Formation of realism in Russian literature. Realistic Writers of the XIX century and their critical realism

The advantage of it originated, of course, as a reflection of time. The English revolution of the middle of the XV century. And the time of the fronds in France with sufficient clarity revealed the significance of the public environment and public contradictions.

The nature of a person, his earthly interests and thoughts are perceived by the advanced Writers of Renaissance as a source and the cause of his actions and aspirations. The inner world of man is attached to an objective, sovereign, independent of heaven. This was a genuine revolution in the literature. It was the birth of realism as an artistic method of lifestyle.

Before the emergence of realism as a literary direction, the approach to the image of a person in most writers was one-sided. Classicists depicted a person mainly on the part of his duties before the state and were very little interested in him in his everyday life, in family, private life. Sentimentalists, on the contrary, moved to the image of a person's personal life, his sincere feelings. Romantics were also interested in mainly the spiritual life of a person, the world of his feelings and passions.

But they endowed their heroes with feelings and passions of exceptional strength, put them in unusual conditions.

Realist writers depict a person multilaterally. They draw typical characters and show at the same time, in what social conditions a particular hero of the work was formed.

This ability to give typical characters in typical circumstances and is the main feature of realism.

Typical we call such images in which the most bright, fully and truthfully embodied the most important features characteristic of a certain historical period for a particular public group or phenomenon (for example, cattle prostacles in comedy phonvizin-typical representatives of the Russian medium-time nobility of the second half XVIII century).

In typical images, a realist writer reflects not only those features that are most common at a certain time, but also those that are just beginning to appear and develop completely in the future.

Conflicts underlying the works of classicists, sentimentalists and romantics were also one-sided.

Classicist writers (especially in tragedies) depict a collision in the soul of the hero of consciousness of the need to commit duty to the state with personal feelings and entrepreneurs. At Sentimentalists, the main conflict grew on the basis of public inequality of heroes belonging to various classes. In romanticism, the foundation of the conflict is a break between a dream and reality. Writers-implemented conflicts are as diverse as in life itself.

In the formation of Russian realism at the beginning of the XIX century, Wings and Griboedov played a big role.

The wings became the creator of Russian realistic fables. The life of serfs of Russia in its essential features is deeply truthfully depicted in Krylov's Basmen. The ideological content of his bass, democratic in its direction, the perfection of their construction, wonderful verse and a lively spoken language, developed on a national basis - all this was a major contribution to Russian realistic literature and had an impact on the development of creativity of writers such as Griboedov, Pushkin, Gogol and others.

Griboedov has gave a sample of a Russian realistic comedy with their work "grief from the mind".

But the authentic pillar of Russian realistic literature, which gave perfect samples of realistic creativity in a wide variety of literary genres, was the Great People's Poet Pushkin.

Realism - 19 - 20th century (from Latin realis - Valid)

Realism can define heterogeneous phenomena combined by the concept of life truth: the spontaneous realism of the ancient literature, the realism of the Renaissance, the educational realism, "Natural School" as the initial stage of development of critical realism in the XIX century, Realism of the XIX-XX centuries, "Socialist Realism"

The main features of realism:
• An image of life in images corresponding to the essence of life phenomena by typing the facts of reality;
• True reflection of the world, wide coverage of reality;
• Historicism;
• Attitude to literature as a means of knowledge of the man of himself and the surrounding world;
• Reflection of human communication and medium;
• Typification of characters and circumstances.

Writers-Realistic in Russia. Representatives of realism in Russia: A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol, A. N. Ostrovsky, I. A Goncharov, N. A. Nekrasov, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L . N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov, I. A. Bunin, and others.

Effective preparation for the exam (all objects) -

Realism has the following distinctive features:

• 1. The artist depicts life in images corresponding to the essence of the phenomena of life itself.
• 2. Literature in the realism is a means of knowing the person of himself and the surrounding world.
• 3. The knowledge of reality goes with the help of images created by typing the facts of reality ("typical characters in a typical situation"). Typification of characters in realism is carried out through the truth of the details in the "specifics" of the conditions of the character.
• 4. Realistic art - the art of life-affirming, even during the tragic resolution of the conflict. The philosophical foundation of this is Gnosticism, faith in the cognitiveness and adequate reflection of the surrounding world, the difference, for example, from romanticism.
• 5. Realistic art is inherent in the desire to consider reality in development, the ability to detect and capture the emergence and development of new forms of life and social relations, new psychological and social types.

In the course of art development, realism acquires specific historical forms and creative methods (for example, educational realism, critical realism, socialist realism). These methods, related continuity, possess their characteristic features. Different manifestations of realistic trends and in different types and genres of art.

In aesthetics, there is no finally established definition of both the chronological boundaries of realism and the volume and content of this concept. In the manifold of developed points of view, you can outline two main concepts:

• · According to one of them, realism is one of the main features of the artistic knowledge, the main tendency of the progressive development of the artistic culture of mankind, in which the deep essence of art is detected as a method of spiritual and practical development of reality. The measure of penetration into life, the artistic knowledge of its important parties and qualities, and in the first place of social reality, determines the measure of the realism of one or another artistic phenomenon. In each new historical period, realism acquires a new appearance, then discovered in a more or less clearly pronounced trend, then crystallizing into the finished method, which determines the features of the artistic culture of his time.
• · Representatives of another point of view on realism limit its history with certain chronological frameworks, seeing in it historically and typologically specific form of artistic consciousness. In this case, the beginning of realism refers to either the era of the Renaissance, or by the XVIII century, to the Epoch of Enlightenment. The most complete disclosure of realism will be seen in the critical implementation of the XIX century, its next stage is in the XX century. Socialist realism, interpreting life phenomena from the standpoint of the Marxist-Leninist worldview. A characteristic feature of realism in this case is the method of generalization, the typing of the vital material, formulated by F. Engels as applied to the realistic novel: " … typical characters in typical circumstances ... ".
• · Realism In such an understanding, he examines the identity of a person in a non-historical unity with the modern social environment and social relations. This interpretation of the concept of realism was mainly developed on the material of the history of literature, while the first is predominantly on the material of plastic arts.

Whatever point of view does not adhere to, and no matter how to bind them with each other, it is undoubted that realistic art has an extraordinary diversity of methods of knowledge, generalization, artistic interpretation of reality, manifested in the nature of stylistic forms and receptions. Realism Mazacho and Piero Cause Francesca, A. Durera and Rembrandt, J.L. David and O. Domier, I.E. Repina, V.I. Surikova and V.A. Serov, etc. Differentially different from each other and indicate the widest creative possibilities of objective development of the historically changing world by means of art.

At the same time, any realistic method is characterized by a sequential reference to the cognition and disclosure of the contradictions of reality, which in the data, historically conditioned limits turns out to be affordable to the truthful disclosure. The realism is peculiar to the conviction in the cognizability of creatures, the features of an objective real world by means of art. Realism art knowledge

Forms and techniques of reflection of reality in realistic art are different in different types and genres. Deep penetration into the essence of life phenomena, which is inherent in realistic trends and constitutes the defining feature of any realistic method, is expressed in different ways in the novel, lyrical poem, in the historical picture, landscape, etc. Not any externally reliable image of reality is realistic. The empirical authenticity of the artistic image acquires meaning only in unity with the truthful reflection of the existing parties to the real world. This is the difference between realism and naturalism, creating only visible, external, rather than genuine essential truthfulness of images. At the same time, to identify certain faces of the deep content of life, sometimes sharp hyperbolization, acopeition, grotesque failure "forms of life", and sometimes a conditionally metaphorical form of artistic thinking.

The most important feature of realism is psychologism, immersion through social analysis to the inner world of man. An example here can serve as a "career" Juliena Selor from Roman Standal "Red and Black", which was experiencing a tragic conflict of ambition and honor; Psychological drama Anna Karenina from the same name Roman L.N. Tolstoy, which burst out between the feeling and morality of the class society. Human nature is revealed by representatives of critical realism in organic communications with a medium, with social circumstances and life conflicts. The main genre of realistic literature XIX century. Accordingly, the socio-psychological novel becomes. It most fully meets the task of objective artistic reproduction of reality.

Consider general signs of realism:

• 1. Artistic image of life in images, corresponding to the essence of the phenomena of life itself.
• 2. Reality is a means of knowing the person of himself and the surrounding world.
• 3. Typification of images, which is achieved through the veracity of parts in specific conditions.
• 4. Even with a tragic conflict, the art of life-affirming.
• 5. The realization is inherent in the desire to consider reality in the development, the ability to detect the development of new social, psychological and social relations.

Leading principles of realism in the art of the XIX W:

• · An objective display of the essential parties to life in combination with the height and truth of the author's ideal;
• · Reproduction of typical characters, conflicts, situations with the completeness of their artistic individualization (i.e., concretization of both national, historical, social and physical, intellectual and spiritual features);
• · Preference in the methods of image "forms of life itself", but along with use, especially in the 20th century, conditional forms (myth, symbol, parables, grotesque);
• · The prevailing interest in the problem of "personality and society" (especially the inecilial confrontation of social laws and moral ideal, personal and mass, mythologized consciousness) [4, p.20].

Realism has developed at the turn of 1830-1840. The word was told by P. Annenkov in relation to a series of essays about urban Nizak Yakov Butkova. That is, from the very beginning there was an intention to use the socio-lowered material - the human bottom with its ulcers, mud, abomination. But the origin of the direction can be attributed to the time of writing and producing the play of Gogol "Auditor" (1836). She had basically the plot proposed by Pushkin. It is distinguished by the lack of positive heroes. According to the literary critic V.G. Belinsky, Gingerbread Ternaya-Dmukhanovsky and Khlestakov are not carriers of abstract defects, but a living embodiment of the moral decomposition of Russian society as a whole. Followers of Gogol as the author of the "Auditor" and became representatives of the "Natural School". The opponents of them were called "Meschili". Soviet literary studies following M. Gorky - critical realism for focusing the accusatory orientation of this literature. General features of this direction were: social and significant topics; Plots from the lives of low layers of society, a description of the non-invalious life; The problem of "small person"; explicit and veiled accusatory tone; The impairment of "Gnus raise reality"; Realism of artistic expression, against the embellishment of reality. The largest representatives were I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, V.D. Grigorovich, I.A. Goncharov, N.A. Nekrasov, M.E. Saltykov.

The authors' relationships to their heroes were "cruel." All their flour and vices generously poured on the books of books. It is no closer to N. Mikhailovsky called the cruel talent of Dostoevsky, who, without any literary need, tormented his heroes, persistently not showing them the road to the top. Young writer N. Leukin recalled that N.A. Nekrasov advised him "malice more" to let into the texts, they say, "time is". It was a fashion.

The flourishing of Russian realistic fiction in the second half of the XIX century. Performed against the background of socio-political fermentation, which began in the 1840s, in the reign of Nicholas I (1825 - 1855). Among the numerous novelists of this period there are three gigids, known all over the world: Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev (1818 – 1883), Fedor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (1821 - 1881) and Lion Nikolaevich Tolstoy (1828 - 1910). In addition, you should mention Ivan Alexandrovich Goncharov (1812 - 1891), the author of the novels "Ordinary History" (1848), "Oblomov" (1859, "Open" (1869).

Both poetic descriptions of nature and deep penetration into the human psyche and realistic image of a rural landlord of life are inherent in the first work of Turgenev - "Hunter's note" (1847-1852). The writer's tendency to socio-political issues - Rudin novels (1856) and the "noble nest" (1859), in which the favorite Turgenev Scene Couple appears: a weak-like hero and heroine, which has a strong will; These types are clearly inspired by the images of Onegin and Tatiana.

Dostoevsky in the early period of creativity was under the strong influence of Gogol and the "Natural School" (Roman "Poor People", 1846). In the future, the writer did not follow the path of most writers - his contemporaries, Dostoevsky did not consider himself an expressive of the interests of any social layer. In his novels, the path of internal development of the human personality is described: Boring conscience with immoral theory ("Crime and Punishment", 1866); Attempts to construct a sinful life with Christian virtues ("Idiot", 1868); The search for God and faith in the obsessed practicalism of the world, where Malovery rules ("Brothers Karamazov", 1879-1880). In his novels there is a complete artistic merger of abstract ideology and unique specific characters and circumstances. In the psychological analysis of human passions, feelings, the characters of Dostoevsky there are no equal in world literature.

Unlike Dostoevsky, the creator is very life-like, but still shifted by subjective perception and ignorance of the world, Tolstoy was a reality expressive. His early works were prepared for writing the monumental novel "War and Peace" (1863-1869), Roman-epic. This is a historic canvas, where the most of the place is occupied by the relationship between five families between 1805 and 1820. Next Roman L.N. Tolstoy, "Anna Karenina" (1873-1877), one of the most significant stories of love in world culture. After 1880, Tolstoy abandoned the psychological and analytical style of his great novels for the sake of simplified narrative style available to the greater masses.

Dramaticria of this period is marked by leadership Alexey Nikolayevich Ostrovskoye (1823 - 1886), which wrote a lot of plays, the best of which, for example, "Poverty is not a vice" (1854), "Thunderstorm" (1859) and "Nonmennica" (1879), still do not go from the scene. The most original playwright of the end of the XIX century. Was Anton Pavlovich Chekhov (1860-1904). The main play of Chekhov is the "Seagull" (1896). It clearly does not fit fully into the realistic standard. It is distinguished by an impressionistic, emotional attitude that has infected the theater audience caused by an endless break between real life and its ideal way. Such impressionism was penetrated by the play "Uncle Vanya" (1900), "Three Sisters" (1901) and "Cherry Garden" (1904). Chekhov created a new dramatic structure consisting of alternating monologues, where all the characters are frank each other, but their recognition is not secession, because People do not hear and do not listen to each other.

Realism (lat. realis - real, valid) - direction in art, whose figures are striving to understand and depict the interaction of a person with its environment surrounding it, and spiritual, and material components are also included in the concept of the latter.

The art of realism is based on the creation of characters understood as a result of the influence of socio-historical events, individually comprehended by the artist, resulting in a living, unique and at the same time carrying an artistic image. "The cardinal problem of realism - the ratio playing and artistic truth. The external similarity of the image with its prototypes is in reality is not for the realism of the only form of expression of the truth. It is even more important that such similarity is not enough for genuine realism. Although the likelihood is the important and most characteristic form of the implementation of artistic truth, the latter is ultimately defined, but faithful in comprehension and transfer essence Life, significance of ideas expressed by the artist ". From said it does not follow that realist writers are not at all fiction - without fiction artistic creativity is generally impossible. The fiction is necessary already in the selection of facts, their grouping, nominate on the first plan of some heroes and a fluent response of others etc.

The chronological boundaries of the realistic direction in the works of various researchers are determined in different ways.

Some seize the primitives of realism still in antiquity, others belong to the emergence of the Renaissance era, the third leads from the XVIII century, the fourth believe that realism as a direction in art appeared not earlier than the first third of the XIX century.

For the first time in the domestic criticism, the term "realism" was used by P. Annenkov in 1849, however, without a detailed theoretical justification, and in general consumption entered in the 1860s. The French writers L. Duranti and Charflerry were the first to try to comprehend the experience of Balzak and (in the field of painting) of the city of Kurba, giving them the definition of "realistic". "Realism" - the name of the released Duranti in 1856-1857 of the magazine and the collection of articles of Charflerry (1857). However, their theory was largely contradictory and did not exhaust all the complexity of the new artistic direction. What are the basic principles of realistic direction in art?

Up to the first third of the XIX century, literature created artistically unilateral images. In antiquity, it is the perfect world of gods and heroes and opposed to him the limitations of earthly existence, the division of characters on "positive" and "negative" (echoes such graduation and still give themselves to be aware of primitive aesthetic thinking). With some changes, this principle continues to exist in the Middle Ages, and during classicism and romanticism. Only Shakespeare was much ahead of his time, creating a "diverse and multilateral characters" (A. Pushkin). It was in overcoming one-sidedness of the image of a person and his public relations that the most important shift in the aesthetics of European art was concluded. Writers begin to realize that the thoughts and the actions of the characters often cannot be dictated only by the author's will, since they depend on specific historical circumstances.

Organic religiosity of society under the influence of the ideas of the enlightenment, proclaiming the human mind of the Supreme Judge of all things, throughout the XIX century, it is supplanted with such a social model, in which the place of God is gradually occupied by allegedly omnipotent productive forces and class struggle. The process of forming such a world view was long and difficult, with his supporters, declaratively rejecting the aesthetic achievements of previous generations, in their artistic practice, largely relied on them.

In the late XVIII - early XIX century at the end of the 18th century, there were especially many social upheavals, and the stormy change of political systems and psychological conditions allowed the artists of these countries more thanks to realize that each era imposes on the feelings, thoughts and actions of people their unique imprint.

For writers and artists of the Renaissance and Classicism, biblical or antique characters were only hoppores of the ideas of modernity. No one surprised that the apostles and the prophets in the painting of the XVII century were dressed in the fashion of this century. Only at the beginning of the XIX century, painters and writers begin to follow the compliance of all household details of the depicted time, coming to understand that the psychology of the heroes of long-time, and their actions cannot be fully adequate in the present. It is in the capture of the "Spirit of Time" and consisted of the first achievement of the art of the beginning of the XIX century.

The ancestor of the literature, in which the course of the historical development of society was comprehended, was the English writer V. Scott. His merit is not so much in the exact image of the details of the life of the past times, how much is that he, according to V. Belinsky, gave the "historical direction of the art of the XIX century" and depicted as an indivisible general individual and all-life. Heroes of V. Scott, involved in the epicenter of turbulent historical events, are endowed with memorable characters and are at the same time representatives of their estate, with its social and national characteristics, although in general it perceives the world with romantic positions. The outstanding English novelist was also able to find in his work that the line that reproduces the language flavor of the past years, but does not copy archaic speech literally.

Another opening of realists was to find social contradictions caused by not alone passions or ideas of "heroes", but also by antagonistic aspirations of classes, classes. The Christian ideal dictated sympathy for humiliated and disadvantaged. In this principle, there is also realistic art, but the main thing in realism is the study and analysis of public relations and the structure of society. In other words, the main conflict in the realistic work lies in the struggle of "humanity" with "inhumanity", which is due to a number of social laws.

Psychological filling of human characters is also explained by social reasons. When depicting a plebemy, who does not want to accept the fate, intended for him from birth ("Red and Black", 1831), standal refuses romantic subjectivism and analyzes the hero's psychology, which seems to be placed under the sun, mainly in the social aspect. Balzac in the cycle of novels and the "Human Comedy" (1829-1848) (1829-1848) is given a major goal to recreate the multifigure panorama of modern society in its various modifications. Approaching its task as a scientist describing a complex and dynamic phenomenon, the writer traces the fate of individual personalities over a number of years, detecting significant adjustments that the "spirit of time" contributes to the original qualities of the characters. At the same time, Balzac focuses on those socio-psychological problems that remain almost unchanged, despite the change of political and economic formations (the power of money, the moral drop in an outstanding person who has been successful for success at any cost, the decay of family ultrasounds, not fastened with love and mutual respect, and etc.). At the same time, the standal and balzak detect genuinely high feelings only in the medium of inconspicuous honest workers.

The moral superiority of the poor above the "highest light" is also proved in the novels of Ch. Dickens. The writer was not at all inclined to depict the "big light" by the creation of villains and moral freaks. "But all evil is that Dickens wrote, - that this wizard world lives, as in the case for jewels ... And therefore, no longer hears the noise of more extensive worlds, does not see how they rotate around the sun. This is a dying world, and generating His painful, because in it there is nothing to breathe. " In the work of the English novelist, psychological reliability along with a somewhat sentimental resolution of conflicts is combined with a soft humor, sometimes developing into a sharp social satir. Dickens designated the main pain points of modern capitalism (imparting workers, their ignorance, lawlessness and spiritual role crisis). No wonder L. Tolstoy was sure: "ask the world prose, the dickens will remain."

The main spiritual power of realism is the ideas of individual freedom and universal equality. Everything that prevents the free development of an individual, realist writers denounced, seeing evil root in an unfair device of social and economic institutions.

At the same time, most writers believed in the inevitability of scientific and public progress, which will gradually destroy the oppression of man by a person and will reveal it initially positive deposits. Such a mood is typical for European and Russian literature, for the latter especially. So, Belinsky sincerely envied the "grandchildren and the greatness", which will live in 1940. Dickens wrote in 1850: "We strive to endure the world from the boiling around us under the roof of countless houses aversion about the many social wonders - and benefactor and malicious, but those who do not detract to conviction and perseverance in us, condescending to each other, loyalty to the progress of mankind And thanks for those who fell out the honor of living on the summer dawn of times. " N. Chernyshevsky in "What to do?" (1863) painted paintings of an excellent future when everyone gets the opportunity to become a harmonious personality. Even Chekhov's heroes belonging to the era in which social optimism was already noticeably gone, believe that they would see the "sky in diamonds."

And yet, first of all, a new direction in art focuses on criticizing existing orders. Realism of the XIX century in the domestic literary criticism of the 1930s - the beginning of the 1980s was called critical realism(Definition proposed M.Gorky). However, this term does not cover all sides of the defined phenomenon, since, as already noted, the realism of the XIX century was not at all deprived of the claiming pathos. In addition, the definition of realism as predominantly critical "is not completely accurately and in that, which, focusing the specific-historical significance of the work, its connection with the social tasks of the moment, it leaves the shadow the philosophical content and the universal importance of masterpieces of realistic art."

A man in realistic art unlike the romantic is considered not as the autonomously existing personality, an interesting one for its uniqueness. In realism, especially at the first stage of its development, it is important to demonstrate the impact on the identity of the social environment; At the same time, realist writers seek to portray the image of the thoughts and senses of characters ("Oblomov" and "Ordinary Story" I. Goncharov). Thus, along with historicism, the origins of which stood by V. Scott (the transfer of the flavor of the place and time and awareness of the fact that the ancestors saw the world otherwise than the author himself), rejection of staticness, the image of the inner world of characters depending on the conditions of their lives and amounted to the most important discoveries of realistic art.

No less significant for its time was the overall movement to the nationality of art. For the first time, the problem of nation was touched upon by romantics, as a national identity, which was expressed in the transfer of customs, features of life and habits of the people. But Gogol has already noticed that a truly popular poet remains like that when she looks at the "perfectly third-party world" through the eyes of His people (for example, England is depicted from the position of the Russian master of the province - "Lefty" N. Leskova, 1883).

In Russian literature, the problem of nationality fell a particularly important role. This problem justified in the works of Belinsky. A sample of a truly popular work critic saw Pushkin in the "Eugene Onegin", where "folk" paintings as such occupy a little place, but the moral atmosphere in the society of the first third of the XIX century is recreated.

By the middle of this century, the people in the aesthetic program of most Russian writers becomes the central moment in determining the social and artistic importance of the work. I. Turgenev, D. Grigorovich, A. Pothein seek not to simply reproduce and explore the various aspects of the people (i.e. peasant) of life, but also directly turn to the people himself. In the 60s, the same D. Grigorovich, V. Dal, V. Odoyevsky, N. Shcherbina and many others publish books for public reading, produce magazines and brochures designed for just acquainted to reading a person. As a rule, these attempts were not too successful, for the cultural level of the lower layers of society and his educated minority was too different, because writers looked at the man as a "smaller brother", which should be learned by the mind. Only A. Pisemsky ("Carpentry Artel", "Pietershchik", "Leshe" 1852-1855) and N. Uspensky (Tale and Stories of 1858-1860) were able to show the genuine man's life in her pristine simplicity and rudeness, but Most writers preferred to chant the people's "soul".

In the clan era, the people and "nationality" in Russian literature turn into a kind of fetish. L. Tolstoy sees in Platon Karataev the focus of all the best human qualities. Dostoevsky urges to learn everyday wisdom and spiritual sensitivity of the "Bulgarian man". The folk life is idealized in the works of N. Zlatovratsky and other writers of the 1870-1880s.

Gradually, the nationality, understood as appealing to the problems of people's life from the point of view of the people himself, becomes dead canon, who nevertheless remained unshakable for many decades. Only I. Bunin and A. Chekhov allowed themselves to doubt the subject of worship of not one generation of Russian writers.

By the middle of the XIX century, another feature of realistic literature was determined - tendentiousness, that is, the expression of the author's moral and ideological position. And first, artists somehow identified their attitude towards their heroes, but basically they didactically preached the harmfulness of universal defects that do not depend on the place and time of their manifestation. Realistic writers their social and moral and ideological preferences make an integral part of an artistic idea, gradually undermining the reader to understand its position.

The tendentiousness generates in the Russian literature. Slotting into two antagonistic camps: For the first, so-called revolutionary-democratic, the criticism of the state system was the most important thing, the second declared political indifferentiality, proved the primacy of the artisticness of the "Clean Art"). The prevailing public mood - the orality of the serfdom and its morality was obvious - and the active offensive actions of revolutionary democrats were formed in the public an idea of \u200b\u200bthose writers that they did not agree with the need for the immediate challenge of all "obscures" as antipatrixes and comrades. In the 1860s of the 1870s, the "civil position" of the writer was appreciated higher than his talent: This is seen by the example of A. Pisemsky, P. Melnikova-Pechersky, N. Leskova, whose creativity of revolutionary-democratic criticism was considered negatively or silent.

Such an approach to art was still formulated by Belinsky. "And I need poetry and artisticness to me no more, as so that the story is true ... - he stated in a letter to V. Botkin in 1847. - The main thing is that it causes questions, made a moral impression to society. If it reaches This goal is at all without poetry and creativity, - she for me however Interesting ... "Two decades later, this criterion in a revolutionary-democratic criticism became a fundamental (N. Chernyshevsky, N. Dobrolyubov, M. Antonovich, D. Pisarev). Then the general nature of criticism and the entire ideological struggle as a whole with its A fierce uncompromising, the desire to "destroy" dissenters. It will take another six to seven decades, and in the era of the domination of socialist realism, this trend is literally implemented.

However, all this is far ahead. In the meantime, new thinking is produced in the realism, there is a search for new topics, images and style. The focus of realistic literature alternately "Little Man", "Extra" and "New" People, Folk Types. "Little Man" with his sorrows and joy, first appeared in the work of A. Pushkin ("Stationander") and N. Gogol ("Shinel"), the object of sympathy in Russian literature for a long time. The social gentity of the "little man" was redeemed the whole narrowness of his interests. The preservation of a "little man" is barely planned in the "overcoats" under favorable circumstances to turn into a predator (a ghost appears in the final, a ghost, robbing anything without parsing of ranks and state) was noted by F. Dostoevsky ("Double") and A. Chekhov (" The celebration of the winner, "" Two in one "), but in general in the literature remains unlit. Only in the 20th century this problem will devote a whole story of M. Bulgakov ("Dog's Heart").

Following the "small" in Russian literature, "an extra person", "smart unnecessaries" of Russian life, not yet ready for the perception of new social and philosophical ideas ("Rudin" I. Turgenev, "Who is to blame?" A. Herzen, "Hero Our time "M. Lermontov et al.). "Extra People" mentally rearranged their environment and time, but due to the upbringing and property situation are not capable of everyday work and can only expose self-satisfaction.

As a result of reflections on the possibilities of the nation, there is a gallery of images of "new people", the most bright presented in the "fathers and children" of I. Turgenev and "What to do?" N. Chernyshevsky. Characters of this type are presented as a decisive expusurers of obsolete morality and the state device and are a sample of honest labor and to "common cause". This, as contemporaries, "nihilists" called them, whose authority in the younger generation was very high.

As opposed to works about "nihilists" arises and "anti-nigilastic" literature. In the works of both types, standard characters and situations are easily detected. In the first category, the hero independently thinks and provides himself with intellectual work, his bold speeches and acts cause a desire to imitate authority in young people, he is close to the folk mass and knows how to change her life for the better, etc. In antinigilistic literature "Nihilists "Usually depicted by depraved and unclean phrases, which pursue their narrow-human goals and eager for the authorities and worship; Traditionally, there was a relationship of "nihilists" with "Polish rioters", etc.

Works about "new people" was not so much, while in a number of their opponents there were such writers like F. Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, N. Leskov, A. Pisemsky, I. Goncharov, although it should be recognized that The exception of the "demons" and "cliff", their books do not belong to the best creations of these artists - and the cause of this pointed tendentiousness.

Definitely discussed to discover the foolish problems of modernity in representative state institutions Russian society focuses its mental life in literature and journalism. The word writer becomes very weighty and often serves as a pulse for taking vital decisions. The hero of the novel of Dostoevsky "Teenager" admits that he went to the village in order to facilitate the life of men under the influence of "Anton of the Gorryki" D. Grigorovich. Sewing workshops described in what to do? ", There were a lot of such institutions and in real life.

At the same time, it is noteworthy that Russian literature practically did not create a person's image of an active and energetic, employed concrete business, but not thinking about the radical reorganization of political system. Attempts in this direction (Kostagglo and Muzzles in the "Dead Souls", gallery in the "Oblomank") with modern criticism were regarded as groundless. And if the "Dark Kingdom" of A. Ostrovsky in the public and criticism caused a living interest, then later the desire of the playwright to draw portraits of entrepreneurs of the new formation of such a response in society did not find.

The decision in the literature and the art of "damned questions" of their time required a detailed substantiation of a whole complex of tasks, which could only be solved in prose (due to its capabilities to affect political, philosophical, moral and aesthetic problems at the same time). In prose, priority attention is paid to the novel, this "Epos of the Newest Time" (V. Belinsky), a genre that allowed to create extensive and multifaceted paintings of the lives of various social layers. The realistic novel turned out to be incompatible with the plot situations already turned into stamps, which was so willingly exploited by romantics - the mystery of the birth of the hero, fatal passions, extraordinary situations and exotic areas of action, in which the will and courage of the hero are tested, etc.

Now writers are looking for plots in the everyday existence of ordinary people, which becomes an object of close study in all details (interior, clothing, professional classes, etc.). As the authors seek to give the most objective picture of reality, the emotional author-narrator either goes to the shadow, or uses the mask of one of the actors.

The poetry retreating into the second plan is largely focused on prose: the poets are mastering some of the features of prosaic narration (citizenship, story, description of household details), as it affected, for example, in Poetry I. Turgenev, N. Nekrasova, N. Ogarev.

Portrait realism painting is also a detailed description, as it has also been observed with romantics, but now it bears a different psychological burden. "Considering the features of the face, the writer finds the" main idea "of physiognomy and transmits it in the entire fullness and versatility of the inner life of a person. Realistic portrait, as a rule, analytic, there is no artificiality in it; everything is naturally due to the character." At the same time, an important role is played by the so-called "real characteristic" of the character (costume, decoration of the dwelling), also contributing to the in-depth disclosure of the psychology of the actors. Such are the portraits of the companion, Manilov, Plushkin in the "dead souls". In the future, the listing of the details is replaced by any detail that gives out the imagination of the reader calling it to "co-authors" when familiarizing with the work.

The image of everyday life leads to a refusal of complex metaphorical structures and refined stylistics. All great rights in the literary speech conquers the surprise, dialect and professional rides, which, among classicists and romantics, are usually used only to create a comic effect. In this regard, the "Dead Souls", "Hunter's Notes" and a number of other works of Russian writers of 1840-1850s.

The development of realism in Russia went very rapidly. In total, for incomplete two decades, Russian realism, starting with the "physiological essays" of the 1840s, gave the world of such writers as Gogol, Turgenev, Pisemist, L. Tolstoy, Dostoevsky ... Already in the middle of the XIX century, Russian literature becomes the focus of the domestic public Thoughts, going beyond the art of the word in a number of other arts. Literature "penetrated with moral and religious pathos, journalism and philosophy, is complicated by meaningful subtext; seizes the" Ezopov language ", the spirit of opposition, protest; fundamentally, the burden of literature liability to society becomes fundamentally, and its liberation, analytical, generalizing mission in the context of the whole culture. Literature turns into self-defining culture factor And, above all, this circumstance (that is, cultural synthesis, functional versatility, etc.) ultimately led to the worldwide importance of Russian classics (and not its direct attitude towards a revolutionary liberation movement, as he sought to show Herzen, and after Lenin - almost all Soviet criticism and science of literature). "

Attentively monitored the development of Russian literature, P. Merim said once Turgenev: "Your poetry is looking for primarily the truth, and then the beauty is herself." Indeed, the main direction of Russian classics is represented by characters going along the path of moral searches, tormented by consciousness that they did not fully use the possibilities provided by him. Such are Onegin Pushkin, Pechorin Lermontova, Pierre Duhov and Levin L. Tolstoy, Rudin Turgenev, such as the heroes of Dostoevsky. "The hero, which acquires moral self-determination on the paths, data from the century" from the century ", and thus enriching its empirical nature, is elevated with Russian-classic writers to the ideal of personality, involved in Christian ontologism." Is it because the idea of \u200b\u200bsocial utopia at the beginning of the 20th century and found such an effective response in Russian society, that Christian (specifically Russian) searches for "Conducted", transformed in the public consciousness in the Communist "Light Future", which is already visible beyond the horizon Russia is so long and deep roots?

Abroad, the ideal was expressed significantly less, despite the fact that the critical start in the literature sounded no less weight. Here, the general focus of Protestantism, considering success in the business sphere as the execution of the Woli of God. The heroes of European writers suffer from injustice and vulgarity, but first of all think about own Happiness, whereas Turgenevsky Rudin, Nekrasovsky Grisha Dobrons, Rakhmetov, Chernyshevsky are concerned about non-personal success, but universal blessing.

The moral problems in Russian literature are inseparable from the problems of political and, directly or indirectly, are associated with Christian dogmas. Russian writers often take on the role, similar to the role of the Old Testament Prophets - Life Teachers (Gogol, Chernyshevsky, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy). "In Russian artists," wrote N. Berdyaev, "there will be a thirst to move from the work of artworks to the work of perfect life. The topic of religious-metaphysical and religious and social tortime will torment all significant Russian writers."

Strengthening the role of fiction in public life entails and developing criticism. And here the palm of the championship also belongs to Pushkin, which passed from taste and regulatory assessments to the detection of general patterns of the modern literary process. Pushkin is the first to aware of the need for a new way of image of reality, "true romanticism", by its definition. Belinsky was the first Russian critic who tried to create a whole historical and theoretical concept and periodization of national literature.

During the second half of the XIX century, it was the activity of critics (N. Chernyshevsky, N. Dobrolyubov, D. Pisarev, K. Aksakov, A. Druzhinin, A. Grigoriev, etc.) contributed to the development of the theory of realism and the formation of domestic literary criticism (P. Annenkov, A. Pyptin, A. Veselovsky, A. Plebnik, D. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky, etc.).

As you know, in art, his main direction is paired by the achievements of outstanding artists whose discovery is used by "ordinary talents" (V. Belinsky). We characterize the main milestones of the formation and development of Russian realistic art, the conquest of which was given the opportunity to call the second half of the century "the century of Russian literature."

The origins of Russian realism are I. Krylov and A. Griboyedov. The Great Basinist was the first in the domestic literature to recreate the "Russian Spirit" in his works. Live spoken speech by Krylov's fastened characters, his thorough knowledge of popular life, the use of people's common sense as a moral standard made Krylov's first indeed "people's" writer. Griboedov expanded the sphere of the interests of Krylov, putting the attention of the "dram of ideas" to the center of attention, which the educated society of the first quarter of a century lived. His Chatsky in the fight against the "Starbers" defends national interests from the same positions of "common sense" and People's Morale. Wings and Griboedov still use the dilapidated principles of classicism (didactic genre of Basni in Krylov, "three unities" in the "grief from the mind"), but their creative power and in these outdated framework declares themselves in full voice.

In the work of Pushkin, the main problems, and pathos, and the methodology of realism are already planned. Pushkin first gave an image of a "excess person" in the "Eugene Onegin", he also outlined the character of a "little man" ("stationander"), he saw that moral potential in the people, which necessitates the national character ("Captain's daughter", "Dubrovsky" ). Under the pen of the poet first arose and such a hero as Hermann ("Peak Lady"), a fanatic, obsessed with one idea and not stopping for its implementation to any obstacles; She touched Pushkin and the theme of the voids and the insignificance of the highest layers of society.

All these problems and images were picked up and developed by the contemporaries of Pushkin and subsequent generations of writers. "Extra people" and their capabilities are analyzed in the "Hero of our time", and in the "dead souls", and in "Who is to blame?" Herzena, and in Rudine Turgenev, and in the "Oblomeness" of Goncharov, depending on the time and circumstances, gained new features and paints. The "Little Man" is described by Gogol ("Shinel"), Dostoevsky (poor people "). Self-Sausage and" Neckoptressors "landlords were depicted by Gogol (" Dead Souls "), Turgenev (" Hunter's Notes "), Saltykov, generous (" Lord Golovyov "), Melnikov-Pechersk (" Old Years "), Leskov (" Stupid Artist ") and many others. Of course, such types have been supplied by Russian reality itself, but I designated them and developed the main techniques of their images of Pushkin. And folk types in their Relations between themselves and gentlemen arose in objective coverage in the work of Pushkin, becoming subsequently the object of the closest study of Turgenev, Nekrasov, Pisemsky, L. Tolstoy, populists-populists.

Moving a period of romantic image of unusual characters in exceptional circumstances, Pushkin opened for the reader a poetry of everyday life, in which the place of the hero took the "ordinary", "small" man.

Pushkin rarely describes the inner world of acting persons, their psychology is more often disclosed through acts or commented by the author. The characters depicted are perceived as the result of environmental impact, but is not most often given in development, but as a certain amount already formed. The process of the formation and transformation of the psychology of characters will be mastered in the literature in the second half of the century.

The role of Pushkin and in the work of the norms and expansion of the boundaries of the literary speech is great. The spoken element of the language, who visually declared itself in the works of Krylov and Griboedov, was still not approved in his rights completely, no wonder Pushkin urged to learn the language from Moscow worst.

Simplicity and accuracy, "transparency" of Pushkin style at first seemed to the loss of high aesthetic criteria of previous times. But later, "the structure of Pushkin prose, its styrene-forming principles were perceived by the writers following him - with all the individual identity of each of them."

It is necessary to note another feature of Pushkin Geniya - its universalism. Poetry and prose, dramaturgy, journalism and historical stages - there was no genre in which he would not say a weighty word. The subsequent generations of artists whom to none of their talent, still mainly to any single kind.

The development of Russian realism was not, of course, the process is straightforward and unequivocal, during which romanticism consistently and inevitably suppressed realistic art. On the example of creativity M. Lermontov, it can be seen especially clearly.

In his early works, Lermontov creates romantic images, coming in the "Hero of our time" to the conclusion that "the history of human soul, at least the smallest soul Alsomely curious and not more pleasant than the history of the whole people ... ". The object of close attention in the novel is not only one hero - Pechorin. With no less thorough, the author is bridging in the experiences of the" ordinary "people (Maxim Maximych, Pereshnitsky). Method of study of Pechorina Psychology - Confessions - associated with a romantic worldview, but the general author installation on an objective image of the characters determines the constant comparison of Pechorin with other actors, which allows you to convincingly to motivate the actions of the hero, which romance would have remained only declared. In different situations and in collisions with different people. Pechorin each time opens from the new sides, revealing strength and style, determination and apathy, selflessness and selfishness ... Pechorin, like a romantic hero, everything experienced, in everything that was worse, but the author is not inclined to be accused or justify his hero - a position for Romance artist unacceptable.

In the "Hero of our time" the dynamism of the plot, which would be quite appropriate in the adventure genre, is connected to a deep psychological analysis. So here the romantic littleness of Lermontov, who joined the path of realism was manifested. Yes, and creating the "Hero of our time", the poet did not break up completely with the poetic of romanticism. The heroes of "Mcyri" and "Demon", in essence, solve the same problems as Pechorin (achieving independence, freedom), only in the poems the experiment is set, which is called, in its pure form. Almost everything is available to the demon, McSi donates everything for the sake of freedom, but the artist-realist is already brought to the absolute ideal of the desire for an absolute ideal.

Lermontov completed "... Started G. R. Derzhavin and continued by Pushkin, the process of eliminating genre borders in poetry. Most of its poetic texts -" poems "in general, often synthesizing the features of different genres."

And Gogol began as a romantic ("Evening on the farm near Dikanka"), however, after the "dead souls", the most mature of its realistic creation, romantic situations and the characters do not cease to attract the writer ("Rome", the second editorial office of "portrait").

At the same time, Gogol refuses from the romantic style. Like Pushkin, he prefers to transmit the inner world of acting persons with the help of their monologues or "confession." Hogol characters certify themselves through the actions or the means of "real" characteristics. The narrator from Gogol performs the role of a commentator that allows you to identify the shades of feelings or details of the events. But the writer is not limited to only the visible side of what is happening. It is much more important for him that hidden behind the outer shell is "soul". True, Gogol, like Pushkin, basically depicts the already established characters.

Gogol marked the revival of a religious-domestic trend in domestic literature. Already in the romantic "evenings" dark forces, demonic, retreat in front of the kindness and religious hardness of the Spirit. The idea of \u200b\u200bdirect protection of Orthodoxy is animatedly "Taras Bulba". And the "dead souls", inhabited by the characters, neglecting their spiritual development, were to show the way to the revival of the fallen person. The appointment of the writer in Russia for Gogol at the end of his creative path becomes inseparable from the spiritual ministry to God and people who cannot be limited only to material interests. Sincere desire to raise himself in the spirit of highly moral Christianity, Gogol's "Reflections on Divine Liturgy" and "Selected Places from Correspondence with Friends" were dictated. However, it was the last book that even the admirers of Gogol were perceived as a creative failure, since social progress, as it was then submitted to many, was incompatible with religious "prejudices."

Writers of the "Natural School" also did not perceive this side of Gogol creativity, having learned only his critical pathos, which Gogol serves as a statement of the spiritual ideal. "Natural School" was limited only, so to speak, the "material sphere" of the interests of the writer.

Yes, and subsequently, the realistic direction in the literature makes the main criterion for the artisticity of the image of the image reproducible "in the forms of life itself." For its time, it was a huge achievement, because it allowed to achieve such a degree of life in the art that literary characters begin to be perceived as real people and become an integral part of the national and even world culture (Onegin, Pechorin, Holetakov, Manilan, Oblomov, Tartaren, Madame Borova, Mr. Dombey, Raskolnikov, etc.).

As already noted, the high degree of life in literature does not exclude fiction and fiction. For example, Gogol in his famous story "Shinel", from which, according to Dostoevsky, all Russian literature of the XIX century came out, contains a fantastic history of the ghost, rushing horror on passersby. Realism and from grotesque, symbol, allegory, etc., not refuses, although all these visual means do not determine the main tonality of the work. In the same cases, when the work is based on fantastic assumptions ("the history of one city" M. Saltykov-Shchedrin), there is no place for the irrational start, without which romanticism cannot do.

The orientation on the facts was a strong face of realism, but, as you know, "our drawbacks are a continuation of our advantages." In the 1870-1890s, within the European realism, the flow marked by "naturalism" was released. Under the influence of the success of natural sciences and positivism (philosophical doctrine O. Konti), writers want to achieve complete objectivity of reproducible reality. "I don't want a Balzac, to decide what should be the system of human life, be a politician, a philosopher, a moralist ... I draw a picture - a simple analysis of a piece of reality, such as it is," said one of the ideologues of "Naturalism" E. Zola.

Despite the internal contradictions, the group of French writers-naturalists (BR. E. and J. Gekur, S. Gyuismans, etc.) professed a general view of the task of art: an image of the inevitability and irresistibleness of coarse social reality and cruel human instincts that Everyone is enhanced in a stormy and chaotic "stream of life" in the puchin of passions and unpredictable actions in their consequences.

Human psychology from "Naturalists" is rigidly determined by the habitat. Hence, attention to the smallest details of the life, fixed with the camera's festivities, and at the same time, the biological intention of the fate of the characters is emphasized. In an effort to write "under the dictation of life", naturalists tried to erase any manifestation of subjective vision of problems and object objects. At the same time, paintings of the most low-attractive aspects of reality appear in their works. The writer, asserted naturalists, like the doctor, has no right to ignore any phenomenon, no matter how disgusting it. With such an installation, the biological began involuntarily began to look more important than the social. The books of naturalists shocked adherents of traditional aesthetics, but nevertheless later writers (S. Crane, F. Norris, Gauputman, etc.) used individual discoveries of naturalism - primarily expanding the field of view of art.

In Russia, naturalism has not received special development. We can only talk about some naturalistic trends in the works of A. Pisemsky and D. Mamin-Siberian. The only Russian writer, declaratively professed the principles of French Naturalism, - P. Boborakin.

The literature and journalism of the Poreform era gave rise to the thinking part of the Russian society, the conviction that the revolutionary reorganization of the Company will immediately lead to the flourishing of all the best parties to the personality, because the oppression and lies will not become. Very few did not share this confidence and first of all F. Dostoevsky.

The author of "poor people" was aware that the refusal to the norms of traditional morality and the covenants of Christianity would lead to anarchy and the bloody war against all. As a Christian, Dostoevsky knew that every human soul could prevail

God or the Devil and that it depends on to whom he will give preference. But the path to God is not easy. To get closer to it, it is necessary to penetrate the suffering of others. Without understanding and sympathy, no one will be able to become a full-fledged personality. Dostoevsky argued with all his work: "A man on the surface of the earth does not have the right to open and ignore what is happening on earth, and there are higher moral Causes on that. "

Unlike its predecessors, Dostoevsky sought to capture not well-established, typical, forms of life and psychology, but to catch and designate only emerging public conflicts and types. In his works, crisis situations and characters defined by large sharp strokes always dominate. "Drams of Ideas", intellectual and psychological fights of characters were made to the foreth of his novels, and the individual is inseparable from the universal one, the "world issues" costs.

Receiving the loss of moral landmarks in modern society, the powerlessness and fear of the person in the vice of the ramumous reality, Dostoevsky did not believed that a person should capitulate before "external circumstances". He, in Dostoevsky, can also overcome the "chaos" - and then, as a result of the general efforts of everyone, the "World Harmony" reigns, based on overcoming challenging, egoism and anarchic peculiarity. A man who joined the thorny road of self-improvement is waiting for both material deprivation, and moral suffering, and misunderstanding of the neighbor ("idiot"). The most difficult is not to become a "superhorecom", like a splitter, and, seeing in others only a "bodies", indulge in any kind, and learn to forgive and love, without requiring a reward, like Prince Myshkin or Alyasha Karamazov.

Like a single other leading artist of his time, Dostoevsky is close to the Spirit of Christianity. In his work in various aspects, the problem of initial sinfulness of man ("demons", "teenager", "dream of a funny person", "Brothers Karamazov") is analyzed. According to the writer, the result of the original fall is a world evil that gives rise to one of the most acute social problems - the problem of the beard. "Atheistic expressions of unprecedented strength" are concluded in the images of Stavrogina, Versilov, Ivan Karamazova, but their throwing does not prove the victory of evil and pride. This is the path to God through his initial negation, the proof of God's existence in a person. The perfect hero of Dostoevsky inevitably must put himself for a sample life and the teachings of who for the writer is the only moral landmark in the world of doubts and fluctuations (Prince Myshkin, Alyasha Karamazov).

The brilliant Face of the artist Dostoevsky felt that socialism, for the banners of which many honest and smart people hurry, is the result of the decline of religion ("demons"). The writer predicted that humanity is waiting for humanity on the path of social progress, and directly connected them with the loss of faith and the substitution of its socialist teaching. The depth of Dostoevsky's insight was confirmed in the 20th century S. Bulgakov, who had already had grounds to say: "... Socialism Nowadays, not only as a neutral area of \u200b\u200bsocial policy, but, usually, and as a religion, based on atheism and lobes, Self-election of man and human labor and on the recognition of the natural forces of nature and social life the only risk of history. " In the USSR, all this was carried out in practice. All means of propaganda and agitation, among which literature played one of the leading roles, was introduced into the consciousness of the masses that the proletariat, led by always right in any endeavors of the leader and the party, and creative work - forces designed to transform peace and create a society of universal happiness (a kind The kingdom of God on Earth). The only thing that Dostoevsky became mistaken is his assumption that the moral crisis and the next spiritual and social cataclysms followed above all in Europe.

Along with the "Eternal Issues" for Dostoevsky-Realistic, attention is also characterized by the most ordinary and at the same time hidden from the mass consciousness to the facts of modernity. Together with the author, these problems are given to solve the heroes of the writer's works, and the comprehension of truth is given to them very difficult. The combing of an individual with a social environment and itself determines the special polyphonic form of Dostoevsky's novels.

The author of the narrator takes part in action on the rights of equal, or even a secondary character ("Chronicle" in "demons"). The Hero of Dostoevsky does not simply possess the inner hidden world, which the reader has to be learned; He, by definition of M. Bakhtina, "most of all thinks about what others think about him, he seeks to run forward to someone else's consciousness, every someone else's thought of him, every point of view on him. With all his own moments of his recognition, he It tries to anticipate the possible definition and assessment of it to others, guess these possible words about him, interrupting their speech by imaginary other people's replicas. " In an effort to guess other people's opinions and in advance with them, the heroes of Dostoevsky as if they would cause their twins to live, in the speeches and actions of which the reader receives a substantiation or denial of the position of the characters (Raskolnikov - Lugin and Svidrigaylov in "Crime and Punishment", Stavrogin - Shatov and Cyril In "demons").

The dramatic tension of the action in the novels of Dostoevsky is also due to the fact that he brings the events to the "malicious day", sometimes drawing the plots of newspaper notes. Almost always in the center of the work of Dostoevsky - a crime. However, behind the sharp, almost a detective storyline is not a desire to solve a cunning logical task. Criminal events and motifs are erected by a writer to the degree of capacious philosophical symbols ("Crime and Punishment", "demons", "Brothers Karamazov").

The place of action of Dostoevsky's novels - Russia, and it is often only the capital of it, and at the same time the writer received world recognition, because for many decades ahead, a universal interest in the global problems for the 20th century ("Superflow" and the rest of the mass, "man of the crowd" and State car, faith and spiritual anarchy, etc.). The writer created the world inhabited by complex, contradictory characters, saturated with dramatic conflicts, for solving which there is no and cannot be simple recipes - one of the reasons that the creativity of Dostoevsky was either declared reactionary, or silent.

The work of Dostoevsky has noticed the main direction of the literature and culture of the 20th century. Dostoevsky in many ways inspired Z. Freud, A. Einstein, T. Mann, W. Falkner, F. Fellini, A. Kama, Akutagaw and other outstanding thinkers and artists said on the enormous influence on them.

L. Tolstoy, L. Tolstoy, enormous contribution to the development of domestic literature. Already in the first of his victim, the story "Childhood" (1852) Tolstoy made as an artist-innovator.

The details and clarity of the description of life are connected to the microanalysis of the complex and mobile psychology of the child.

Tolstoy uses its own image of the human psyche, watching the "soul dialectics". The writer seeks to trace the formation of a character and does not focus his "positive" and "negative" parties. He argued that it makes no sense to talk about some kind of "defining feature" character. "... β life I did not meet any evil, nor proud nor good, no smart man. In humility, I always find the depressed desire of pride, in the smartest book I find stupidity, in the conversation of a stupid man I find smart things and t. d., etc. ".

The writer was confident that if people learn to understand the multi-dimensionalness of the thoughts and feelings of others, the majority of psychological and social conflicts will lose sharpness. The task of the writer, in Tolstoy, is to teach to understand the other. And for this it is necessary that the hero of the literature becomes the truth in all its manifestations. This goal is declared already in "Sevastopol stories" (1855-1856), combining the documentary accuracy of the depicted and depth of psychological analysis.

The tendentiousness of art, promoted by Chernyshevsky and his supporters, was unacceptable for Tolstoy, because a priori idea was put in the head of the corner, determining the selection of facts and an angle of view. The writer almost defiantly adjacent to the camp of "pure art", rejecting any "didactics". But the position "Above the fight" was unacceptable for him. In 1864, he writes the "Infected Family" play (it was not printed and put in the theater), in which he expressed his sharp rejection of Nihilism. In the future, all the creativity of Tolstoy is devoted to the overthrowing of the hypocritical bourgeois morality and social inequality, although he did not adhere to some particular political doctrine.

Already at the beginning of the creative path, having disappeared into the possibility of changing social orders, a particularly violent way, the writer is looking for at least personal happiness in the family circle ("Roman of the Russian landowner", 1859), however, constructing his ideal of a woman capable of selflessness in the name of her husband and Children, it comes to the conclusion that this ideal is not feasible.

Tolstoy eager to find such a model of life in which there would be no place for any artificiality, no false. For a while he believed that you could be happy among simple undemanding people close to nature. It is only necessary to fully divide their lifestyle and be content with those few, which is the basis of the "right" being (free labor, love, debt, family connections - "Cossacks", 1863). And Tolstoy seeks to immerse the interests of the people in real life, but his immediate contacts with the peasants and the work of the 1860-1870s discover all the deepening abyss between the man and Barin.

Explancing the meaning of modernity Tolstoy is trying to discover and by depressing in the historical past, by returning to the origins of national worldview. He has the idea of \u200b\u200ba huge epic web, which would reflect the most significant moments of Russia's life and were reflected. In the "War of War and the World" (1863-1869), the heroes of Tolstoy are painfully seeking to comprehend the meaning of life and, together with the author, they penetrate the conviction that it is possible to comprehend the thoughts and feelings of people, you can only accommodation from our own egoistic desires and gaining experience of suffering. Some, like Andrey Bolkonsky, know this truth before the death; Other - Pierre Duhov - find it, rejecting the skepticism and defeating the power of the flesh by the power of the mind, acquire themselves in high love; Third - Plato Karatayev - This truth is given from birth, since they are embodied "simplicity" and "truth." According to the author, the life of Karataeva "how he looked at her himself, did not make sense as a separate life. She had the meaning only as a particle of a whole, which he constantly felt." This moral position is illustrated by the example of Napoleon and Kutuzov. The gigantic will and passion of the French emperor will graze before the external effects of the Russian commander, for the latter expresses the will of the whole nation, cohesive in the face of Grozny danger.

In the work and in life, Tolstoy sought the harmony of thought and feelings, which could be achieved with a universal understanding of individuals and the common picture of the universe. The path to such harmony is a crimino and a thorny, but it is impossible to cut it. Tolstoy, like Dostoevsky, did not accept the revolutionary teaching. Having giving a tribute to the unfortunate faith of "socialists", the writer nevertheless saw the salvation not in the revolutionary layer of the state device, but in the steady consequence of the Gospel commandments, how simple, as hard as possible. He was sure that it was impossible to "invent a life and demand its implementation."

But the Christian tricks of the rolling soul and the mind of Tolstoy could not take entirely. At the outcome of the XIX century, the writer opposes the official church, in many ways akin to the state bureaucratic apparatus, and is trying to adjust Christianity, to create his own teaching, which, despite the numerous followers ("Treaty"), there were no prospects in the future.

On the slope of the years, becoming in the fatherland and far beyond the "teacher of life" for millions, Tolstoy still constantly experienced doubts in his own right. Only in one he was unload: the keeper of the highest truth is the people, with its simplicity and naturalness. The interest of decadents to the gloomy and sweaty twists of the human psyche for the writer meant care from art, which actively serves humanistic ideals. True, in the last years of life, Tolstoy was leaning towards the thought, as the art - a luxury, which is not required to everyone: First of all, the society needs to comprehend the simplest moral truths, the strict compliance with which many "damned questions" would eliminate.

And without one name, it is impossible to do, speaking about the evolution of Russian realism. This is A. Chekhov. It refuses to recognize the full dependence of the individual from the environment. "The dramatic-conflict positions in Chekhov consist not in opposition to the volitional orientation of different parties, but in objectively caused by contradictions, in front of which individual will powerless will." In other words, the writer fastenses those painful points of human nature, which will later be explained by congenital complexes, genetic programming, etc. Refuses Czechs and from researching the possibilities and desires of a "little man", the object of its study is "medium" in all respects. Like the characters of Dostoevsky and Tolstoy, Chekhov Heroes are also worn from contradictions; The idea of \u200b\u200bthem also seeks to know the truth, but it is bad for them, and almost none of them think about God.

Chekhov reveals a new type of personality generated by the Russian reality - the type of honest, but limited doctrine, who holy believes due to social "progress" and judges about living life, using social and literary templates (Dr. Lviv in Ivanovo, Lida in "House With mezzanine, "etc.). Such people have a lot and willingly argue about the debt and the need for honest labor, about virtue, although it can be seen that all their tirades are the lack of a genuine feeling - their tireless activities are akin to mechanical.

Those acting persons with whom Chekhov sympathizes do not like loud words and meaningful gestures, even if they are experiencing a genuine drama. The tragic in understanding of the writer is not something exceptional. In modern times it is daily and ordinary. A person gets used to the fact that there is no other life and can not be, and this, in Chekhov, is the most terrible public alert. At the same time, the tragic Chekhov is inseparable from the funny, satire merge with lyrics, vulgarity is adjacent to the sublime, as a result of which "underwater flow" arises in the works of Chekhov, the subtext becomes no less significant than the text.

When dealing with the "trifles" of life, Czechs to almost a latter narrative ("Ionch", "steppe", "cherry garden"), to the imaginary incompleteness of the action. The center of gravity in his works is transferred to the history of the spiritual outlook of the character ("Gooseberry", "man in a case") or, on the contrary, his awakening ("bride", "duel").

Chekhov invites the reader to empathy, without expressing everything that the author was led by the author, and pointing to the direction of "searches" only by individual details that he often increases to the characters (killed the bird in the "seagull", a berry in the "gooseberry"). "And the symbols, and the subtext, combining opposing aesthetic properties (a specific image and abstract generalization, real text and the" inner "thoughts in subtext), reflect the general trend of realism, intensified in the work of Chekhov, - to the interpenetration of heterogeneous artistic elements."

By the end of the XIX century, Russian literature accumulated a huge aesthetic and ethical experience that won the world recognition. Nevertheless, many writers have already been dead for many writers. Some (V. Korolenko, M. Gorky) is to the merger of realism with romance, others (K. Balmont, F. Sologub, V. Bryusov, etc.) believe that the "copying" of reality has heal itself.

The loss of clear criteria in aesthetics is accompanied by the "crisis of consciousness" in the philosophical and social spheres. D. Merezhkovsky in the brochure "On the reasons for the decline and new currents of modern Russian literature" (1893) comes to the conclusion that the crisis of Russian literature is due to the excessive enthusiasm to the ideals of revolutionary democracy, requiring art primarily civilian acute. The obvious failure of the covenants of the sixties gave rise to public pessimism and the individualism. Meriazhkovsky wrote: "The newest theory of knowledge erected a disadvantaged dam, which forever separated the solid land available to people, from the boundless and dark ocean, lying outside our knowledge. And the waves of this ocean can no longer invade the living land in the area of \u200b\u200baccurate knowledge. .. Never a border line of science and faith was not so sharp and inexorable ... Wherever we go, no matter how much we hiding for the dam of scientific criticism, we feel the intimacy of the mystery, the intimacy of the ocean. No obstacles! We are free and Lonely! With this horror, no enslave mysticism of past centuries can be compared. Never people never felt the need to believe and so did not understand the intelligence impossibility. " Several other plans about the crisis of art said and L. Tolstoy: "The literature was a white sheet, and now it is all written. It is necessary to turn or get another."

The realism reached the highest point of heyday, many seemed to have finally exhausted their capabilities. The new word in art was claimed symbolism, originated in France.

Russian symbolism, like all preceding directions in art, was marched from the old tradition. Nevertheless, Russian symbolists grew on the soil prepared by such giants as Pushkin, Gogol, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy and Czechs, and could not ignore their experience and artistic discoveries. "... Symbolic prose actively involved ideas, themes, images, techniques of great Russian realists in their own artistic world, forming this constant comparison of one of the determination properties of symbolic art and giving many topics of realistic literature of the XIX century a second reflected life in the art of the XX century ". And later the "critical" realism, which in Soviet times was declared abolished, continued to feed the aesthetics L. Leonov, M. Sholokhov, V. Grossman, V. Belova, V. Rasputin, F. Abramov and many other writers.