Hypothesis of reflexes Johann Gottfried Gerder. Johann Gottfried Gerder Biography

16.06.2019

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The Gerder, the largest thinker of the XVIII century, was greatly influenced by the formation of aesthetic views of the stripers. Its value in the history of philosophical and aesthetic thought is determined primarily by the fact that it began to consider public and literary phenomena from a historical point of view. Gerder studied literature and art in close connection with all the lives of mankind, emphasized their conditioned language, in short, psychology, thoughts of the thoughts of one or another people at a certain step of its historical development. Hence Gerder made a conclusion about the national uniqueness of creativity of each writer, introduced a new, historical method for studying literary phenomena. Gerder was a fiery defender of humanism and friendship of peoples. In his positive program, he closely approached the ideas of utopian socialism.

Gerder was born in a small town of Morungen (Eastern Prussia) in the family of a poor school teacher, at the same time acting ringing and singing in the local church. Due to material difficulties, Gerder did not have to get even a systematic primary education. For ten years, he is given to the service to the despotic deacon Tresho, where he performs all sorts of homework, and also rewritten the theological writings of his host.

In 1762, Gerder rides in Königsberg to study surgery, but becomes a student of the theological faculty of Königsberg University. A great impression on it was lectured by I. Kant on natural spiders. Of these, he learned the idea of \u200b\u200bthe variableness of the world, which will take such a large place in his future writings. But especially a lot of herder receives from independent activities. He studies the works of Leibnitsa, Voltaire, Baumgarten, Yuma, Newton, Kepplera and other philosophers and naturalists, meets the work of Rousseau, who had a great influence on him. In the student years, as subsequently, Gerder is striking their interests with breadth.

The active literary activity of Gerder began in Riga, where he lived in 1764-1769, being pastor of the Dome Cathedral. At this time, they published a number of articles - "On the newest German literature. Fragments "(Über Die Neuere Deutsche Literatur. Fragmente), Critical Forests (Die Kritische Wälder), in which its innovative approach to the study of literary phenomena has already revealed. In 1770-1771, while in Strasbourg, Herder met and became close to Goethe, playing a big role in approving the latter on the aesthetic positions of "Storms and Natika". The fruit of this acquaintance was a joint compilation of "On the German Art" (Von Deutscher Art Und Kunst, 1773), where Goethe placed an essay on architecture, and Gerder made articles about Shakespeare and a folk song. Thoughts developed by Herder and Goethe in their joint speech were perceived by the German writers as the Manifesto of the new Sturdary direction in the literature.

In 1771-1775 Herder serves as a preacher in Buckerburg, and then with the assistance of Goethe moves to Weimar, where it remains until the end of his days, by fulfilling the position of the court advisor to the consistory. In Weimar period, the Herder is written by the most significant works, in which his concept of world literature is deployed with the greatest fullness and clearness: "Ideas for the philosophy of human history" (Ideen Zur Philosophhic der Gescliichtc Dermcnschheil, 1784-1791), a collection of "Person's voices in songs" ( Stimmen der Völker in Lieder, 1778-1791), "Letters to encourage humanity" (Briefe Zur Beförderung Der Humanität, 1794-1797), "Calligone" (Kalligone, 1800) and others. Gerder also wrote poems, dramas ("Brut" , Philoktt, "Rejected Prometheus", etc.), but its artistic creativity, differing in progressive ideological orientation, is low in artistic terms. Images in his drama and poetry are marked by the seal of illustrative and schematics. Herder as a translator is much more interesting. Its greatest luck in this area is the Arrangement of PA German Spanish Romance about Side.

The world glory Gerder is based on his philosophical, historical and literary works, in which he declared itself as a genuine innovator. Enlighteners XVIII century. (Voltaire, Montesquieu, Lessing, etc.) considered history as a struggle of education with no indisputability, civilization with barbarism. Own views were regarded them as the highest level in the development of world theoretical thought. From the standpoint of the educational mind they rejected the middle ages. For them, the Middle Ages - the era of solid prejudice. For the same reasons, they did not pay due attention and folk creativity.

Herder considered the history of global culture as a process, all the links of which are interrelated, are necessary and, therefore, possess unique originality. Each historical era, every people will create artistic values \u200b\u200bmarked by the seal of the identity, bringing the spiritual and aesthetic wealth of humanity.

Herder speaks about the folk origins of artistic creativity. In one of the earliest articles "Do we have a French theater?" It enters a decisive controversy with those who tied the future of German theatrical art with the goodwill of the titled patted patrols. Gerder, on the contrary, notes the fear of the influence of the court-aristocratic environment on theatrical life.

In writing "On the latest German literature. Fragments "Herder focused on the enormous role of the language as an" gun "of artistic creativity, without which there can be no great poets or great prosaikov. There was a lot of scientific importance on the fact that the language is a millennial development of society that he gives people not God, but arose in the process of human communication, cultivating from one generation to another. Very valuable, materialistic on its essence was the position of Gerder that the language is the practical existence of thought ("we think with the help of the language .., thinking is almost the same as speech"). Herder showed great interest in the development of the German national language, considering it as a means to contribute to the cohesion of the nation and the creation of national literature.

In the "Critical Forests" Gerder, half amemizing with aesthetic XVIII century. Ridel, as well as indirectly with Winkelman, challenges their thesis about the absolute ideal of the beautiful, proving the volatility of the idea of \u200b\u200bbeauty. "Is it the same," he asks, - Greek, Gothic and Moorish tastes in brewing and architecture, in mythology and poetry? And doesn't every one of them draw your explanation in the era, the nravas and the nature of your people? " Gerder acts as a decisive opponent of regulatory aesthetics. Genuine art, according to his conviction, is incompatible with the regulatory, it is the fruit of free inspiration, peculiar from every artist.

Great merit Gerder as a folklorist. He first in Germany drew attention to the oral populatory creativity, vigorously engaged in collecting and popularizing his works. His, in particular, was struck by spiritual, cultural wealth of Russia (he to some extent joined them, living in Riga). Herder called on scientists of Slavic countries to collect folk songs, which reflected the features of the life of Slavs, their morals and ideals. Gerder predicted the great future of Slavic peoples, who, by his conviction, will play a leading role in the spiritual life of Europe.

Language, religious beliefs, ethical ideas and other achievements of civilization are considered by Gerder as a product of the collective life of the people. They arose as a result of a certain vital spiritual need. Gerder, admits Goethe in the X Book of his autobiography, "I taught us to understand the poetry as the general gift of all mankind, and not as the private property of the few sophisticated and educated natures." A separate artist, according to Gerder, only then reaches a large poetic expressiveness when he is associated with the elements of the national national life.

The brightest work of Gerder Folklorist is the anthology of the "voice of peoples in songs". It consists of six books. It presents works by the people's poetic creativity of not only civilized peoples of the world, but also those who have not yet had their written (Eskimos, Laplandians, Madagascar residents, etc.). On the other hand, the collection includes samples of Shakespeare's poetry, Goethe, who, according to Gerder, were closely connected with a folk life.

The biggest place in the "voices ..." are the songs of love, domestic, but some are characterized by socio-political oriented. Such is, for example, the "Lied Der Freiheit, with Greek), in which the heroes of the ancient history of the Hormone and Aristiton, who dropped Hipparch's despot from the cliffs. A sharp protest against the feudal-serfdom is imbued with the poem "Complaint of the fastener on tyrants" (Klage Liber Die Tyrannen des Leibeigenen, with Estonian). It has expressed despair and anger of the peasant, forced to escape from his home home, fleeing the bullying of Baron-Likhodaye, who beats up his fortress.

Our life is a terrible geenna.

We are in fire with flaming hell

The bread burns us lips,

We drink poisoned water.

On fire, our bread is noticed,

Sparks in the pool

Batogi under bread crust.

(Per. L. Ginzburg)

The most famous and most significant works of Gerder are "ideas for the philosophy of human history." Created in the thunderstorm time, the day before and during the French bourgeois revolution of the XVIII century, which the thinker sympathized with, this essay is imbued with the idea of \u200b\u200bthe continuous improvement of society, about the doomes of anti-human social institutions, on the irresistibleness of progress and the victory of humanism. In the "ideas", the student method of Gerder was most fully manifested - his desire to consider the phenomena of nature and public life in development, from a historical point of view.

The book consists of four parts. It examines the natural and social conditions of the existence of the human race. Gerder pursues quite earthly objectives: he seeks to find natural, objective laws that manage the world. The philosopher of the materialistic warehouse waters over the theologian in it, although the concessions of traditional theological views still give themselves to know themselves on many pages of his writings.

Gerder comes from the parcel that a person has a dual origin. On the one hand, he is a product of nature, and on other social circumstances. This is reflected in the structure of "ideas". They first consider natural, and then the socio-historical living conditions of people. Gerder begins his review from the characteristics of the Earth, with the definition of its place in space. He wants to prove that the originality of our planet, its rotation around the Sun and its axis, the features of its atmospheric cover, etc. significantly affected the structure of the human body. The man, according to Gerder, is organically woven into the life of nature, he part of it, but has a number of distinctive features at the same time. The main difference from the animal is the ability to "go, raising his head." This allowed the person to free his hands, which played a huge role in his struggle for existence and in spiritual cultivation. People, proves Gerder, in the communication process created a language, developed a mind, which, in his opinion, as opposed to instinct, is not given from birth, but there is a product of historical development. Ultimately, the distinguishing quality of man Herrore sees that he is a reasonable, thinking. Humanity is the essence of human nature and the ultimate goal of humanity. However, along with provisions based on the study of a huge actual material, "ideas" contain a mystical judgment. Gerder, for example, proves extensively, that humanism can be fully disclosed only in unearthly existence. Hence his dreams about eternal life outside the limit, etc.

Herder in his work gives a detailed description of the historical life of all those known at the time of the peoples of the world. His historical excursions testify to the enormous erudition of the author, although it, naturally, permits inaccuracies caused by the state of historical science in the XVIII century. Herder sets itself the task of tracing, due to the reasons for the natural (geographical) and public order, one or another people put forward on the historical arena with their spiritual achievements, degree of development of literature and art. The most brilliant pages of "ideas" in this regard are devoted to ancient Greece, which is characterized by Gerder as a cradle of human culture. Historical view in aesthetics Gerder all the time is adjusted by the educational ideology. Explaining the peculiarity of the cultural life of a certain people, the thinker never forgets to estimate it from the point of view of modern human interests, which gives his work the current value.

The continuation of the "ideas" is "letters to promote humanity," where Gerder has deployed its concept on the material of the vibrant modernity. In his new essay, he wanted to show the irregularities of the spirit of historical changes, the doomedness of the feudal monarchical institutions of the adulthood. "Letters" were created in the midst of revolutionary events in France, which the writer met enthusiasm. True, confused by the decisive actions of the Jacobinians (the execution of the King, Queen and other inspirationors of the reaction), Gerr in the future, like many German writers, moved to more moderate social and political positions, but still his sympathy for the French revolution was never uttering, and she I had the most direct impact on the assessment of the situation in Germany. In his sermons, Gerr sympathetically responded to the revolutionary French people, which caused the fierce anger of the Duke of Charles-August; He directly and sharply condemned the intervention against revolutionary France, which was an act of great civilian courage. In the first version of the "Letters", Gerder openly criticizes the despotism of the German princes, expresses their indignation to their shameful custom, to trade with his subjects, advocates for the abolition of noble privileges, hesitates the French "Declaration of Human Rights and Citizen", expresses the wish about the introduction of constitutional orders in his fatherland and T . D. rejecting the relations of reactionaries, Gerder firmly convinced that the revolution will not lead to decline, but to the flourishing of artistic creativity.

The shameful atmosphere of the Weimar yard, the official position of Gerder (he was a higher spiritual face in Duchy) did not allow the writer to publish the "letters" in their original form. He was forced to significantly soften the radicality of his judgments. As a result, an essay, remaining a significant phenomenon of German literature, still lost his conceived political acute.

In the last works ("Calligon" and others), Gerder pays a lot of attention to criticism of the cantianism. He does not share the thoughts of Kant on the a priority of the concepts of time and space, indicates formalism in its aesthetic views. In the fight against the weaker parties of the Cantian aesthetics, Gerder does not come from abstract-theoretical motivations: he sees what a negative impact she put on Schiller and some other German writers. Gerder worry the fate of German literature. Hence his hot desire to prove that the beauty of the artwork is determined not only by his form, as Kant believed, but depends on its content. Gerder, as a true enlightener, does not think the beautiful in the separation from good and fair. Until the end of his days he remained a fighter for the art of large humanistic ideas and feelings.

Gerder left a deep mark in the history of aesthetic thought. It was largely relied on romance in their struggle for national-distinctive creativity, he promoted their interest in folklore. At the same time, studying a person concretely historically, Gerder gave impetus to the development of realism. From him lead their "pedigree" Goethe and other writers of realistic direction in the German literature of the last third of the XVIII century.

Johann Gottfried Gerder - German writer, poet, thinker, philosopher, translator, historian of culture - born in Eastern Prussia, Morungen city on August 25, 1744. His father was a primary school teacher and part-time stare; The family lived poorly, and young Gerder was able to experience a lot of deprivation. He wanted to act a doctor, but fainting, which happened in an anatomical theater, where his familiar surgeon brought him, made him abandon this intention. As a result, in 1760, Gerder became a student of the Theological Faculty of Königsberg University. He was in a joke called the walking shop - such an impressive was the luggage of knowledge of the 18-year-old young man. In the student years, I. Kant drew on him and a lot His intellectual development was honored. In turn, in a young man very early awakened a huge interest of philosophical views of J.-zh. Rousseau.

After graduating from the university in 1764, Gerder could pick up in recruits, so he triggers friends to Riga, where he was expected to be a teaching position in a church school, and then he became a pastoral assistant. As a teacher, and preacher, eloquent Gerder, skillfully the spell in the word, became a rather famous person. In addition, it was in Riga that his activities began on the field of literature.

In 1769 he leaves to travel, visits Germany, Holland, France. Herder was a mentor of Prince Golstein-Eyaten and as his companion was in 1770 in Hamburg, where familiarity with the lesing was held. In winter of the same year, fate brought him back with one bright personality - young Goethe, who was still a student. Herder told a huge impact on its formation as a poet.

In the period from 1771 to 1776, Johann Gottfried Gerder lives in the bureucer, is a member of the consistory, the main pastor. Goethe helped him get the position of the preacher at the Weimar yard in 1776, and with this city the entire further biography of Gerder is connected. He left Weimar only in 1788-1789, when he traveled in Italy.

Written in the Riga period of work "Fragments on German literature" (1766-1768) and "critical groves" (1769) had a significant impact on the German literature of the period, when the movement called "Storm and Natisk" loudly stated. In these essays, Gerder spoke of the impact that the spiritual and historical development of the people affect the national literary process. In 1773 he saw the light of the work over which he worked with Goethe - "On German Character and Art", a collection that has become a program document "Storm and Natika".

The most famous works of Johann Gottfried Gerder were written in Weimara. Thus, the collection "People's Songs", created for 1778-1779, imagined the poems belonging to Peru Gerder, Goethe, Claudis, and the songs of various peoples of the world. In Weimara, Herrore began the largest labor of life - "ideas for the philosophy of human history", which covered the issue of the relationship between the cultural development of mankind, traditions and natural conditions, the universal principles and the characteristics of the path of the individual people.

This work remained unfinished, nevertheless, and without her herrrrian heritage was enough to put him in a number of the biggest figures of the "Storm and Natiska" period, who opposed the philosophical and literary views of the Epoch of Enlightenment, nominating the true art of loved ones as carriers to nature, "natural" people. Thanks to Gerder's translation, German readers learned about the well-known works of other national cultures, he also made a huge contribution to the history of literature.

In 1801, Gerder became the head of the consistory, Kurfürste Bavarian issued him a patent for the nobility, but after two years, December 18, 1803, he died.

Johann Gottfried Gerder

(Johann Gottfried Herder, 1744-1803)

Our life is a terrible geenna.

We are in fire with flaming hell

The bread burns us lips,

We drink poisoned water.

On fire, our bread is noticed,

Sparks in the pool

Batogi under bread crust.

(Per. L. Ginzburg)

The largest theorist "Storm and Natiska" was Johann Gottfried Gerder. Its value in the history of philosophical and aesthetic thought is determined primarily by the fact that he first began to consider the development of nature and society, literature and art from a historical point of view. He also owns an important merit in the "opening" of the People's Poetic Creativity of Shakespeare. Gerder had a great impact on the modern writers. Under his direct influence begins literary activities Goethe. Herderovsky ideas picked up and developed in new historical conditions of romance.

Herder was a leaving of the folk bottoms. He was born in the small Prussian city of Morun-Gen. His father was engaged in a weaving craft, and then became a teacher, performing at the same time the responsibilities of the ringing and singing in the local church. Gerder's mother was a daughter of a blacksmith. Not without degrading assistance to patrons, Herder ends with school and in 1762 comes to study at the Bogoslovsky Faculty of the University of Königsberg. It stands out among student youth with breadth of his interests.

In 1764-1769, Gerder lives in Riga, holding the position of the preacher. Here he meets the folklore of the Baltic and Slavic peoples, creates its first major writings: "On the newest German literature. Fragments "(1768) and" Critical Forests "(1769).

In 1769, Herder journey to France. It was the result of a travel diary, in which a historical view of the development of literature was already scheduled. Returning to Germany, Herder is found in Strasbourg with Goethe and other future steers. This meeting played a big role in determining the literary and aesthetic positions of a number of young German ports.

In 1771-1776, Gerder, persecuted by the need, was forced to serve the court preacher in the Buckeburg, Dwarf German Principality. From 1776 to death, he lives in Weimara, by fulfilling the position of the court advisor to the consistory. In Weimar period, the Herder was published two issues of folk songs, the most famous works were written: "Ideas about the philosophy of human history" (1784-1791), "Letters to promote humanity" (1793-1797) and a number of other writings.

Philosophical and aesthetic views of Gerder

Herder was a thinker-innovator. He strongly opposed an abstract-rationalistic approach to the assessment of literary phenomena, which dominated the XVII-XVIII centuries. Theoretics of classicism and even Didro and Lessing were assessed by one or another artistic work, guided by the aesthetic demands of their time. If it has not satisfied the requirements of the "enlightened mind" and "taste", it was subjected to severe condemnation. In this regard, entire literary epochs (for example, the literature of the countries of the East and Middle Ages) fell out of the field of view of the enlighteners. They were announced by the barbaric and indulged in oblivion.

Herder proposed to consider literature and art in connection with the development of mankind. His most important works are permeated with the spirit of dialectics. The story, as Herder proves, does not stand still, it is continuously moving, representing a progressive process, gradually climbing from the lower forms to the highest. Together with nature and society, artistic creativity develops. It reflects in its development a change in the national consciousness, determined by the specific historical circumstances (the natural and climatic conditions, religious beliefs, the social structure of the life of the people, etc.).

Historism Gerdera

Gerder substantiated the specific historical principle of research of works of literature and art. Correctly evaluate the writer, in his opinion, it means to determine its place in the historical and literary process, to understand that new that he introduced into human culture in comparison with its predecessors. Thus, the Herder introduced a new method of studying literary phenomena to science, which allowed to give a more flexible and historically more correct assessment of individual facts of literary life. Gerder first gave tribute to the artistic achievements of the peoples of the East, looked in a new way to the Middle Ages, to popular poetry. For him, they are the historically necessary links in the total chain of the cultural development of humanity.

Each writer, according to the historical and literary concept of Gerder, is the son of his century, his work is always determined by the peculiarities of his era. Therefore, the advantage of one or another genius cannot be erected into an absolute imitation standard. What was the norm for the ancient Greeks loses its commitment in a new time. With a change of society, aesthetic tastes are changing and even ways of image reality. It would be strange if Shakespeare wrote as much as Eschil or Sophokl. In England of the XVI-XVII centuries, other social conditions have developed than in ancient Greece, life has acquired a more dynamic nature, a person complicated, so the Shakespeare Drama has become more complex and psychological than an antique tragedy.

The method of historical criticism allowed Gerder to justify the provision on original artistic creativity. In fact, if every people, by virtue of the special circumstances of their historical development, spiritually unique, then, naturally, he has the right to his original art, unique both in content and in form.

Herder strongly opposes the imitation of antiquity classics. He seeks to bring together German poetry with a folk life, wants to see a means of expressing the interests of the nation, characteristic features of the modern era. The imitation is considered as a consequence of the separation of art from the people. She, in his opinion, appears there, where the writer, taking off from the folk soil, begins to reflect not reality, but only the tastes of the courtoistocratic circles of society. To satisfy the aesthetic requests of the noble public, he or idealizes nature, or imitates "elegant samples", in both cases ceasing to be truthful.

Gerder's attitude to Shakespeare

Herder's classicist readers opposes Shakespeare, who worked freely, on inspiration, not shy by any dogma and regulations. His creativity for Gerder is the very nature, undisturbed, colorful, unique in his diversity.

Shakespeare impresses Gerder in that it depicts life in all its complexity and contradictions, historically specifically, such as it really is. Herder admires the ability of the author of Gamletta and King Lira to create a holistic picture of society, to involve all classes in the dramatic effect from the jesters to kings, penetrate civil and human passions.

Gerder makes Shakespeare a banner of German literature. Its art method, he prefers the creative principles of ancient playwright. "I," admits Herder, is closer to Shakespeare than to the Greek. If the latter prevails in action something one, then the first takes the entire event. If the Greeks dominate one tone in characters, then Shakespeare has all the characters, class, types of life ... form the main sound of his concert. "

If Lessing was still largely looking at Shakespeare as a Pisa Moralist, then Gerder sees in him first of all the ingenious artist who in his works to create the truthful image of his era. Gerder attracts a latitude coverage of reality in Shakespeare, deep penetration into the inner world of people, the colorfulness of the language.

Gerder calls for a specific image of a person, to disclosure it in a variety of historical ties. For him, in contrast to many enlighteners, the human person is not a span of nature, but the fruit of historical development. But the strikes are against allocating only one public, political essence in the hero. In his early work, "On the writings of Thomas Abbt" (1768), he is half alarmed with Didro, which offered to portray the "class" on the scene. A similar measure, according to Gerder, will lead to the creation of one-centers. He himself is a supporter of a comprehensive show of a person, reproducing it in both civil and human manifestations. Gerder generally removed German writers on the road of realistic art free from morality, from opposition to the Hero of civil and human began, in principle, more high than the educational realism of the XVIII century.

Gerder and People's Poetry

Herder acquired great fame as a collector and promoter works of people's poetic creativity. He released a collection of "the voices of peoples in songs" (1778-1779), which included samples of the national poetry of the Germans, British, Poles, Latvians, Estonians and other peoples. Herder considered folklore as an expression of popular consciousness, folk ideals and aesthetic tastes and sincerity, simplicity in the transfer of thoughts and feelings, put it above the "artificial" creativity of writers who broke away from the folk soil. Only the creations of Shakespeare, Goethe and other geniuses can, according to his thoughts, compete with folk works, and he included passages from them into his anthology.

Stressing the dependence of literature and art from human history, Herrore itself, the process of historical development considered from an idealistic point of view. Moreover, the source of historical progress he saw not only in ideas, in the spread of humanity, but also in Divine predestination. The enlightement fell in Gerder next to the theologian, which sometimes expressed even the thought of the divine origin of power.

Nevertheless, the herder was critical to the feudal monarchical system, considered it with a phenomenon historically transient. He met a sympathetic French revolution and the proclamation of the republic in Mainz. But Gerder, like many other German writers, did not understand the need for Jacobin dictatorship. The future of Germany he connected with the enlightenment of society, with his rehabilitation in a humanistic spirit.

The creator of the historical understanding of the art, who considered his task "to consider everything from the point of view of his time", critic, the poet of the second half of the 18th century. One of the leading Late Enlightenment figures.

Biography

Philosophy and critics

Works of Gerder "Fragments in German Literature" ( Fragmente Zur Deutschen Literatur, Riga, 1766-1768), "Critical groves" ( Kritische Wälder., 1769) played a big role in the development of the German literature of the "Sturge and Natiska" period (see "Sturm und Drang"). Here we meet with a new, enthusiastic assessment of Shakespeare, with the thought (which has become the central position of the whole of his theory of culture) that every nation, every progressive period of world history has and should have literature, imbued with the National Spirit. His essay "Also, the Philosophy of History" (Riga, 1774) is devoted to the criticism of the rationalistic philosophy of the history of enlighteners. Since 1785, his monumental work "Ideas for the Philosophy of Human History" ( IDEEN ZUR PHILOSOPHIE DER GESCHICHTE DER MENSCHHEIT, Riga, 1784-1791). This is the first experience of the universal history of culture, where they receive their most complete expression of the thought of Gerder about the cultural development of mankind, about religion, poetry, art, science. East, antiquity, middle ages, revival, new time - depicts with an amazing contemporary erudition.

The last large works (if not considered the theological works) are "letters for consideration of humanity" ( Briefe Zur Beförderung Der Humanität, Riga, 1793-1797) and "Adracy" (1801-1803), pointed mainly against romanticism Goethe and Schiller.

Herder believed that the animals are "smaller brothers" for a person, and not only the "means", as Kant believes: "There is no virtue or attraction in the human heart, the likeness of which here and there would be no animal in the world."

The philosophy of the late Kant, he abruptly rejected, calling him the research "Deep desert filled with empty breeding of the mind and verbal fog with a big claim."

Artwork and translations

His youthful literary debut was anonymously published in 1761. Oda "Gesanges An Cyrus" (Song Kiru) at the Advanced of the Throne of the Russian Imp. Peter III.

From among the original works, the best can be considered "legends" and "paramyphy". Less successful of his drama "House of Admet", "Freed Prometheus", "Ariadna-Lieber", "Eon and Eony", "Philoktt", "Brut".

Very significant poetic and especially translation activities of Gerder. He introduces reading Germany with a number of interesting, former to that unknown or little-known, monuments of world literature. With a huge artistic taste, his famous anthology "Folk Songs" ( Völkslieder., 1778-1779), known under the title "Voice of Peoples in Songs" ( Stimmen Der Völker in Liedern), who opened the way to the newest gathering and researchers of folk poetry, since only since the Gerder, the concept of a folk song received a clear definition and became a genuine historical concept; In the world of Eastern and Greek poetry, he introduces its anthology "from the eastern poems" ( Blumenlese Aus Morgenländischer Dichtung), the translation of "Sakuntala" and "Greek anthology" ( Griechische Anthologie.). Herder completed its translation activities to the processing of Romances about Side (1801), making the taste of German culture the brightest monument of old-Pechish poetry.

Value

The highest ideal for Gerder was faith in the celebration of universal, cosmopolitan humanity (Humanität). Humanity he interpreted as the implementation of the harmonious unity of mankind in a variety of autonomous individuals, each of the reached the maximum implementation of its unique destination. Most of all in the representatives of mankind Gerder appreciated invention.

Father of European Slavic.

Fighting the ideas of enlightenment

The idea of \u200b\u200bthe development of mankind

Heine spoke of Gerder: "Gerr did not recrepose, like the literary Great Inquisitor, a judge over various nations, condemning or justifying them, looking by the degree of their religiosity. No, Herder considered all humanity as a great harmon in the hands of the Great Master, each people seemed to him in his own way the string of this Giant Harp, and he fastened the universal harmony of her various sounds. "

According to Gerder, mankind in its development is similar to a separate individual: it is experiencing periods of youth and decrepit, - with the death of an ancient world, it learned its first old age, with the age of educating the arrow of history again made his circle. The fact that enlighteners are taking for genuine works of art, nothing but those devastating the poetic life for fakes under artistic forms that have arisen at the basis of national self-consciousness and become unique with the death of the resulting their medium. Imitating samples, poets lose the opportunity to show the only important: its individual identity, and since Gerder always considers a person as a particle of social whole (nation), then its national identity.

Therefore, Gerder calls modern German writers to begin a new rejuvenated circle of cultural development of Europe, to create, obeying free inspiration, under the sign of the national identity. For this purpose, the Herder recommends that they appeal to earlier (young) periods of domestic history, for they can join the spirit of their nation in its most powerful and clean expression and learn the strength necessary to update art and life.

Constantly emphasizing the unity of human culture, Herder explains his common goal of all mankind, which is in the desire to find "True humanity." According to the concept of Gerder, the comprehensive spread of humanity in human society will allow:

reasonable abilities of people to make a mind;
data to man nature to realize in art;
personal attachments to make free and beautiful.

The idea of \u200b\u200bthe national state

Herder was one of those who first nominated the idea of \u200b\u200ba modern national state, but it arose in his teaching from the vitalized natural law and wore a full pacifist nature. Each state that arose as a result of the seizures caused his horror. After all, such a state, as Herder considered, and his folk idea was manifested in this, destroyed the established national cultures. Pure natural creation of him, actually, only a family appeared and corresponding to it the form of the state. It can be called the Herderovsk form of the national state.

"Nature brings up families and, therefore, the most natural state is where one people live with a single national character." "The state of one people is a family, a comfortable house. It rests on its own foundation; Founded by nature, it costs and dies only over time. "

Gerder called such a state device with the first degree of natural boards, which will remain the highest and last. This means that the perfect picture of the political state of the early and pure nation remained its ideal state in general.

However, for Gerder, the state is a car that will need to break over time. And he reincarnates the aphorism of Kant: "A person who needs a lord, an animal: Since he is a person - he does not need any gentleman" (9, vol. X, p. 383).

The Doctrine of People's Spirit

"Genetic spirit, the nature of the people is generally amazing and strange thing. It is not possible to explain it, it is impossible to erase it from the face of the Earth: he is old as a nation, old, as the soil on which the people lived. "

The quintessence of Gerder's teachings about the spirit of the people was concluded in these words. Teaching This was primarily directed, as already at the preliminary stages of its development in educators, on the continuing essence of peoples, sustainable in change. It rested on a more versatile sympathy of the manifold of the individualities of the peoples than a slightly late teaching of the historical school of law that aroused from passionate immersion in the originality and creative strength of the German People's Spirit. But it anticipated, albeit with a smaller mysticism, a romantic feeling of irrational and mysterious in the folk spirit. It, like romantic, saw in the national spirit the invisible seal, expressed in the specific features of the people and his creations, unless this vision was more free, not so doctrine. Less hard than the subsequent romanticism, it also considered the question of the poor of the People's Spirit.

The love of the people preserved in the purity and untouchability did not prevent him from recognizing the beneficiamentation of the "vaccinations, timely made to the peoples" (as Normans made with the English people). The idea of \u200b\u200bthe National Spirit received a special meaning from Gerder thanks to the application to its formulation of his beloved word "genetic". This means not only a living formation instead of frozen being, it feels not only a peculiar, unique in historical growth, but also the creative soil from which everything lives.

Herder was much more critical of the concept of the race, considered shortly before the Cant (). His ideal of humanity opposed this concept, which, according to Gerder, threatened again to bring humanity to an animal level, even to talk about human races to Gerder's ungiven. Their colors, he believed, was lost in each other, and all this in the end only shades of the same great picture. The genuine carrier of great collective genetic processes was and remained, according to Gerder, the people, and even higher - humanity.

Sturm und Drang

Thus, the Gerr can be considered as a thinker standing on the periphery "Storms and Natiska". Nevertheless, in the Wednesday, Gerder was greatly popular; The latter supplemented Gerder's theory with their artistic practice. Not without his promotion in the German bourgeois literature, works arose with national plots ("Götz von Berlikhingen" - Goethe, "Otto" - Klinger and others), works imbued with the spirit of individualism developed a cult of inborn genius.

Memory

The name of Gerder in Riga is the square in the old town and school.

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Literature

Gerbel N. German poets in biographies and samples. - SPb., 1877.
Thoughts relating to the philosophical history of mankind, on the understanding and drawing of Gerder (KN. 1-5). - SPb., 1829.
LED. Previous and notes. V. Zorgenfrey, ed. N. Gumileva. - P.: "World Lite-Pa", 1922.
Gaim R. Herder, his life and essays. In 2 tt. - M., 1888. (Reprinted by the Publishing House "Science" in the series "Word about Testya" in 2011).
Dupin A. Gerder // "Journal of Europe". - 1890. - III-IV.
Mering F. Gerder. On philosophical and literary topics. - Mn., 1923.
Gulga A. V. Gerder. Ed. 2nd, modifications. (ed. 1st - 1963). - M.: Thought, 1975. - 184 p. - 40,000 copies. (Series: Thinkers of the past).
Zhirmunsky V. Life and creativity Gerder // Zhirmunsky V. Essays on the history of classical German literature. - L., 1972. - P. 209-276.

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Excerpt characterizing Gerder, Johann Gottfried

"Battyushka, your beggar," Alpathych answered, instantly learning the voice of his young prince.
Prince Andrei, in a raincoat, riding the rone horse, stood behind the crowd and looked at Alpatić.
- How are you here? - he asked.
- Your ... Your clay, - Alpatych said and buried ... - Your, yours ... Or we disappeared? Father…
- How are you here? - repeated Prince Andrei.
The flame brightly flashed at this moment and illuminated the pale and outstanding face of his young barin. Alpatych told how he was sent and how Nasil could leave.
- What is your shyness, or we disappeared? He asked again.
Prince Andrei, not answering, pulled out a notebook and, raising his knee, began to write a pencil on the contaminated sheet. He wrote sister:
"Smolensk give up," he wrote, "the bald mountains will be occupied by the enemy in a week. Go now to Moscow. Answer to me immediately when you leave, sending a partial in order. "
Having writes and passing the Alpathi leaf, he handed over to him how to dispose of the prince's departure, Princess and Son with the teacher and how and where to answer him immediately. He still did not have time to graduate from these orders, as a riding headquarters, a suitable retainer, prompted him.
- Are you a colonel? - shouted the headquarters, with a German accent, acquaintance of the prince Andrei voice. - In your presence ignite at home, and you are standing? What does this mean? You will answer, - shouted Berg, who was now an assistant headquarters of the left flank of the infantry troops of the first army, - the place is very pleasant and in sight, as Berg said.
Prince Andrei looked at him and, without answering, continued, turning to Alpatuchu:
"So tell me that before the tenth day I am waiting for an answer, and if the tenth I will not get the news that everyone left, I myself will have to throw everything and go to the bald mountains.
"I, the prince, just because I say," said Berg, learning Prince Andrew, "that I must fulfill orders, because I always perform exactly ... You me, please excuse me," Berg justified me.
Something shrieked on fire. Fire prii for a moment; Black smoke clubs poured from under the roof. It was still scary with something in the fire, and something huge fell walked.
- Urruro! - The second barn of the barn, of which hesitated the smell of a burnt bread from the burnt bread, called the crowd. The flame flashed and illuminated lively joyful and exhausted faces of people standing around the fire.
A man in a frieze sinel, raising the hand up, shouted:
- Important! Went to drag! Guys, important! ..
"This is the owner himself," the voices heard.
"So, so," said Prince Andrei, turning to Alpatuchu, "everyone tells you how I told you." "And nor a word without answering Berg, a silent beside him, touched the horse and drove into the alley."

From Smolensk, the troops continued to retreat. The enemy followed them. August 10, the regiment, who was commanded by Prince Andrei, passed along a big road, past avenue leading to the bald mountains. Heat and drought stood more than three weeks. Every day, curly clouds went through the sky, occasionally flashed the sun; But in the evening I cleared again, and the sun sat down in Brouovato Red Mc. Only strong dew at night refreshed the earth. Bread remaining on the root burned and poured. Swamps dry. Cattle was roared from hunger, not finding the feed along the burned meadows. Only at night and in the forests still held dew, there was coolness. But on the road, along the big road, on which troops, even at night, even in the forests, there was no this coolness. Rosa was not noticeable was on the sandy dust of the road marching more than a quarter of Arshri. As soon as dawn, movement began. Outowers, artillery silently walked along the hub, and the infantry on the ankle in a soft, stuffy, not cooled overnight, hot dust. One part of this sandy dust knew my legs and wheels, the other climbed and stood a cloud over the army, having flipped into the eyes, in the hair, in the ears, in the nostrils and, most importantly, in the lungs and animals, moving along this road. The higher the sun rose, the higher the cloud of dust rose, and through this thin, hot dust in the sun, not closed with clouds, it was possible to look like a simple eye. The sun was presented by a large bugger ball. The wind was not, and people thorough in this motionless atmosphere. People walked, ridding the noses and mouths with scarves. Coming to the village, everything rushed to the wells. They fought for water and drank it to the mud.
Prince Andrei commanded the regiment, and the device of the regiment, the well-being of his people, the need to receive and recover the orders occupied it. Fire Smolensk and leaving him were an era for Prince Andrew. A new sense of angration against the enemy made him forget his grief. He was all devoted to the affairs of his regiment, he was caring about his people and officers and affectionately with them. In the regiment he was called our prince, they were proud and loved him. But good and meek, he was only with his regimental, with Timokhin, etc., with people completely new and in someone else's environment, with people who could not know and understand his past; But as soon as he came across someone from his former, from the staff, he immediately disassembled again; Made malicious, mocking and contempt. Everything that his memories connected with the past, repelled him, and therefore he tried in the relations of this former world just not to be unfair and fulfill his duty.
True, everything in the dark, the gloomy light was presented by Andrei - especially after SMOLENSK left (who, according to his concepts, it was possible and should have been protected) on August 6, and after the Father, the patient should have run to Moscow and quitting so favorite, devoured and their populated bald mountains; But, despite the fact, thanks to the shelf, Prince Andrei could think about another, completely independent of the general issues, about his regiment. On August 10, the column in which his regiment was stood with the Lysi Mountains. Prince Andrei Two days ago, received the news that his father, the son and sister went to Moscow. Although the prince Andrei and there was nothing to do in the Bald Mountains, he, with his characteristic desire to squander his grief, decided that he had to go to the Bald Mountains.
He ordered to settle his horse and went to the father's village from the transition, in which he was born and spent his childhood. Driving past a pond, on which there are always dozens of women, talking, beat the rollers and rinsed their lingerie, Prince Andrei noticed that there was no one on the pond, and a torn fleet, to half the pond flooded in the middle of the pond. Prince Andrei drove up to the guardhouse. There was no one from the stone gate of the entrance, and the door was detached. The garden tracks have already thickets, and the calves and horses went through the English park. Prince Andrei drove up to the greenhouse; The glasses were broken, and the trees in the tubs are some clashed, some dried. He called Taras Gardener. No one responded. Having reinked the greenhouse to the exhibition, he saw that the chopped fence was all broken and fruit plum rings with branches. The old man (Prince Andrei saw him at the gate in childhood) sat and flew the lap on the green bench.
He was deaf and did not hear the prince of Prince Andrew. He was sitting on a bench, on which he loved to sit down the old prince, and the Lychko was awesome on him on the bugs of broken and dried magnolia.
Prince Andrei drove up to the house. Several Lipa in the old garden were conceded, one Pegai with a foal horse went in front of the house between Roses. The house was clipped by shutters. One window at the bottom was open. The courtyard boy, seeing the prince Andrew, ran into the house.
Alpatych, her family, alone remained in the Bald Mountains; He sat at home and read live. Having learned about the arrival of Prince Andrei, he, with glasses on the nose, fastened, left the house, hastily approached the prince and, not saying, I cried, kissing Prince Andrew in the knee.
Then he turned away with his heart to his weakness and began to report him about the state of affairs. All valuable and expensive was taken to Boguchachovo. Bread, up to one hundred quartets, was also exported; Hay and Sumarova, extraordinary, as Alpatych talked, the harvest of this year is taken by green and bezed by the troops. The men are ruined, some left too in Bogucharsovo, a small part remains.
Prince Andrei, without hearing him, asked when the father and sister left, of course, when I left for Moscow. Alpatych responded, believing that they were asked about the departure to Bogucharovo, which was left the seventh, and again spread about the doors of the farm, asking for an order.
- Do you need to go to receipt of the teams of Oats? We still have six hundred and quarters left, "Alpatych asked.
"What to answer him? - I thought Prince Andrew, looking at the old man's gloating head on the sun and in the expression of his face reading the consciousness that he himself understands the incommodation of these issues, but asks only to drown out and his grief.
"Yes, let go," he said.
- If they were removed to notice the riots in the garden, "Alpathić said, it was impossible to prevent: three shelves passed and spent the night, especially draguns. I wrote the rank and the title of the commander to serve.
- Well, what will you do? Will you stay, if the enemy will take? - asked his prince Andrei.
Alpatych, turning his face to the prince Andrei, looked at him; And suddenly a solemn gesture raised his hand up.
- He is my patron, and will be his will! - he said.
The crowd of men and yard walked around the meadow, with open heads, approaching the prince Andrei.
- Well, goodbye! - said Prince Andrei, bending around to Alpathy. "Leave himself, urged that you can, and the people led to Ryazan or in the near Moscow. - Alpatych pressed against his leg and buried. Prince Andrew carefully pushed him away and, Tronow, gallop drove down the alley.
At the exhibition, everything is also indifferent, like a fly on the face of an expensive dead man, sat an old man and a knock on the lapto block, and two girls with plums in the podols, which they narrowed from the orange trees, fled from there and stumbled upon Prince Andrew. Having seen the young Barin, the elder girl, who was expressed on his face afraid, grabbed his smaller bidder for her hand and was hidden with her for the birch, did not have time to choose the scattered green plums.
Prince Andrei frightenedly turned away from them, fearing to notice to them that he saw them. He was sorry for him this pretty frightened girl. He was afraid to look at her, at the same time he wanted it insurmountable. A new, pleasant and sedative feeling embraced him when he, looking at these girls, understood the existence of others, completely alien to him and as legitimate human interests, as well as those who occupied him. These girls, obviously, passionately wanted one - to carry out and do to achieve these green plums and not be caught, and Prince Andrei wished with them together the success of their enterprise. He could not resist not to look at them again. Having believed already safe, they jumped out of the ambush and, something with thin voice, holding the aid, having fun and quickly fled on the grass of the meadow with their tanned bare rugs.
Prince Andrei freshed a little, having left the dust area of \u200b\u200bthe big road, on which the troops moved. But not far from the Lysi Mountains, he drove again on the road and caught up with his regiment on the prival, at the dam of a small pond. There was a second hour after half a day. The sun, a red ball in dust, unbearably baked and burned back through the black coat. Dust, all the same, still stood over the talk of buzzing, who stopped troops. The wind was not, in the passage of the dam on Prince Andrei smelling the Tina and the freshness of the pond. He wanted in the water - whatever dirty it was. He looked back at the pond, from whom cries and laughter were laughed. A small muddy with a greenery pond, apparently, rose a quarter to two, pouring the dam, because he was full of human, soldiers, barely flounded in white bodies, with bricks with red hands, faces and necks. All this is naked, white human meat with laughter and gicke flounded in this dirty pool like Karasi, stuffed in a watering can. This fluestany responded to fun, and because it was especially sad.
One young blond soldier - Another Prince Andrei knew him - the third company, with a strap under caviar, hiding, retreated back to make care well and burst into the water; Another, black, always shaggy Unter officer, in the water belt in the water, twitching the muscular mill, joyfully snort, having watered his head black on his brush with his hands. Sleeping flew on each other, and screech, and Wuhan.
On the shores, on the dam, in the pond, there was white, healthy, muscular meat everywhere. Timokhin officer, with a red spout, wound on the dam and sacked, seeing the prince, but decided to contact him:
- That is good, your crying, you would have been deprived! - he said.
"Dirty," said Prince Andrei, frowned.
- We will clear you now. - And Timokhin, not yet dressed, ran clews.
- Prince wants.
- What? Our prince? "Voices spoke, and everyone hooked up so that the prince of Andrei managed to calm them down. He came up with it better to drench in the barn.
"Meat, body, chair a canon [cannon meat]! - he thought, looking at his naked body, and shuddering not so much from the cold, how much from his incomprehensible disgust and horror at the sight of this huge number of bodies that rinsed in a dirty pond.
On August 7, Prince Bagration In his parking lot, Mikhaylovka wrote the following:
"The gracious sovereign Count Alexey Andreevich.
(He wrote Arakcheev, but he knew that his letter would be read by the sovereign, and therefore, as far as he was able to be able to, thought every his word.)
I think the minister has already reported on leaving Smolensk enemy. It hurts, sad, and the whole army in despair is that the most important place threw out. I, on my part, asked him personally, a convincing way, finally wrote; But nothing agreed. I swear to you wing honor that Napoleon was in such a bag, more than ever, and he would lose half of the army, but not to take Smolensk. Our troops fought so fought and so fight, more than ever. I kept with 15 thousand more than 35 hours and beat them; But he did not want to stay 14 hours. It is a shame, and the stain of the army of our; And he himself seems to me and should not live in the world. If he brings that loss is great, - not true; Maybe about 4 thousand, no more, but also not. At least ten, how to be war! But the enemy lost the abyss ...
What was still worth staying two days? At least, they themselves left; For they did not have water to drink people and horses. He gave the floor to me that he would not retreat, but suddenly sent a disposition that he was going to night. In this way, you can not fight, and we can soon lead to Moscow ...
Rumor is worn, what do you think about the world. To make up, God save! After all donations and after such crazy digits, to put up: you put all of Russia against yourself, and all of us will put on the shame to wear a uniform. If it happened already - it is necessary to fight until Russia can and while people are on their feet ...
It is necessary to command one, not two. Your minister, maybe good for the ministry; But the general is not the fact that bad, but crazy, and he gave him the fate of all of our Fatherland ... I, right, crazy from annoyance; Forgive me that I am banging. It can be seen, he does not like the sovereign and wishes to death to all who advises to conclude peace and command the army to Minister. So, I am writing to you the truth: make a militia. For the minister most masterfully leads to the capital for his guest. A great suspicion applies to the entire army Mr. Flegel Adjutant Volzogen. He, they say more than Napoleon, rather than our, and he advises all the Minister. I'm not talking about him, but therefore, as a corporal, although it is old. It hurts; But, loving my benefactor and the sovereign, - she obey. Only sorry for the sovereign, which entries such a glorious army. Imagine that our Retiradado we lost people from fatigue and in hospitals more than 15 thousand; And if it would come, that would not be. Sake the sake of God that our Russia is our mother - says that so we suffer and for what a good and zealous fatherland, we give bastards and instill in each citizen hatred and entertainment. What to break and whom to fear?. I am not guilty that the minister is nervous, a coward, stupid, slowly and everything has thin qualities. The whole army cries completely and scold him to death ... "

Among the countless units, which can be made in the phenomena of life, can be divided into all of them to those in which the content is prevailing, others in which the form prevails. According to those such, in contrast to the village, Zemskaya, the provincial, even Moscow life, the life of St. Petersburg, especially the salon. This life is unchanged.
Since 1805, we put up and quarreled with Bonaparte, we did the Constitution and separated them, and the salon Anna Pavlovna and Salon Helen were exactly the same as they were one seven years old, another five years ago. In the same way, Anna Pavlovna spoke with a perplexity of the success of Bonaparte and saw, both in his successes and in the indulgence of European sovereigns, a malicious conspiracy, who has the sole purpose of the trouble and concern of the court circle, which Anna Pavlovna was a representative. In the same way, helen, which Rumyantsev himself honed his visit and considered a wonderful smart woman, just as in 1808, and in 1812, with delight, they were talking about the great nation and a great man and looked at the gap with France with regret, which, According to the people who were gathered in the salon, Elene, should have ended the world.