of Eldlant for many centuries. Athens was headed by the Greek Sea Union and after the victory were taken by a dominant place in the cultural and economic lift. The rulers of Athens (first of all, the pericles) sought to make their city the largest cultural center of the Greek world. In the mouth of Pericla, the historian Fucdide has invested the words: "Our city is a school of all Eldla, and I believe that each of us can easily show their individuality in a wide variety of life conditions." Sports for everyone, education system, regular visits to theater and religious festivals. In the comprehensive development of the identity of the Greeks, many other peoples were ahead. All this provided a comprehensive flourishing of Greek artistic culture.

In Athens, Protagor lived in Athens ("Man there is a measure of all things") and Anaksagor, the universal thinker Democritus ("Poverty in democracy is as better than the well-being with the kings, as far as freedom is better than slavery"). The embodiment of the Ellin wisdom was the great Socrates, a Plato teacher.

The science in the face of Hippocratic - "Father of Medicine" and Herodota - "Father of History" also developed.

During the theater holidays (3 days), the Greeks elected the best playwright, setting, actor and the horga (organizer of the presentation). The world's glory of the attic tragedy brought "Father Tragedy" Eschil ("Persians", "Chained Prometheus", "Oresteya", etc.), Sofokl ("King Edip", "Antigona", "Electra") and Eurypid ("Medea", "Fedra"). Color-dyedness is associated with the work of Aristofan, who dragged the plots from the modern political life of Athens ("Riders", "Clouds", "Frogs", "Lisuctor", etc.). Theater has become a real school life and a caregiver of a citizen.

The pride of Athens began a rebounded wonderful ensemble - Athenian Acropolis. White-class buildings were erected: Parfenon, propylene (solemn entrance to the Acropolis), the temple of Nicky Aptereros (loanless victory), the Temple of Ereheheton and Pinakotek (collection of paintings). The planning and construction of Acropolis was led by the greatest sculptor of Greece - FIDI. The magnificent architectural ensemble embodied the power of the Athenian Power and for the first time - the idea of \u200b\u200bgenerallylline unity.

Parfenon - the temple of Athena Virgo - the pearl of world architecture (architects and kallicrat, sculptor fidi). It rises above the Acropolis, just as the Acropolis towers over Athens. Parthenon is beautiful and heroic-monumental. This is a doric peripter with elements of an ionic order. Even in its dilapidated form, the Acropolis produces an indelible impression.

In 1687, the Venetian core blew up the powder cellar, arranged by the Turkis conquerors in Parfenone. And at the beginning of the XIX century, the English diplomat Lord Eljin ordered the part of the famous Fries of Parfenone (decorating the top of the wall) and remove the surviving sculptures on the frontions. Over time, they acquired the English government, and the sculpture of Parfenon - the pride of the British Museum in London. However, barbaric attitude to artworks received the name of Elgorism.

Earlier, in the era of Archaika, the Sanctuary of Artemis was also famous in the city of Ephesus (Malaya Asia) - one of the "seven wonders of the world", and later, in Hellenistic time - Mausoleum in Galicarnas, Alexandrovsky Lighthouse (in Egypt), also included in "Wonderful seven", as well as the Altar of Zeus in Pergamma (n in. BC). If the authorship of the archaic sculpture is not established, then the classical era and the Ellinism has replaced the names of their greatest sculpture masters.

Opens this glorious list of seven great, of course fidi. His 12-meter statue of Athena Parfenos, who was once in the sanctuary of Parfenon, was made in chrysoeleafantic technique (wooden exes covered with ivory and gold), which was revered by top art. In the right hand of Athena held a statue (2 m) nicknames (victory), and Left relied on a shield with a relief, a spear was leaning to the shoulder. The statue is not preserved, the software was reconstructed on the description of contemporaries. The Fidievskaya Statue of Zeus ("Miracle of Light") is as famous for the temple in Olympia. Zeus sitting on the throne. FIDIA WALL IN SPECIALLY Lined for this workshop. Scepter with an eagle of the Sacred Messenger-com in the right, and the warded nickname in his left hand was holding "Father of Gods and People". Golden decoration, as believed, weighed about 200 kilograms, and the eyes of gems were the size of a fist. The twelvemeter statue stood for almost 900 years and died in a fire in V c.

One of the first sculptors who managed to realistically transfer the movement of the mighty body, became Miron, with his famous "discobol". The sculptor polyclet has defined the proportions of the body and handed them in plastic. His "Dorino" (spear) was created by the canon, which was dominated by more than a hundred years. Bronze "discobole" and "Dorifina" reached us in marble Roman copies. To replace the strict magty of plastic images of three Athenian masters in the VI century. The drama pathos of the Skopas (Meneada) came and the dreamy grace of Praxitor's images ("Hermes with the infant Dionysis", "Aphrodite Book" - on about. The book, who acquired a statue of the naked goddess, they said, was a real pilgrimage to fascinating to admire her beauty).

In the era of the beginning of Hellenism, when, thanks to the conquering campaigns of Alexander Macedonsky, the Greek world expanded an unusual and actively interacted with the eastern cultures, LisIPP (the court sculptor Alexander, who created his sculptural portraits, as well as the famous "apoxiomen" - athlete cleansing the body with a scraper, and Naughty "Erota" with a fraction of arrows and a bow behind the shoulders).

An artistic Leohara with his "Apollo Belvedere" (marble copy from the Bronze Original is now rated (a marble copy from the Bronze Original). The theater's spectacular pose of God of light and art with the left-handed hand and casually twined with a cloak.

Among the famous Hellenistic masterpieces Monumental Samufratsky's monumental (Paris, Louvre), "Laocoon with sons" (Rome, Vatican) and the sculptural frieze of Zeus Altar (from Pergamum, Malaya Asia), the remains of it are stored in Berlin "Pergamon - Museum". Worldwide glory acquired the statue of Venus Miloso (Paris, Louvre).

Greek art completed their historical path. A new stage of his "existence" began - as the highest sample for all subsequent artistic cultures. And the first "student" was an ancient Rome.

8. Artistic culture of ancient Egypt

There is something in front of the indifference of the constellations, and the eternal whisper of waves, the acts of man who takes her prey from death.

From the ancient Egyptian text

The state of ancient Egypt in the Nile Valley created a high and sophisticated culture. It manifested themselves common features of the old-packed slave despoty (Babylon, Sumer, Assyria, Urartu) with their "giantomania", but the art of ancient Egypt overcame gross heavyweight and developed artistic forms of incomparable nobility and purity.

Giant pyramids in Giza, large Sphinx Pharaoh Hefren and the sculptural portrait of the Tsaritsa Nefertiti - world-famous art emblems of Egypt, who came from the depths of centuries.

Obtaining a pair of the IV and III Millenniums to N. e., the culture of ancient Egypt passed several stages of its development, reaching a heyday in the ancient era (XXVIII-XXIII century BC), the average (XXI-XVIII century BC) and the new kingdom (XVI-XI bbuses BC).

Features of the ancient Egyptian culture are associated with the early development of statehood, isolated geographical position, as well as with the deep and comprehensive influence of religion (especially a funeral ritual) on all areas of artistic activities.

The leading in the ensemble of the arts of ancient Egypt becomes architecture as an expressive of dominant religious and state ideas, which crystallized in the image of the pyramid (in Greek "sacred height"). The symbol of the divine and earthly hierarchy, the links of the three worlds (gods, people and the dead) - the pyramid reflects the picture of the world that prevailed in the minds of the ancient Egyptians. In her center, the deified pharaoh as the embodiment of God Mount (choir) and the mediator between the worlds.

Come from the depths of centuries, because they were built on the century as the houses of eternity, the pyramids of the ancient kingdom (the ensemble in Giza) remained the only of the "Wonders of the World", which came to our apply.

They were preceded by the "mother of Pyramids" - the six-speed Tomb of the Pharaoh Jossera (60 m), built by the Great Archoten, also became the symbol of unlimited power.

The pyramid is included in the monumental funeral complexes - necropolis - with the requiem temples, the roads to the climbing sphinxes, satellite pyramids, sacred rook and a powerful fortress wall.

The central position of the pyramid in the architectural composition of the royal burial is due to its solar symbolism, because the solar cult was higher in the system of religious representations. Egypt called the country of the Sun, and the Pharaohs of his sons. Such a ray of the sun falling on the ground, the pyramid symbolized the path of Pharaoh to heaven. The form of it meant eternity, and the attitude of the faces is the divine harmony of the universe.

The giant tombs in the Giza Pharaohs of Heops (146.6 m), Hefren (143.5 m) and Micheryine (66.5 m) are already more than forty vessels, extraordinary monuments of the inflexible will of the pharaohs, many years of labor, hundreds of thousands of peasants and slaves and high construction art, as well as the middleness of an ancient knowledge. The pyramids are still taking many mysteries.

If in the era of the ancient and middle kingdom in the rocks of the tombs was buried the courtie, then in the new kingdom and pharaohs began to build their tombs in the rocks in the valley of the kings and the king, in vain, hoping to protect against the robbers, and the pyramids remained architectural and symbolic burial decoration.

The ancient Egyptians considered the temple by the place of the earth's stay of God and the model of the Universe. During the new kingdom, the temple architecture is experiencing flourishing.

The globally known temples-sanctuary of the Sunny Divine of Amona-ra in Karnak and Luxor. If an ancient pyramid is like a mountain, then these temples resemble a dense forest. Connected the temples almost a two-kilometer dunth - an alley of sphinxes, sunny obelski solar signs have risen. Powerful pylons have formed a majestic portal decorated with sculptural colosum of pharaohs. Each subsequent ruler attached to the new temples new, which for centuries, for centuries, Karnak and Luxor complexes turned into stone cities with alleys and squares, colonnades and temples. Following the linear layout, the composition of the temple was deployed deep into the sanctuary with the statue of the Divine, through the gloomy hypostylene (column) hall. In the carnan, the hypostil includes 134 columns (they mimic the vegetable forms of Egypt): Papiral, lotuminous, palm-shaped up to 23 m high. Karnaki hypostille-one of the most monumental interiors of the ancient Egyptian architecture.

The last takeoff of monumental architecture is associated with the era of Ramssenides - this is unprecedented by the scales of the Ramses II rocky temple in Abu-Simbel.

Giant pylon decorate twenty-meter colossiles of the pharaoh conqueror. In the 50s of our century, the UN and UNESCO organized a unique operation on the concerns of Abu Simbel during the construction of the Assuan dam. The temple was cut into gigantic blocks and moved to a new place. Creation of ancient Egyptian architects was saved.

In the cult synthesis of arts, the architecture accompanied the sculpture, which was as canonical and monumental, while maintaining sustainable artistic traditions.

Among the masterpieces of the round sculpture is a large Sphinx, the guard of the Gizekh Necropolis, the creation of nature and man (the rock massif of a lion body with the head of the king). "Horror's Father" suffered not from time to time, his Isurodo-Vali Napoleonic soldiers (off his nose) at the beginning of the XIX century. Later, the British took the stone beard. Now Sphinx Hefren seriously disturb European scientists with its condition.

In accordance with the cultic appointment of a round sculpture to be the wonderful portraits created the soul of the deceased.

Such is the sculptural group of Tsarevich Rakhhotpa and his ass Nofret (Cairo, the Egyptian Museum), sitting on the throne. Canonic not only is great - calm, postures, but also coloring a male statue in a red-roar color, female - in yellow, hair - black, clothes - white and red. The canon of the wrist figure reproduces the famous statuette of the scribe of Kai from the Louvre.

In the art of sculpture relief (bas-relief and embedded relief), the Egyptians also reached plastic expressiveness, creating a unique silhouette of the figure, as if melt on the plane. The beginning of Canon laid an image of the Pharaoh of Narre on the famous Palet, and a brilliant continuation was the wooden portrait relief "architect hashire". Reliefs in tombs and temples are distinguished by a frieze (tape) principle of location, conventionality coloring and communication with writing. Special sophistication marked reliefs from the surviving open already in the XX century. Tomb of the young Pharaoh Tutankhamon.

In the thirty-five centuries of oblivion was the world and Queen Nefertiti from the new kingdom. A number of its sculptural images was found in the excavations of the workshop of the Sculpter of the Shmery, the court master of the pharaoh-heretic, or the Cursed Pharaoh of Ehnaton, who not only introduced the cult of the Single Solar Divine-Aton, but also influenced the art that stands out in a special AMARN period of the new kingdom (on The place of the new city of Ehnaton called Achetanon is located modern Telel-Amarne. Remove from old canons and approach the life - this task was solved by the artists of Ehnaton, and the truthful lyrical interpretation of the image of a person we found in the creations of the famous Tasmes (family portraits, the sculptural portrait of Nefertiti in high Tiara and the incomplete portrait of golden sandstone are stored in the state museums of Berlin).

About the musical culture of ancient Egypt, from which only a few tools and the image of musicians in reliefs and paintings are preserved, there are assumptions. Apparently, the music of folk, temple and palace, one-haired melody was broken by the timbs of the harp, flute, drums.

Ancient Egyptian literature is distinguished by a variety of genres: fairy tales, teachings, hymns of gods and kings, laudatory songs, and since the new kingdom - love lyrics with high poetic advantages.

Ancient Egypt opened the world far from all his secrets. His a huge role in the history of world culture is not yet appreciated. The study of ancient culture began after Napoleon's military expedition, Dominica Vivan Denon, Illustrator of the famous 24-volume work "Description of Egypt" participated in it. So Europe met the mysterious and exotic country, but her writings were dead languages. The great scientific discovery, thanks to the "Rosett Stone", made another brilliant Frenchman, "Sundayer of Hieroglyphs" - Jean Francois Champolop. So the Egyptology began. Artistic images of ancient Egypt, which influenced our era to the entire culture of the Mediterranean (especially in the era of Hellenism) and then included in European culture from the XIX century, and today retain the definiteness of spiritual greatness and aesthetic perfection.

9. Features of the artistic culture of the Middle Ages

It would be one-sidedness to see in the Middlecakes only "childhood" of European peoples, a preparatory step to a new story ... They have independent historical and artistic value.

A. Ya. Gurevich

When recalling the Middle Ages, they usually represent the knights chained in the lats, the heavy sword of the enemy, crusades, the stone romance of the feudal castle of the Cathedral of the Cathedral, the exhausting work of the fortress peasantry, a monk who rejected by worldly temptations, the Inquisition. Iron. A rock. Prayers, fire and blood.

Much in the Middle Ages is chosen heavy, dark, inhuman. Maybe, therefore, the Humanists of the Renaissance era called the Millennium (V-XV centuries) between the antiquity sunset and the new time of the era of mental stagnation, "dark at night", middle eyelids, seeking to disperse the darkness of the Middle Ages the radiant rays of the revived ancient culture.

Modern historiography and artistical consciousness see in the Middle Ages, non-separating abyss, and the binding ancient and modern culture of the bridge, a complex era, which has its own unique features, as the stage of the cultural and historical development of humanity, corresponding to the origin, development and decomposition of feudalism.

Among the tragic sides of the medieval life: infinite feudal and religious wars, the arbitrariness of the people and churches, mass epidemics of plague and marine ulcers, constantly hanging a terrible court and waiting for the end of the world - the man of the Middle Ages knew how to rejoice in life, stretched to light and love, saw in the beauty of the world Symbols of Divine Beauty; He knew how to work selflessly, rewarding the Creator in the Big and Mild Act; No wonder the medieval culture left after herself a great and long-fashioned artistic legacy created by "small people", which were great masters.

A special role in the formation of medieval culture was played by Christianity, which created a great historical synthesis, inheriting and transforming ideas and images of the religions of the Middle East and the tradition of Greco-Roman antique philosophy. Christianity for the first time in world history put forward the ideas of equality of all people before God, the condemnation of violence, overcoming the imperfection of the world by morally improving everyone, the idea of \u200b\u200bspiritual unity of all people. "The tragedy of the person of Christ fills in the world, she lives in every person" (D. S. Likhachev). The acute experience of this tragedy is the main content of the masterpieces of artistic culture of the Middle Ages.

Adopted more than a thousand-year history of the Middle Ages to share for three main periods: Early (V-XI century), mature, or classical (XII-XV centuries) and later Middle Ages (XVI - beginning of the XVII century), noted by widespread and nationally - Simple manifestation in the art of revived ideas.

With all the complexity, heterogeneity, multi-fashionedness, paradoxicality and contradictions of medieval life and culture, there is also a unifying beginning - the "Geocentric Model of the World", which finds in the art perfect, humanistic embodiment.

Previously, Christian religiosity showed itself in the addition of the Byzantine artistic system. In the early period, the Middle Ages of Byzantium remained the only keeper of the traditions of the Hellenistic ancient culture, giving this cultural relay in the X century. Ancient Russia together with Orthodoxy.

Byzantium created the main types of Christian temples (basilical, centric and cross-dome), rethinking the ancient architecture in accordance with the Christian religious teaching about the temple as a terrestrial model of the Heavenly Church, as a savory ship for believers, as a house for praying. Therefore, the main attention was paid to an increase in the inner space and the divine magnificence of the inner decoration of the temple.

The main in the Byzantine Empire was the temple of St. Sofia in Constantinople, erected in the VI century. Under Justinian, architect Anfimi and Isidore (a rare case of preserving the names of medieval builders, because no one cares about this in the era of the Middle Ages, since the masters who did the beauty were standing on the lower steps of the feudal staircase, their work was considered collective and, it means extreme and almost always remained unnamed, anonymous).

In St. Sofia combined the design principles of the ancient Roman Pantheon and the early Christian Basilica, the center of the rectangle was crowned with a giant hemisphere of the dome (diameter of 31.5 m). The architecture of the temple seems mysteriously changing from different points of view, implemented in stone miracle.

In the era of the Middle Ages, a new temple synthesis of arts is born, having differences in Orthodoxy and Catholicism, divided in 1054: in a grand ensemble, stunning magnitude and towering spirituality, architecture and sculpture are connected, painting (fresco, mosaic, icon or stained glass) and decorative crust , vocal and instrumental music (organ).

For the first time, such an artistic synthesis was carried out in the solemn ritual of the Byzantine worship, which was adopted by ancient Russia and other states of the Orthodox branch of Christianity.

If in the east, the transition from antiquity to Middle Ages occurred gradually, then in the West - through the destruction and breaking of cultural traditions of antiquity. The fall in the ancient Rome, the great relocation of peoples and "Varvarization" of Europe - in the ignition of the birth of a medieval civilization was also formed by the artistic culture of Western Europe.

The medieval art of Western and Central Europe in their tenrative development has passed three stages: Domanian (Wed. V-X centuries), Romanesque (XI - XII centuries) and Gothic (XII - XIV centuries). In some states, Gothic art in the XV-XVI centuries. ("Flaming Gothic") coexisted with the art of the Renaissance.

Of all the "barbaric kingdoms", the Kingdom of Frankov, the Kingdom of Franks, initially, were the largest and strong, the Kingdom of the Meroving, who accepted Christianity on the Catholic ritual, and then francs are experiencing the Caroling Renaissance (VI - IX centuries), this The era completes the Empire of Karl the Great, crowned by the Roman dad as "Emperor Romans".

At this time, decorative and applied arts (fasteners, buckles, weapons, utensils, crosses, salaries of church books, with inserts from gems, stained glass or enamel, surprise the richness of the ornament in combination with the "animal style") and art of books Miniatures.

With IV century The emerging monasteries become centers for creating Christian books (the Gospel, the teachings of the Fathers of the Church, the liturgical books), which were made from Parchment and decorated with colored miniatures, where gold, purple, gouache. The favorite theme was the images of evangelists.

Samples of early-medieval art design of a book, which turned into an expensive and exquisite gift, demonstrate a sophisticated finished ornamental style that had a great influence on the entire European culture.

During the destructive invasions of Normans, many foci of culture and monuments of art, architecture were killed, indispensable wealth from monasteries and palaces were cleared. In his short, the flowering of Caroling Art has revived a lot from the achievements of late antiquity, but did not create a new completed system, which was under the power of the RO-Mansk era who came to replace the first pan-European artistic style.

The term appeared in the XIX century, when archaeologists in the construction of the X-XII centuries. They found traits of similarities with Roman architecture, later Romanese began to call the art of the era in general.

In a fragmented, erecting Europe, the main types of architectural structures were a knightly castle, a monastic ensemble and a destroyed temple with massive stone walls, narrow windows, high towers.

The desire for increased spirituality is distinguished by the samples of Romanesque art as well as the Byzantine, however, the image of a spiritually perfect and exhausted from the real world of man did not receive the same development as in Byzantium, in Western European art, an active attitude towards life was combined with religiosity. Romanesque architecture amazes power, sculpture - journeying spirit. In increased expression of feelings, the traditions of barbaric art are felt, the rapid and terrible character of the era of feudal wars and crusades. The Basilical Type of Christian Temple is developing in Romanesque Cathedrals. A powerful extended longitudinal housing (nave) likes the temple of the ship. Side oils below central. They are crossed by a translapt, and the Latin Cross is formed in the plan. A massive, tower, from the east, the temple is closed by the semicircuit with the east of the apse (with an altar inside). Narrow high tower watchdog temple (two from the eastern and west end). Architectonics of the Romanesque temple is clear in all parts, distinguished and visual, differs by courageous beauty, impressiveness and solemn power.

The new in the decoration of the Christian church of the Romanesque era was sculptural design outside and inside, which allows you to compare the cathedral with a stone book that captures the soul of the Middle Ages. Although the Church figures and "managed" art - often they could neither understand nor approve the sculptural decoration of temples.

Romanesque Masters Painted Walls, Doors and Columns by the previous world: images of the saints, apostles, evangelists Spaders, men, explicitly common origin, in semicircular tympany above the portal (entrance) churches especially often placed relief with the image of a terrible court, where Christ is a judge and defender His vassals, and around from the bizarre ornament there are "strange-ugly-shaped images" - centaurs, monkeys, lions and all kinds of stone chimeras, sometimes they are kneaded in the holy campaign and are present at the "sacred interviews." Apparently, these fantastic images came to Romanesque art from pagan folk cults, fairy tales and foliages, folk epic, expressing people's understanding and idea of \u200b\u200bthe struggle of goodness of goodness and evil for the soul of man.

Inside the temples, the same, as in the era of Carroling, was decorated with multicolor frescoes, the new phenomenon was colored stained glass windows of glass on the plots of sacred history; This type of temple painting received a special development in the Gothic era. The famous Romanesque cathedrals have been preserved in Germany (Wairma, Speyer, Mainz) and in France (Notre Dame in Poitiers, Saint-Pierre in Moissaca, Saint-Lazar in Other).

Until the XII century The main cultural centers of Europe were monasteries, where there were most educated people, construction problems were discussed, books were rewriting. However, in the XII century. The championship began to move towards new economic and cultural centers - cities that fought feudalities for their independence. No wonder they said: "The air of the city is free." In the medium, the citizens were born freedomiff and critical attitude towards the feudal system, the consecrated church, as allegedly established in heaven, and therefore unshakable.

High heyday reaches secular knightly literature and poetry, there is literature of the city world, the creation of the heroic epic of the Middle Ages is being completed.

The most famous French epic poems "Song about Roland", "Sing Side" and the German epic "Song of Nibelunga".

At the heart of the "Song about Roland", the episode from the Spanish campaign of Karl the Great 778, in the poem, a conquering campaign is becoming a fair war with "incorrect", Saracins. Cooked truce of the Saracensky king Martilia, the betrayal of Karl Vytnaya Ganeleon advisor, the bloody battle of Roland's Knight with Saracines and the death of the main character, defeat the army of Saracinov, the death of Roland's bride and the execution of Hanelon - these are the main events of the epic story, glorifying the christian church's patriotism, the French And the courage of the young knight.

The "Song of Nibelungakh" standing for several centuries is a huge song-epic tale, includes paintings by brilliant knightly court life, vague memories of distant antiquity of the great resettlement of peoples of IV-V ventures, mythological, legendary and fabulous fantastic images. The main topics of the legend: blinding the destructive power of gold (Cassel of Nibelung), the desire for the love and happiness of the brave knight of Siegfried - the "ideal hero" of Western Nekovna, revenge in his hopes for the love of Siegfried Mighty Brungilda, whose will pecks a gloomy evil haigh, killing a hero , as well as the terrible response revenge of his wife, the Crimchild and the death of all the main heroes of the legend. The story of a medieval author who penetrated into the psychology of man and at the same time deciding his acts by fantastic images of the magic ring, a wonderful sword, the miraculous blood of the Dragon Siegfried, as well as the "Song of Nibelungakh" is rich in humanistic insignifications that the destructive charge of Mission returns to the sent, condemn on the death and world of the gods, and the world of people.

It is in the Middle Ages that poetry becomes the queen of European literature. Even the chronicles were enjoyed in a poetic form, and the Holy Scriptures acquired poetic rhythms that were better remembered, and the edging texts acquired the beauty of poetry.

Court etiquette of the light knightly culture of the XII and XIII centuries. She demanded that, along with the traditional military valiation, the knight had elegant manners, observed in everything "measure," was attached to the art and read the wonderful ladies, that is, he was a sample of the court priestly, referred to as Courtsia.

The brilliant page of the knightly poetry was the work of Troubadurov ("Winkers") of the French Provence, the cult of the beautiful lady took about the same place as the cult of Madonna to religious poetry. Love of Trubadurov was a kind of riot against rigid class barriers between people. Provencal poetry expressed reverence before the beauty of forever wildlife; Dante, Petrak and other poets of the Renaissance era were studied at the best samples of Oboven lyrics, because it was the troubadura rhymes into a wide literary use. In Germany, the medieval knightly lyrics called Minnezang, and its poets - minnesing agers. In the opera "Tangayizer" Richard Wagner erected them and XIX century. Majestic monument, and also gave tribute to the National Epos in the opera tetralogy "Ring Nibelung"; The art of the urban, Burgers shop Maesterzant Wagner dedicated to Opera Nuremberg Masonzinger; Many European romance in the XIX-in-law similar to him. Inspired by national medieval images.

In general, the Novoeuropean literary creativity is varied in genre. In addition to the national heroic epic and the courtroom, the knightly story and the novel existed ("Roman about Tristan"), "Scientific" Latin poetry, the poetry of Vagatov - stray students, monks and other people, Christian literature - "High" theological and "low" for " Opposses "(lives of saints and" visions "of the scenes of the afterlife), urban literature is represented by household comic poetic genres of Fabio and Schwankami, as well as lyrics ballad and Rondo.

The theater of the Church was banned. Church and folk spectacles can be attributed to theatrical art with stretch. Among the church "theater" genres the liturgical drama (chanting with theatrical elements), Miracle (miracles from the life of saints), mystery - the sacraments, showing righteous and unrighteous, morality about the struggle of virtues and virtues. There were a variety of folk theaters of stray actors.

With the development of urban gothic culture, the Gothic Cathedral becomes the center of all social life. The term "mother of gothic" - "Gothic manner" (from the name of the German tribe) also originated in the Renaissance Epoch as a condemnation of coarse, barbaric art of the Middle Ages. Over time, the content of the term has changed. Gothic began to call the final stage of the Western European Middle Ages ..

In the Gothic art with a huge, impressive force is expressed "unconscious confession" of medieval humanity. And the Middle Ages seem "majestic, as a colossal gothic temple, dark, dark, as its intersected alone vaults, motley, like multi-colored windows and an abundance of his decorations, elevated, filled with gusts, as it flying to the sky pillars and steppes ending flasher in the clouds of the chaps "(Gogol).

Masters Gothic, improving the supporting system, made a revolution in architecture. The massive Romanesque Wall has disappeared, the building was drunk to the cozoi, to the rushing up the stone ribbed (rib) frame. Gothic develops the basilical type of the Christian temple. The cross-cutting character of the arcade separating one nave from the other, emphasizes the openness and mutual relationship of parts of the indoor space, and large openwork windows - arched and round ("Gothic Rose") with colored glass windows - make a light, illusory and increasing barrier between the interior Cathedral and the outside world. The overwhelming power and extraordinary openness of the space, the grandeur and dynamism of the stone construction, the color painted light, pouring through the stained-glass windows, is all merged into a single monumental artistic image.

The Gothic Cathedral contains the whole world of the medieval city, becomes his encyclopedia. The style of gothic tempementary and dramatically, like the tense life of a medieval city. Motherland Gothic became France, a little later she spread in Germany (Cologne Cathedral, "Brick Gothic"), England (Westminster Abbey in London), Czech Republic (St. Vita Cathedral) and other countries of the Catholic world.

The most famous cathedrals of France are devoted to the Mother Notere Dame in Amiens, Chartres, Ruang and, of course, in Reims and Paris. These are "huge stone symphonies" (V. Hugo) with a complex sculptural decor, where each element of the architecture "Oblovochchenchencheni" is populated by various living beings, and the gothic statues are striking the expression of inspired ecstasy, which transforms, engraves depleted bodies. Indeed, in Gothic art, the third estate with his dreams and suffering, despair and hopes.

In the temple synthesis of arts, in creating the image of God's world, the final point set music. The development of church music relied on one-haired prayer chants in Latin - Gregorian Khoral (hobs of chants was created on the initiative of Pope Gregory I). With IX century He received a recognition of the body that came to Europe from Byzantium. Later on the basis of the Melodies of the Gregory Khorala, many-voice music of motes and Catholic Mass occurs. The sublime images of the Gregorian Khorala inspired in the XVIII century. Great I.-S. Bach

Medieval artistic culture is a complex, dramatically developing and simultaneously closed in the framework of the classic hierarchy and the "geocentric model" image of the world. Middle Ages belongs to one of the most dramatic pages of a great book about a person who creates the history of art.

10. Art Culture of India, China and Japan

The art of India, China and Japan belongs to the artistic culture of the peoples of the East. They are united by the similarity of paths of historical development, as well as distribution in these Buddhism countries, which influenced the occurrence of new art at the turn of antiquity and the Middle Ages. This art was distinguished by the breadth of reality, the awareness of the deep kinship of man and nature, a large emotional potassium. Indian sculpture, Chinese landscape painting, Japanese monasteries and gardens are just separate famous examples.

The art of India from ancient times feeds a powerful fantasy, the gradation of the scales of the ideas about the universe. The means of artistic expression are striking by variety and colorful, resembling the blooming nature of India. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe unity of life in all its manifestations permeates both philosophical teachings, aesthetics, and art. Therefore, the role of synthesis - architecture and sculptures, architecture and painting, as well as poetry, painting and music, as well as poetry, painting and music is so great in Indian art. The famous theatrical ideas on the themes of the ancient epic Ramayana and Mahabharata became the source of classic poses captured in the visual arts, which are characterized by expression and courage. Numerous tribes of the largest Peninsula of the Peace (Industan) took part in the formation of Indian art.

The period from the middle II to the middle of the I millennium BC. e. It is mainly connected with the flourishing philosophy of brahmanism and literature in the oldest Sanskrit. However, long before our era, when the civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, Iran and China were developed, crafts, science and art appeared in India. Great development received grammar, mathematics and medicine. Indians have glorified the whole world "Bharat Country", taking mankind of a digital system and a game of chess, making thinner colorful tissues and bead steel,

Exceptional diversity of forms, unstoppable fiction, optimistic power and persistence of folk traditions Contrary to cult, canonical restrictions - the most wonderful in the artistic work of Indians. It is not surprising that India has attracted numerous travelers. Back in the XV century. Tver buying Athanasius Nikitin committed "walking in three seas." In the XVIII century Gerasim Lebedev created the theater in Calcutta. And in the XIX century. Images of India captured on the canvas A.D. Saltykov, V. B. Vereshchagin (about 150 paintings), I. K. Roerich. Creativity Roerich (Father and Son) is a special page of Russian-Indian cultural ties.

In the middle of the 2nd millennia, the blooming civilization Inde died under the onslaught of nomadic tribes - Ariev. Only the ruins of the landscaped cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa are preserved, as well as many objects of developed decorative and applied art and shallow plastics. The emergence of Aria are considered the creators of the oldest "Vedas" ("knowledge"), and they are hymns and prayers for deities, many different information about the life and life of Ariyev, about the division of society for four Casting groups (Varna): Priests - Brahmins, Warriors - Kshatriyev, farmers, artisans and merchants - Vaisiyev and the lowest Varna - Speud, who, along with slaves, obeyed the first three.

During the formation of powerful slave ownership states (VI-IV centuries. BC) Epic literature arises - great poems on Sanskrit "Ramayana" and "Mahabharata" (superior ancient Greek Epos in volume 8 times), who reported legends about courageous and brave heroes, to combat and strengthen new powerful dynasties.

The idea of \u200b\u200bthe celebration of good over evil underlies the ancient Indian epic, permeates the story of the Sonde's brothers and Epusund, who decided to comprehend the mystery of the universe, the poetic tale of Nale and Krasanice Damanti. In general, the plot of 18 books "Mahabharata" tells about the stubborn struggle of two royal childbirth for power. Noble images are created in Ramayan. Freight and valor of Tsarevich Rama, the devotion of his brother Lakshman, the faithful love of the Sita, dividing the expulsion with the frame to the forest, and the cunning of the Lord of the Ravana demons have long entered the Indians in the sayings. And some of the mountains are still honored as the gods, and the scenes from Ramayana are played on the holidays on holidays. "The Ocean of Wisdom and Beauty" is called Indians their epic.

After expulsion of the troops of A. Macedonsky, Maury Dynasty comes to power. The king of Ashka, uniting India into a huge empire, began the grand stoneworn construction of buildings of the Buddhist cult. Buddhist religion was officially adopted at Ashok in 261 BC. e.

Buddhism (initially not a religion, but ethical teachings), according to legend, was founded in the VI century. BC e. Tsarevichi from the genus Shakiev, by name-namedhartha Gautama, then ninked by Buddha ("enlightened"). Buddha preached the idea of \u200b\u200bhuman self-improvement, the absence of evil, renunciation from worldly temptations. The Bhrchman's religion Buddha borrowed the concept of reincarnation, but he taught that the state of the highest rest - Nirvana can achieve each, even a powerless sudra, and not just the highest caste.

The religious and ethical principles of Buddhism were reflected in Buddhist literature (canonical legends, religious and philosophical treatises). In jataks - legends on Buddha reincarnations - a lot of folklore and domestic material. The plots of them were often used by sculptors and painters to decorate cult facilities.

The most common: Relics - Stupa, Gaolas - Stambhi, cave temples - Teja, Monasteries - Vihar.

Stupa - Buddhist cult monument: a ravenled earthwood sphere, lined with brick or stone, standing at a low drum, at the top - a chamber for storing Buddha relics - tooth, curl, bone - and religious books; At the top of the steps - a rod with disks-umbrellas that symbolize the level of knowledge on the path to Nirvana; The fence and gates (4) were recreated in stone the design of wooden fences and the gates of the Vedas. A classic example is a stupa in Santi (height with a rod - 23.6 m, the base diameter is 36.6 m). The fence and gates are richly decorated with reliefs and a round sculpture based on jacks with a great feeling of truth and love for nature. The carved gates of stupas in Santi "introduce us to the world of Old Indian art."

Stambhi - stone memorial columns, were erected with Ashok at historical places of Buddhism. 10 poles survived to 15 m high and weight over 250 tons. At the post, the royal decrees of religious and ethical content were usually carved. The greatest fame won the "lion's cap" from the Stambay in Sarnathe (middle III century. BC). It is like fragile backs, four lions. Abaca Capitals are decorated with symbols of four sides of the world - relief figures of the elephant, lion, horses and bulls, between them - the "Wheel of the Law" (chakra) is a symbol of the Buddha teaching symbol. "Lion capita" is currently the state emblem of the Republic of India.

According to legend, the Buddha called on the disciples to retire from the Thiege World. The first temples and monasteries at Ashoka marked the beginning of a monolithic rock architecture, which existed from II century. BC e. before the VII century AD

One of the most majestic structures of the early period - the jams in Karli with a length of 37.8 m and a height of 13.7 m. Inside, like other temples, it is divided by two rows of columns on three longitudinal nefs. A monolithic stone stamp is placed in the semi-culinary completion of the central neopa. The scattered stream of soft light is lost in the twilight of a huge cave filled with the SIZY smoke of fragile smoking. The most famous is created later, at the dawn of the Indian Middle Ages, in the era of Guptes, the cave complex of Ajanta. Like a giant garland, 29 cave temples and monasteries along the sheer bank of the Waghora River, Ajanta organically combines architecture, sculpture and painting,

The early structures of Buddhism did not have sculptural images of the lawpower. By the beginning of our era, India was already closely connected by trading with the Roman Empire. The exchange of cultural values \u200b\u200bcontributed to the addition of the new "Greco-Buddhist" art. The Roman custom of the deification of the rulers led to the image in the sculpture of kings and some deities in the position of Roman emperors or Fidiyevsky Zeus. The synthesis of ancient and Indian in the art of Gandahara in the image of the Great Teacher and Bodhisattvas, who have reached perfection, but voluntarily remaining among people to instruct them. Sculpture canons are gradually folded. This is especially noticeable in the images of the Buddha (so, the long ears are one of the 32 qualities inherent in it). However, despite the restrictive framework of the canons, unreserved masters sought to individualization, creative peculiarity.

Period III-V GBs, when the Gupta dynasty managed to unite the country, is the flourishing of the economic and cultural life of India. This is an excellent prelude to the Middle Ages, the Golden Age, Indian art. This is the classic period of Sanskrit poetry and drama, scenic art, inextricably linked with music, singing and dancing.

The masterpieces recognized the lyrical poem "Vestnik" and the drama "recognized Shakuntala" the greatest poet and the playwright V c. Kalidasi. The drama tells about the trials of the love of young launches of Shakuntala and the king of the dicky. On behalf of their son, bharata and the ancient name of India occurred - "Bharat Countries". Poetry Kalidasi is a lively source for many Indian poets and other countries so far. A bit of extensive temple construction has been preserved. The Church of the Great Enlightened "(Mahabothi) II-III century, built there, where, according to legend, Buddha sat under the sacred tree in the night of enlightenment, is a monumental tower of 55 m height decorated with sculpture: the destination of the temple is changing, this is not a gathering place Praying, and the abode of the Divine with his statue.

In the era of the Gults, the famous wall paintings of the cave temples are created, adjant, applied on a layer of gypsum by tempera paints of warm, oily tones. We are revealed to the colorful world of life, mythology and history, nature of India, often the plots are drawn from the favorite Buddhist Jacks. At the masterpieces of Adjant paintings include the picturesque portrait of Tsarevich Buddha - "Bodhisattva with Lotus" and the scene "Dying Princess". Female images Ajanta is especially poetic, as if they are echoing with the images of the heroine poet Kalidas. Ajanta is the monuments of world importance and artistic value, "these are caves, where and now in the deep darkness of the night burns the torch of life"; "The paintings of the Ajanta had the same meaning for the history of Asia, Kakalian frescoes for Europe" (M. Slengh). The medieval art of India is difficult in composition, contradictory and separated. In the VII-VIII centuries. Brahmanism is again put forward, which in a new, modified form became known as Hinduism. The main deities were Trinity - "Trimurti": Brahma - the creator of the world, Vishnu - his guardian, Shiva - the destroyer in the name of the creation of a new one; Various embodiments of Vishnu - Krishna, Rama, Buddha; The cult of Spouses Shiva is spread - parvati; Ganesh with the body of a child and an elephant's head is a patron of merchants, students, authors, etc.

The largest cult factor of Hinduism is the Shivaist Temple of Kylisanath (VIII century), created by the original way: in the slope of the mountain carved in the form of the letter "P", from the inner monolithic array and was "vainly" from top to bottom of the temple building (61 m long, 30 m height). The surface is replete with sculptures of gods, fantastic beings and animals. "In the cave such a lot of images that it can be honored with a book of Indian mythology," but this abundance is felt some overload, concern forms.

In the XI-XII centuries. The use includes "Novo Indian" languages \u200b\u200b- Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Marathi. Ancient Sanskrit remains basically the language of science as Latin of the European Middle Ages. At this time, a new type of tower temples arises - Shikhara, on the form of melons resembling fruit. Despite the fantastic look, the temple was built on strict canons. This is towering on a monolithic platform a majestic temple in Khad-Juraudo. Under the influence of the priest brahmanist aesthetics, the sculpture gradually moves away from the immediate observations of life, becoming more and more canonical and distracted, symbolically expressing the ideas of Hinduism.

From the XIII century. The scattered Indian principalities are subject to the invasion of Muslims, brought with them Islam and its aesthetics, actively influenced the art of India almost before the XIX century. There were new forms in architecture - mosque, minaret, mausoleum. Later there is a medieval architecture of India, a synthesizing local and brought, two styles merge into one, "Indo-Muslimskny".

As far as it succeeds, it can be judged by the famous Taj Mahal tomb (1632-1650), which is deservedly called the pearl of Indian architecture, "the poem in marble", "swan song of the architecture of the Great Mughal era. Dome of the Mausoleum, as Indians say, looks like a "cloud, resting from the air throne."

The mausoleum was created at the order of Emperor Shah-Jahan in memory of his beloved wife Mumtaz-waving the best architects of the East.

In the era of the Middle Ages, the art of book miniatures enriched with Iranian samples blooms. One of the monuments of the clergy school - Babubername (XVI century), the lives of Sultan Babura, is kept in the State Museum of the Art of the Nations of the East in Moscow.

Artistic craft of India is one of the oldest in the world. This country has been famous for tasty from cotton and wool to this day (appreciated in ancient Babylon), injuries in ivory and wood, metal processing (chasing, carving, filigree, inlay), jewelry and varnish products.

English colonization at the end of the XVIII century. He stopped the development of national monumental architecture and sculpture, but local artistic crafts were preserved. Stank painting and sculpture that developed national traditions were able to revive only with the rise of the national liberation movement at the beginning of the XX century.

India's art culture has had a huge impact on the countries of Southeast and Central Asia.

China's art culture has about five millennia in its development. During this time, a great many works of art have been created. The greatness of Chinese culture was manifested in the fact that, despite the historical shocks, she continued to exist, relying on strong national traditions. On the contrary, China's conquerors lost their native language and writing, the entirely falling under his cultural impact. The abundance of the monuments of the art of antiquity and the pore of the heyday of medieval culture is truly grand, despite the monstrous losses. And currently arriving in China affects easily instep to modernity and carefully preserved ancient culture.

In the II millennium BC. e. Together with the first state formations, cities appeared with the correct layout, preserved in the Middle Ages and later to the present day. There is a hieroglyphic writing, over time, becoming graphic art of calligraphy, which entered into a slim artistic synthesis with Chinese painting. At this time, traditional mythological symbolism and artistic parallelism of the nature of the nature and life of a person are developing, which determines the poetic features of Chinese art and its requiring learning art language.

The Ancient Chinese Bronze II Millennium is the finished artistic world. Bronze ritual vessels "animal style", which were paid in clay forms and reached weight up to 600 kg, were treated with such thoroughness and virtuosity of the ornament, which is the skill of their manufacture and now amazes as a kind of mystery.

In the I millennium, the Chinese created a lunarly sun calendar and the world's first star catalog. The oldest philosophical teachings appear - Confucianism and Taoism. The ethical teachings of Confucius with his cult of ancient traditions, ancestors, the family was imposed on conservatism and traditional culture, while Taoism preached the following "Tao" - the path reflecting the essence of nature: variability and constant movement of forces, passing gradually in their opposite. Taoism influenced the cult of nature in Chinese art, correlating all human actions with the phenomena of nature, by choosing the nature of the human behavior. "The highest virtue is like water. Water benefits to all beings, and does not fight "- one of the numerous sparkles attributed to the legendary founder of Taoism Lao Zi.

The emergence of Chinese painting is preceded by the developed art of sculpture relief, the samples of which in the set were found in the ancient burials of the Chinese nobility of the Han Empire, many scientists began the beginning of Chinese painting from the Han reliefs with their frieze composition and the wealth of rhythmic relationships of plane silhouettes. In the Middle Ages (III-IV centuries. N. E.) China is part of persistent traditions in various fields of cultural life.

Revival after the invasion of nomadic tribes, the strengthening and unification of the state on the feudal bases was also facilitated by the new ideology, which came from India - Buddhism. The early Chinese Middle Ages is the time of the active relationship between China with adjacent countries and cultures, as well as the time of artistic quest. Under the influence of Buddhism, monumental architecture, sculpture and painting of rocky monasteries, temples and pagodas arise. Fullating ancient and new, the Chinese create a solemn and unusually decorative artistic style, which reflected the cheerful philosophical spirit of medieval culture. Like a painter, the Chinese architect was a poet and thinker, possessed an elevated and exacerbid sense of nature. The secret of the unusually poetic impression of the architecture of China is in its skillful location is not isolated, but in a wide space of nature so that the forests and distant vertices of the mountains seemed part of a huge grandeur.

The ancient Great Chinese Wall is evidenced about the latitude of architectural plans of Chinese architects (built in the 6th - iii centuries. BC), one of the most majestic monuments of world architecture; After centuries-old walls, the wall exceeded 3000 km. The harsh landscape of the North-Chinese mountains is a harmonious consonance with the harsh ease of this strategic structure that defended China from the north.

In addition to the cave temples, built over the centuries as peculiar museums of medieval sculpture and wall painting, Buddhist memorial monuments in honor of the Saints and pilgrims are greatly distributed - Pagoda.

Recalling Indian tower facilities at first, to the VII VIII centuries. Chinese pagodas are characterized by the clarity of longline members and calm magty, while the tower facilities of Southeast Asia are characterized by swelling of stone plastic forms, and in the east - the endless aspiration of the winding needles of Muslim minarets. The most famous pagoda of the time of the Empire of Tang - Danyan (big pagoda of wild geese), 60 m high, consists of 7 evenly narrowing the same tiers. The sublime spiritual impulse and mind were combined in the noble simplicity and clarity of this structure.

From the XV century, after the expulsion of the Mongols, Beijing became the capital of China, in Chinese Bajin (Northern Capital), existing for more than three thousand years. His plan, grand ensembles of palaces, gardens and temples are created in ancient samples and construction charters. The city is located according to the rules of geomantics "Fyn Shui" - an old system of orientation of buildings on the ground, depending on the roses of winds flowing and the surrounding mountain chains. Strictly symmetrical layout of the highways and streets effectively complement the shady gardens and parks on bulk hills, stroits of artificial lakes, stretching freely and picturesque. The Emperorsky Palace - "Forbidden City" - a fabulous labyrinth of architectural and garden-park structures. The main building of the Palace - Taiha-Dyan - the Pavilion of Higher Harmony, like all palace wooden pavilions, combines the simplicity and logicality of the design with the picturesque election of the decor. From the XV century The city decorates the majestic heaven temple ensemble, associated with the oldest rites of the sky and the earth as a crop donor. The main building is the temple of prayer for the annual harvest - with a triple thick-blue tiled glazed conical roof, red columns and a high white round terrace with marble ramps, snacks over the entire ensemble, like a shining mountain peak of precious lazurite.

Spatial scope, peculiar to the Chinese architecture of the XV-XVII centuries. And the result of the experience of millennia, tangle and in the giant necropolis of the Ming dynasty near Beijing. The path to it lies through a five-span marble arch - the beginning of the path, and then - the eightyotmeter alley, the road of spirits, which the figures of animals and warriors are guarded by the guards of necropolis. Rank (gates, temples, tombs and underground palaces, in each), as if green oasis among mountain chains; Places of privacy, silence and peace.

Painting as a type of art sincecore enjoys great respect in China. Preserved dedicated paintings poems and treatises, descriptions of paintings and consolidated stories about masters of painting on secular and cult, first inextricably interconnected. The cult painting decorates the walls of Buddhist temples, secular - silk scrolls and walls of palaces. Chinese painting is inextricably linked with poetry. Most of the painters were both poets (at the time of the Chinese Middle Ages from the educated person, it was necessary for him to be both a poet, and a musician, and a painter, and often a philosopher). The combination of paintings and inscriptions is unusual for European perception, and the picture completely costs without a frame, in the form of a scroll stored in special boxes and deployed in rare cases for consideration. Apparently, at the turn of a new era, this form of picturesque scrolls having two types were developed. Vertical scrolls usually do not exceed 3 meters, while the horizontal (panorama, an illustrative story: either a series of landscapes, or a scene of urban life) reaches 10 meters.

The Chinese landscape genre is known as one of the greatest achievements of world art. The Chinese artist perceives the landscape as part of an immense and spacious world, as a grandiose space, where the human personality is dissolved in the contemplation of the Great, incomprehensible and absorbing space. The Chinese painter depicts nature in two aspects. One - scenery of mountains and waters - "Shanshui", the type of classic Chinese landscape on long scrolls, where not the details are important, but the general philosophical and poetic feeling of the greatness and harmony of the world. The other is rather, the genre of "colors and birds", when on small scrolls and album sheets, veins and shirms depicted a flower, a bird on a branch, a monkey with a young or dragonfly over a lotus flower. The image is infinitely close to the viewer and at the same time inscribe into a single and one-piece picture of nature.

Many poetic treatises are devoted to the art of the landscape. In the "secret revelation of painting science" it is said: "Sometimes in the picture only in foot (long) landscape, he will write hundreds of thousands of miles." Here we are talking about the peculiarities of promising building space on vertical scrolls. The author of the picture as it may contemplate the land "Whether a bird's-flight", which is why the horizon rises to an extraordinary height, - several landscape plans are highly raised one over the other, the farthest items are the highest. Landscape plans are separated by either aquatic space or a foggy haze; The air breakthrough between them shares the front and rear plans for the distance, seemingly endless. To strengthen the impression of the grandiosnosis of the world, the painter continuously opposes the small forms of great (trees seem huge next to the tiny figures of people from their foot).

The impression of plausibility gives an expressive, thoughtful line to the smallest details, creating an image of an object, its shape and volume. From ancient times, Chinese masters combined linear techniques with the finest scenic nuance, combining graphics and painting together. Chinese painting is the art of a hint of a waking fantasy, this is the art of the detail unfolding into the philosophical picture of the world, it is deeply poetic art of spirituality of nature and man.

The Chinese people with his richest fantasy, raised millennia with a subtle artistic taste created great and excellent traditions in applied art. It is enough to name Chinese artistic porcelain, which served currency for a long time, being a monopoly and secret of China.

Do not know how to penetrate the mystery of hieroglyphic writing, the West World has almost did not know the Chinese classical poetry for a long time. The ancient classic "Shizhin" is the pure source of inspiration for Chinese poets of the last two millennia - "Song book", where lyrics are collected on-native songs and ritual hymns of the XII-VII centuries. BC e.

From the XVII century. Chinese artistic products penetrate Europe, china and silk are valued by the weight of gold. The influence of Chinese art is tangible in the style of Rococo and in the country, park architecture of the XIX century, which was only a superficial stylization. The deepests of Chinese art with the European romantic tradition of symbolist poetry of the 19th and XX centuries. The symbolist poets noted that the old Chinese painting "leaves reality to dreams in the reality", China's artists have the ability to "enchant objects", depict them with the help of feeling, experiences, memories.

The art of Japan is an independent historical type of art. His emergence is lost in the centuries. For a long time, there was nothing known to the negotiation of ancient Japan. Only at the beginningXX century. Monuments of the II-I Millenniums were found. e. Long period of ancient culture with IV thousand to n. e. Almost before the new era, the Dzevel ("Rope Trail") is called the method of manufacturing ancient ceramics. The ritual vessels were for an ancient man with a precious architecture of knowledge about the world, his elements, the magical connection of the person and the universe. According to the researchers, it is to the beginning of farming belongs to clay figures - the dog's fertility gods.

It is believed that the most significant contribution to the world culture, Japan contributed to the era of the feudal Middle Ages (from VI-VIII to the middle of the XIX B,), having experienced the strong cultural influence of Korea and especially China. All the main features of Chinese art were developed, however, the formation of a national artistic style was to overcome the impact and bringing to a high degree of perfection of individuals borrowed in China's species of art. A distinctive feature of Japanese culture is its democracy. Of particular importance was attached to the decoration of the interior in the dwellings of different layers of society.

In each of the periods of the Long Middle Ages, outstanding artistic works are created. In the VII-VIII centuries. - These are architectural and sculptural ensembles of Buddhist monasteries.

In the ancient law of the temples were built for 20 years, then they were destroyed and built new ones on the same plan. The oldest shinto temples ("Sintoism" - the "path of the gods" the oldest national polytetic religion) built from valuable wood. Buddhism, which from the VI century. It becomes a state religion, predetermined the grand scale of architecture. The temple of Khoryuji, the Golden Temple near the ancient capital of Nara and the largest wooden building in the world - "Temple Todaji. "The Great Eastern Temple", the main state shrine with a huge bronze statue of the Buddha inside. Buddhist temple complexes have become the prototype of the first urban settlements.

In the IX-XII centuries. It appears and worries the flourishing Japanese Painting - Yamato E. On silk and paper, bright colors with the addition of gold and silver, artists painted landscapes, court scenes, sometimes illustrated the famous novels of their contemporaries. Pictures in the form of horizontal scrolls - Zkomono - considered on the table, and the vertical - Kakomono - decorated the walls of the front rooms. Pictures of Yamato-E ("Japanese painting") leave the impression of a festive jewel.

In the era of the ancient Middle Ages, original works of landscape architecture are created - famous Japanese gardens. The most famous "Garden of Mukhov" and Buddhist "Garden of Stones" in Kyoto (XVI century). A peculiar compound of Buddhism with an ancient religion contributed to the formation of traditional Japanese aesthetics - natural, natural forms. The goal is to create the best conditions for contemplation and experience association related to the nature. Trees were grown so that they contrasted in the form and color of foliage, without closing the moon-published night. Palma was supposed to be near the window so that during the rain to listen to the "music of the droplets", and the stones at the waterfall in the depths of the garden were so that the sound of the water was heard from afar. In these gardens surrounding the palaces and pavilions, huts were built for conversations about poetry and art and holding famous tea ceremonies - Tenuy. One of the most famous such pavilions is the Golden Pavilion in Kyoto (XV century).

In the XVII-XVIII centuries. Created wonderful works in the field of decorative paintings on shirms and walls of palaces. The impeccable accuracy of the lines developed in painting to the papers began in the murals of the switch of the collateral of the expressiveness of each silhouette, the strict rhythmic ordering of the color spots; The exquisite decorativeness of the scrolls acquired here the traits of monumentality.

The final stage of the Middle Ages was marked by a flourishing of xylography - engraving on a tree that served as theatrical billboard, a book illustration, a greeting card and just decoration of life. The collectivity of creativity, as well as the virtuosity of the execution of each stroke, the total composition and the sonorous gamma of the colors Rodnith engraving with painting (Yamato-E) and decorative art. Masters of engravings were recognized by Kitagawa Utamaro ("Six famous beauties") and Katsusik Hokusai ("Traveling through the waterfalls of various provinces").

Japanese aesthetics argues: "All is unnecessary ugly." Therefore, in the Japanese interior, unlike the European, minimum of items: if the vase is, then one, a bouquet in the style of Iketibana - one, Shirma is one, a scroll with a calligraphic inscription or with a single hieroglyph on the wall - too alone.

Specific for Japan was the decorative art of Netzke - figurines (key chains) from the bone and wood, depicting the god of wisdom, then a cycade on a sheet, then the mask of the goddess of fun. Generally the city dweller of the XVII-XIX centuries. He possessed a high culture of perception of conventionality in the art associated with religious and folklore symbolism, and was surrounded by scenic and decorative and applied art. He enjoyed in the "Kabuki" theater with a conditional play of actors, he himself composed three-hundred - Hokka and the fivestand - tank, knew how to appreciate the poetic masterpiece Mondzaemon and Bas.

Japanese art has an impact on Europe from about the XVII century, when the Japanese-style furniture appeared in England.

In the XIX century The French brothers were written by enthusiastic articles about Japanese art, and soon "Japaupaua" become a Paris fashion. Big collections of Japanese engravings were collected by the writer E. Zola, painters E. Mana and E. Degas. Otzvuki exotic world is heard in impressionistic music K. Debussy. In Russia, the first exhibition of Japanese art was held in the halls of the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts in 1896

Artistic culture of India, China and Japan is an independent phenomenon in world art, which opens only with deep study and subtle penetration into the artistic world of the East.

North Caucasus State Technological University

ESSAY

On the topic: "The history of the idea of \u200b\u200bhumanism"

Student Group ACSU 01-2

Barasheva Vasily.

Vladikavkaz, 2001.

The term "Humanism" comes from Latin "Humanitas" (humanity), which was still in the I B. BC. By the famous Romator Cicero (106-43 BC). For Himanitas is the education and education of a person who contributes to his elevation.

The principle of humanism intended to attribute to a person as a higher value, respect for the dignity of each personality, her right to life, free development, the realization of their abilities and desire for happiness. Humanism implies recognition of all fundamental human rights, approves the benefit of personality as a higher criterion for assessing any social activity.

Like a trait of world culture, humanism manifested himself in ancient world. Already from the era of the ancient kingdom in Egypt (III millennium BC) to us reached us the type of inscriptions of the priests of the Sheshi: "I saved the unfortunate from the stronger ... I gave the bread hungry, the robe naked. I transported the boat without having Her. I buried not having my own son ... "A large number of similar texts indicates the existence of a strong humanistic jet, permeating the culture of ancient Egypt.

The ancient Egyptians managed to develop wonderful principles of the moral behavior of an individual, humanism. Books of wisdom amenmona testify to a very high level of morality. In ancient Egyptian culture, everything is immersed in the atmosphere of religiosity, but at the same time, all at the same time has powerful roots in the depths of pure humanity.

As a direction in culture, humanism arose in the XIV century in Italy and spread in Western Europe from the XV century. Revival, or Renaissance (from FR. Renaitre - reborn) has become one of the brightest eras in the development of European culture, covering almost three centuries from the middle of the XIV century. until the first decades of the XVII century. It was the era of large changes in the history of the peoples of Europe. Under the conditions of a high level of city civilization, the process of the origin of capitalist relations and the crisis of feudalism began, the nations and the creation of large national states began, there was a new form of political system - an absolute monarchy, new public groups of bourgeoisie and the hired working person were formed. The spiritual world of man changed. The Renaissance man was covered by the thirst for self-affirmation, great accomplishments, actively involved in public life, re-opened the world of nature, sought to deeply comprehend, admired her beauty. For the culture of the Renaissance, the secular perception and understanding of the world is characterized, the approval of the value of the Earth Being, the greatness of the mind and the creative abilities of a person, the dignity of the individual. The ideological basis of the culture of Renaissance was humanism.

Humanists opposed the dictatorship of the Catholic Church in the spiritual life of society. They criticized the method of scholastic science, based on formal logic (dialectic), rejected her dogmatism and faith in authorities, thereby clearing the path for the free development of scientific thought. Initially, he manifested itself in the form of protection of secular values \u200b\u200bagainst oppression by the ascetic medieval church. In some Italian universities, they returned to a semi-free and rejected in the Middle Ages an ancient cultural and scientific heritage. In the improvement of the spiritual nature of the person, the main role was assigned a complex of disciplines, consisting of grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, ethics. Alone these disciplines became theoretical base of the Renaissance culture and got the name "Studiahumanitatis" (humanitarian disciplines). The Latin concept of "Humanitas" then meant the desire to develop human dignity, contrary to the long-term accuracy of the value of everything that is associated with human life. The ideal was seen in harmony between enlightened and activity.

Humanists called for the study of ancient culture, which the Church denied as a pagan, perceiving from it only that did not contradict the Christian doctrine. The restoration of the ancient heritage was not for them in itself, but served as the basis for solving topical problems of modernity, to build a new culture. The origin of the renaissance literature in the second half of the XIV century. associated with the names of Francesco Petrorski and Giovanni Boccaccio. They argued the humanistic ideas of the dignity of the individual, tieting him not with trickyness, but with the valiant acts of man, his freedom and right to enjoy the joy of earthly life.

The Poet of Ifilosopher Francesca Petrarca (1304-1374) is unanimously considered by the Humanism. Petraka was the first great humanist, a poet and a citizen who managed to overlook the wholeness of the foresight of thought and combine them in the poetic synthesis, which became the program of the upcoming European generations. With his work, he managed to instill in this upcoming generation of Western and Eastern Europe consciousness - albeit not always a clear - some spiritual and cultural unity, whose beneficialness affects the modern our century.

In his work - the beginning of many ways that the development of Renaissance culture of Italy went. In the treatise "On ignorance of your own and many others", he strongly rejects the scholasticism inherent inherent in the Middle Ages, in relation to which it demonstratively proclaimed allegedly ignorance, because he considers such a scholarship of the perfect day of his time.

In the mentioned treatise, a fundamentally new input to the assessment of an ancient heritage is manifested. According to Petrarki, come to a new flowering of literature, art, science will allow not blind imitation of the thoughts of remarkable precursors, and the desire to rise to the heights of the ancient culture and the same time to rethink and continue to surpass it. This line, scheduled by Petrarch, has become a leading cantic heritage in relation to humanism.

The first humanist believed that the content of genuine philosophy should be the science of a person, and in all its creative wise call to reorient the philosophy on this worthy object of knowledge.

His arguments of Petraque laid the foundation for the formation of a personal self-awareness of the Renaissance. In different ways, personality aware of themselves in different ways. The medieval person was perceived by the more valuable as a person, the more his behavior corresponded to the standards adopted in the corporation. Attracted himself through the most active inclusion in the social group, to the corporation, in the invalid order of the Public prowess demanding from the individual. The Renaissance man gradually refuses universal medieval concepts, referring to a specific, individual.

Humanists produce a new approach to understanding a person, in which the concept of activity is plays a huge role. The value of the human personality is determined not by origin or social affiliation, but personal merits and the fruitfulness of its activities.

The vivid embodiment of this approach can serve, for example, the versatile activities of the famous humanist Leonbattists Alberta (1404-1472). He was an architect, a painter, the author of treatises about art, formulated the principles of the pictorial composition - the equilibrium and symmetry of color, gestures and poses characters. According to Albert, it is advisable to defeat the vicinity of fate only with its own activity. "Easily defeats the one who does not want to be bored. Tolerates the head of fate who is used to obey. "

However, it would be wrong to idealize humanism, not to notice his individualistic trends. The creativity of Lorenzo Valya can be considered as genuine individualism (1407-1457). In the main philosophical essay of "onlase" an integral property of Human Valla proclaims the desire for pleasure. Meril of the same morality is a personal benefit. "I can't understand how to understand why someone wants to die for their homeland. I am angry, as you do not want, to kill their homeland, as if the death will not die and she will die. " A similar ideological position looks like asocial.

Humanistic thought of the second half of the XV century. It has been enriched with new ideas, the most important of which was the idea of \u200b\u200bthe dignity of the person, pointing to the special properties of a person to poisoning with other creatures and its particular position in the world. Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494) In his bright "speech about the dignity of a person" places it in the center of the world:

"We do not give you, about Adam, nor of your place, no definite image, nor special duties, to the place, and the person, and the duties you have at your own request, according to your will and your decision."

It is argued that God (contrary to the Church Dogma) did not create a person in his image and likeness, but provided him with the opportunity to create himself. The culmination of humanistic andantropocentrism becomes the idea of \u200b\u200bPico that the dignity of a person is concluded in his freedom: it can be a campaign.

By glorifying the power of a person and his greatness, admiring his amazing creations, the thinking of the revival era inevitably came to the rapprochement of a person with God.

"A person tame winds and wins the sea, knows the bill of time ... In addition, it turns the night with a lamp to ingue. Finally, the divinity of a person reveals us magic. There is a man's hands with hands - like those that can create nature and those that only God can create. "

In such reasoning, Dzhannozzo Manetti (1396-1472), Martilyo Fechino (1433-1499), Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639), Pico (1463-1494), etc. The most important characteristic of humanistic anthropocentrism was manifested - a tendency for man deification.

However, the humanists were neither heretics nor atheists. On the contrary, in the overwhelming majority they remained believers. But if the Christian worldview argued that God should stand on the first one, and then a man, the humanists put forward a person to the fore, and then talked about God.

The presence of God in the philosophy of even the most radical constructed thinkers of the Renaissance was supposed to be together a critical attitude towards the Church as a Social Institute. The humanistic worldview, thus, includes the Janticleric (from the lat. Anti - against, Clericalis - church) views, i.e., the views directed against the attractions ofcercy and the clergy for domination in society.

In the compositions of Lorenzo Valya, Leonardo Bruni (1374-1444), Podzhio Braccholini (1380-1459), Erasca Rotterdam (1469-1536), etc. Contains performances against the secular power of the Pople, the exposure of the vills of the servants of the Church and the moral depravity of monasticism. However, this is not a surcharge of humanists to become servants of the Church, and two of them -tommazo Parentechelli and Enia Silvio Piccolomini - even was erected in the XV century. on the papal throne.

I must say that until the middle of the XVI century. Pursuit of Humanists from the Catholic Church - the phenomenon is extremely rare. The works of new secular culture were not afraid of the bonfires of the Inquisition and were heard by good Christians. And only the Reformation - (from Lat.Reformatio - transformation) Movement for updating faith, addressed against the papacy - forced the church to go to the offensive.

Relationship relations and renaissance contradictory. On the one hand, the Humanists of the Renaissance and representatives of the Reformation of the relatral dislike for scholastics, the thirst for religious renewal, the idea of \u200b\u200breturning to the origins (in one case - to antique, in the other - to Evangelical). On the other hand, the Reformation is a protest against the Renaissance exaltation of a person.

In total, this inconsistency is manifested in comparison of the views of the generic team of the Reformation of Martin Luther and the Dutch Humanist Erasma Rotterdam. The thoughts of Erasma often echo with the arguments of Luther: this is a sarcastic look at the privileges of Catholic hierarchs, and stinging remarks about the image of the thoughts of Roman theologians. But they dispersed in relation to freedom of will. Luther defended the idea that a person had no will in the face of God, nor dignity. Only if a person realizes that he cannot be the Creator of his destiny, he can escape. And the only and sufficient condition of salvation is faith. For Erasma, human freedom meant no less than God. Scripture for him is a call faced by God to a person, and the latter will respond to him or not.

Anyway, the era of the Renaissance, replaced by the Middle Ages, "touched" Christian ethics and contributed to the further development of humanism.

The development of ideas of humanism in Russia.

Already at the first significant Russian poets of the XVIII century - Lomonosov and Derzhavin - we find secularized nationalism, connected to humanism. No longer holy rus, but the Great Rus inspires them; National Eros, the use of Russia's magnitude relate to the empirical existence of Russia outside of all historiosophical justification. In this appeal to Russia, there is, of course, the reaction against the blind worship of the West and the dismissive attitude towards the whole Russian, which was so brightly manifested in Russian tightness. Lomonosov was a hot patriot and believed that:

Can own Platonov

And rapid mind of nonsense

Russian land give birth.

Derzhavin, the true "singer of Russian glory", protects the freedom and dignity of man; In verses written on the birth of the grandson of Catherine II (the future of Emperor Alexander I), he exclaims:

Whether the passions of your lord,

Be on the throne man.

This motive of pure humanism is increasingly the crystallization core of the new ideology. In order not to stop in immeasurable material, here we are related, we will dwell only at the two bright representatives of the Russian humanism of the XVIII century - Novikov and Radishchev.

Novikov (1744-1818) was born in the family of a poor landowner, he received a rather weak formation of the house, but a lot of worked on his self-education. At age 25, he took the publication of the magazine ("Drone"), in which he manifested himself with a man of a large public, a passionate accuser of various innocents of Russian life, a hot idealist. Fighting with blind worship of the West, ridicuing the cruel morals of the Russian life of that time, new sorrow writes about the gravit of Russian peasants. The work of thought was under the sign of the reaction to the then "Wessengers" and the development of a new national self-consciousness. But in the humanism of the XVIII century, Russians increasingly begins to move the main importance of morality and even preached the championship of morality over the mind. In pedagogical dreams, so close in Russia of the XVIII century to the utopian plan for the creation of a new breed of people, "the development of an existent heart", and not reason, the development of "intonabling to good" was put forward to the first place. Fonvizyn in the "inexpensive" expresses such aphorism: "The mind, since he is only the mind, - the very strap; the direct price of the mind gives reluctance." In these words, moralism is very typically expressed, as a new feature of Russian consciousness.

Let us turn to another bright expressive of the Russian humanism of the XVIII century - A. N. Radishchev, from which we will find even more philosophical content.

Radishchev's name is surrounded by a halo of martyrdom (like Novikov too), but, in addition, for subsequent generations of the Russian intelligentsia, Radishchev became a kind of banner, as a bright and radical humanist, like a hot supporter of a primacy of a social problem.

In the face of Radishchev, we are dealing with a serious thinker, which under other conditions could give a lot of valuable in the philosophical region, but his fate was unfavorable. The creativity of Radishchev received one-sided lighting in the subsequent generations - he turned into a "hero" of the Russian radical movement, in a bright fighter for the liberation of peasants, a representative of Russian revolutionary nationalism. All this, of course, was in it; Russian nationalism, and before it is secularized, Radishchev absorbs the radical conclusions of "natural law", becomes a seatingman of that revolutionary enzyme that first manifested himself from Rousseau for the first time.

The heavy fate of Radishchev gives him the right to the exclusive attention of historians of the Russian national movement in the XVIII century - he is undoubtedly the top of this movement, as a bright and hot representative of radicalism. The secularization of thought was in Russia the XVIII century very quickly and led to the secular radicalism of descendants of those who used to stand for church radicalism. Radishchev brighter than others, somehow more than others relied on the ideas of natural law, which in the XVIII century stood with russia, with criticism of modern inappropriate. But, of course, Radishchev is not alone in this - he only brighter than others expressed a new ideology, fulfiguously approved the primacy of a social and moral topic in building a new ideology. But Radishcheva must be put primarily in connection with the last task - with the development of free, extracurric, secularized ideology. The philosophical substantiation of this ideology was on the queue - and the Radishchev first tries to give an independent her substantiation (of course, relying on the thinkers of the West, but their synthesizing them in their own way). Developing within the boundaries of nationalism and humanism, Radishchev will penetrate the hot pathos of freedom and restoration of the "natural" order of things.

In the spiritual mobilization of the creative forces of Russia played a huge role of Russian Freemasonry of the XVIII and early XIX centuries. On the one hand, it attracted people who were looking for a counterweight to the atheistic currents of the XVIII century, and in this sense, the expression of the religious demands of Russian people of this time. On the other hand, Freemasonry, fasciating with their idealism and noble humanistic dreams of serving humanity, itself was the phenomenon of extincing religiosity, free from all church authority. Capturing the significant layers of the Russian society, Freemasonry, undoubtedly raised creative movements in the shower, was a school of humanism, and at the same time awakened mental interests. By giving the spacious, free-looking spirit, Freemasonry dismissed from superficial and vulgar Russian Validation.

Humanism that eats from Freemasonry, we already sign on the figure N. I. Novikov. The basis of this humanism was the reaction against one-sided intellectualism of the era. The beloved formula was the idea here that "the enlightenment without a moral ideal carries the poison." Here, of course, there is a proximity to the preaching of Rousseau, to chanting feelings - but there is an echo and the current in Western Europe, which was associated with English moralists, with the formation of an "aesthetic person" (especially in England and Germany), i.e. With all that preceded the appearance of romanticism in Europe. But here, of course, influenced the various occult flows, raised the head just in the midst of European enlightenment. In Russian humanism associated with Freemasonry, the motives were played purely moral. In this regard, the humanism of the XVIII century is in a close connection with the moral patimate of Russian journalism of the XIX century.

Turning to the religious and philosophical trends in Freemasonry, we note that the Freemasonry applies from our mid-XVIII century - to the reign of Elizabeth. Russian Higher Society by this time has already finally moved away from his native antiquity. Some of them were fond of cheap "coolness", as boltons expressed, someone went to nationalist interests, in pure humanism, occasionally - in scientific training (especially Russian history). But there were people and other warehouses that had spiritual requests and painfully experienced the emptiness created with a departure from church consciousness. The successes of Freemasonry in Russian society showed that there were a lot of such people: Freemasonry opened them the way to a concentrated spiritual life, to serious and genuine idealism and even to religious life (outside the church, however). In the translation and original Masonic literature, the main religious and philosophical theme is quite clear: the doctrine of the innermost life in man, about the innermost sense of life in general. Here, theoretical and practical interest merged together; The special attractiveness of this mystifsis was attached to its independence from the official church doctrine, and at the same time, obvious superiority, in comparison with the walking scientific and philosophical teachings of the era. For the Russian society, the teachings, which were opened in Masonry, were shown by the manifestation of precisely - in her deeper flow. Freemasonry, like the whole secularized culture, believed in the "golden age in front," to progress, called for creativity, to "philanthropy". In Russian Freemasonry, all the main features of the future "advanced" intelligentsia were formed - and in the first place there was a primacy of morality and the consciousness of the debt to serve society, in general practical idealism. It was the path of ideological life and an effective serving ideal.

In modern philosophy, with changes in life and thoughts, which occurred from the end of the XIX century with increasing acceleration, many principles, including classical humanism, were questioned.

The peculiar humanism of the new wave seems to be the philosophy of existentialism (from Latelatinsky Existentia - existence). Martin Heidegger became the father of existential thought for modern existentialism. He had a decisive influence on French existentialism.

The central thesis of existentialism is the statement according to which "Essence of Human Being is Eksistence, in a crime", in exit of all other creatures and himself .. This means not only what I wanted to show Sartre in the composition "Existentialism is Humanism, "a person is open to the world, and not busting predestinability ... but also that inside itself is a person - a constant pre-step, an infinite confusion.

Hydegger opposes its concept to traditional humanism in rational and optimistic form of the XVIII-XIX centuries, as well as the dogmatic form of approval of unchanged values. However, Humanism, he refutes not in the name of antigumanism, but in the name of the Eksistence of a person, his incompleteness, its creative knowledge.

Existentialism - the philosophy of harsh and sober, in the center of his research costs a person who has become the experience of two world wars hostile ideology, a person whose forces only enough to exist and pursue the only goal: externally and internally cope with the burden of his fate.

Humanism brought to the ethical thought recognition of the intrinsication of the human person and earthly life. Hence, the ideas of happiness, justice and equality of people were gradually developed. Volto or unwittingly, but the humanistic current of the Renaissance has contributed to the approval of the personal rights and, in particular, recognizing the right to a happy life. It is not to be surprised that in the future, humanism was organically transformed in humanity, promoting softness in relations, compassion, mercy, friendliness, and with time and tolerance for dissenters. Many philosophical flows absorbed humanism features. Humanism as a phenomenon turned out to be a historically changing system of views. Observing in art, he opened the road to science, the scientific and technical revolution, contributed to the economic boom, education, social transformations and revolutions.

List of references:

1. L.M.BRARNA "Socially - the ethical views of the Italian Gum

nists "(II half of the XV century) Publishing house MSU, 1983

2. Essays of the history of Russian ethical thought. M., "Science", 1976

3. From the history of the culture of middle ages and rebirth. Publisher "Nauka", M., 1976

4. Aesthetics. Vocabulary. Politicization, M., 1989