Chulkov, Mikhail Dmitrievich. Mikhail Shulkov - Mockingbird, or Slaven Tales "Chulkov, Mikhail Dmitrievich" in books
Mikhail Dmitrievich Stulakov (1743-1792) was born, apparently, in the family of a merchant. In 1755-1758 he studied at the gymnasium for the differences at Moscow University, in 1761-1765 served as an actor of the court theater, but without success, and therefore proceeded to the position of Court Lacey. Literary activity began with the essay of the comedy "How do you want to name" (1765). Special success worked in narrative genres. The collection of associates of the associated and adventure nature prepared by him "Mockingbird, or Slaven Fairy Tales" (the first four parts were published in 1766-1768, the fifth - in 1789) enjoyed great success. In 1770, the novel "Podsajekhsky of the priest, or the tearingurance of a depraved woman." The image of modern life from her household parties is given in the magazines Chulkov - weekly "and that and it" (1769) and the monthly "Parnassian scrupter" (1770).
In the years 1770-1774, "Collection of different songs" (four parts) composed, where, along with the songs of Russian writers, a significant number of folk songs were included, in particular, songs about Stepan Rasin were published. Back in 1767, stockings amounted to the "brief mythological lexicon", in which he tried to systematize Slavic mythology. Later he continued this work, having prepared the book "Dictionary of Russian Superstitions" (1782). In 1786, she was reprinted under the name "ABEVAGE OF RUSSIAN SUVERIES".
Since the end of 1770, stockings from the active literary work, going to the public service. Starting from the post of college registrar in the commerce college, he already in 1786 awarded the rank of the survival adviser, who gave him the right to a personal nobility. Having resigned, became the owner of a small estate.
The Russian writer was born in 1744. Early years spent in Moscow. His father was a soldier of the Moscow garrison, so Mikhail Bullkov was not a familiar with the military service. He was trained in the gymnasium, which consisted of university. Thanks to this, it can be argued that he got a good education.
Creative biography of Mikhail Dmitrievich Chulkov
1760 - Beginning of Career Mikhail Chulkov. He becomes a lacquer at the royal court. Then he moves up the career staircase, and becomes a camera with a lake. After some time, Mikhail holds the position of court apartment. During his work, he is repeatedly found with the heir of the royal throne - Paul. Stockhkov hoped that the future ruler would be able to change the political system to Russia. He fell a lot of hopes, since first of all saw in the heir of the grandson of Peter, who in his time was able to change Russia for the better, strengthen her defense, improve external political ties, and Mikhail hoped that Paul would be able to develop the sea fleet that was Created by his grandfather. He hoped to create new reforms that would help in the further development of the country.
In the same, 1760th year, but in his second half, the literary and publishing activities of the writer began. This year will become the most productive. During this time, Mikhail Stulakov publishes many collections and works. To speak more specifically, in just a year, Mikhail managed to publish four collection of stories, fairy tales. He will release the fifth compilation only in 1789, which will be called "Mockingbird, or Slavic fairy tales". In this collection, patriotic notes that experienced a writer were clearly felt during the writing of their works. These works primarily reflect the reality, reality, vital difficulties that people experienced in Russia. He described their life and everyday problems.
1767 marked the publication of a book called "Short Mythological Lexicon". In his new book, the writer tried to explain all the ancient names that are found in myths and legends. He also explained some terms.
Two years later, in 1769, after the release of the book, Mikhail Shulkov publishes a magazine, which is called "and then". But it was not the only magazine. The second was called the Parnassian Schenet. Both, first of all, were designed for the middle class, especially merchants, since in their magazines he tried to reflect their life, their political views, relations to the state and society. Also, Mikhail Shulkov together with N.I. Novikov produces their joint work entitled "Collection of different songs". Here, first of all, folk songs were collected, but besides them, Mikhail also included songs M.V. Zubova and some other authors. The writer is called the very first author of the Russian novel, which is called "the fitness of the priest, or the adventure of the depraved woman." He writes it in 1770, where he describes the life of the widow of the sergeant. Here he could show attitude to the widows from society, how it affects the person.
In the same year, Mikhail enters the public service. So, by 1779, he becomes secretary in the Commerce College. Then it was raised by the career ladder. He became a college astronor, after some time he becomes a survival adviser. At the same time, the writer does not stop his creative activity. But this time he focuses on a completely different subject. Now he is interested in the history and economy of the country. On debt service, he often faced legislative paper, contracts. Stockhkov also had access to the archives, thanks to which he had a clear idea of \u200b\u200bthe state and development of Russia. Some writers argue that the writer thought about creating the history of Russia's trade, even at the beginning of his career takeoff. The work itself was called "a description of the exact condition and property of the Russian bargaining from the possession of Peter the Great for now a prosperous time of the reign of the Great Empress Catherine II". He described the events of the 1720-1760s. The work of the writer consisted of two parts. The first part included the legislative materials that the writer managed to collect. The second part consisted of completely from the documents. First of all, it is worth saying that this work is something like a rough version, and stockings did not want to publish it. This work, first of all, was intended for the employees of the Commerce College. It was rather the reference material with which only knowledgeable people would be able to work, but not ordinary citizens.
1774 - a place of President Commerce-Colleagues is occupied by A.R. Vorontsov, who provided the help of Bulkov in writing his work. It was Vorontsov who was able to ensure that the writer could easily be in any archives and read many secret documents. Mikhail hoped to create a reference book on the history of Russian trade from ancient times. The writer had to do a lot of work, in order to systematize all the materials that he was needed to create his own reference book. First of all, it was necessary to disassemble many legislative acts, and choose those that were useful for his work. Then - search for relevant documents. The whole problem was that the materials were very much, and to take the most important thing was almost impossible. A lot of time was spent on creating this work.
In addition to archival materials, Mikhail also searched for published. He looked through the already published books and directories to prevent ridiculous mistakes in their work. The writer had to copy a lot of data, since the documents themselves from the archive could not bear it. He had to resort to the help of scribes who helped him in this difficult work. The foundations of his work were the data for the 17-18th century. Many documents of this time entered its work entirely. Labor published from 1780 to 1788. He used all the data available to him: historical, ethnic, geographical ... He used the compositions of the most famous historians and economists.
In recent years, before dying, Chulkov was able to implement many plans that he had. It was also possible due to the fact that his financial situation improved. Now he could afford what he could only dream about.
Stockhkov did not forget about his creative activity. He published some ethnographic materials. So, in 1786 his new work called "Dictionary of Russian Superstitions". Here he tried to describe traditional rites, customs, folk holidays - everything that could characterize the people. The writer very much treated the principle of equality of all nations. He believed that no one could be higher than others. Each faith deserves respect. Each of them is interesting in its own way. It is necessary to respect the faith of other people.
The writer trembled very tremendously to the peasants, understanding how hard they had to. That is why he created a "rural hospital, or a dictionary of diseases of diseases," thanks to which everyone can do at least first aid if someone from native sick. So there was a small chance for a favorable outcome.
A lot of time was also taken to publish the next work of Chulkov entitled "Legal Dictionary". Its practical significance was very large. This work was the only one where legal data were systematized, legislative acts ... Everything that was necessary for a lawyer. Also, the writer was engaged in the publication of the work called "Dictionary of farming, house-building and cattle breeding". This work took about 10 years, from 1780 to 1790. He worked together with M.Ipopov on the compilation of a dictionary in the Russian language. Also in his last years, the writer was able to publish the fifth and the last part of the work called "Peredashniki". It contains the most, perhaps the most successful story, among them - "bitter fate", "precious pike" and much more.
It can be argued that stockings made its unique contribution to the development of not only literature, but also history. He always fought with ignorance of citizens, believing that people are the face of the country. He was able to engage in many things, and thanks to lucky in the work I could do what I dreamed of. He was able to combine creative work and career. And in both he was able to advance and become famous.
The ideal of Chulkov regarding the economy was Peter I, who was able to change Russia. When Catherine's second rose to the throne, the writer frankly said that he was against her politics, since it was at that time Russia was constantly under fire from other countries. He also opposed the reorganization of the state apparatus. Perhaps that is why his works stopped republishing. In the 19th century, his works were considered simply immoral.
Please note that in the biography of Chulkov, Mikhail Dmitrievich, the most highlights of life are represented. Some minor life events may be missed in this biography.
Writer, Historian, Journalist, Economist, Folklore Collector Chulkov Mikhail Dmitrievich Born around 1743 (according to another version - in 1734) in Moscow, died in the same place 24.x (4. chi) 1792
The biography is not fully installed, it is not known exactly from which family he came out - a meshman or small, but his path is characteristic of a career of the medalist writer, a leaving of social bases.
From 1755-58 stockings studied at the "Lower" gymnasium at Moscow University.
In 1761 he entered the troupe of the court theater, but the profession of the actor, he apparently was not given.
In 1765, he himself stated that he had no service in the "Hunt" theater. By this time refers to the beginning of his literary activities.
From 1765 he writes for the theater, one of his plays - the comedy "How do you want to name", not published in the XVIII century, was put on stage.
From 1765-1700 from the Theater Mikhail Dmitrievich goes to the Palace State: to the position of Court Lake.
In 1766, the first part of his novel "Mockingbird" comes out, after which he left the service and began to engage in literary labor.
In 1769. Chulkov publishes the weekly satirical magazine "And - that and SIO."
In 1770 - the monthly magazine "Parnassian Schepheet"; Releases the first household emborative novel "Fitness of the priest" (Part I, 1770) and the collection "Collection of different songs" (Part I - IV, 1770-74). ;
An unstable financial situation forces him to enter the service again.
In 1772, it is determined in the commerce colleague college registrars, then serves in the Senate, successfully moving on the official staircase. Stocklov studies the jurisprudence and publishes the "Legal Dictionary" (part 1-5, 1781-88). At the same years, his "Historical Description of Russian Commerce" (vol. 1-21), made commissioned by government agencies and published by N. I. Novikov, comes out. As an executive and experienced official Chulkov MD Was known to Catherine.
In 1789, at the end of life, he received the rank of a survival adviser and acquired a number with several dozen peasants.
Literary fame came to Chulkov M.D. After the release of his novel "Mockingbird, or Slavic fairy tales" (vol. 1 - IV, 1706-68; T. V, 1788), which is, a kind of assembly of the ages and fairy tales. Stocklov uses the motifs of antique mythology, magic and knightly novels, novels and novels of "Plutovsky" type and works of folklore, mocking them with real on their basis by the ones painted by household details ("gingerbread coin", "precious pike", "bitter fate"). The novel contains a lot of attacks against legal proceedings, usury, promiscuity and korestolubia of the courtestie. Stockings. Evil rises monastic morals, the disintegration of the moral and family resistance of the nobles. The sympathy of the author on the side of the "small people" is a poor peasant, deceived by a monk, the defenseless poor man of the peasant Syshoy Durnsopov and others.
The household scenes and paintings are saturated with the Roman Chulkov "Puttingage of the priest, or the tearingurance of a depraved woman" (h. I, 1770; h. II has not been preserved). The heroine of Marton's novel, the will of the circumstances became on the path of adventurers, all the means affordable to it struggles for personal happiness, understood as material well-being. There was no such type of people to Chulkov in Russian literature. The author builds its narrative on a wide household background, but does not seek to associate scattered paintings and observations into a single whole.
The style of Roman Chulakov is deprived of literary decorations, his tongue is simple, close to spoken.
Significant was the publishing activities of Chulkov Mikhail Dmitrievich with his magazines "and that and SIO" and "Parnassian scrupter", he immediately joined the magazine controversy with official "all sorts of all sorts", "mixture" F. A. Emina, "Drutn" N. I. Novikov and others. He avoided the discussion of the most pressing public issues: he did not speak out, for example, on the abuse of serfdom, the position of the peasantry and the like. Having ridiculed the "smiling satir" "all sorts of either", at the same time condemns the "stinging brand and crucia" of the Novikovsky "drone." His controversy was carried out mainly in the literary plan. The denying genres of classicism, he introduced and defended new genres and forms: story, feuilletone and household essay.
Focusing on the reader from the urban Meshchansky environment, opposing himself to the noble writers, Stocklov quite consciously turned to folk poetry and a popular legend, seeing the origins of national culture. Already in his "squeeze", especially in the section "Fairy Tales from the monastery of St. Vavila", there are folk elements, testifying to the acquaintance of Chulakov not only with Russian fairy tales, but also with squirrel songs. In the magazine "And that and SIO", the writer prints the descriptions of wedding rites, folk songs, proverbs and sayings, finally, two poetic parodies "Poems on a swing" and "poems for a semit", polemically directed against V. I. Makov.
A manifestation of Chulkov's interest in the Interdictive Folk Creativity was the publication of the collection "Collection of different songs" (Part I - IV, 1770-74; ed. 2 - 1776), soon re-delivered Novikov with his additions under the title "New and Complete Assembly of Russian Songs" (1780-81). Along with genuinely folk songs (over 300), among which there are songs about Stepan Razin, Soldiers, Peasant, Meshchansky, and others, stockings included poetics of modern poets in his collection (eg, Becketova, etc.). At his disposal were not only authentic records, but also materials of handwritten songwriters. Texts, as a rule, were subjected to copyright, what the writer himself declared in the preface, Netuya for the "insinceness" of the Sliters: "Indeed Night, nor rhymes, below the thought I could not know, but did I fall on the author's thoughts, including It's impossible to assure anyone else. " His collection had a great influence not only to Russian, but also on Western European literature. They used Karadzic and Czech romance, A. S. Pushkin and other poets.
The works of Chulkov Mikhail Dmitrievich in Slavic mythology are known.
In 1767, he released a "brief mythological lexicon" (reprinted in 1769 to journals. "Both SIO), in which, along with antique mythology, there are information about the mythology of Slavic.
In 1782, stockings published the "Dictionary of Russian Superstitions", a better known under the title of the 2nd publication "ABEVAGE OF RUSSIAN SUVERIES, Idolancal Sacrifice, wedding ordinary rites, witchcraft, shemans and other things" (1786). It gives an explanation of individual accepts, belief, folk holidays and legends of various nations of Russia.
Chulkov MD I wrote poems in which in the spirit of the imacomic tradition exposed high samples of the heroic epic of classicism. In the poems of the "Deployment of the poetry" (annex to the magazine "and that and SIO", 1769), the writer performed, for example, against the noble writers belonged to the Sumarka school. Some essays Chulkov in his life were not printed and were preserved only in part: "The project of the treatise between European states for eternal extermination in Europe wars", a satirical poem in 10 songs "Grishka Freakov", Roman "Fearless Citizen" and others.
Versatile activities Chulkov Mikhail Dmitrievich contributed to the admission of the masses to the literature, the dissemination of education in Russia.
(1740-1793) - a wonderful writer. It has extremely scarce information about his life. In the preface to the 2nd edition of his "Notes of the Economic", it was said that Ch. "In the flight, he studied at Moscow University and, having studied one Tokmo initial foundation of verbal sciences, was taken from it from others by nominal decree and was determined to serve." This data can only be added that in 1790. C. was a survival adviser and secretary of the Senate. From an early youth, he was distinguished by an extraordinary love for literature and "wrote almost indisputable compositions of all kinds." C. Was one of the most prolific and versatile writers of the XVIII century., And nonsenselan. Metropolitan Eugene testifies that C. "About 20 years of age of its age (therefore, in 1760), he has already distinguished himself with many fair poems and novels." The first experiments of C. remain unknown for us; We only know that in 1767 he published a "brief mythological lexicon", yes, according to Sopikov, in 1766-68. Launched in 4 parts "Mockingbird, or Slavic fairy tales" (Eugene indicates only one second edition, 1783-89). In the first period of its activities, Ch. Felt a tendency to fiction and satire. In the era of satirical magazines, C. published two small satirical journals: "And then," (1769) and the "Parnassian scrupter" (1770), in which there are many traces of the polemical fight against literary opponents: the novelist has been specially attacked F. A. Emin and V. I. Mikov. They looked at them and in the satirical poem "the deplorable fall of the poems" (later this poem came out with a separate book, in St. Petersburg, without the designation of the year, together with poems on the swing, at a semit and on the carnival). During the passion of satir, Satira, published the first (no longer), part of the unusually popular novel from the ancestors of the novel "Putting the priesthood, or the adventure of the Depraved Woman" (Part I, St. Petersburg, 1770). In his external fabul, he is a slurry with French adventure novels; Types deposited in the novel (Akhal Cartoiler, Sveton, Secretary) are often found in satirical magazines. It should be assumed that the situation of the life of C. promoted the appearance of a tendency to study songs, fairy tales, rites and superstitions. In his magazines, the style of abundance of proverbs and sayings approaching folk, and frequent ethnographic notes, and folk songs are deserved in his magazines. After the publication of magazines, C. appeals to the large consolidated works of ethnographic nature. The first such work was the "Collection of different songs". We know that the first two parts of this assembly were printed by order of Empress Catherine II and were ready in 1776 (the indication of the role of S. in 4 parts was printed in 1770-75, incorrectly For July 19, 1776, C. Approached the resolution of the empress to print and other parts of the collection; see "Archive of the Directorate of Imperial Theaters", Dep. II, p. 101, SPB., 1892). The first edition of the songs, made by C. With the cooperation of Mikhail Popov, is currently not finding and we know about it only after. The second edition was made by N. I. Novikov in 1780-81; It was complemented by two parts and in the literature is known as the "Novikovsky songbook" ("New and complete collection of Russian songs, containing songs love, shepherd, joking, common, chorated, wedding, soda, with the addition of songs from different Russian operas and comedies "; subsequently the edition is repeated). C. Recoveed not only the folk songs in his meeting, which can be guessing, he did not record from the words, but he wrote off the tetrades of diplomaev, but also the fashionable romances of modern authors and arias from the comic operas. The value of the collection of Ch. Veliko: It did not appear such wealth of folk songs, and he began to print songs without changes and style corrections. In the history of studying the Russian nationality, Ch. Belongs to the honorable place. Gathering songs to contemporaries seemed to be at least a matter of completely unnecessary, if not harmful: even Metropolitan Plato responded about songs, reprinted by N. I. Novikov, as "about the bail". In 1780, Ch. Started a new ethnographic meeting, significantly lower in his scientific value. In 1780-83 In the university printing house, Novikov were printed in 10 parts "Russian fairy tales containing the most ancient narrations about glorious hengers, folk fairy tales and other rejunction in the adventure memory." C. Different with great love for monuments of folk art, but did not possess an ethnographic understanding, which, however, at that time, did not yet be given; He considered it quite possible to treat the epics and folk stories at his discretion. None of those associates, "who are told in Kharchevna," are not listed in a true form: he changed, reworked, supplemented them in knightly novels, on the publications "Bibliothèque bleu". In 1782 his "Dictionary of Russian Superstitions", which was reissued in 1786; Under the title: "Abega of Russian superstitions, idolatry, sacrifices, wedding, common rites, witchcraft, shamanism, and so on. "For your time, it was a wonderful ethnographic work, which in our time found it possible to use A. N. Afanasyev, in his" poetic views of the Slavs on, nature ". From the occupation of ethnography Ch. Routed to classes of industry history and jurisprudence. . On the history of trade is still completely not assessed. It is also written on the command of the Empress at the expense of its office a huge "historical description of Russian commerce for all ports and borders from ancient times to present and all advantages, legal entities, etc.". (M., 1781-1788, 7 parts, in 21 volume; the greatest bibliographic rarity). Labor C. is based on the study of archival materials and for the history of our trade legislation is important. In 1788, an extraction appeared from this work: "Brief History of Russian trade "(M.). From the" Description "the" Dictionary of the Fairs established in Russia, published for contacting trade "(M., 1788) and" Guidelines necessary for merchants And especially for young people "(M., 1788). The field of practical savings includes "Notes are economical for the last execution in the villages of the clerk and maternity econ" (M., 1788; 2nd ed., 1790). C. One of the first to occur to popularize Russian laws and publish a reference legal book. In 1791-1792 It was published in the 5th books of his "Dictionary Legal or Code of Russian Councils, temporary court institutions and reprisals." In the first part of the arrangement, they were arranged in a terrific order, in the second - in chronological, with deposits of 1790 (the first part was reprinted in Novgorod in 1796). Then, C. The rural hospital was started, or a dictionary of the physician of diseases being in kind of human, in the childbirth of the cattle and birds of home "(during the lifetime of C. Were out in Moscow, in 1789-90, 4 parts; after his death, in 1803, came out the 5th). The remaining printed works h.: "Achilles's adhea under the name of Pierre to the siege of the Trojan" (SPB., 1709; 2nd ed., M., 1788, by Sopikov); "Oberon, the poem of Viland in 14 songs" (translation from German, M., 1787); "Arrangement in verses prosaic from the French translation of Petrarca letters to his mistress of his Laurie" (indicating the h.; In painting Sopikova, this book is unknown). Many writings were left in the manuscripts, as the project of the eternal world, the notes on the economic peasants, the project on the center of the merchant bank, the dictionary of the Russian language, the dictionary of farming, cattle breeding and houseworking, the poem in nine songs about the self-exchanger of Grishku Ruffle and others. We will add more to the message of C. that his comedy, not reached us, under the title: "As you like, name", it was repeatedly in court theater in St. Petersburg. The overall assessment of the activities of C. does not exist. C. His false Lomonosov, of course, smaller. His objects of the encyclopedic nature brought great benefit to Russian society; Proceedings on the history of Russian trade are a solid scientist research; His ethnographic vaults played a big role in the history of the study of Russian nationality.
Biographical information about h.: Novikov, "Historical Dictionary's Experience" (reprinted in the book of P. A. Efremova, "Materials in Russian Literature"); Preface at the 2nd ed. "Ekonomic notes" (M., 1791; reprinted in the "chronicles of Russian literature and antiquity", t. I, M., 1859, p. 198-200); Note A. Fomin, "To biographies, Ch." ("Bookstand", 1894, No. 7-8, p. 16); "Dictionary" Metropolitan Evgenia (1845, h. 2nd; reprinted in the "Russian poetry" of Wengerov, vol. V, p. 872; here is a reprint of the revocation of A. N. Pypina about h.; Notes of historical and literary and bibliographic notes . Lyashchenko, Vol. Vi, p. 408); Note in the "Historical Herald" (December 1893). Evaluation of ethnographic works Ch. At A. N. Pyptina in the "History of Russian Ethnography" (t. I, p. 65-69). Data on C. scattered from Afanasyev, "Russian Satirical Magazines" (p. 7-10, 258, etc.); Galakhov, in the "historical readstatology" and "stories of Russian literature"; At Bulich, "Sumarokov and modern criticism" (p. 269, 272). See also Longinov, "Bibliographic notes" ("Contemporary", 1856, July, No. 8, p. 19); His note ("Russian Archive", 1870, p. 1348; to her addition, ibid, p. 1935); M. A. Dmitriev, "Full things from my memory" (p. 9, 28); Batyushkov, "Works", ed. L. Makova (t. II, p. 398); Derzhavin, "Works", ed. Grott (vol. II, 214; III, 117, 119; IV, 49, 746). Bibliographic instructions on the writings of Ch.S. see the province (t. I, №166; t. II, № 27, 129), at Ostrozazov (Nos. 196, 264, 291), Burtsev. The newest time is reprinted: "Depositive fall of the poems", in the "Russian poetry" of Wengerov (Vol. V), and the "Harness of the cook", in the "thorough bibliographic description" Burtseva (T. V, SPb., 1901, p. 156 and Sl.). Portrait - in the Rovinsky, "Dictionary" (t. III).
P. Schegoles.
(Brockauz)
Chulkov, Mikhail Dmitrievich
pR. Eastr., public. and satire. 1757; † 1793.
(Polovtsov)
Chulkov, Mikhail Dmitrievich
(1743-1793) - Writer. He studied in Moscow. Un-Those, was an actor, court lacquer, at the end of the life secretary of the Senate. The prolific and versatile writer, Ch. He spoke by an expressant of the moods of the emerging bourgeoisie. It was one of the first ethnographers and collectors Rus. Folklore ("Short Mythology Dictionary", SPb, 1767; "Dictionary of Russian Superstitions", 1782, reissue. In 1786, under the title. "ABEVAGE OF RUSSIAN SUVERIES"; "Slavic fairy tales or a crossbar", h. 1-5, M., 1766 -68). The stockings published satirical magazines ("and that and social", St. Petersburg, 1769; "Parnassian scrupter", SPb, 1770), in which there was a lot of half alarm with the noble writers. At the same time, he was the author of the Satirically-domestic novel that was popular at one time, "Podviya, or the tearingurance of a depraved woman" (Part 1, SPb, 1770). C. also owns a number of work of an economic nature, the largest of them "The historical description of Russian commerce for all ports and boundaries ...", vol. I-III, SPb, 1781-88.
LIT: Nechaeva V.S., Russian household novel 18 V. (M. D. Chulkov), "Scientific notes of the In-Ta language and Lithing Ranion," T. II, M., 1928; Russian poetry (sat. Ed. S. Vengepova), no 5, SPb, 1897; Shklovsky V., Chulkov and Levshin, L., 1933.
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"Chulkov, Mikhail Dmitrievich" in books
Mikhail Dmitrievich Skobelev
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From the book Officer Corps of the Army General Lieutenant A.A.Vlasova 1944-1945 Author Alexandrov Kirill MikhailovichBaryshev Mikhail Dmitrievich Major Rkkapolkovnik Armed Forces in 1907 in Namangan under Fergana. Russian. In RKKA since the late 1920s. Since 1936 - Senior Lieutenant. On February 17, 1936, he was appointed commander of a separate anti-aircraft gunner of the 2nd Turkestan Rifle Division. FROM
Mikhail Dmitrievich Skobelev
From the book 100 Great Heroes Author Shishov Alexey VasilyevichMikhail Dmitrievich Skobelev (1843-1882) Hero of the liberation of Bulgaria. Russian commander. General from infanteria. The name of the "White" General Skobelev in 70-80 years of the XIX century was amazingly popular in the ranks of the Russian army, in Russia. He was called at the lifetime of "Second Suvorov", "Suvorov
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From the book Soviet Aces. Essays about Soviet pilots Author Bodrichin Nikolai GeorgievichBaranov Mikhail Dmitrievich Mothers of the 183rd IAP. After a fierce fight on August 5, 1942, in which he managed to knock down 4 opponent aircraft, Baranov became the favorite of the whole country. Slender 20-year-old boy happily looks at us from photos of the first military years. Least in it
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From the book of the commander of the Empire The author of Kopylov N. A.Skobeliev Mikhail Dmitrievich Battles and Victory "convince the soldiers in fact that you are about them outside the battle, the power is in battle, and nothing will be impossible for you," said Skobelyev. And with this conviction he won in Central Asia and on Balkans. Conqueror Khiva I.
Skobeliev Mikhail Dmitrievich
From the book Encyclopedic Dictionary (C) by Brocgauz F. A.Skobelev Mikhail Dmitrievich Skobelev (Mikhail Dmitrievich) - Gen.-Adjutant (1843 - 82); first brought up at home, then in the Paris Girarda Pension; In 1861 he entered the University of St. Petersburg, from where he was dismissed in a month, due to the unrest between students;
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From the book Big Soviet Encyclopedia (those) author BSELevashov Mikhail Dmitrievich
From the book Big Soviet Encyclopedia (Le) author BSESolovyov Mikhail Dmitrievich
From the book Big Soviet Encyclopedia (CO) author BSESolovyov Mikhail Dmitrievich Solovyov Mikhail Dmitrievich, Soviet geodesist and cartographer. Member of the CPSU since 1944. He graduated from the Moscow Meeting Institute (1911) (now the Moscow Institute of Engineering Geodesy,
Chulkov Mikhail Dmitrievich
From the book Big Soviet Encyclopedia (Chu) author BSEThe immigrants from the Meshchansky class, M. D. Bulkov passed a difficult life path before achieving relative welfare. He was born, apparently, in Moscow. He studied at the middle gymnasium at Moscow University. He was actor first the university, and later - the court theater in St. Petersburg. From 1766 to 1768 four parts of his collection "Mockingbird, or Slavful fairy tales", the last one appeared in 1789
In 1767, stockings printed a "brief mythological lexicon", in which an ancient Slavic mythology was trying on a fictional basis. Slavic deities comprehended stockings by analogy with antichny: Lada - Venus, Lel - Amur, Lights - Apollo, etc. It was a desire, although naive, free from the domination of antique mythology, so revered by classicist writers. And indeed, the "Slavs'" of the Divities proposed by Bulkov and his successor M. I. Popov began to appear in many works: in the "squeezing" Chulkov, and in the book Popov "Slavic antiquities, or the adventure of Slavic princes" (1770 ), and then in verses of Derzhavin, the poems of Radishchev, in the works of Krylov, Kühelbecker and other poets. The continuation of the "Lexicon" was. "Dictionary of Russian Superstitions" (1782). In it in alphabetical order, a description of beliefs and rites is not only Russian, but the Idrugih peoples who inhabited the Russian Empire: Kalmykov, Chelerasov, Lopards, etc.
In 1769, stockings protrudes with a satirical magazine "And then". The position of the magazine was inconsistent. By refusing to follow "all sorts of all sorts" of Catherine, stockings at the same time condemn and "Drone", calling Novikov "the enemy" of the whole human race. The publishing of proverbs in the journal "and then" of proverbs, as well as a description of folk rites - weddings, christening, civic fortunes, reflecting an interest in the society to Russian national culture awakened in society is deserved. The other Satyrian magazine Chulkov "Parnassian Schepure", dedicated to the ridiculous poems, is less interesting.
From 1770 to 1774, four books of "Collections of different songs" came out, in which the interest of Chulkov to Folklore was manifested with the greatest force. Along with the songs of famous authors, including Sumarokov, the collection contains and folk songs - submool, dance, historical and other stockings recorded them not himself, and enjoyed handwritten collections, to which he points out in the preface to the first part. Some texts he refined.
Literary work poorly provided Chulkov. In 1772 he comes to the secretary to the State Commerce-Collegium, and later goes to the Senate. In this regard, the nature of its literary activities is changing. He creates a semitomic "historical description of Russian commerce" (1781-1788), and then - "Dictionary Legal, or a Code of Russian Procurement" (1791-1792). The service gave Bulkov the opportunity to get a noble title and acquire several estates near Moscow.
"Mockingbird, or Slavful fairy tales" - a fabulous collection in five parts. The attitude to the fairy tale in the classic literature was emphasized dismissive. As a fantastic, rapid reading, she was considered a work created by ignorant for as ignorant readers.
With the dominant position of classic literature, the authors of love-adventurous novels and fabulous collections resorted to curious tricks. They started their book preface, in which sometimes briefly, sometimes they exceeded the "useful" truths and edifying lessons that the reader allegedly could take out. The works offered by them. So, for example, in the preface to a fabulous collection "Thousand and one hour" (1766) it was said: "We decided to print these (fairy tales), for ... they all searched for us to notify us about theology, politics and reasoning of those peoples who are accommodated The action of the forces of the Basen ... describe (they) Love is not other what kind of innocent and legitimate ... Mightworthy places ... honesty is glorified ... Virtue triumphs and ... vices are punishable. "
Stockings refuses compromises with classicism. His book also begins with "pre-release", but it sounds like a call to didactic purposes. "In this book, he wrote," very little importance and morals, or not at all. She is inconvenient, it seems to me, to correct rough morals, again there is no in it and what they are multiplied; So, leaving this, it will be a useful preferably of boring time, if the work will take it to read. "
In accordance with this installation, the name of the collection is also chosen, the word "squeeze", which characterizes the author is not as a moralist, and as a merry and a frost, for a person, according to Chulkov, "Animal is funny and laugh, crushing and crumpled." In the "crossbird" stockings collected and united the most diverse material. The most widely used international fabulous motifs presented in numerous collections. The arrangement of the "Mockingbird" is borrowed from the famous "Thousand and One Night", which has withstanding in Russia in the XVIII century. Four editions, stockings takes out of her the principle of building a "Movement": he motivates the reason that prompted the storyteller to take for fairy tales, as well as the material dismembering the "evenings", corresponding to the "nights" of the Arab collection.
This principle will be for a long time after Chulkov a kind of Russian national tradition, up to the "Estones on the farm near Dikanka" Gogol. True, unlike the "thousand and one night", in the "Mockingbird" not alone, and two narrator: a certain incense, whose name was produced by Bulkova from "Slaven" the goddess of love - Lada, and a runaway monk from the monastery of the Holy Babies,
Once in the house of the retired Colonel, they, after the sustainable death of the colonel and his wife, tell us in turns of the fairy tale of their daughter Alenone to console and entertain her. At the same time, the fairy tales of the ladan are distinguished by magical, and the stories of the monk - in real-life content. The main character of fantastic fairy tales - Tsarevich Siloslav, looking for his bride Prelupe, abducted by an evil spirit. Random meetings of Siloslav with numerous heroes that tell him about their adventures, allow you to introduce plug-in movies into the narration. One of these NOVELS is a meeting of Siloslav with a severed, but the living head of Tsar Rakksolana, goes back to the fairy tale about Etrolan Lazarevice. She will subsequently use Pushkin in the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila". Many motives are taken by Bulkovo from the French collections of the late XVII - early XVIII century, known as the "Cabinet of Fay", as well as from the old Russian leaders, translation and original. However, the Russian folklore fairy tale in the "Mockingbird" is presented very poorly, although the main task of the writer consisted in an attempt to create a Russian national fabulous EPOS, which indicates above all the name of the book - "Slavful fairy tales". Extensive material, in the mass of his handicked from foreign sources, the stockings seeks to give Russian coloring due to the mention of Russian geographical names: Lake Ilmen, river, as well as those who have invented "Slavs" silla skin, prestica, etc. in the tales of the monk, Distinguished by real-consumer content, stockings relied on another tradition: to the European Plutovskaya Roman, on the "comic novel" of the French writer P. Scarron and especially on the fake - satirical and domestic stories. The latter is primarily connected primarily from the most real-ever stakes - "a fairy tale of the birth of taft". Hero Tale Student Neoh - Typical Plutov Hero. The content of the story decays to a number of independent novel. After having experienced a number of takeoffs and falls, the neoch seeks a solid position at the courtyard of the sovereign and becomes the son-in-law of Big Boyarin.
The last one, the fifth of the "mocking room" came out in 1789. It completes the plot of fairy tales, begun in the previous part. It was fundamentally new in it three satirco-households: "bitter fate", "gingerbread coin" and "precious pike". These stories differed from other works of the "crossbird" sharply inactive content.
The story "bitter fate" speaks of an extremely important role in the state of the peasant and at the same time about his distress. "The peasant, Pacquer, Agrichel, - writes stockings - all these three names, according to the legend of ancient writers, in which the newest agree, mean the main fatherland of the feeder during the peaceful, and in the military - strong defender, and claim that the state without a farmer Begain as a person without a head live, can not "(Part 5. P. 188 -189). It is concise and clearly formulated by two public functions that the peasantry performed. But his merit was in the blatant contradiction with a terrible poverty and the opposite position in which the peasants were. And stockings does not pass by this problem. "The Vityaz of the Tale of this," the author continues, "the peasant Sysh Fofanov, the son of Durnosopov, was born in the village distant from the city, brought up bread and water, was played before the sheds, which are subtlety and soft, not much inferior to Tsynovka, lying on the elbow instead of the cradle in the hollow, in the summer is hot, and in the winter smoky; Until the ten-year-old age, his barefoot went and without a cafetan, suffered uniformly in the summer of unscrewing fever, and in the winter unbearable. Blood, mosquitoes, bees and wasps instead of urban fat at times hot fired his body tumor. Up to twenty-five years, in the best already decoration against the former, that is, in the laps and in gray Kaftan, he swallowed in the fields of the earth by blocks and in the sweat of his face used his primitive food, that is, bread and water with pleasure "(Part 5. . 189).
The tragic position of the peasants is exacerbated by the appearance among them "eaten", which force themselves to work almost all the village. Along the way, it is described about the monary-bribers who are coming up during the recruit sets, about officers who are mercilessly attracting their soldiers. Syso Fofhanov had a chance to participate in battles, in one of which he lost his right hand, after which he was released home.
The next story "Gingerbread Coin" affects an equally important social problem - wine sputtering and a hovering. Spider trading wine was the greatest evil for the people. The government interested in the easy receipt of wine fees, sold the right to sell wine to the flaws, which were simultaneously instructed by the persecution of private expensive. The consequence of all this was the disadvantage of the population and the unpunished sense of the otkupechikov. In the middle of the XVIII century. The government allowed the nobility to engage in a distinguished business, but not for sale, which freed the nobles from the arbitrariness of the depopters. In the story of Chulkov, the object of satire, unfortunately, was not the very trade of wine, the ruining people, crumpled him spiritually and physically, but only violators of the law engaged in the mystery of hot drinks. So, a certain Major Fufaev, not deciding to openly to engage in the Celebration, opened in his village trading gingerbread at an increased price, and on these gingerbread, depending on their size, he was given a suitable measure of wine at home.
In the third stories - "precious pike" - reproduces bribery. It was a vice, which suffered the entire bureaucratic system of the state. Officially bribes were prohibited, but stockings shows that there were many ways to circumvent the law. "The calculation of all tricks," he writes, "if they describe, will be five parts of the" Mockingbird "(Part 5. P. 213). The story tells about the governor, who, arriving in the city appointed him, resolutely refused to take bribes. Podkhalima was angry, but then they found out that the governor is a big hunter to Schuk. Since then, it has entered the custom to bring him the largest pike to him, and at the same time live. Later it turned out that the same pike was bought each time, which he kept the gardener in the sadkey, and at the same time she took the amount in the amount of the importance of the case of the petitioner. When the governor leaving the city, he arranged a farewell dinner on which the famous pike was served. Guests easily calculated that for each piece of fish they paid for a thousand rubles. The "precious pike" becomes Chulakov a bright symbol of bribery. "This Creature," writes the author, - the gun of bribes was elected, as it seems, because she has sharp and numerous teeth ... and ... one could appoint it to the image of an echidic eager and non-erosion "(Part 5. With . 220).
With all the shortcomings of this collection, fully admitted with the first experience, the intention of the writer itself to create a national Russian work deserves serious attention.
"Mockingbird" Chulkov gave rise to the tradition. In large quantities, fabulous collections were created, and later fabulous poems. In 1770 -1771 "Slavic antiquities, or the adventures of Slavic princes" M. I. Popova. This book continues the magic and fabulous tradition of the "Mockingbird", bypassing its real-household material. At the same time, Popov seeks to strengthen the historical flavor of his collection. He calls the ancient Slavic tribes - Polyan, Dlebov, Bujan, "Curvicians", Drevlyan; mentions historical places - TMUTARAKAN, rational; It tells about the customs of the Ridge to burn dead, kidnapped wives. However, this little comment is sinking in the vast sea of \u200b\u200bthe magic and knightly narration.
Magic-fabulous tradition prevails in the "Russian fairy tales" V. A. Löbyn. Ten parts of this collection overlook from 1780 to 1783. The famous innovation in them was to appeal to the epic epic, which Livshin considers as a kind of magical and knightly fairy tale. This explains the rather unceremonious treatment of the epic. Thus, the first "story" "On the glorious Prince of Vladimir Kiev Sunshine Veslavievich and his powerful mighty ogynya Nikitich", contrary to his epic name, again leads us to various kinds of fabulous transformations. Tugarin Zmeyshevich himself turns out to be a wizard, born out of the eggs of the sarred monster. The epic tradition manifests itself in this story only by the names of the heroes and the desire to stylize the story in the spirit of the epic warehouse. In addition, the fifth of the "Russian fairy tales" contains pretty accurate retelling of the epics of Vasily Buslaev.
From the satyrico-houses of the Livshinsky collection, the most interesting "annoying awakening". It presents the predecessor Akakia Akakiyevich and Samson Wyrina - a small official, crushed by the need and forns. BRAGIN official was offended by the boss. With grief, he was drinking. In a dream he was the goddess of Fortune's happiness. She turned Bragin in his handsome man and offered him to become her husband. After the awakening, Bragin sees herself lying in a puddle, he pressed his legs lying alongside a pig.
In the 80s of the XVIII century, a desire to move away from the magic and fabulous tradition of the "Mocking" and create a real folklore fairy tale. This intention was reflected even in the names of the collections. So, in 1786 the collection "Medicine from thoughtfulness or insomnia, or real Russian fairy tales came out." Another collection of the same year again emphasizes the folk character of the book: "Grandfather walks, or the continuation of real Russian fairy tales." Only "Russian fairy tales, containing ten folk fairy tales" (1787), belonging to Peru Peter Timofeev, no longer carry a half-tolk, semi-chart.
In the future, under the influence of fabulous collections, poems begin to be created. Evidence of the immediate coupling of the "Bogatyr" poems with fabulous collections are the poems of N. A. Radishchev, the son of the famous writer, - Alosa Popovich, Bogatyr and songs and Churila Plenkovich with the same subtitle. Both were published in 1801 each of the poems - a close retelling of the "ABS", placed in the "Russian fairy tales" V. Löbyn. Fabulous poems have written with A. N. Radishchev (Bova), N. M. Karamzin (Ilya Muromets), M. M. Heraskov (Bahariana) and other poets. The last link in this chain was Pushkin's poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila", which brilliantly completed this, more than half a century,
Stockings published the book "The Harness of the Capture, or the Adventure of the Depraved Woman". Heroine Roman - a woman of easy behavior named Marton. Life delivers Marton more suffering than joy. Therefore, the social situation surrounding the heroine is no longer out in comic, but in a satirical plan. Stocklov seeks to understand and to some extent to justify his heroine, to arouse sympathy for her, because in her "depraved" life she is less to blame. The story is conducted on behalf of Marton itself. "I think," she starts his story, "that many of our sisters will challenge me immodestly ... He will see the light, seeing my business, and sobly my business, let me know what he will do."
The heroine talks about the difficult position in which she was after the death of her husband. "It is known to all," she continues, "that we got the victory by Poltavoy, on which my muggy was killed by my battle. He was not a nobleman, did not have the villages, therefore, I remained without any food, I wore the title of sergeant wife, but was poor. " The second argument of Marton in his justification is the position of a woman in society. "I did not know the passage of the human and could not make a place for himself, and this was done freely due to the fact that we did not determine in any posts."
The character of Marton and her behavior add up in a brutal struggle for the right to live, which she has to behave every day. Marton Cynic not in nature. Cynical makes her attitude towards it surrounding. Describing to familiarize with the next key, she calmly notices: "The first place was a trading on us, and we didn't say anything else, as the contract was concluded, he traded my charms, and I was inferior to him for a decent price." Marton absorbed in Himself and immoralism of the noble society, and its class prejudices. After she came from Cameryman to the content to Barina, it seems to her "challenged a message with the Hop." "I'm darey," she says, "some and husbands who are addicted to the loyalty of their wives, and it seems that it is better to be silent about such matters that are in full margin of power."
But the egoistic basis of the human behavior was revealed by the Faceing. However, they failed to show good, humane feelings. As for Marton, along with cynicism and predatoryness it is also inherent and good, noble deeds. Learning that the depraved nobleman wants to poison her husband, Marton resolutely interferes with this story and reveals the plan of the criminal. She forgives the lover deceiving and who robbed her and with the news of his close death sincerely regrets him. "The act of Akhalev is bad against me," she admits, "he died completely from my memory, and alone his good deeds seemed to be alive in my concept. I cried about his death and regretted him as much as sister sister about my brother, who awarded her dowry ... "
In contrast to the conditional "antiquity", presented in other poses, in the "Fitness of the Priest" the events occur in the XVIII century. The response time is dated to the link to the Poltava battle, in which Marton's husband was killed. The places where the events of the novel occur. At first Kiev, then - Moscow. Here Marton is visited by the Church of Nikola on Courish Legs, and in Marina Grove there is a duel between her fans. The artistic peculiarity of the "Footage of the priest" is due to the satirical impact of the tradition of magazines of 1769-1770. - Journals of Chulakovo "and that and Sy" and Emin "Hello Post". They already appear images derived by Bulkov in the "Fitness of the Priest", - the unceremonious contents, bribes-fucked, depraved nobility, deceived husbands, proud, talentless poets, clever cheeky lovers.
The saturation of the pesting proverbs, which are explained by the democratic origin of the heroine attracting attention. And at the same time, the appearance of proverbs in the novel is again associated with the tradition of satirical magazines, in which the moral stories and scenes often end with a moralistic conclusion. The most nude this technique is presented in the so-called "recipes" placed in Novikovsky "Trutne". The moralistic conclusion could be also extensive, but most often brief. So, for example, the 26th letter in the magazine "Hello Post" contains a story about the depraved nobility, in the words I learned my daughter chastity, and an example of my lovely baudders of it. The story of the next morality ends: "That tutor, who is more than the example of good life, children raises children."
This kind of "fastened" reception picks up in the "Fitness of the Priest" stockings. Thus, the description of the sudden change of the fate of Marton, which passed on the content from the chamener to Barina, ends with a moral proverb: "Delieleva Makar Rudda dug, and now Makar in the governor fell." The story about the nobleman, who helped Lyon and Marton to keep their love dates in secret from the Light wife, begins the corresponding proverb - "good horse is not without a saddle, and an honest person is not without a friend." Another episode where the wife of the Sveton, who solved his husband's tricks, beats Marton and with a disgrace I expelled her from the estate, ends with the proverb: "There is no right to the bear that the cow ate, not the right and cow that in the forest wandered."
In the second half of the XVIII century, simultaneously with the works of Emin, Chulkov, Lyolovna and partially experiencing their influence, the extensive prosaic literature begins to spread, designed for the tastes of the mass reader. The authors of them, in some cases, the people themselves from the people, relied in their work on the tradition of the handwritten stories of the end of the XVII - early XVIII century. And on oral folk creativity, primarily on a domestic fairy tale. Despite the low artistic level, this literature played a positive role, entitled to reading even a low-boiled, but inquisitive audience.
At one of the first places, the famous "Emails" N. G. Kurganov is worth its popularity. In the first edition, the book was called "Russian Universal Grammar, or Universal Writing" (1769).
As the name appears, the book of Kurgan was pursued primarily educational goals, giving information on Russian grammar. However, the author significantly expanded its tasks. Following the grammar, he introduced seven "satisfaction" in the collection, of which in a literary relationship is particularly interesting, which contained "short intricate stories". The plots of these small stories are drawn from foreign and partially Russian sources and wear funny, and in some cases asked. In the section "Collecting different Squares", Kurgana placed along with the folk songs of the poem of the Russian poets of the XVIII century. In the future, the "writter" with some changes and additions was repeatedly reprinted in the XVIII and XIX centuries. up to 1837
The influence of Chulkov's creativity and the traditions of handwritten penetration were peculiar in the collection of Ivan Novikov "Adventures of Ivan Son Son", consisting of two parts (1785-1786). The first of these, the title of which is entitled to the whole book, contains a description of the life path of two former robbers - the merchant son of Ivan and the son of the stamar of Vasily. The path of crimes was for each of them the school of severe tests, which leads the heroes to the moral revival and to refuse to robbing fishery. Especially clear this line was carried out in the history of Ivan. A brought up in the house of a rich father, spoiled by an indulgent mother, Ivan was addicted to gross sensual pleasures and joined the path of crimes. However, the loss of his wife, meditation in connection with this, over his life makes him part with the robbery gang and knear into the monks under the name of the polycarginia.
The fate of Vasily makes up a parallel to the history of the Living Son of Ivan. He also left the parental house, took the robber fishing and then returned to honest life. With the help of a monk, Polycarpia Vasily opens trade in fish and apple rows. Both stories serve as a framed by subsequent stories that tells the monk polycarpio merchant Vasily. Here and the story about Frole Skobeyev, published under the name "Novogorod Girls, a Svyatoke evening."
The tradition of a real-domestic novel, the first example of which in Russian soil was "the fitness of the cook" Chulkov, continues in the novel by the author's unknown author, "Unhappy Nikaror, or the Adventures of the Russian Nobleman G." (leaving from 1775 to 1789). The Hero of the story is a poor nobleman living on the rights of the Surriveer in rich houses. This makes it possible to expand the author to deploy a wide picture of the life and morals of landowners and the fortress peasants of the XVIII century.
To the inverse literature of the XVIII century. Believe the book of Matthew Komarov, the "resident of the city of Moscow", as he himself called himself, a leaving of the fortress peasants. In 1779, he released a book that was called "a thorough and true description of good and evil deeds of a Russian fraudster, a thief and the robber and the former Moskovsky Moskovik Vanka Cain, the whole of his life and strange prehensity." Her hero is Ivan Osipov, on the nicknamer Cain, - a running fortress peasant, which produced wears. He offered his police services as a detective, but did not leave the former his craft. Along with the "evil" affairs of Cain, the author describes his "good", noble acts, such as the liberation from the monastery forcibly concluded in it "Cells", getting rid of the soldiers of the peasant son, illegally debugged into recruits, a number of others. Talking about the love of Cain to some sergeant daughter, mosquito notes: "The love passion is not in some noble hearts inhabit, but the vile people often infected ..." In the book there is a special section for songs, allegedly composed, but the most faithful, loved ones Caine. In the first place among them - the famous robbery song "Not Shumi, Mati Green Dubravushka".
An even wider fame received the book of Komarov - about Milorland George, the full name of which "the story of the adventure of the English Milorda Georg and the Brandenburg Marcgrief Friederikelizé (1782). The basis for this product was the handwritten "Tale of English Milorda and Marcimiris Marcimiris". This is a typical loving adventurous work, in which loyalty and constancy help the hero and heroin overcome all obstacles and connect with married bonds. Tale aboutmilorland George was repeatedly reprinted not only in XVIII, but also in the XIX, and even in the XX century.