European culture 16 17 centuries. European Culture of the XVI-XVIII centuries
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For Western Europe XVII century. - This is the time of the formation of capitalism, the prerequisite for what was the great geographical discoveries of the XV - XVI centuries, the development of the European metropolis of almost all parts of the world. The victory of the English bourgeois revolution of the middle of the XVII century, the first revolution of the "European scale", led to the approval of the capitalist method of production as a politically dominant in England, Holland, giving the process of genesis of capitalism irreversible. As a result, this process becomes a decisive factor in the history of Europe. In the field of economy, this was manifested in the intense decomposition of feudal relations in the village, in the flourishing of manufactory production, which created new ways to organize the employment process, the emergence of hired labor, in the formation of the European and world capitalist market. Large capital was often accumulated by the colonial enslavement of the new territories of the world. New processes set European countries in an unequal position: some had colonies, others - no, in some of the bourgeois stroke (England, Holland), in others, feudal relations (Spain, Germany) were even more strengthened.
In the political sphere, the new epoch meant the crisis of early absolutism, the onset of the new stage of his evolution, when the policy of the absolute monarchy was increasingly rigidly closed with the narrow-sized interests of the nobility, which meant in the historical perspective the entry into the phase of decomposition and decline. In the field of spiritual life of the XVII century. Brought with him the revolution scientific and ideological - approval of the rationalistic worldview as an expression of the theoretical consciousness of the ascending class - bourgeoisie, which came to the change of civilian traditional, theological.
Feature of the scientific revolution of the XVII century. It is the deep study of the worldview and methodological foundations of science, a classic picture of the world. It is very noteworthy that it began in mathematics and mechanics, combining two trunks of accurate knowledge: axiomatic-deductive and experienced (experimental). An experiment, as an instrument and a method of knowledge, fundamentally distinguishes the science of the new time from the ancient and medieval forms of theoretical knowledge. From the novel single, which was the investigator of the nature of the XV century, the naturalist of the XVII century. It becomes already the "legal" figure in society, from the contemplator and the observer of the occurrences of the phenomena - the tester of nature, aligning it to obey her will.
Compared to the previous century, a circle of scientific interests is moved. In the XVI century, especially great successes were achieved in the field of philology, astronomy, geography, botany, medicine. In the XVII century, mathematics becomes the predominant and leading direction in science, experimental physics is developing rapidly, experimental chemistry arises, there is a new stage in the development of medicine and physiology, the foundations of experimental biology are laid. Some humanitarian knowledge of knowledge reaches great success, including jurisprudence, in particular, international law.
Works of researchers of the XVII century. A base for technical progress was created.
Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642) - Italian scientist, one of the founders of accurate natural science, the basis of knowledge considered the experience. He laid the foundations of modern mechanics: put forward the idea of \u200b\u200bthe relativity of the movement, established the laws of inertia, free fall and movement of bodies along the inclined plane, the addition of movements. Engaged in construction mechanics, built a telescope with a 32-fold increase, defended the heliocentric picture of the world.
Yogan Kepleler (1571 - 1630) - German astronomer, one of the prosecutors of the new time astronomy. Opened the laws of movement of the planets, compiled planetary tables, laid the foundations of the theory of eclipses, invented a new telescope with binocular lenses.
Isaac Newton (1643 - 1727) - English mathematician, mechanic, astronomer and physicist, creator of classical mechanics. He opened the dispersion of light, chromatic aberration, developed the theory of light, combining corpuscular and wave representations. He opened the law of world community and created the foundations of heavenly mechanics.
Gottfried Leibnits (1646 - 1716) - German mathematician, physicist, philosopher, linguistic. One of the creators of integral and differential calculus, anticipated the principles of modern mathematical logic.
Christians Guiggens (1629 - 1695) - Netherlands scientist, invented pendulum clock with a trigger, established the laws of fluctuations in the physical pendulum. Created a wave theory of light. Together with R. Doodle installed constant thermometer points.
William Geringa (1576 - 1637) - English doctor, founder of modern physiology and embryology. I described the big and small circles of blood circulation.
Marcello Malpigiga (1628 - 1694) - an Italian biologist and a doctor, one of the founders of microanotherhood, opened the capillary blood circulation.
Anthony Levenguk (1632 - 1723) - Netherlands naturalist, one of the founders of scientific microscopy. Made lenses with 150 - 300-fold magnification, which allowed to study microbes, blood taurus, etc.
The development of accurate and natural sciences directly served as the impetus for a powerful jump of philosophical thought. Philosophy has evolved in close connection with sciences. This led to the creation of comprehensive philosophical systems Gobbs, Descartes, Spinoza, Leibnic, Bacon, the development of the theory of knowledge, where two directions were formed: sensualism and rationalism. The knowledge gained by this time demanded an answer to the main questions: what knowledge of how knowledge is formed by knowledge, what path it should pass to turn into the theory, and in this direction the search has formed two response systems. Sensuals assigned the main role with sensory knowledge, although they could not sufficiently highlight the question of how scientific theory is formed from sensations and sensory information about the world. The rationalists believed that knowledge arise on the basis of the right method of reasoning, while one side of knowledge was absolutized and the other was not explained.
An essential feature expressing the undeveloped, one-sidedness of rationalistic mindset and the worldview of the era of young capitalism was predominantly the rational-pragmatic nature of the rationality itself. "Common sense" of mass consciousness, with his orientation for entrepreneurial success and business initiative, made not only creative, but also devastating work in the field of spirit, nihilistically discarding moral and aesthetic values, if they were not "required" to achieve immediate goals and satisfy the nearest Interests.
At the empirica of the economic and political reality of class, national and state relations of the XVI - XVII centuries. It was created one of the most significant constructions of public thought of the new time: theory of natural law. Its essence, at first glance, is simple: the right is determined by the force, which determines the sovereignty of both the person and the state. The position of the state in the world community is similar to the provision of a citizen in the state itself: and there, and there is no high morality, not the will of God, but a sober and cold egoistic calculation; Both individual individuals and peoples in relations with each other should rely only on a healthy, natural sense of self-preservation.
With apparent simplicity, the theory of natural right demanded, however, the radical revision of the established, traditional philosophical and religious ideas about the essence and nature of man. She agreed to abandon the Christian dualism of the body and the soul, demanded to recognize a person "part of nature" (B. Spinosa). Not only the pragmatism is obvious, but also the cynicism of ideology that does not recognize any arguments in politics and law besides the force argument. The philosophical and political idea reflected, conceptualized the real nude of social relations. The opposite side of their progressive rationalization was a noticeable "flattening" of culture, loss of volume, multidimensionality, the multi-fission of the phenomena of cultural life, which was so characteristic of the Renaissance era.
Polarization of classes led to the polarization in culture. The noble ethics, moving away from the moral origins of the people's life, degenerated into etiquette - a complex, designed system of conditional, formal rules and a manner of behavior intended, however, only to communicate with the persons of their aristocratic circle.
The drama of reality, the wreck of the ideal of the Renaissance led to new forms of perception of the world. The optimistic realism of revival is replaced by a sense of an unstable position of the person, for whom one or another conflict is characteristic: the clash of the rights of the individual and public debt, the awareness of the contradictions of being. The individuals are increasingly difficult to find their place in the new relations of society, which needs a comprehensive Renaissance man and more and more - a person-function. This tragic collision finds an expression in two directions of thought, in two artistic styles - baroque and classicism.
Baroque(from the Italian "Strange, Freaky" and Portuguese "Pearl of the Wrong Form"). It is not only an artistic style, but also a special way of attitudes towards peace and with the world. He was formed after the pleading of the destructive wars, embodied the feeling of the fall of the ideals of humanism, as well as an exacerbated awareness of social, religious and economic crises experienced by Europe into this era. Baroque was marked by the stamp of tragedy and meaningless life. The optimistic ideal of the Renaissance is replaced by a pessimistic assessment of reality, and an enthusiastic worship of the person and its capabilities - underlining his duality, inconsistency, "spoilness"; The "discrepancy between the visibility of things and their essence is constantly comprehended, the torn of being, a clash between the physical and spiritual principle, between affection for the sensual beauty of the world and the awareness of the strugnure of earthly being."
Baroque works were distinguished by a high level of expressiveness, theatrical combination of real and fantastic. Hyperbololism, antithesis, metaphorism, all unusual, unconventional were widely used: the aesthetic equality was respected, the elevated and lowland, beautiful and ugly, tragic and comic; Arbitrary merger of antique mythology and Christian symbolism. Baroque style sought to monumentality, mystical allegories and image naturalness. Special attention was paid to emotional effects. The vague themes of Baroque were physical and moral suffering of a person, and their favorite characters are exalted martyrs, perishing or disappointed heroes. Among the directions and schools of Barochko, Mañaryism (Italy), Gongorism (Spain), Preventive Literature (France), Metaphysical School (England), Silesian School (Germany) can be allocated. Prosted by Baroque expressions in the literature of Steel P. Calderon, Grimmelshausen, in sculpture and painting - P. Rubens, D. Velasquez, L. Bernini, in architecture - F. Borrombini.
Classicism. Motherland classicism (from Lat. "Exemplary") France became the end of the XVII century. Classicism was closely connected with the court aristocratic culture of the approval of French absolutism. Absolutism in France's policies limited the personality of public interest, forced the individual to sacrifice to the public. The worldview of classicism in France became the rationalistic philosophy of R. Descarte, Dramaturgia P. Cornel, J. B. Molhera, Poetics N. Balo. The ideologists of classicism were seen in the images and forms of ancient culture. Plots, characters, ideas of antiquity again gained life in works of classicism, but already with a new historical content. The traditions of the late Roman antiquity and the philosophy of Roman Stoics, supporters of preserving the hardness of the spirit in any situation, subordinviance of extraviable goals were most popular. The ideological foundation of classicism included the ideas of patriotism, state ministry, aligning a person who preferred public interests. Classicism was characterized by rationalism, the normality of creativity (the rule of three unities, the hierarchy of genres and styles, etc.), the desire to create completed harmonic forms. For the works of classicism focused on realistic re-creation of reality, typical was selectivity in plots, forms and means of images subordinate to the strict plan and the main task of the artist - to convince the strength and logic of thought.
Thus, the XVII century is the time that, on the one hand, gradually rationalizes, that is, it makes full and social ideas of the Renaissance Age, and on the other, it prepares the ground for the social and spiritual revolutions of the Epoch of Enlightenment.
epoch Classicism Baroque European
XVI-XVII centuries. It is customary to call the birth time of bourgeois civilization, thereby explaining the wildness and cruelty of this era with the need to accumulate primary capital. In fact, the formation of this civilization began much earlier and initially carried people not poverty and slavery, but the development of manuffs and crafts, the creation of universities and schools and, which is especially important, the growth of freedom that has occurred to the formation of various self-government institutions, as well as representative institutions - parliaments.
The XVII-XVIII century occupy a special place in the history of the new time. It was a complete contradiction and struggle of the transitional period, which completed the history of European feudalism and placed the beginning of the victory and approval of capitalism in the forefront of Europe and America.
Elements of capitalist production originated in the depths of the feudal system. By the middle of the XVII century, the contradiction between capitalism and feudalism acquired a pan-European character. In the Netherlands already in the XVI century, the first victorious bourgeois revolution occurred, as a result of which Holland became the "exemplary capitalist country of the XVII century." But this victory of the capitalist economy and the bourgeois ideology had even limited, local importance. In England, these contradictions resulted in the bourgeois revolution of the "European scale". Simultaneously with the British bourgeois revolution, revolutionary movements took place in France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Russia, Poland and a number of other countries. However, on the European continent, feudalism resisted. Another century, the ruling circles of these states are carried out by the policy of feudal "stabilization". Almost everywhere in Europe, feudal-absolutist monarchies persist, the nobility remains dominant class.
The economic and political development of European countries proceeded unevenly.
In the XVII century, the largest colonial and trading power of Europe was Holland. The victorious bourgeois revolution of the XVI century not only ensured the successful development of capitalist economy, trade, but also turned Holland to the most free country in Europe - the center of the advanced bourgeois culture, progressive press, bookcore.
However, at the end of the 18th century, Holland was forced to give up its place in England, and then France - countries where a more reliable industrial base had for trade. In the XVIII century, the Dutch economy is experiencing stagnation and decline. In the first place in the world, England comes out. France by this time stands on the threshold of the bourgeois revolution.
Absolutist Spain - In the XVI century, one of the powerful states of Europe - in the XVII century it was in a state of deep economic and political decline. She remains a backward feudal country. The heavy economic and political crisis is experiencing Italy into this era, from the mid-XVI century partially lost its national independence.
The transition from feudalism to capitalism was carried out mainly as a result of two bourgeois revolutions: English (1640-1660) and French (1789-1794). The meaning of the French bourgeois-democratic revolution, which opened a new era in the development of culture.
The seventeenth century was of particular importance for the formation of the national cultures of the new time. This era completed the process of localization of large national art schools, whose originality was determined both by the terms of historical development and the artistic tradition, which established in each country - Italy, Flanders, Holland, Spain, France. Developing a large tradition of the Renaissance, artists of the XVII century significantly expanded the range of their interests and kept the cognitive range of art.
The desire to a wide show of reality led to the 17th century to the variety of genre forms. In the visual arts, along with traditional mythological and biblical genres, a selection of independent place is conquered by secular: household genre, landscape, portrait, still life. Sophisticated relationships and struggle of social forces give rise to the diversity of artistic and ideological flows. Unlike previous historical periods, when art developed as part of homogeneous large styles (Romance style, Gothic, revival).
The breakthrough of Europe was due to changes in production relations in the Netherlands and England, thanks to the bourgeois revolutions, which accomplished here much earlier than in other countries.
In 1566, a popular uprising broke out, the bourgeois revolution began in the Netherlands. Attempts by Philip II executions and atrocities to stop the resistance of the Netherlands people did not break his will to the struggle. The main milestones of revolutionary events: the folk iconocrocal uprising of 1566 in the southern provinces; Universal uprising of 1572 in the northern provinces; uprising in 1576 in the southern provinces; Creating Utrecht Ulya in 1579
The Netherlands bourgeois revolution was completed by liberation from the Spanish domination of the northern provinces and the formation of the bourgeois republic's bourgeois republic
Seven provinces were united in one state with the general government, Kaznaya and Army. At the head of the Republic of the United Provinces became Holland as the most developed economically province.
By the middle of the XVII century. England has reached significant success in the development of industry and trade. The basis of the economical progress of the country was the development of new forms of production - capitalist manufactory (mainly in the form of scattered manufactory).
One of the most important features of the English bourgeois revolution is a peculiar ideology, draping of its class and political goals. Abstorming of absolutism in England began with the storm of his ideology, ethics and morality, which were embodied in the doctrine of the semi-cultural state Anglican Church. The English revolution gave a powerful impetus to the initial capital accumulation process ("Looking" the village, the transformation of peasants in the hired workers, enhancing the enhancement, replacing the peasant homes of major capitalist-type farms); It provided complete freedom of action to the ascending class of the bourgeoisie, paved the road of the Industrial Revolution of the XVIII century. In the same way as Puritanism exploded the soil for English enlightenment. In the field of political revolutionary struggle of the masses in the middle of the XVII century. Provided the transition from the feudal monarchy of the middle ages to the bourgeois monarchy of the new time.
In the XVI-XVII centuries. European science has reached new frontiers. Advanced thinkers, examining the universe with the help of scientific instruments, drew a completely new picture of the universe and the place of mankind in it. The scientific revolution was made possible thanks to the dynamic development of the Company that had already achieved significant technological progress. Firearms, powder and ships capable of crossing oceans allowed Europeans to discover, explore and apply a significant part of the world to the card, and the invention of typography meant that any documented information quickly became available to scientists of the entire continent. Starting from the XVI century, the relationship between society, science and technology was becoming more closely, since progress in one of the areas of knowledge pushed to the development of others.
At this time, the interest in science was manifested everywhere, and scientific knowledge was not yet so specialized so that any educated person could do the discovery.
Scientific societies were created, such as the London Royal Society (established in 1662) and the French Royal Academy of Sciences (1666), and scientific journals were published, who accelerating the development of scientific progress. As a result of this "revolution" in the XVI-XVII centuries, science became one of the brightest examples of successful cooperation for the benefit of man.
If, until recently, the historians of art considered the revival as a qualitatively kind of culture, opposing it, on the one hand, the medieval gothic, and on the other - the seventeen baroque, T.F. Elsev, the author of these lines and a number of other cultural scientists came to the conclusion that the revival is a transitional type of culture - transition from feudal her quality tobourgeois, which explains its main features and puts an end to many unproductive discussions. However, further reflections have shown that this transition did not end with the crisis of rebirth, but in new forms continued in XVII, and even in the XVIII centuries. The actual victory of capitalism was marked by the politically great French revolution, and the spiritual - self-affirmation of romanticism and positivism, the relationship and rivalry of which determined the entire history of the European culture of the XIH century and was inherited by the twentieth century. Thus, the features of the culture of the XVII century may be understood if we consider it with a three-step process in which it is it middle link , exercising « transition to transition » - transition from the Renaissance harmonious equilibrium of opposing potentials of culture: aristocratic and democratic, mythological and secular, sensual and spiritual, empirical and rational, ethical and aesthetic, traditionalist and innovative, classic and realistic, etc., through their confrontation and confrontation in the 20th century to conquer unconditional superiority one of these potentials, the manifestation of the manifestations of which in different areas of culture corresponded to the content of the concept of enlightenment. Therefore, the main aesthetic "paint" of the XVII century became dramaticism, which sharply distinguished him from the lyrol-epic rebirth and attracted the attention of cultural figures of the XIX - twentieth centuries (starting with romantics) to late Shakespeare, Cervantes, Rembrandt, Rubens, Bernini, Callo, to the dramatic in nature, Baroque as a whole, and in The philosophical heritage of this century is to Gobbs and Pascal.
It originated in the period of the late Renaissance, and some researchers believe that it became a kind of intelligentsia's reaction by a number of crisis phenomena during the revival period.
General characteristics of the era
Manherism is a transitional stage from to early new time. These were very difficult decades in the history of Western European countries. After all, it was then that the formation of new socio-political and economic systems was the formation. All this was due to the conduct of broader wars in which military political unions participated and even whole blocks of states. Inside a number of countries, serious changes occurred related to the transition to capitalist estimates.
In addition, the educated society of that time was particularly shocked by the looting of Rome in 1527. All these changes could not not affect the worldview of the formed circles. Manherism is a peculiar reaction to the crisis of humanistic ideals, which glorified the person and its existence. Therefore, many artists, sculptors and architects appealed to new search in their work.
Features of the direction
The new style appeared in Italy, then spread to a number of European countries. First of all, his principles began to divide artists from France and Netherlands. For this direction, the following features are characteristic: the desire to transfer the harmony of the external and spiritual appearance, the elongation and elongation of lines, the tension of pos. This was different from the harmonious perception of the artists of the Renaissance, which sought to convey peacefulness in their works, as well as especially taken care of the proportionality of forms in the composition.
In the sculpture of the master began to pay special attention to plasticity and elegance. The architecture also observed a violation of the harmony of forms characteristic of the previous era.
In painting
The school of painting in Italy became the founder of the new direction. It developed in such cities as Florence, Mantua. The most prominent representatives were Vazari, Julio Romano and others. For paintings of this direction, a complex composition, mythical overload, special, bright color gamut is characterized. The topics were the most diverse, but one of the main thing was opposed to the love of heaven and love earthly. Spiritualism was characteristic of many painters.
Its painting school has developed in France (in Fontainebleau). Many Netherlands artists imitated Italian authors. As part of this direction, an interest in the revival of the knightly portrait and medieval topics arose.
Sculpture and buildings
Mannerism in architecture also got widespread development. For buildings in this style, violation of the proportions and lines of the facades is characteristic. The architects sought to cause a sense of concern from the viewer, which was manifested by the edge of the era, namely the crisis of the Renaissance values \u200b\u200band the loss of the feeling of harmony and peace. One example of buildings in this style is the Laurentzian library in Florence (by Michelangelo). In this style, the area was framed in Mantua, as well as the loggia in the gallery building in the Uffizi.
Manherism is a transitional stage between Renaissance and Baroque. In the sculpture there were the same phenomena as in architecture and painting. B. Chellin is the most striking representative. His works are distinguished by the underlined elegance and sophistication, even some cleaning of forms and colors.
Place in culture
Manherism is an important stage in the history of art. Many researchers see in it rococo and early baroque. Of course, many elements of this direction affected subsequent currents. Baroque, for example, adopted from this direction the suburbs of forms, complexity of composition, rococo - elegance and graceful image manual. In general, mannerism in fine arts, despite all the above features of the venue technique, is a rather wide and tensile concept.
For example, in the works of the Renaissance artists, these style features are already traced. Raphael one of the first few moved away from the usual form of classicism and began to give its elongation to his figures. In the canvas Leonardo da Vinci, some features are observed, which prevent mannerism: the underlined sophistication of some images and special refinement, spirituality.
Influence
Indicatively, the fact that Renaissance and Mannerism differed in determining the principles of artistic creativity. After all, the new direction appeared just when the classic forms of revival were still considered a role model. But even more interesting is the fact that mannerism was very popular in the 20th century. There is even the notion of "neomanism", under which it is customary to understand the imitation of some modern artists in this area. There is a point of view that this direction affected the domestic art of the silver century period. The reasons for such an influence should be sought in the fact that mannerism was a transitional step between Renaissance and Baroque. It is in essentially eclectic, so in some way universal. Nowadays, mannerism is interesting to the unusualness and prefabricity of the forms, the originality of approaches, as well as active search for color solutions.
Lecture №18.Topic: European culture of the XVI-XVIII centuries.
1. Renaissance culture.
2. Literature of Enlightenment.
3. Art of the XVII-XVIII centuries.
1.
The new period in the cultural development of Western and Central Europe was called the name of Renaissance, or Renaissance.
Revival (in French Renaissance) is a humanistic movement in the history of European culture during the period of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the new time. Renaissance originated in Italy in the XIV century, spread in Western countries (Northern Revival) and reached the greatest heyday in the middle of the XVI century. End of the XVI - the beginning of the XVII century: decay - mannerism.
The random phenomenon was determined by the fact that the ancient heritage turned into a weapon of the overthrow of church canons and prohibitions. Some cultureologists, determining its importance, compared with the grandiose cultural revolution, which lasted two and a half century and ended with the creation of a new type of worldview and a new type of culture. In art there was a coup comparable to the opening of Copernicus. There was a person in the center of the new worldview, not God as the highest member of all things. A new look at the world was called humanism.
Antropocentrism is the main idea of \u200b\u200bthe worldview of the Renaissance. The birth of a new worldview is associated with the writer Francesco Petrarch. Scholastics based on the formal-terminological method, he opposes scientific knowledge; happiness in the "Grad God" - Earthly Human Happiness; Spiritual love for God - an exalted love for the earthly woman.
The ideas of humanism were expressed in the fact that his personal qualities are important in man - the mind, creative energy, enterprise, self-esteem, will and education, and not social status and origin.
In the era of Renaissance, the ideal of harmonic, liberated, creative personality, beauty and harmony occurs, appeal to man as the highest start of being, the feeling of the integrity and the slender pattern of the universe.
The era of the revival gave rise to geniuses and titans:
Italy - Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, Titian, Maciavelli's political figure, Alberti philosophers, Bruni, Vala, Ficino, Nikolai Kuzansky, Bruneland and Bramteh;
France - Rabl and Monten;
England - Mora, Bacon, Sydney, Shakespeare;
Spain - Cervantes;
Poland - Copernicus;
Germany - Bem, Munzer, Kepler.
Masterpieces of the Renaissance:
Leonardo da Vinci "Joconda", "The Last Supper";
Raphael "Sicstinskaya Madonna" and "Sleeping Venus", "Madonna Concreate" and "Judith";
Titian "Dana" (Hermitage Museum).
The main feature of the art and culture of Renaissance is the approval of the beauty and talent of a person, the triumph of thought and high feelings, creative activity. Baroque and classicism, in painting Academaism and Caravagism develop styles in the visual arts. New genres appear - landscape, still life, paintings by life, hunting and holidays.
Leonardo da Vinci Dzokonda
Rafael Sicstinskaya Madonna
The Renaissance architecture is based on the revival of the classical, mainly Roman architecture. Basic requirements - Balanced and clarity of proportions, the use of an order system, sensitive attitude towards building materials, its texture, beauty.
Revival arose and brighter manifested in Italy.
The period from the last decade of the XV century to the middle of the XVI century (high Renaissance) becomes the "golden age" of Italian art. From him, the descendants of Bramte and Palladio's descendants and Palladio, he gives the world of Rafael and Michelangelo's immortal masterpieces to the world. The entire XVI century continues and only at the beginning of the XVII century rushes flowering born under the sky of Italy of the Renaissance.
The late Renaissance is characterized by a rapid development and such a synthetic type of art as the theater, the most vivid representatives of which were Lope de Vega, Calderon, Tirsco de Molina (Spain), William Shakespeare (England).
Thus, the culture of the Renaissance reflects the synthesis of the features of antiquity and medieval Christianity, humanism is the ideological basis of the secularization of culture.
The Renaissance was replaced by a religious ritual secular, erected a man for heroic pedestal.
2.
The people of the XVII-XVIII centuries called their time with the centuries of the mind and enlightenment. Medieval views, sanctified by the authorities of the Church and the omnipotent tradition, were criticized. In the XVIII century, the desire for knowledge based on the mind, and not on the faith, took possession of the whole generation. The consciousness that everything is subject to discussion that everything should be clarified by the means of mind, was a distinctive feature of people of the XVII-XVIII century.
In the era of the enlightenment, the transition to modern culture was completed. There was a new way of life and thinking, which means that the artistic identity of a new type of culture changed. Enlightenment saw in ignorance, prejudice and superstitions The main cause of human disasters and public angry, and in education, philosophical and scientific activity, in freedom of thought - the path of cultural and social progress.
The ideas of public equality and personal freedom traded, primarily the third estate, from the environment of which most of the humanists came out. The average estate consisted of a wealthy bourgeoisie and people of liberal professions, it possessed capital, professional and scientific knowledge, common ideas, spiritual aspirations. The worldview of the third estate brighter was expressed in educational movement - anti-refortel on content and revolutionary: in spirit.
Radical changes occurred at the level of aesthetic consciousness. The main creative principles of the XVII century are classicism and baroque - new qualities in the Epoch of Enlightenment, because the art of the XVIII century appealed to the image of the real world. Artists, sculptors, writers recreated him in paintings and sculptures, the ones and novels, in plays and performances. Realistic art orientation encouraged to create a new creative method.
Literature relied on public opinion, which was formed in circles and salons. The yard ceased to be the only center to which everyone sought. Paris's philosophical salons were included in the fashion, where Voltaire, Didro, Rousseau, Helvetia, Yum, Smith were entered. From 1717 to 1724, more than one and a half million Voltaire volumes were printed and about a million Tomov Rousseau. Voltaire was a truly great writer - he knew how to comprehend and explain simply and publicly available at a beautiful graceful language, the most serious topic that attracts the attention of contemporaries. He had a huge influence on the minds of all enlightened Europe. His evil laughter, capable of destroying in the dust of century-old traditions, was afraid of more accusations. He strongly emphasized the value of culture. He portrayed the history of society as the history of the development of culture and human formation. The same ideas of Voltaire preached in his dramatic works and philosophical standards ("candida, or optimism", "simple", "Brut", "Tancred", etc.).
The direction of educational realism received successful development in England. The whole group of ideas and dreams about the best natural strictly received an artistic expression in the famous Roman Daniel Defo (1660-1731) "Robinson Cruzo". It has written more than 200 works of various genres: poems, novels, political essays, historical and ethnographic works. The book about Robinson is nothing more than the history of an isolated personality given to the educational and correctional work of nature, returning to a natural state. The second part of the novel, telling about spiritual reincarnation on the island, away from civilization is less well known.
German writers, remaining in the position of the enlightenment, was looking for non-obolition methods of combating evil. The main force of progress they considered aesthetic education, and the main means - art. From the ideals of public freedom, German writers and poets moved to the ideals of freedom of moral and aesthetic. Such a transition is characteristic of the work of the German poet, the playwright and theoretics of the Fritrich Schiller Enlightenment Theority (1759-1805). In his early plays, who had huge success, the author protested against despotism and estate prejudices. "Against Tiranans" - the epigraph of his famous drama "Robbers" - directly speaks of her social orientation.
In addition to the styles of Barochko and classicism generally accepted in Europe, new ones appeared in the XVII-XVIII century: Rococo, Sentimentalism, predocant. Unlike previous centuries, there is no single style of the era, the unity of the artistic language. The art of the XVIII century has become a kind of encyclopedia of various style forms, which are widely used by artists, architects, musicians of this era. In France, artistic culture was closely related to the court medium. Rococo style originated in the French Aristocracy environment. The words of Louis XV (1715-1754) "After us - at least a flood" can be considered a characteristic of the mood that reigned in the court circles. Strict etiquette replaced with a frivolous atmosphere, thirst for pleasure and fun. The aristocracy was in a hurry to have fun until the flood in the atmosphere of the gallant festival, whose soul was Madame Pompadour. The court environment in part itself formed Rococo style with its capricious, whimsical forms. The founder of Rococo in painting can be considered Antoine Watto (1684-1721) - a court painter. Heroes Watto - actresses in wide silk dresses, Frances with languid movements, Amours, frightened in the air. Even the names of his works speak for themselves: "Caprician", "Holiday of Love", "Society in the Park", "Difficult situation." 
Watto "Difficult Position".
As the painter Watto was much deeper and more complicated its numerous followers. He diligently studied nature, wrote a lot from nature. After the death of Watto, his place at the court took Francois Bush (1704-1770). Very skillful master, he worked a lot in the field of decorative painting, made sketches for tapestries, for painting in the porcelain. Typical stories - "Triumph Venus", "Toilet Venus", "Bathing Diana". In the works of Bush, the manners and eroticism of the Rococo era were expressed with a special force, in which he was constantly accused of moralists.
In the era of the French revolution in art, the new classicism was enthusiastic. Classicism of the XVIII century is not the development of the classicism of the previous century - this is a fundamentally new historical and artistic phenomenon. General features: Appeal to antiquity as to normal and artistic pattern, approval of debt superiority over a sense, increased dysfolism of style, pathos of reason, order and harmony. The expressive of classicism in painting was Jacques Louis David (years of life: 1748-1825). His picture of the "oath of Horatiye" became a combat banner of new aesthetic views. The plot from the history of Rome (Horace's brothers give the fathe to the oath of loyalty to debt and readiness to fight with enemies) became an expression of republican views in Revolutionary France.
I.S.Bakh
The XVIII century brought a lot new to musical creativity. In the XVIII century, the music rose to the level of other arts, worried about flourishing from the Renaissance era. Johann Sebastian Bach, Georg Friedrich Handel, Christoph Gluca, Franz Josef Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart stand on top of musical art in the 18th century. Music flourishing as an independent type of art at this time is due to the need for a poetic, emotional expression of a human spiritual world. In the works of Baha and Handel, the continuity of musical traditions is still preserved, but they started a new stage in the history of music. Johanna Sebastian Baha (years of life: 1685-1750) consider the unsurpassed master of polyphony. Working in all genres, he wrote about 200 cantat, instrumental concerts, essays for the organ, keypads, etc. Bahu was particularly close to the democratic line of the German artistic tradition, associated with the poetry and music of the Protestant Choral, with a folk melody. Through the spiritual experience of his people, he felt the tragic beginning in human life and at the same time faith in the final harmony. Bach is a musical thinker, confessing the same humanistic start as enlighteners. 
Mozart.
All new things that were characteristic of progressive directions in music was embodied in the work of the Austrian composer of Wolfgang Amadeu Mozart (years of life: 1756-1791). Together with Franz Josef Haydn, he represented a Vienna classical school. The main genre of Haidna was Symphony, Mozart - Opera. It changed the traditional opera, made psychological personality to genre types of symphony. He belongs to about 20 operas: ("Wedding Figaro", "Don Juan", "Magic Flute"); 50 symphonic concerts, numerous sonatas, variations, mass, famous "Requiem", choir essays.