Chapter VII North-West Europe in the early Middle Ages. Northern Europe

For several millennia there were only two long-term focus of innovation and economic power. One of them was East Asia, and the other Mediterranean, especially the country on the east coast.

Of the influential Western empires that existed to 1500 N. E., Egyptian, Mesopotamskaya, Greek, Roman, Hellenistic and Byzantine Empires were grouped in this relatively small zone. The Eastern Mediterranean was not only the birthplace of the most common in the west of Arabia religions - Judaism and inherited Christianity and Islam, but also the cradle of various and vital western innovations - from agriculture and metalworking to writing, arithmetic and even statehood.

Climbing to domination in the world stage of the countries of North-Western Europe - domination, whose scale has never reached the old East Mediterranean and Malaya Asia Empire, - it was impossible to predict back in 1600. This ascent was not inevitable, but looking back, you can note a few Powerful factors that contributed to him. With the opening of America and the development of the long sea route around the Cape of Good Hope to India, East India and China North-West Europe gained an advantage. Of course, she shared this advantage with the Western coast of Italy and the Mediterranean coast of Spain, which occupied no less beneficial to transport the treasures of the new light through the ocean position than Amsterdam and London.

Protestantism was one of the drive belts of the exaltation process of North-West Europe. This religious movement flourished by the advantage on the northern side of the Alps. Probably, reformers were easier to succeed away from Rome and other Italian cities and principalities, with their connection with packery and emotional interest in his support. In addition, in the early years of the Reformation, she accepted it and supported with enthusiasm, with time only the revolving, trading and capitalist system, mainly related to textiles, which has already developed and intensively developed in some parts of Europe.

For some essential exceptions, the Protestant tricks have more sympathetically relate to the research spirit, such a necessary developing science and technology.

Ground ball like a palm

The geographical position in its own way contributed to the rise of North-West Europe. This cold region, with his long winters, was an active fuel consumer. When England, Belgium and other parts of this region began to exhaust cheap firewood stocks, they turned to a shallow coastal coastal coal formation. It so happened that this region had the richest coal deposits compared to Italy, Greece, Egypt, a fertile crescent and all countries of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf. In turn, the development of coal deposits led, although not automatically, to the appearance of a steam engine and coke-infant domain furnaces. Steam thrust was the most influential agent of globalization from all that appeared until, because directly and indirectly led to the creation of engines of cars and aircraft, to the gas and oil century.

So a combination of important and secondary factors helped North-West Europe to get ahead of the warmer and dry Mediterranean and the Middle East. Western Europe used its geographical location, conducted by the spirit of intellectual and commercial adventurism, which world probably did not know before.

The United States demonstrated the same spirit of adventurism, and even with great success. Huge storehouses of natural resources and the engine of science, they were potentially richer North-Western Europe, and by 1900 there were more residents than any two European countries, combined. They were also united, while Europe is divided. Nothing will affect the events of the XX century, as the unity of North America and the growing fragmentation of Europe.

Even on the topic of the rise of North-Western Europe:

1. The North-West, Western, South and Southeast Borders of Russia has changed.
2. North-West and Northern Wings Meganticlinorium Mountain Crimea
3. Sarmatian monuments of the steppes of the North-West Black Sea
4. The appearance of Korchag at the monuments of Erochi Late Bronze of North-Western Black Sea
5. Countries and peoples. Scientific-poppiece. Geogr.-Ethnogr. ed. In 20 tons. Foreign Europe. Western Europe. Red college. V.P. Maksakovsky (Avd. Ed.) And others. - M.: Thought, 1979. - 381 s., Il., Cards., 1979

Before talking about the geographical achievements of the Astronomer and the Antiquity traveler, the antiquity of Pypheus should be made. After all, we are talking about the opening by Europeans of Western Europe. These regions were populated by people from the long time since the end of the last glaciation, at least 10 thousand years ago. Moreover, Tin from Britain and Amber from the Baltic fell into southern Europe, in the Mediterranean (products from amber are found in the burials of Pharaohs). However, such movements of things still do not mean the same travel of people. Things moved from hand to hand, transported in carts, in ships on rivers and seas. Where they were delivered from where they did not really know about those people and countries, where in the end their products came across. And the "consumer", in turn, often had the most vague ideas about those lands, from where silver or gold, tin or amber were brought. (Also, we still do not know where the country of Officer and the legendary copy of King Solomon were located, although gold from there really came to Maly Asia and Egypt.)

For Europeans living on the Mediterranean coast (on the territory of the current France), they remained unknown land, located relatively close, in the area of \u200b\u200bthe strait of La Mans and the North Sea. The path on land passed through the dense forests, unknown rivers and mountains, by the possessions of different tribes, and on the sea was a minor, difficult and dangerous, first of all because of frequent bad weather. The first geographer who examined the western outskirts of Europe was Pilli - a native of the Greek Colony of Massia (the current Marseille). If you compare the journey of Pypheus with the expedition of Hannon, which was addressed above, then two patterns can be noted.

First, each of them opened the land of his native continent. Gannon moved along the southern edge of the Mediterranean Sea, rich Africa, and Pilli - along the northern, rich Europe. This suggests that at that time almost exclusively coastal swimming was still performed - along the shores. In addition, researchers were attracted primarily by the Earth, which most simply could be mastered. Secondly, the west coast of Africa began to study much earlier than the Atlantic coast of Europe. The northern countries attracted the Mediterranean less than the southern. Yes, and the navigation from the coast of Europe was more difficult than in Africa. Or maybe the ancient inhabitants of Western Europe too aggressively met uninvited guests (uncivilized Europeans, unlike Africans, were better armed and fought more often).

One way or another, and the journey of PIPECIES, in length comparable to the Hannon route, was made two centuries later - in the VI century BC The address of Pypheus was distributed significantly more skeptical comments than about the expedition of Hannon. Especially sharp reviews belong to the great Roman geographer Strabo .. For our time, the works of Pypheus reached almost exclusively in the negotiating. One of the few continued passages of the Mediterranean resident, indeed, could consider pure fiction:

"Barbars showed us the place where the sun goes on peace. For it happened just that the night in these areas was very short and continued in some places two, in others - three hours. "

An enlightened Roman was unlikely to doubt that the earth is shaped the shape of the ball and that in the north in the summer long days. But he was also confident in the impossibility of living in a gloomy and unbearable cold northern country. What was the expedition of Pypheus, who is organized and with what purposes there are no information. Apparently, the enterprise was secret and was intended to clarify the sea route to the Tin and amber fields, which were delivered to the Mediterranean on land, on rivers and passes. It is not by chance that the "scientific leader" of the expedition was appointed by Pypheus: he was a famous astronomer, with great accuracy identified the geographical coordinates of mass media, and also found out that the exact direction to the North Pole does not fully coincide with the polar star. Even Strain found it necessary to admit: "From the side of astronomical phenomena and mathematical computing in areas, close to the cold belt, he (Pilli) made faithful observations".

Here is what information about the journey and observations of Pypheus led the ancient authors in their writings - Diodor of Sicilian, Pliny Senior and Netis.

"British residents who live near Cape Belerion (modern Land End) are very hospitable ... They get tin, skillfully paying him out of ore ... Tinsking merchants from the inhabitants and transport him to Gallia. Finally, Tin is transported by land on the pack horses through Gallia, and in 30 days it gets to the mouth of the Rhone. "

"The most distant of all famous land is Tula, where during solvent, when the sun passes the sign of cancer, there are no nights, but very little light in winter ... Some refer to other islands (north of Britain): Scandia, Dumin, Bergs and the greatest of All Bergion. "

"For forty days, Pill has traveled the entire island of Britain. Six days sailed in the North Sea to the ground Tula (Norway), not Iceland, as it is inhabited, there are bees. Reaching Yutland, North Frisian Islands ... Massylits led the Tin trade, transferred it On land. And the Pince could also travel. Polybi wrote that Pilli made great journeys around the water and on land. "

Until now, it remains unclear whether Povefi visited Iceland and did it go to the Baltic Sea (if he visited himself). Almost all of his messages reached us in the negotiating, and therefore could be distorted. More accurately remained, apparently secret. In addition, he did not necessarily attend all those places that he wrote; In some cases, relied on the stories of local residents, using merchants, Tin and Amber Traders.

What is this country tool (or fully, how often translate)? This is what Strabo writes about this: "Pilli said that he had passed all the breakdown accessible for travelers, he said that the coastline of the island is more than 40000 stages (over 6 thousand km), and added a story about Foula and regions where there is no land in his own sense, sea, nor air, but some substance thickened from all these elements, similar to sea light; In it, says Pilli, the Earth, the sea and all the elements are hanging, and this substance is like a complete link: it is impossible to go on it, neither swim on the ship. As for this, like a light, substance, then he claims that he saw him himself, he tells about the rest of the rest. ".

It can be assumed that Pypheus had a speech about thick fogs on the northern seas. Perhaps he did not quite rightly understand the stories about the fogs and sea ice. Some of his messages about the life of Northerners found reliable even Strabo: "People living there feed on millet and other cereals, fruits and roots; And where there is bread and honey, there are also a drink from them. As for bread, he says, then, since they do not have clear sunny days, they pour bread in big barns, his eyes there in the ears, because they do not use the threshing current because of the lack of sunny days and because of the rains ".

Pill was the first to report on the "frozen sea" and could come close to the northern polar circle during the swim. Therefore, it is sometimes called the first polar explorer. In the Baltic Sea, he most likely did not come, but visited the area of \u200b\u200bthe Netherlands and the Yutland Peninsula. It is unlikely that he reached Iceland, which at that time, apparently, was uninhabited. It is more likely that he got to Norway or, in any case, gathered information about her.

Pypheus's journey with all certainty indicates the relativity of the concept of "geographical discovery" when it comes to countries inhabited. After all, the tribes inhabited by the unknowns for the ancient Greeks regions of Europe (and it was about 9/10 of its territory - the site), were at a high cultural level, the mining work and trade with southern countries, had developed agriculture and cattle breeding. Here, perhaps, more precisely, it would be not about geographical discoveries, but about the discoveries of geographers - people studying the Earth. To them, definitely treated Pilli.

The first geographers known to us were ancient Greeks. It is necessary to proceed from their messages, their understanding of the earth's surface and stages of its study. That is why for the history of geography is not characterized not so much even "Eurocentrism", how much narrowly "Grekocentrism", especially since the very word "geography" - Greek origin.

No matter how we treat the achievements of Pypheus, it should be borne in mind that he left descriptions not only seen and heard, but also those measurements that he conducted, seeking to determine the geographical coordinates of individual items. This is a completely scientific approach, despite the fact that many of its measurements were not accurate.

Chapter VII

North-West Europe in early Middle Ages

North-West region is two subregion or historical and territorial community: Britain, uniting England, Scotland, Ireland, and Northern Europe - Scandinavian countries and Finland. In addition to those located on the Scandinavian Peninsula of Sweden and Norway, according to the historical and cultural tradition, the Scandinavian countries also include Denmark, which occupies the Entidian Peninsula and the adjacent Islands, as well as Island Island. Not only two subregion included in North-Western Europe, but also the 8 countries that constituted them were largely historically independent; At the same time, they had a lot of common features.

Scandinavian countries differed in general by a homogeneous ethnocultural composition. To the beginning of the Middle Ages, they were settled mainly by the Northern Germans (Scandinavians) who had a common language, economic classes, material culture, beliefs, methods of settlement. Other business of Britain. Its main population at the beginning of the Middle Ages was Celts, which in the southeastern country underwent a certain novelification. From the middle of the middle of the XI century. The subregion was the object of almost continuous invasions and colonization from the Northern Germans.

General features characteristic of the entire Northwestern region were similar habitat, partly economic life, but most importantly, for all countries of this region, it was mostly characterized by the imperfect path of the development of feudalism (a noticeable Romance influence took place only in the south-east of England, Kent). Such a path of development gave rise to the similarity of the social system, a political organization, spiritual culture. It is not by chance that the Scandinavian epic "Elder Edda" reflects the realities of the entire North German barbaric world, and the Anglo-Saga "Saga about Beowulf" and Icelandic sagas are valuable sources on the history of the entire Northwestern region in early Middle Ages.

Feudalism in the North-West region was formed relatively slowly. Professional barbaric structures were last preserved, primarily free (in different extent) peasantry, a large family, a tribal organization, a neighbor community, small land ownership and patriarchal slavery.

In the first period of the early Middle Ages (VI-VIII century), both subregions were held through the barbaric stage with the initial elements of feudalization. In the second (IX-XI centuries), feudal entry was formed more actively, and in England to the XI century. became leading.

Due to the warm seaside currents, the climate of the region, excluding the northern regions, mainly wet, moderate. The territory of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jutland, as well as Britain is strongly stretched from north to south, which led to a significant variety of climate of all these areas, as well as soils and vegetation cover. The relief, which was influenced by the advancing and retreating glaciers, is represented by three forms: mountains, hilly plain and lowland. Low mountains cover almost the entire territory of Norway, only on the Atlantic coast lies a narrow strip of the Schobmlen Plain. On the territory of the middle Sweden and the Peninsula, the scone predominate the low plateau and hilly fertile plains. The Peninsula and the Danish archipelago are smooth lowlands. In Britain, the mountainous areas of Scotland, North England, Cornwell and Wales are gradually moving into the South and Southeast of the country, quite suitable for agriculture. Mostly plain Ireland - "Green Island".

The natural conditions of the most part of the Scandinavian subregion are characterized by the predominance of poor stony soils, dense forest cover, low temperatures, a short vegetation period of plants limited by the lowland area. These conditions did not contribute to agriculture. Favorable conditions for earthlings were in the plain Denmark and most of the future England. At the same time, the conditions of the region contributed to the occupation of cattle breeding, in particular sheep.

An important common feature of the nature of the North-West Region is its proximity to the sea. The north of the region is the coast of non-freezing North Ocean and the Barents Sea. The West and South-West through the Norwegian and North Sea, as well as the British Islands, are washed by the waters of the Bescraine Atlantic. The sea played an outstanding role in political life, occupations, economic, cultural relations of the population of the North-West Region. Long coastal lines ridden by multi-kilometer narrow fjords provided a lot of convenient ports and parking lots. In the public classes, marine crafts, navigation and shipbuilding, maritime trade occupied the most important place. The sea contributed to the political association of the northern countries, the internal consolidation of each of them. At the same time, the sea and strait - La Mans, Zund (Eresund), Kattegat, Skagerrak - promoted the early development of contacts, including trade between the countries of the North-West region. It is also necessary to note the abundance in the inland water region - the lakes (especially in Scandinavia) and the rivers, which connected among themselves and with the sea all the inner regions of the region.

In the early Middle Ages, the density of the population of the North-West region was still quite low. Danish territories, Southeast England, East Coast of Scandinavia, Elaid Islands and Gotland were most thickly populated. At the beginning of the Middle Ages (V-VI centuries) in the region took place mainly movement of the North-German tribes. The tribes, as well as the unions of related tribes, as a rule, were fragile, were the main political associations there, were the supreme owner of the manager and the guardian of the busy territory.

Central Sweden has already been occupied at this time, divided into eastern, southern and northern. South settled eats (Goets, Geati, later Guada); Part of them settled the island Gotland. The resettlement of these major tribal groups is captured in the late names of the territory: Svealand (Land of Sveiyev), Yotland (Earth), Gotland (Earth Gutes). In the V - the first half of the VI century. In the territories of Oveyev and Yites, large communion, which became, apparently, the first barbaric kingdoms: to master and the Gautod, headed by kings, more precisely, the leaders of the conundons that have settled from the noble genus of the ingling. From this kind, by legend, the Swedish and Norwegian kings took place.

In Western Scandinavia, the small tribes of Ranvikiyev (modern region Estfoll), Raumov (in the area of \u200b\u200bmodern Oslo), Trends (Trondheim) and others are only 30 German and Finno-speaking tribes. In the second half of the first millennium, four tribal unions were formed in Norway. Peninsula Scone settled tribal associations of Danov, which lived on the Islands of the Danish Archipelago and in Northern Jutland. In the V-VI centuries. Utah and Angles were settled in Jutandania, saksa surrendered partially there, nearby friezes. Simultaneously with the kingdoms of ingling in Sweden and Norway, the Kingdom of Skoldung in Denmark arose.

The region of modern Finland Since ancient times inhabited by Saamy-blades (Laplanders), nomadic in the north, Finns, which occupied the south of the country, and Karelia - on her south-east. In the middle of the 1st thousands of Millennium, breeding unions Hame (Tavastov) and Finns (Suomi), as well as Karelov, were distinguished in the middle of the divided local tribes.

In Britain, the beginning of the Middle Ages dominated the tribes and tribal unions of Celts - Galov, Belgov, Brittov, Pictites, Scott, etc. After the departure of Roman legions in 407, the invasion of the Germans began to be invasioned from the middle of the century. North Sea. First, the island appeared the Germans-Druzhinnikov, who hired fought among their Celtic tribal leaders. Then the mass (whole tribes) of the resettlement of Germans in Britain began. The German conquerors formed seven barbaric kingdoms on the territory of the future England: Kent - the Kingdom of Yutov in the Far Southeast of Modern England; Saxon kingdoms of Wessex, Sussex in the south of the country, Essex in the east of the north of Kent, the Kingdom of Angles - Northumbria in the North and Mercia - in the center of the country; East England - north of Essex. These kingdoms entered between themselves in a fierce struggle. The priority of Kent (the end of the VI and VII century) was replaced by the leadership of the Northumbria (from the middle of the VII century), Messi (VIII century). The ruler of the Master of the Kingdom is a razorland ("Lord of Britain") - had the right to receive tribute and military aid from other kings.

Celts to the beginning of the VII century. Basically, they pushed the northern and western outskirts of Britain, partly destroyed, part of the Britons moved to the Armoric Peninsula (Future Brittany). The insignificant part of the Celts remaining to live interspersed with Germans as their slaves and danikov, subsequently assimilated with the conquerors. The Celts retained its independence, which was retained only in mountainous areas - on Wales and Cornwell Peninsula (Britons), as well as in Scotland (Picts, Gala, Scott) and Ireland (Scotti).

The economy of the North-West region in the early Middle Ages was extensive. But economic life varied significantly depending on local conditions. In the extreme north of Norway and Sweden, the main classes were reindeer herding and hunting. Back in the IX-X centuries. Cattle breeding here was the basis of the economy, as in Fennoskania (future Finland), Highlands of Britain, as well as in Scotland and Ireland. The sheplicity was combined with agriculture, a noticeable role of crafts (fishing and hunting for the marine beast) was preserved. Plume farming was the main occupation on the plains of England, Denmark, in South-Eastern Norway, in Southeast and Eastern Sweden, Southeast Norway. The remaining scandinavians did not know the right crop rotation for a long time. Developed agriculture also universally connected with breeding cattle, especially since the bulls served as a heavy force, and a lot of manure was required to fertilize the soil. According to later monuments, 6-12 cows constituted the average rate for the farm of a large family in Norway. With relatively small amounts of arable land, with difficulty dyed by stones and forests, in Scandinavia, abundant brew allowed to leave the land under steam. The Anglo-Saxons and Danes already in the I millennium prevailed a biscuit, which only gradually spread to the agricultural areas of the Scandinavian Peninsula, replacing the lighter-fire system.

In Britain, more Celts, and later the Anglo-Saxons were used on heavy soil the wheel plow with the blade, in which 4-8 oxles were harnessed; The earth was cut under it with long stripes ("long fields"). Then the wheel plow and the system of "long fields" borrowed in Denmark, and through it on the Scandinavian Peninsula. But wooden coaches with Iron Lemeh prevailed here for a long time, it is more convenient to handle stony soils. In addition, in both subregions, a light unrequited plow with a harness of two oxes was used.

Since the end of the first 1st millennium, in connection with the growth of the population, internal colonization in the expense of clearing areas from the forest, draining the swamps. New settlements were based. In general, internal colonization was associated with the progress of the economy and the dynamics of the population. But important factors here were also changed in social and political strictly: the growth and separation of the nobility, the development of relations of land dependence, the folding of the barbaric kingdoms.

The peoples of the whole region were beautiful Morelods and shipbuilders. Particularly sailing ships of Scandinavians, stable and maneuverable, especially famous. The ownership of the ship was also a sign of power. The Kings-pagans of the Viking Epoch usually buried in the ship, such burials were found in East England and in the kingdom to master. In distant sea travel, there was a special type of brave, militant and enterprising northern northwester.

The special wealth of the region was metal ores, on the basis of which some crafts had already seen early: ore mining, foundry, blacksmith, weapons and jewelry. In Britain, in particular, the Dean Forest was famous for iron, Cornwell, Tin; The territory of the Central Sweden - the reserves of iron and copper. From other crafts it should be noted the shipbuilding and a clinker case, a pottery craft (except Norway, where there was no own clay and ceramics imported), spinning and manufacture of flax and wool fabrics. In Britain and Sweden, coarse woolness and Sucodene were developed, in the south of the Yutland Peninsula and in some parts of England, a subtle cloth was produced. In England was sprayed salt. Crafts mostly wore a house. At the same time, already in the V-VI centuries. There is a tendency to concentrate craft (especially blacksmith) and exchange in some paragraphs.

Material culture and trade in England have achieved the greatest success in Early Middle Ages. In the southeasternary areas, the Romans built a lot of wonderful roads, harbors, fortifications; They taught the British to use the coin, develop deposits of metal ores and salts, stone construction, introduced them with some agricultural crops. Finally, under the influence of the Romans, the largest Celtic settlements turned into the city of Roman type: Londria (London), Kamulodune (Colchester), Veruhalai (Saint-Olbans). Many cities rose around the former Military camps of the Romans (as evidenced by the names on-host and -Caster).

And after the departure of the Romans in Southeast and Central Britain, the villas of Celtic nobility based on the operation of slaves and colons remained for some time. However, in other parts of the country, primitive clan system dominated. In general, the Romanization of Britain was far from being so deep as in Gaul. The Anglo-Saxons brought to Britain a more primitive social system and during the conquest destroyed most of the Roman legacy, including in the south-east of the country. But even these weak elements of the Roman-German synthesis were of great importance. The impact of Anglo-Saxon institutions, and later contacts with a more developed society of the Frankish kingdom, in the presence of such a basic factor, as the predominance of agriculture here, led to greater dynamism of the development of England than other regions of the region. The next place in terms of development occupied Denmark, then Norway, Sweden. Most of all lagging behind Ireland, Scotland and Fennosticia. From the end of the IV century. Trading ties of the North-West Region with the Mediterranean World were violated, but the internal relations between subregions were increased, as well as the contacts of Scandinavians with Western Slavs, the Baltic and Finnish tribes, England with the Frankish state.

At the beginning of the Middle Ages, the peoples of North-Western Europe lived in a tribal society at the stage of military democracy. Natural conditions and peripheral position braked the decomposition in this region of primitive community relations. The monuments of the Vidnavannavian epic, the truth of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, as well as the data of archeology, toponymics, historical linguistics unanimously indicate that the majority of the region's population at the beginning of the Middle Ages constituted free, full communities: Kerlya from Anglo-Saxes, Chala or Bonds from Scandinavians. Kerl or Bond - primarily the farmer, the peasant, which sometimes also occupied cattle breeding and fishing. They were usually heads of large families, including, as a rule, three generations are up to several dozen relatives and holding several slaves. The head of such a relative team ordered property and household, judged his household and sent pagan rites. Small individual families began to prevail in England not earlier than the middle of the VII century, and other peoples of the region later. At the same time, traces of generic relations and a large family remained for a long time and everywhere (the right to the verge of birth, the collective right of the kind on hereditary land, the right of blood revenge).

Free communities - the heads of families participated in a folk approach: Mother (or a large approach - hemota) of Saxons, Hoy or Ting Scandinavians. There were the cases of the tribe concerning war and peace, paying Dani and the elections of the leader, whiten the court, discussed economic issues. Free communities had the right-duty to wear weapons and participate in the militia: firding Anglo-Saxes, Hirde and Ledung Scandinavians. All this testified to their fullness.

A narrow higher layer of society was generic to know: Erl of the Anglo-Saxons, the Yarls and Hessdings of Scandinavians. A noble member of the tribe had several dozen major estates that were served by addicted people: slaves-trails and colonami. Military serve people also belonged to the privileged part of the society: King's bodyguards and nobility (Huskerlas of Anglo-Saxons, Huskarls of Scandinavians), as well as other warriors and ministerial (Gezites of Anglo-Saxes, Gardmans Scandinavians).

The layer was noticeable in one way or another personally dependent population, sharply separated from the free one. In the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, these were years close to Roman collems, and Sue and Willi similar to slaves (apparently, part of local Celts who lost their land and freedom). In Scandinavians, the layers of Trelle and Colons in the period under review were formed mainly at the expense of the captives. In the farms of ordinary communities, as a rule, domestic slaves (servants) were used, which probably performed auxiliary functions. In the estates, there were also slaves planted on Earth, non-free and semi-free people. The role of slaves in the folding of feudal relations on the territory of Scandinavia and Britain was very significant.

The different social position of individual layers was reflected in the sizes of vergest owes. According to Kent's truth (VI century), 200 shillings paid for the murder of Kerla, Earla - 400 shillings, for Hzita (from the end of the VII century) - 600 shill; And for the summer, Ulu, Wile - from 40 to 80 shillings.

Slowly (in England, not earlier than the middle of the VII century., In Scandinavia later) the transition from the largest to the neighboring community. In Scandinavia, due to the peculiarities of natural conditions, classes and methods of settlement, such a community often took more loose forms. In Jutland and on the Danish Islands, where village settlements are fixed from the beginning of the new era, the classical neighborhood community developed - Mark. The community of this type was also in Britain, gradually destroying the family community. Employed in the process of settlement, the territory became the nationwide land of conquerors - Folkland. The Supreme Manager was the king, who endowed the land of the generic to know and the warriors. The territories of individual communities were considered part of the Folkland. Pashnyi was distributed in hereditary use between free family teams.

The land of the neighboring community consisted of many scattered areas that were alternately lying in accordance with the fields adopted here - in two (less often in three) fields. The combination of such sites received by Kerl (with its large or small family) in each field, and was its inalienable put on. It usually was equal to the guide - an average of about 50 hectares (a plot that could be treated with a sled with eight oxen). However, Earl had estates in 40 guide, Gaita - 3-20 guides. Royal approximal received sometimes hundreds of guide - whole areas. Labels were in sharing communities; There was a grazing of livestock on a pair (the system of "open fields") and forced crop rotation. Kerla's ownership could not be alienated without the consent of the community and the nearest parents - members of a large family.

As the individual family and major land tenure develops, the initial equality of Kerles was broken. Part of them began to fall into the stammers and personal dependence. Royal authorities have increased strengthening major land tenure. Already in the VII-VIII centuries. British kings began to distribute certain territories to their serunens and churches for special certificates (side) for a period of time, in life, less often in hereditary management (under their judicial power) and in "feeding" (obtaining a part of royal shares and fines). Holders of such land (boxland) were called Glafords (later by Lordami), which means Senor, Mr. Military and other service king people, chickens and church institutions - boxland holders began to be exempt from taxes. At first, Bikeland was not their land ownership, but as if the immunite district. But, having broad judicial and fiscal rights in it, Gradford gradually put Kerlov, especially impoverished, in the gradual dependence. They were given to the use of the Earth - for the breaking of the barbecue and occasions. Distribution of Bikeland became in England one of the main ways to fold a large feudal land tenure. But the strong community slowed down the decomposition of the free peasantry and the process of feudalization. Essentially in Britain to the IX century. Neither the allood, nor the crossaries. Government exploitation prevailed to the X century.

To even greater, these processes have been slowing on the Scandinavian Peninsula. The natural conditions of the European North, unfavorable to the development of agriculture, contributed to long preservation there of the North-German tradition of isolated single-pet or farm settlements, which were in possession of a large family, who also had slaves. Initially, the combination of several large families is patronized and represented by him, apparently, the northern Scandinavians genus Ett. Such kinds probably inhabited "large" or "long" houses that covered Scandinavia in the first centuries AD. and persisted in Sweden to VI., And in Norway to the VII century. The villages in Northern Europe arose no later than the I millennium, but retained scattering and small sizes - from 3 to 8 yards.

The ownership of Karl or Bond - Odel ("Testament") was the inalienable collective property of a large family. Even in the conditions of feudal relations, Norwegians retained the concept of "sincerversion of the land inherited". Swedish laws were allocated as part of the real estate the so-called ARV - the land, inherited in the family at least for two generations. The supreme law of land property and here originally belonged to the tribe, and then passed to the kings. The ownership of the Olem gave Bonda Civic Foliara, which distinguished him from the aliens sedated in the territory or the villages of the aliens, slaves, freedmen. Odel, like the English Folkland, could not alienate without the consent of a certain range of birth, but it was less depended on the neighboring community. The community of Scandinavians was generally less clearly pronounced, did not know the "open fields" systems, the flavors and forced crop rotation, but in its collective ownership there were common areas - almennints ("possessions of all people"), which she managed. To a certain extent, the neighboring community was regulated and the possession of arable land, since the Pasha plots were cut from almennin for those communists who lacked it, the Earth for Napers, etc. Forces of neighboring communities, defensive structures were built for whole areas, the neighbors were gathered for tingi and to send religious rites, together performed on campaigns.

The bonds were the backbone, the support of the Vissanandavian society. But along with them there were already dozens of personally dependent people who served every estate of a noble husband, often the economy of ordinary bonds. In addition, in the medium of free Scandinavians there were minor and landless poor people - Husmanas. Already because of his landless, they were doomed to incur in the community. On another pole of society was a birth to know. On the power and wealth of the Scandinavian trivial nobility, above all, the "big mounds" are testified in Swedish Uplant and in Southeast Norway. The composition of this higher layer is already beginning to expand due to the inclusion of military-serving people.

In the process of resettlement, the inter-barred struggle and the conquests were destroyed by the tribal homogeneity of the Germans of the North-West Region. An territorial administrative device arose. Several communities united in the county - hundreds (English. Hundert, Skand. Hund, subsequently Hundari), each with its gathering. The hundredth division had a direct connection with the military organization of the population - military militia of communities. Hundreds united into larger areas that occupied the lands of former tribal associations. In Sweden, these were Lands, in England - Shairs (future counties), in Norway - Fühlki. The affairs of the area, respectively, were solved at its People's Assembly - the folks of the Anglo-Saxons, VolksMet or Folking of Scandinavians. He headed the regional gathering the elected guardian - Lagman ("Festival of the Law") of Scandinavians and Eldorman ("Senior Man") of the Anglo-Saxons had significant powers, authority.

Supreme Power, in particular the right of the Higher Court, belonged to the kings. They were performed, apparently, sacred functions. And although the crown was inherited by the royal genus, the throne was drawn up through elections, and his order was often broken. In the Severogoerman epic, the king (Rig, GEM, RIGR) is a recognized son of God, who received his power, property, and as it were, "creative society" force.

In the Anglo-Saxon Koles, the Magnatov Council was collected, the so-called "Council of Wise" (Whitenaghemot), who also participated in the election of kings. A similar body - the advisory (genus) council also appeared at Scandinavians.

In addition, the guarantee of peace and protection, the departure of military and sacred functions of the kings is beginning to receive the first, the earliest tax with the tribesmen. First, this is a hurry, gifts, feeding - feast; In Scandinavia, respectively - Scutt and Wecela, in England - Firm or "Money" (Gelf). Dani and all other wages were delivered to the bidding points or in the residence of the king. In each manor, the king lived for a certain time along with the courtyard and the famous number of warriors, consuming the collected. In England, the company in the VII century. They paid all the loose peasants. The division unit was the usual put on Kerla - Hyda. Knowing both church institutions, receiving boxland, enjoyed fiscal privileges. Public defeats prevailed in the operation of peasants. The kings, in addition, received income in the form of duties from foreign trade, as well as Dani - "gifts" from leaders of subjective tribes. But the most stable, regular was the income of kings from the folded domain and its own (generic) estates, which rulers were expanded by all paths.

Thus, by the VII-VIII centuries. The main features of the tribal building in the peoples of the North-West region have already disappeared. Independence and equality of all members of the tribe were violated, early statehood began to develop. However, the remnants of military democracy persisted in the region a lot longer than in continental Europe.

Beliefs, morality and the ideology of the Scandinavians, until the end of the I millennium, kept the features of the militant and free barbaric world. Strictly observed the custom of blood revenge. The Supreme God alone, as well as the gods, Frey and Frey, Assa (subsequently the Goddess of fertility) and other gods personified the supreme power over the world, they defended the family hearth and weak, patronized brave. Like a birth known, they spent time in wars and robbery. In the habitat of Odina Valkhalla - the desired by the illuminated world of Scandinava - only one who fell on the battlefield was allowed. The burial rite was attached great importance. The king, a noble person for the reasons of prestige, was buried in the roaster (for I mimicated it with stones laid out in the ground) or in the high cougars. In Scandinavia, the priests-gods usually belonged to the nobility, the power of kings also wore a sacred character.

Only in England, Christianity already knew in the early Middle Ages, although it was already struggling to work: a Christianization of Anglo-Saxons, began in 597, mainly ended only by the end of the VII century. An earlier Christianization of this subregion corresponded to a more rapid process of development of early referral relations and, in turn, as in other regions, contributed to this process and strengthening the early refortional state in England.

Viking Epoch (end VIII - first half of XI V.)

From the middle of the VIII century. The process of class formation in Scandinavia led to an outbreak of activity and to a new "emission" of the population of the subregion beyond its limits. The era of Vikings (793-1066) is characterized by a wide expansion of Scandinavians in Europe. Scandinavians, which in Europe were usually called Normans (and in Russia are also vicari), settled the big islands of the North Atlantic, created their colonies and principalities in Britain, Northern France, southern Italy and Sicily, founded the settlement in North America, served as warriors and warriors In Russia and in Byzantium, reached the Volga region and Baghdad Caliphate. In the history of the North-West region, the Viking Epoch was characterized by the acceleration of the genesis of feudal relations, more efficient in England, then in Denmark, less - in Sweden, Norway, Ireland, Scotland.

The decomposition of the birth control system, the development of an individual family and the folding of statehood sharply strengthened the struggle between the individual layers of the Scandinavian society. But first of all, they spawned the relative overpopulation and the acute shortage of vital funds, the stable source of which the Earth served. The possibilities of internal colonization, which began in Northern Europe in the VIII century, were strongly limited to natural conditions. It stimulated the desire to "expand" beyond its territory. The Norwegians arranged their military trade expeditions against the northern neighbors - Sami (Lopari), having their tribute or directly capturing their lands. The Swedes acted mainly at the Finnish coast and in the Baltic States, receiving from the local population to tribute to furs, skins, a whale mustache, which Vikings were forbidden "over the sea."

In search of places that are convenient for settlement, especially for peasant colonization, Scandinavian gazes rushed to the richest territories of Europe. Fishermen, sea hunters, brave sailors and skilled shipbuilders did not embarrass distant naval.

At the heart of the Viking military organization lay two components: a militia (lading) and a ship. Scandinavians built maneuverable single-pasted ships (drains) with oral and sail, up to 23 m. And more than a length and 5 m. In width, with a sculpture of the dragon on the nose. Often, dozens and hundreds of courts gathered. Vikings were well armed; Each had a long sword and a knife, a combat ax and a peak, an iron helmet, metal chain and shield.

The equipment of the ships were engaged in Bonds combined into the ship district. From the Bonds, a team was also compiled - up to 60-100 adult soldiers. The horses were driving on ships (for movement on land), fresh water and food reserves, including live cattle. Warriors hung their shields along the boards of the ship and sat on the oars. Teams usually headed a noble man - Yarl, and Big Ledung is a king or members of his family. Noble scandinavians had their own ships, went hiking with their buddy.

From the end of the VIII century. The episodic pirated raids of the Vikings on the ships and the village of the nearest coasts are replaced by regular mass and organized campaigns, sometimes with the aim of capturing new territories. At the beginning of the X century. The activity of the Viking expansion falls due to the need to master the already captured, as well as as a result of the consolidated European states. The last outbreak of the military activity of the Viking took place at the end of X - the beginning of the XI century.

Most of the landsli participated representatives of various Severogoerman tribes. But still, Danes and Norwegians went mainly in Western Europe, Swedes in Eastern. The most important for the local population was the seizures of Vikings in Britain, where the main role was played by the Danes and Norwegians, but the Swedes and the Gotland also participated. In 793, they were given, as they called in Britain all the Vikings, destroyed the monastery on the island of Lindisfarne off the coast of Northumbria. Without meeting a serious unsubsion from Angloosales, in 866 they took York, Rochester, London and other cities, ruined many settlements, while destroyed the Christian clergy and revived paganism. In the hands of Danes, most of the country turned out to be: half of Northumbria and Mercia, East England and Essex. The North-West Northumbria at the same time fell into the hands of Norwegians, who invaded there from Ireland, where in the 30s IX century. Prince-Viking Olav created the Kingdom with the center in Dublin. Now the Vikings began to settle in the busy territories, bringing families and interesting especially the eastern and northern districts of England, which became the "area of \u200b\u200bthe Danish law" (English. Danlo, Skand. Danceg).

Similarly, the Vikings columns are the Eastern Coast of Ireland, as well as Eastern and Western Scotland. They installed their orders on the conquered lands, laid down the local population to Danish - "Danish money", which it was bought off from new scandinavian raids. In the environment, Anglo-Saxes are given quite soon assimilated, which contributed to the adoption by Scandinavians Danla Christianity. But their domination imposed on the development of Denno significant imprint; Eastern and Northeast England throughout almost all of the Middle Ages remained a more retarded, with a greater layer of the free peasantry.

When King Alfred is a great (871-899 or 900) Anglo-Saxons, creating a strong fleet, a system of fortifications and a land argent, in the liberation struggle suspended the offensive of Normanov and began to disintegrate England. By the 70th of the X century. England was again merged, including Denlo. Since the 90s, with the English king, ETELLED is an indecisive (978-1016) Vikings, increased due to folding in Scandinavia of the three large, United Kingdoms, resumed the attacks on England. After the death of Elereda, the Danish king whipped the Great became the king of England (1016-1035), made it his support and the center of a huge power that included Denmark and Schleswig (1018-1035), Norway (1030-1035), the southern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula (Scone, Halland, Blovenge). However, after the death of King Know, his power broke up. In England, his sons of Harald ruled, then Hardaknut, but then to know the King of his son Etelred Eduard (1042-1066). Later, in 1066, an attempt to seize the country took the Norwegian King Harald Hardrad (Terrible), but was divided by the British in Stamfordbridge.

About 1001, the leader of the Munster (South Ireland) Brian Boroim became the Supreme Chief (King) of the Irish tribe. So was the end of the dominion of Danov in Ireland. Ireland retained independence before capturing the part of the country in English feudals at the end of the XII century.

Conditioned in the same XI century. (also during the liberation struggle against Normanov) The Kingdom of Scotland retained its independence until the end of the XIII century.

Simultaneously with conquests in Britain, Danes and Norwegians began robbery and seizures on the coast of continental Europe. They, predominantly Danes, created in the mouth of the Vassal France Dutchhood Normandia (911). It is from Normandy in 1066 that the conquest of England was recently implemented in history.

Norwegians acted mainly in Celtic Ireland and Scotland. They gained in the Orcanese and Shetland Islands, which began to settle even before the Viking era; Maine Island, Hebrides and Faroe Islands, reached Spirbrena. In 874, the Norwegians began the settlement of the desert island, which was called the "Ice Country" - Iceland. By 930, they occupied and shared extensive seaside territories suitable for habitat. Economic and social relations on the island preserved a non-milk character. Gorgeous seafarers, Icelanders in the 80s x century. Settled in Greenland, and at the end of 1000 g. Noble Viking Leif Eyriksson landed in North America, where the Scandinavian colonies existed in the first third of the XII century.

The bulk of the vibrations in Eastern Europe and Byzantium was the Swedes, who were called Varyagi in Russia (and the Baltic Sea - Varangi). The most important areas of their activities in Russia gradually began to trade and service in Druzhin Princes. In general, the Vikings were widely engaged in exchange trading, trading transit and the sale of worn, rich for this account. Vikings went to special trading expeditions. The Swedes were more active, moving along the way "from Varyag to Greeks" and along the Volga - to Bulgaram, Khazaras and Customic peoples.

In other people's territories, the more feudalized Danes preferred cultural territories and, without limiting the receipt of Dani, the feudal facilities of local societies were absorbed there. Norwegians either captured the daplerounded outskirts, where the tributes were collected, or colonized unnecessary land, even far away; There they did not engage in agriculture, but the sheet and marine fishing. The Swedes had tributes and partially captured the underdeveloped areas of the Baltic region, and in a more developed and rich Wednesday of Russia and, at least, Byzantium were introduced primarily as servicing people and merchants. In North-Western Europe, Viking campaigns contributed to the folding of a single state in England, accelerated the development of class society, a feudal state, church organization and urban system in Scandinavians.

Folding feudal relations in England

In the second half of the early-conductive period, the development of the British subregion was even more uneven. At the Celts, primarily in the untouched by the Normans, the regions of Ireland and Scotland, at least in the Wales Peninsula and Cornwell, continued to dominate the tribal (clan) system.

The public development of England has ever more accelerated. In IX - the first half of the XI century. The feudal touch in England becomes the lead. The kings are increasingly practicing the distribution of empty, as well as land-populated land with cerles to their ministerials, denunodnikam-Gesita (later - tonam); Boxland (see above) are fixed more and more fixed for glafords that become large landowners, owners of a granted land (from the end of the IX century - with the right of its free alienation) and senites of people living there. The major landowners are gradually both church institutions, also at the expense of royal complaints.

The position of the peasants has seriously changed. In IX century Already arises the individual property of the community to put on with the right of alienation (similar to the Frank Allod). With its occurrence and allocation of small families, the crushing of incidents is going: if a big family usually owned Hyde, then individual - Virgata (quarter of guides, approx. 10.25 Acr.). It stimulated the property bundle in the environment of free Anglo-Saxons; And the continuous robbery and the defeats of Normanov, the growth of payments in favor of the feudalists and states contributed to the ruin of many Kerles.

Under these conditions, not only the peasants of non-free origin (colons-Willi) were found in the gramale of non-free origin (colons-Willi), but also the descendants of Kerlov, personally free genitis, partly Gebura (see below). Paying the lifts or carrying the barbecue for the land, received from the Mr., Gebura lost their full-way, turned out to be attached to the Earth. If Gronford received from the king the right of jurisdiction over the immunity territory (the so-called juice), then all its inhabitants fell into the forensic dependence on landowner. Gradually, this territory turned into behavior. From the first half of the X century. A person who did not have seen, according to the "laws of Atelstan", was urgently "to find Lord."

In the middle of the X century, according to the truth of the king Edmund, and the stammel-dependent peasants were already considered inconspicuous. The level of patient operation of the peasants was significant. Treatise of the first half of the XI century. "On the rights and responsibilities of different persons" gives an idea of \u200b\u200bthe manor of the feudal of the middle of the time. It highlighted three main categories of peasantry: 1) Genites - freely free Kerles, depending on the Lord - owner of the boxland. They paid a number of small natural payments, performed some of the assignments of Mr. ("Horse on horseback"), but at the same time were obliged to King Horse Military Service; 2) Gebura - peasants who were in severe gradual dependence (as they sat on the land of Lord). They occurred, apparently, from slaves or wool, but sometimes from Kerles, lost their rights to put on. Gebura carried the most severe, including field, Barshina (2-3 days per week), made a lot of natural and cash payments. This discharge of dependent peasants, sitting on the middle size, carried the main severity of the processing of the Barskaya Earth; 3) Cotters (Kossetli, Kotsetli) were holders of the same type, but with small land puts. They also carried weekly bargains, but in a smaller volume, as well as many minor payments. Cotters took place from the broken free, former slaves and freeds. On the Bar ash estate, sometimes the work of the yard slaves-hobs was used.

However, the feudal name in England by the end of the early service period has not yet received widespread distribution. The manorial structure was characteristic primarily for the major land tenure of Middle England, and in the country as a whole, it was the minor possessions and a transitional form of the Votchin, which was primarily based on the work of domestic slaves.

A peculiarity of early feudalism in England was a large proportion of free peasantry. Its significant part in the X-XI centuries. Preserved not only personal freedom, but also the right to land, the rights of the community and militia. The preservation of a significant category of free full-fledged small owners of landowners, who were as if between peasants and minor markers, did not allow separate social categories to acquire a closure. According to the Treatment of the X - early XI century. "On secular differences and law", the merchant, "three times swimming for the sea", or a free Cerl, who had certain property and land valuable (5 guide of the Earth), could, on the condition of the service of the king, move into the category of heavy warriors - Tan. Undust to the end of the XI century. Vassal and immunity relations were also left.

From the end of the VIII century. The success of the feudalization process and the expansion of Normanov stimulated the political association of Anglo-Saxons and strengthening the early refortional state. The King of Wessex, the least destroyed by the Scandinavian invasions and turned into a stronghold of Antinormmann resistance, with IX century. became a razvaldoy - "Lord of Britain." At the King, EckerTe in 829 began the history of the united early-referring English state.

In the 70-90s of the IX century. In Korole, Alfred is great, this state has increased significantly, and the struggle with the given contributed to the internal consolidation. Along the border of the country, especially along the coast, increased to 30 forts. The first English fleet is created - over 100 "long" (60 and more cheerful) ships, more stable and high-speed than Scandinavian. The land army is reorganized. It mainly consisted of peasant militia. However, the main combat force of the troops is now professional heavy-planted horse warriors, each of which owned 5 guides of the Earth. They had metal armor and were to serve accompanied by several infantrymen. In a heavy horse arrow, tanks and large feudals were also included, including spiritual, with their detachments. Tan, mainly the predecessors of future knights who received land from the king for the service amounted to now most of the feudalists and became the support of the royal power.

With Alfred, the first Obserglegal legislation "Pravda King Alfreda" (approx. 890) was created, which unified and recycled, in accordance with the terms of the IX century, the provisions of the former Wessex, Mercian, Kent. This legislation draws a society, the tribal basis of which is already destroyed. Construction and military service, as well as taxes in the main severity lay on Kerles, the legal status of which is reduced. In the middle of the X century, at King Edgar (959-975), the name "Land of Angles" (Engla Land), previously denoted by the ownership of the Wessec kings, spread to the whole country, and its inhabitants became known in the British. At the beginning of the XI century. The Danish king whipped the Great became the king of England (1016-1035), making it with his support and the center of a huge power, which included Denmark and Schleswig (1018-1035), Norway (1030-1035), the southern regions of the Scandinavian Peninsula. In an effort to entrenched in England, whipped the great objectively contributed to the strengthening of the English feudal statehood. In its code ("the laws of the whip"), he confirmed the privileges of the feudal and the forensic dependence on them peasants. Public power in the whip and his successors-sons were perceived by the masses as the main source of operation. In 1041, the rebellious population interrupted tax collectors of the Danish King Hardaknut (1040-1042), in 1051-1052. In the country there was a wide rebellion against the King-Englishman Eduard confessor with the requirement of "fair laws". After the death of this the last Anglo-Saxon king, during the defeated, the Duke of Normandy Wilhelm was summed up among applicants for the English throne. At the end of September 1066, his powerful army (5 thousand soldiers, of which 2 thousand seriously suitable), where knights were gathered from all limits of France, focused on the shore of La Mansha. Up to 700 Baroque transport ships was prepared. Immersing warriors, horses, food, Duke Wilhelm crossed through the strait and landed in the English coast. On October 14 of the same year, in the battle near the port of Hastings, the Knight's army of Normans, the head of the head of the Anglo-Saxes collected by the head of the Normolov. At the end of 1066, the Duke of Normandsky was anointed in Westminster to the kingdom and became the king of England Wilhelm I.

§ 6. Europe in the early Middle Ages (V - X centuries) the emergence of medieval civilization. European medieval history can be divided into two periods: early Middle Ages (V - X centuries) - folding of a new civilization as a result of the interaction of ancient heritage with

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