What is the Iron Age Definition on History. General Characteristics of the Epoch of Iron

Many secrets exist in world history. But each study from archaeologists does not leave hopes to learn something new in those who have discovered in facts. An exciting and extraordinary seems that moments when you realize that a long time ago on the lands, for which today we go, huge dinosaurs lived, the Crusaders fought, the ancient people broke the parking lot.

Introduction

The World History laid two approaches in their periodization, in demand for determining the human race: 1) Materials for the manufacture of workers of labor and 2) technology. Thanks to these approaches, the concepts of "stone", "iron", "bronze" century arose. Each of these eras has become a separate step in the development of the history of mankind, the next cycle of evolution and the knowledge of human capabilities. It is noteworthy that in this process there were no stagnation, so-called stories. From the most ancient times and until today, there is a regular acquisition of knowledge and obtaining the latest methods of mining of useful materials. In our article you will learn about the Iron Institute and its overall characteristics.

Methods of dating time segments in world history

Natural sciences have become an excellent tool in the hands of archaeologists to determine the date in time segments. Today, historians and researchers can produce geological dating, they have the right to use the radiocarbon method, as well as dendrochronology. The active development of ancient man allows to improve existing technologies.

Five thousand years ago, the so-called written period began in the history of mankind. Therefore, other prerequisites arose to determine the time frame. Historians suggest that the epoch of the excretion of an ancient person from the world of fauna began two more million years ago and extended until the fall of the western part of the Roman Empire, which happened in 476 of our era.

It was an antiquity period, then the Middle Ages lasted to the Renaissance. The period of the new history lasted until the completion of the First World War. And we live in the era of the modern times. Outstanding time figures put their reference points. For example, Herodotus was actively interested in the struggle of Asia with Europe. Thinkers later considered the most important event in the development of civilization the formation of the Roman Republic. However, a huge number of historians agreed in a single assumption - in the era of the Iron Age, art and culture did not carry a lot of importance. After all, the instruments of labor and war left at the first place.

Metal era backgrounds background

Primitive story is divided into several important eras. For example, the Stone Age includes Paleolithic, mesolithic, as well as neat. The time segment from these periods is characterized by the development of a person and the latest methods of stone processing.

First, manual rubilo spread out of the labor tools widely. At the same time, a person mastered the fire. Made first clothing from the animal skins. The ideas about religion appeared, and at this time ancient people began to equip their homes. During when a person led a half-blood lifestyle, he was hunted on large and strong animals, so he was required by the weapon better than what he had.

The next most important stage in the development of the methods of processing stone falls on the junction of the millennium and the completion of the stone century. Then there is agriculture and cattle breeding. And then ceramic production appears. So in the early Iron Age, an ancient man mastered copper and techniques for its processing. The beginning of the era of manufacturing metal products shaped the front of the activity. The study of the characteristics and properties of metals gradually led to the fact that the person opened the bronze, and also spread it. Stone Age, Iron, including Bronze, is an all single and harmonious process of man's desire to civilization, which is based on mass movements of ethnic groups.

Researchers who studied the era of iron and its duration

Since the spread of the metal is customary to relate to primitive, as well as the early class history of mankind, therefore, the characteristic features of this period are the interests of metallurgy and the manufacture of guns.

An idea of \u200b\u200bthe separation of centuries based on materials was formed in antiquity, but it was more fully described today. So the early Iron Age was investigated, and also continue to study scientists in various fields. For example, in Western Europe, the fundamental works about this epoch were written by Gernes, Tischler, Kosheyshevsky and other scientific figures.

However, in Eastern Europe, similar works and monographs, maps and textbooks wrote Gautier, Spitsyn, Krakow, Smirnov, Artamonov and Tretyakov. All of them believe that the characteristic feature of the culture of primitive times is the spread of iron. However, each state has experienced the Bronze and Iron Institute in its own way.

The first of them is considered a prerequisite for the emergence of the second. The Bronze Age was not so extensive as part of the development of mankind. As for the chronological framework of the Iron Age, then this period took only two centuries from the ninth to the seventh century to our era. In this period of time, many of the Tribes of Asia and Europe received the most powerful push in the promotion of metallurgy. After all, at that time, the metal remained one of the most important materials for the manufacture of guns and household items, therefore, influenced the development of modernity and is part of that time.

Cultural backgrounds of this era

Despite the fact that the period of the Iron Age did not mean the active development of culture, yet modernization touched this sphere of life of an ancient person. It should be noted:

• First, the first economic prerequisites appeared for the founding of working relationships and disorders in the tribal structure.
• Secondly, the most ancient history is marked by the accumulation of some values, the strengthening of property inequality, as well as a mutually beneficial exchange of the parties.
• Thirdly, the formation of classes in society and the state was widely spread and strengthened.
• Fourth, a huge part of the funds passed into the private ownership of elected minorities, and the slavery arises and the progressive bundle of society.

Iron Age. Russia

On the lands of modern Russia, the iron was previously found in the Transcaucasia. Objects from this metal began to actively displace bronze. This is evidenced by the fact that iron was found everywhere, in contrast to tin or copper. Iron ore was located not only deeply in the depths of the Earth, but also on its surface too.

Today, ore found on the swamp does not represent interests for modern metal industry. Nevertheless, in ancient era, she meant a lot. Thus, the state that had income on the production of bronze lost it at the production of metal. It is noteworthy that countries that needed copper ore, with the advent of iron, rapidly caught up with the kingdoms that were advanced in the Bronze Age.

It should be noted that during the excavations of the Scythian settlements were found invaluable relics of the beginning of the Iron Age.

Who are such Scythians? Simply put, these are Iranian-speaking nomads, which moved through the territories of modern Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Siberia and Southern Russia. Once upon a time he wrote and Herodotus wrote about them.

Scythian relics in Russia

It is worth noting that these nomads grown grain. They brought him to export to the Greek cities. Grain production was kept on slave labor. Very often the bones of dead slaves were accompanied by the burial of the Scythians. The tradition of killing slaves during the burial of Mr. is known in many countries. These customs of the Scythians were not ignored. At the places of their former settlements, archaeologists still find agricultural instruments, including sickles. It is worth noting that the arable guns were found not yet found. Perhaps they were wooden and iron elements did not have.

It is known that the Scythians could handle black metal. They produced flat arrows, which consisted of spikes, bushings and other elements. Scythians began to produce labor tools and other household items of better quality than before. This indicates global changes not only in the life of these nomads, but also other steppe ethnic groups.

Iron Age. Kazakhstan

This period in the Kazakh steppes fell on the eighth-seventh century to our era. This era coincided with the movement of agricultural and cattle breeding tribes from Mongolia to the rolling form of farm. The basis of the seasonal regulation of pastures, as well as water sources. These forms of conducting a cattle breeding in the steppes received in science the name "nomadic" and "half-garden farms". New forms of cattle breeding laid the development of the economies of the tribes, which lived in particular conditions of the ecosystem of the steppes. The basis of this form of farm has developed in the Rudybaevsky era.

Tasmalin culture

Nomads lived on the endless steppes of Kazakhstan. On these lands, the story is represented in the form of Kurgans and Mogilniks, which are considered invaluable monuments of the Epoch of the Iron Age. In this region, burials often meet with painting, which, according to archaeologists, performed the functions of lighthouses or compasses in the steppe.

Historians are interested in the Tasmolinsky culture, which was called around the terrain of Pavlodar. In this area, the very first excavations were held, where the skeletons of a person and horses were found in large and small mounds. Academic scientists consider these mounds with the most common relics of the era of stone, iron, centuries.

Cultural Features of Northern Kazakhstan

This region differs from other edges of Kazakhstan by the fact that farmers, that is, the locals, crossed or to a settled, or to a nomadic lifestyle. The culture described above is valued in these regions. Archaeology researchers still attract the monuments of the Iron Epo. A lot of research was conducted in the Kurgan Birlik, Bectenis, etc. Right Bank of the Esil River kept strengthening this era.

Another "iron" turn in the history of mankind

Historians say that age 19 is iron. The thing is that he has entered the story as the era of revolutions and change. Architecture radically changes. At this time, the concrete is intensively introduced into a construction business. Mix railroad tracks everywhere. In other words, the ages of the railways began. Massively laid rails, connecting cities and countries. So there were ways in France, Germany, Belgium and Russia.

In 1837, railway workers joined St. Petersburg and the Tsarskoye Village. The length of these paths was 26.7 km. The railway in Russia was actively expanding in Russia in the 19th century. It was then that the domestic government was thinking about laying paths. Oddly enough, but the starting point for the development of this direction was the Department of Water Communications, which was created at the end of the 18th century Paul first.

The organization under the direction of N. P. Rumyantseva acted more than successfully. A new institution has actively developed and expanded. At its database created by Rumyantsev in 1809, a military institute of ways of communication opened. After the victory in 1812, domestic engineers improved the communication system. It is this institution that issued modern and competent specialists for the construction and operation of domestic railways. The point of the maximum historians recorded closer towards the end of the 19th century. This is the highest level of railway network. Only in 10 years, the world length of the railway increased by 245 thousand kilometers. Thus, the overall length of the global network has become 617 thousand kilometers.

First Russian train

As already mentioned above, the debut in the Patriotic Railway was the flight "St. Petersburg - Tsarskoye Selo", which went in 1837 on October 30 at 12:30. A lot of artificial structures were built on this route, among them and bridges. The largest of them ran through the bypass canal, the length of which was more than 25 meters.

In general, in the new Iron Age, a huge number of bridges made from metal structures were built. During the border, 7 locomotives and a variety of crews were purchased. And after a year, namely in 1838 in the Tsarskoye Selo Institute of Communications, the domestic locomotive called "Verny" was constructed.

For 5 years, more than 2 million passengers were transported on this route. At the same time, this road brought profits in the treasury about 360 thousand rubles. The value of this railway was that on this experience of the construction and operation, the idea of \u200b\u200buninterrupted work of this kind of transport in the climatic conditions of our Motherland all year round was proved.

The financial exploitation of the canvase also proved the beneficial and expediency of a new way of delivery of passengers and cargo. It is worth noting that the first experience in organizing railways in Russia has given the most powerful impetus in the development and laying of the railway canvas in the country.

Conclusion

If you return to the question about the Epoch of the Iron Age, you can trace its influence on the development of all mankind.

So, the metal era is part of the story that has been separated on the basis of data obtained by archaeologists, and is also characterized by the preferential predominance of iron, cast iron and steel on site of excavations.

It is believed that this century came to shift bronze. Its beginning in different areas and regions refers to different time intervals. Markers of the start of the Iron Age are considered to be regular manufacture of weapons and guns, the distribution of not only forging business, but also ferrous metallurgy, as well as the ubiquitous use of iron products.

The end of this era refer to the onset of the technological era, which is associated with the industrial coup. And some historians prolong him to the days of modernity.

The widespread introduction of this metal causes many possibilities for the production of a series of labor instruments. This phenomenon is reflected in the improvement and distribution of agriculture in forest areas or on soils that are difficult to process.

Progress is observed in construction business, as well as in crafts. The first tools appear in the form of a saw, file, and even hinged tools. Metal production led to the possibility of making wheel transport. It was the last one that became an impetus to expanding trade.

Then the coins appear. Iron treatment has had a positive impact on the military. The listed facts in many regions contributed to the decomposition of primitive system, as well as the formation of statehood.

Remember that the Iron Age is divided into early and late. This era is used in the study of primitive societies. In Chinese lands, progress in ferrous metallurgy walked apart. The production of bronze and casting from the Chinese was at the highest level. However, ore iron for them was known long than in other countries. They first began to produce cast iron, having noticing its lightweight. The masters produced many items not forging, namely casting.

Successful metal processing centers were in the territories of the former USSR Transcaucasia, Podneprovye, Volga-Kamsky district. It is noteworthy that social inequality strengthened in profile societies. It was the overall characteristics of the Epoch of the Iron Age, which presents the most significant changes in the history of mankind associated with the development of iron.

The Iron Institute, the Epoch of Human History, allocated on the basis of archeology data and characterized by the leading role of products from iron and its derivatives (cast iron and steel). As a rule, the Iron Age came to replace the bronze century. The beginning of the Iron Age in different regions refers to different times, and the dating of this process is approximate. An indicator of the start of the Iron Age is the regular use of ore iron for the manufacture of guns and weapons, the spread of black metallurgy and blacksmithing; The massive use of iron products means a special stage of development already within the framework of the Iron Age, in some cultures separated from the beginning of the Iron Century several centuries. The end of the Iron Age is often the onset of the technological era associated with the industrial coup, or extend it to modernity.

The widespread introduction of iron led to the production of mass series of labor instruments, which was reflected in the improvement and further spread of agriculture (especially in forest areas, on heavy soil treatment, etc.), the progress in construction business, saws (in particular, saws appeared, Files, hinged tools, etc.), production of metals and other raw materials, the manufacture of wheel transport, etc. The development of production and transport has led to the expansion of trade, the appearance of coins. The use of massive iron weapons has significantly affected the progress in military business. In many societies, all this contributed to the decomposition of primitive relations, the emergence of statehood, the inclusion in the circle of civilizations, the oldest of which is much older than the Iron Age and had the level of development, superior many of the Society of the Iron Age period.

Split early and late iron age. For many cultures, first of all, the European, the border between them, as a rule, refer to the era of the collapse of the ancient civilization and the onset of the Middle Ages; A number of archaeologists relate to the early iron century final with the beginning of the influence of Roman culture on many nations in Europe in the 1st century BC - the 1st century of our era. In addition, different regions have their inner periodization of the Iron Age.

The concept of "Iron Age" is used primarily to study primitive societies. The processes associated with the formation and development of statehood, the formation of modern peoples, as a rule, are considered not so much within the framework of archaeological cultures and "centuries", as in the context of the history of the respective states and ethnic groups. It is with them that many archaeological cultures of the late iron century correlate

The propagation of black metallurgy and metalworking. The ancient center of iron metallurgy was the region of Malaya Asia, Eastern Mediterranean, Transcaucasia (2 half half of the 2nd millennium BC). Certificates of widespread iron use appear in texts from the middle of the 2nd millennium. Animally, the message of the Hett Tsar Pharaoh Ramses II with a message about sending a ship loaded with iron (end 14 - early 13th century). A significant number of iron products found on archaeological monuments of the 14-12th century new Hittite kingdom, steel is known in Palestine from the 12th century, in Cyprus - from the 10th century. One of the oldest findings of the metallurgical horn belongs to the frontier of the 2nd and 1st millennium (Kuvelo-Bolnisi, the territory of modern Georgia), slag - in the layers of the archaic period of the Mileta. At the turn of the 2nd - 1st millennia, the Iron Age came in Mesopotamia and Iran; Thus, during the excavations of the Sargon II Palace in Horsabad (4th quarter of the 8th century), about 160 tons of iron were found, mainly in the form of critches (probably tribute to the subject territories). Perhaps, from Iran at the beginning of the 1st millennium, black metallurgy spread to India (where the beginning of the widespread use of iron is referred to 8 or 7/6 centuries), in the 8th century - in Central Asia. In the steppes of Asia, the iron was widespread no earlier than 6/5th century.

Through the Greek cities of Malaya Asia, iron skills spread at the end of the 2nd millennium to the Aegean Islands and about 10th century to mainland Greece, where commodity cries, iron swords are known from this time. In Western and Central Europe, the Iron Age came in 8-7th centuries, in South-Western Europe - in the 7-6th centuries, in Britain - in the 5-4th centuries, in Scandinavia - in fact at the turn of the ER.

In the Northern Black Sea region, in the North Caucasus and in the South-Tailed Volga-Kamie, the period of primary development of iron ended in 9-8 centuries; Along with the things made in the local tradition, products created in the Transcaucasian tradition of obtaining steel (cementation) are known here. The beginning of an affected iron century in these and experiencing their influence of the regions of Eastern Europe is referred to 8-7 centuries. Then the number of iron items increased significantly, the techniques of their manufacture were enriched with the skills of molding forging (using special crimps and stamps), welding of the bracket and the method of packaging. In the Urals and in Siberia, the Iron Instant was previously all (by the middle of the 1st millennium BC) came in steppe, forest-steppe and mining areas. In the taiga and in the Far East and in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BC, the bronze age continued, but the population was closely connected with the cultures of the Iron Age (excluding the northern part of the taiga and tundra).

In China, the development of black metallurgy went apart. Because of the highest level of bronze production, the Iron Age began here not earlier than the middle of the 1st millennium to our era, although the ore iron was known long before. Chinese masters were the first to begin purposefully producing cast iron and, using its lightweight, made many products not forging, and casting. In China, there has been a practice of making forging iron from cast iron by reducing carbon content. In Korea, the iron age has come in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BC, in Japan - about 3-2 centuries, in Indochier and Indonesia - to the frontier of ER or a little later.

In Africa, the Iron Age was previously established in the Mediterranean (by 6th century). In the middle of the 1st millennium BC, he began on the territory of Nubia and Sudan, in a number of regions of West Africa; Eastern - at the turn of the ER; In South - closer to the middle of the 1st millennium of our era. In a number of areas of Africa, in America, Australia and on the Pacific Islands, the Iron Age has come with the arrival of Europeans.

The most important cultures of the early Iron Age beyond civilizations

Due to the wide prevalence and comparative light of the development of iron ores, bronze centers gradually lost the monopoly on the production of metal. Many previously retarded regions began to catch up with the technological and socio-economic level of old cultural centers. Accordingly, the zoning of Okumen has changed. If, for the epoch of the early metal, an important cultural formation factor was belonging to the metallurgical province or to the zone of its influence, then the role of ethno-speaking, economic and other relations intensified in the formation of cultural and historical communities. The widespread extension of efficient iron weapons contributed to the involvement of many communities into robberies and concluded wars, accompanied by mass migrations. All this led to the fundamental changes in the ethnocultural and military-political panorama.

In some cases, on the basis of these linguistics and written sources, it is possible to talk about dominance within certain cultural and historical communities of the Iron century of one or group of peoples close in the human language, sometimes even associate a group of archaeological monuments with a specific people. However, written sources for many regions are scarce or absent, not for all communities, you can get data that allows you to relate them to the linguistic classification of peoples. It should be borne in mind that the media of many languages \u200b\u200bmay be even whole families of languages, did not leave direct linguistic descendants, and therefore their attitude to the well-known ethno-speaking communities hypothetically.

South, Western, Central Europe and the South of the Baltic Region. After the crash of the Crito-Mycenaean civilization, the beginning of the Iron Century in Greece the ancient coincided with the temporary decline of the "dark centuries". Subsequently, the widespread introduction of iron contributed to a new increase in the economy and society, which led to the formation of ancient civilization. In the territory of Italy, many archaeological cultures are distinguished for the start of the Iron Age (some of them were formed in the Bronze Age); in the north-west - Golube, correlated with a part of the ligurov; On average, the terramar river, in the northeast - Este, compared with venets; In the northern and central parts of the Apennine Peninsula - Villanova, etc., in campaigns and Calabria are "jam burials", the monuments of Pulia are associated with Mesanes (close to Illyrians). In Sicily, the culture of the Pantalik, etc., on Sardinia and Corsica - Nurag.

In the Pyrenean Peninsula, there were large centers for non-ferrous metals, which caused a long predominance of bronze products (Tartesse culture, etc.). In the early Iron Institute, there are different in the nature and intensity of migration waves, monuments reflecting local and introduced traditions appear here. Based on part of these traditions, the culture of the tribes of the Iberians was formed. The most important of the traditions remained in the ingredical areas ("culture of townships", etc.).

In the development of the cultures of the Mediterranean, the Phoenician and Greek colonization, the flowering of culture and expansion of the Etruscans, the invasion of the Celts was provided; Later, the Mediterranean has become internal for the Roman Empire (see Rome ancient).

At a significant part of Western and Central Europe, the transition to the Iron Age took place in the Galstat Epoch. The Galstatt cultural region is divided into many cultures and cultural groups. Some of them are correlated in the eastern zone with groups of Illyrians, in Western - with Celts. In one of the regions of the Western zone, the Latence culture was formed, then spreading in a huge territory during the expansion and influence of Celts. Their achievements in metallurgy and metalworking, borrowed by the Northern and Eastern neighbors, led to the dominance of iron products. The Epoch of Laen determines the special period of European history (about 5-1 century to our era), its final is associated with the expansion of Rome (for the territories to the north of the culture of Laperen, this era is called the "pre-primary", "early iron century", etc. ).

Sword in sheaths with anthropomorphic handle. Iron, bronze. Culture Laten (2 half of the 1st millennium BC). Metropolitan Museum (New York).

In the Balkans, east of the Illyrians, and north to Dniester were cultures connected to the Thracians (their influence reached the Dnieper, Northern Black Sea region, up to the Bosporus state). For the designation at the end of the Bronze Age and at the beginning of the Iron Age, the generality of these cultures use the term "Thracian Galstat". Around the middle of the 1st millennium BC is increasing the peculiarity of the "Thracian" cultures of the northern zone, where the associations of the geeves are consisted, then Dakov, in the southern zone of the Thracian tribes entered into close contacts with the Greeks, moving here by groups of Scythians, Celts, etc., and then They were attached to the Roman Empire.

At the end of the Bronze Age in South Scandinavia and partly, the south of the decline of culture is fixed, and the new rise is associated with the propagation and widespread use of iron. Many of the cultures of the Iron Age north of the Celts cannot be correlated with the famous groups of peoples; More reliable comparison of the formation of Germanians or their significant part with Yasthorph culture. East of its range and the top elbi to the Vistula basin, the transition to the Iron Age took place within the framework of the Luzitsky culture, in the late stages of which intensified the originality of local groups. On the basis of one of them, Pomeranian culture was formed, spreading in the middle of the 1st millennium to our era to significant parts of the Luzhitsky Arala. Closer to the end of the Laman era in Polish Pomorie, an oxyv culture was formed, south - Pshevorsk culture. In the new era (within the framework of the 1-4th century of our era), called the "Roman Imperial", "provincial-Roman influences", etc., northeast of the borders of the Empire, various unions of Germans become leading force.

From the Mazur Posair, parts of the Mazovia and the Sweets to the lower Pragoli in the Latent time, the so-called culture of Western Balt Kurgans is distinguished. Her ratio with subsequent cultures for a number of regions is controversial. In Roman time, cultures connected with nations are recorded here, including Galinds (see Bogachev Culture), Casuals (Sudins), Estia compared with the Sambia-Natanga culture, etc., but the formation of most famous peoples of Western And the eastern ("Summer Lithuanian") of the Balts already applies to the 2nd half of the 1st millennium of our era, that is, the late iron century.

Steppes of Eurasia, Forest Zone and Tundra of Eastern Europe and Siberia. By the beginning of the Iron Century in the steppe belt, Eurasia, stretching from the Middle Danube to Mongolia, there was nomadic cattle breeding. Mobility and organization, along with the massability of effective (including iron) weapons and equipment, have caused the military-political significance of the associations of nomads, often spreading power to neighboring sedentary tribes and former serious threats for states from the Mediterranean to the Far East.

In the European steppes from the middle or end of 9 to the beginning of the 7th century BC, the generality was dominated from which, according to a number of researchers, kimmerians are connected. It was in close contact of the Tribes of the Lesstep (Chernoless Culture, Bondarichin Culture, etc.).

By the 7th century BC, the Scythian Siberian World formed to Mongolia was formed, within which the Scythian archaeological culture, the Savromat archaeological culture, the Sako-Massagetsky Culture Circle, Pazyryk culture, Uyukskaya culture, Tagorskaya culture (the only one, preserved production of high quality Bronze products) and others, in varying degrees related to the Scythians and the peoples of "Gerodotovoy" Scythia, Sabromats, Sakami, Massagets, Juezhas, Ussaggers, and others. Representatives of this generality were mostly European phones, probably a significant part of them spoke in Iranian languages.

In close contact with the "Kimmerian" and "Scythian" communities were the Crimea tribes and the population of the Northern Caucasus distinguished by the high level of metalworking (Kizilkobin culture, Mota Archaeological Culture, Kobane Culture, Ananin Culture). Significantly the influence of "Kimmerian" and Scythian cultures on the population of the Middle and Lower Prawn. Therefore, the "Kimmerian" (it is "Predosfskaya") and the "Scythian" era are used in the study of not only steppe cultures.

The iron tip of the arrow, inlaid by gold and silver, from Kurgan Argen-2 (Tuva). 7th century BC. Hermitage (St. Petersburg).

In 4-3 centuries BC in the steppes of Europe, Kazakhstan and South Zauralna, the Sarmatian archaeological cultures, determining the era, subdivided into early, middle, late periods and the last 4th century of our era come to replace the Scythian and Savromatskaya. A significant influence of Sarmatian cultures can be traced in the North Caucasus, which reflects both the resettlement of the steppe population and the transformation under its influence of local cultures. Sarmati penetrated and far into the forest-steppe areas - from the subnet to the northern Kazakhstan, in various forms contacting the local population. Large stationary settlements and craft centers east of the Middle Danube are associated with Alfeld Sarmatians. Partly continuing the traditions of the previous era, largely sarmatized and equipped, the so-called Ledoneki culture remained in the lower reaches of the Dnieper and in the Crimea, where the kingdom arose with the capital in Naples Scythian, a part of the Scythians, according to written sources, was concentrated on the Nizhny Danube; A series of researchers include some groups of monuments of Eastern European forest-steppe.

In Central Asia and South Siberia, the end of the "Scythian Siberian World" era is associated with the elevation of the Junna's unification at the end of the 3th century to our era in the Module. Although in the middle of the 1st century before our era, it broke out, the South Hongna fell into the orbit of Chinese influence, and the Northern Hunna were finally crushed by the middle of the 2nd centuries of our era, the "Hunnskaya" era prolongs until the middle of the 1st millennium of our era. Monuments related to Syunnu (Hunna) are known for a significant part of the Transbaikalia (for example, the Ilolginsky Archaeological Complex, Ilm Pad), Mongolia, Steppe Manchuria and indicate the complex ethnocultural composition of this association. Along with the penetration of Hunn, the development of local traditions continued in South Siberia [in Tuva - Sumracian culture, in Khakassia - Tesinsky type (or stage) and Tashtyk culture, etc.]. The ethnic and military-political history of Central Asia in the Iron Institute is largely based on Chinese written sources. You can trace the nomination of one or more associations of nomads, spreading power into extensive spaces, their decay, absorption as follows, etc. (Donghu, Tabgachi, Zhuzhan, etc.). The complexity of the composition of these associations, a weak study of a number of regions of Central Asia, dating difficulties, etc. makes them comparison with archaeological monuments while very hypothetical.

The next era of the history of the steppes of Asia and Europe is associated with the dominance of carriers of Turkic languages, the formation of the Turkic kaganate, who changed its other medieval military-political associations and states.

The culture of the settlement population of forest-steppes Eastern Europe, Urals, Siberia was often part of Scythian-Siberian, "Sarmatian", "Hongsky" "worlds", but could form cultural communities with forest tribes or formed their own cultural areas.

In the forest zone of the Upper Pononania and the Mobile, Podneprovye and the eaidis of the Bronze Age continued the stroken ceramics culture, on the basis of mainly local cultures, Dnieper-Dvinsky culture, Dyakovsky culture. In the early stages of their development of iron, although it was common, but did not become dominant raw materials; Monuments of this circle Archaeologists on mass findings of bone products on the main objects of excavations - settlements were characterized as "bonnetal settlements". The mass use of iron here begins near the end of the 1st millennium BC, when changes and in other areas of culture occur, migrations are noted. Therefore, for example, in relation to the cultures of stroked ceramics and the Dyakovsky researchers, the corresponding "early" and "late" cultures are appropriate.

According to the origin and appearance of early Dyakovsky culture, the Gorodetskaya culture has been close to the east. The ER is a significant expansion of its range to the south and north, to the taiga regions of the breasts of the wind. About the turn of ER in her area the population is promoted due to the Volga; The cultural groups associated with the tradition of St. Andreevsky Kurgan are being formed from Sura to Ryazan ashama. On their basis, the culture of the late iron century, associated with carriers of Finno Volga languages.

Milogradskaya culture and Yukhnovskaya culture, in which a significant influence of the Scythian culture and Lathen be traced in the southern zone. Several waves of migrations from the Vistul-Oder region led to the appearance of Pomeranian and Prshorsk cultures on Volyn and Prshorskiy cultures, the formation of Zarubinetsky culture for the most part of the south of the forest and forest-steppe subway. It, along with the Okkyvskaya, Pshevorskaya, the town of Lukashevsky, is distinguished in the "Latenized" circle, noting the special influence of Latence culture. In the 1st century, Zarubinetskaya culture survived the decay, but on the basis of its traditions, with the participation of more northern populations, the monuments of the Latezarubinetskih horizon are formed, which are based on the basis of Kiev culture, which determined the cultural appearance of the forest and part of the forest-steppe subnet in 3-4 centuries of our era. Based on the Volyn monuments of Pshevorsk culture in the 1st century, the era is formed by a torsion culture.

With cultures that perceived the components of Pomeranian culture, first of all, on the so-called Zarubinetskaya line, the researchers associate the formation of the Slavs.

In the middle of the 3th century, Chernyakhov culture has developed from the Nizhny Danube to the Seversky Donets, the Velbar culture has played a significant role, the distribution of which is associated with migrations and hepids to the southeast. The collapse of social and political structures related to the Chernyakh culture, under the blows of the Huns at the end of the 4th century, our era marked the beginning of a new era in the history of Europe - the great resettlement of peoples.

In the north-east of Europe, the beginning of the Iron Age is associated with an Ananyan cultural and historical area. In the territory of North-Western Russia and part of Finland, cultures are common in which the components of the Ananyan and textile ceramics of cultures are intertwined with local (Loukensari Kudoma, Late Cargopol Culture, Late Bellar and others). In the pools of Rivers Pechors, Vyselds, Mezeni, Northern Dvina, monuments appear, in the ceramics of which the development of a comb-ornamental tradition related to the Lebiazhsky culture continued, while new ornamental motives indicate cooperation with the Prikamskiy and Trans-Ural groups of the population.

By the 3th century BC, on the basis of Ananinskaya, the commonality of the Pianoborsk culture and Glyadenovsky culture (see Glyadenovo). The upper boundary of the cultures of the Pianoborsky circle, a number of researchers consider the middle of the 1st millennium of our era, others allocate for 3-5 centuries Mazuno culture, azelian culture, etc. The new stage of historical development is associated with a number of migrations, including the emergence of monuments of the Harino circle, which led to The formation of medieval cultures associated with carriers of modern Perm languages.

In the mining and taiga regions of the Urals and Western Siberia in the early Iron Instokee, crossed ceramics culture, IKuli culture, comb clean Ceramics, the culture of the West Siberian Circle, Ust-Semi-Russian Culture, Kulay Culture, Beloyarskaya, Novocykinskaya, Bogozynskaya et al.; In the 4th century BC, the orientation for non-ferrous metalworking was maintained here (the center was connected here, which supplied many areas, including steppe, raw materials and copper products), in some cultures, the spread of black metallurgy refers to the 3rd third of the 1st Millennium BC. This cultural circle is associated with the ancestors of the carriers of the part of modern Ugrian languages \u200b\u200band self-independent languages.

Iron products from the burial ground Barsovsky III (Surgut Priobye). 6-2 / 1st century BC (according to V. A. Borzunov, Yu. P. Cheyakin).

The region was the region of the forest-steppe crops of Western Siberia, the northern periphery of the world of nomads, connected to the southern branch of the Ugron (Vorobyevskaya and Narlovo-Baitovskaya culture; they were replaced by Sargati culture, Gorokhovsky culture). In the forest-steppe arrival in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BC, Kizhirovskaya, Old Oil, Kamenskaya culture, which sometimes unite in one community spread. A part of the forest-steppe population was involved in the migration of the middle of the 1st millennium of our era, the other part of the Irtysh was moved to the north (Potchevash culture). According to Ob to South, up to Altai, there was the spread of Kulay culture (Verkhneobskaya culture). The remaining population associated with the traditions of Sargat and Kamensky cultures, in the Middle Ages era, was turkiized.

In the forest cultures of Eastern Siberia (late yyamyatsky culture, Phaciangskaya, Ceepan, Ust-Milsk, etc.), bronze products are few, mainly imported, iron treatment appears no earlier than the end of the 1st millennium BC of the Era of the Amur region and Primorye. These cultures are left by mobile groups of hunters and fishermen - the ancestors of Yukagir, the northern part of the Tungus-Manchurian peoples, Chukchi, Koryakov, etc.

Eastern areas of Asia. In the cultures of the Russian Far East, the Northeast of China and Korea, the bronze age is not expressed so bright as in Siberia or in more southern regions, but at the turn of the 2nd and old millennium BC, the development of iron has begun here in the framework of Urile culture and Yankovsky culture, and then changed their Talakan, Olginsky, Palcese culture and other cultures close to them from the territory of China (Wanyanhe, Guntotulin, Fanlin) and Korea. Some of these crops are associated with the ancestors of the southern part of the Tunguso-Manchurian peoples. More northern monuments (Lakhtinskaya, Okhotsk, Ust-Belskaya and other cultures) are the branches of the Rymyakhata culture, which in the middle of the 1st millennium BC reaches Chukotka and, interacting with Paleoee, are involved in the formation of ancient-Beringomorsk culture. The presence of iron cutters indicate, first of all, the rotary tips of bone harpunov are evidenced.

On the territory of Korea, the manufacture of guns from stone prevailed throughout the bronze century and the start of the Iron Age, made of metal, were mainly weapons, some types of decorations and others. The propagation of iron is referred to by the middle of the 1st millennium BC, when such an union of Coson was formed; Later the history of these crops is related to the Chinese conquests, the formation and development of local states (Kogouria, etc.). On the Japanese islands, the iron appeared and was distributed during the development of the yoy of culture, within the framework of which tribal unions were developed in the 2nd century, and then the State Education of Yamato. In Southeast Asia, the beginning of the Iron Age falls on the era of the formation of the first states.

Africa. In the Mediterranean regions, significant parts of the Nile basin, in the Red Sea, the formation of the Iron Age occurred on the basis of the cultures of the Bronze Age, within the framework of civilizations (Egypt Ancient, MeroEE), due to the appearance of colonies from the china, the flourishing of the Carthage; By the end of the 1st millennium BC, Mediterranean Africa became part of the Roman Empire.

A feature of the development of more southern crops is the lack of a bronze century. The penetration of iron metallurgy to the south of the Sahara part of the researchers are associated with the influence of MEREC. More and more arguments are expressed in favor of another point of view, according to which the ways through sugar played an important role. Such could be "road chariots", reconstructed by rocky images, they could pass through the Fetzan, as well as where the ancient state of Ghana was developed, etc. In some cases, iron production could focus in specialized areas, monopolized by their inhabitants, and blacksmiths - to form closed communities; Communities of varying economic specialization and level of development adjacent. All this, as well as the weak archaeological examination of the continent make our idea of \u200b\u200bthe development of the Iron Age here is very hypothetical.

In West Africa, the oldest evidence of the production of iron products (the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BC) is associated with the culture of NOC, its ratio with synchronous and later cultures is not much clear, but no later than the 1st half of the 1st millennium Our ere iron was known in all West Africa. However, even on monuments related to state formations of the late 1st millennium - the 1st half of the 2nd millennium of our era (igubo, Iifa, Benin et al.), Iron products are a bit, in the colonial period it was one of import items.

On the east coast of Africa, the Iron Vsek includes the cultures of Azania, and in relation to them there is information about the import of iron. An important stage in the history of the region is associated with the development of trade settlements with the participation of immigrants from South-West Asia, first of all, Muslims (such as Kilva, Mogadishu, etc.); Iron Centers are known for this time on written and archaeological sources.

In the Congo basin, inner areas of East Africa and south, the propagation of iron is associated with cultures belonging to the tradition of "ceramics with a concave bottom" ("hole at the bottom", etc.) and the traditions close to it. The start of metallurgy in separate places of these regions refer to different segments of the 1st half (no later than the middle) of the 1st millennium of our era. Migrants from these lands probably brought iron for the first time and in South Africa. A number of "empires" in the Zambezi River basin, Congo (Zimbabwe, Kitara, etc.) were associated with the export of gold, ivory, etc.

The new stage in the history of Africa south of Sahara is associated with the advent of European colonies.

Lit.: Mongight A. L. Archeology of Western Europe. M., 1973-1974. Kn. 1-2; Coghlan N. N. Notes on Prehistoric and Early Iron In The Old World. OXF., 1977; Waldbaum J. S. From Bronse to Iron. Gött., 1978; The COMING OF THE AGE OF IRON. New haven; L., 1980; Iron Africa. M., 1982; Archeology of Foreign Asia. M., 1986; Steppes of the European part of the USSR in Scythian Sarmatian time. M., 1989; Tylecote R. F. A HISTORY OF METALLURGY. 2nd ed. L., 1992; The steppe strip of the Asian part of the USSR in Scythian Sarmatian time. M., 1992; Schukin M. B. at the turn of the ER. St. Petersburg, 1994; Essays on the history of the ancient iron processing in Eastern Europe. M., 1997; Collis J. The European Iron Age. 2nd ed. L., 1998; Yalçin ü. Early Iron Metallurgy in Anatolia // Anatolian Studies. 1999. Vol. 49; Kantorovich A. R., Kuzminy S. V. Early Iron Institute // BRE. M., 2004. T.: Russia; Troitskaya T. N., Novikov A. V. Archeology of the West Siberian Plain. Novosib., 2004; Russian Far East in antiquity and Middle Ages; discoveries, problems, hypotheses. Vladivostok, 2005; Kuzmini S. V. Final Bronze and Early Iron Age of the North of European Russia // II Northern Archaeological Congress. Yekaterinburg; Khanty-Mansiysk, 2006; Archeology. M., 2006; Koryakova L. N., Epimakhov A. E. The Urals and Western Siberia in The Bronze and Iron Ages. Camb., 2007.

I. O. Gavritukhin, A. R. Kantorovich, S. V. Kuzminy.

The abundance of secrets is hidden in world history, and still researchers leave hope to open something new in famous facts. Moments that are still waiting and unusual, when you are aware that we once in the same lands, for which we now go, dinosaurs were fighting, knights were fighting, a world history was struck by the camp of their periodization laid two principles relevant to the formation of a human race - material For the production of labor instruments and manufacturing technology. In accordance with these principles, the concepts of "Stone Age", "Bronze Age", "Iron" age appeared. Each of these periodizations was a step in the development of mankind, the next turn of the evolution and knowledge of human capabilities. Naturally, there were absolutely passive moments in history. With unsumemented antiquity and until today, there is a regular replenishment of the knowledge and the development of new ways to obtain useful materials.

World history and first time dating methods

Natural sciences have become a tool for dating time segments. In particular, you can bring the radio carbon method, geological dating, dendrochronology. The rapid development of an ancient person has made it possible to improve existing technologies. Approximately 5 thousand years ago, when the written period began in other prerequisites for dating, which was based on the existence of various states and civilizations. Approximately believe that the period of the allocation of a person from the world of animals began about two million years ago, until the fall of the Western Roman Empire, which happened in 476 by the new era, followed the period of antiquity. Before the start of the Renaissance were the Middle Ages. Until the end of the First World War, a period of new history lasted, and now it's time for the newest. Historians of different times set their "anchors" of reference, for example, Herodotus paid special attention to the struggle of Asia with Europe. Scientists of the later period considered the main event in the development of civilization approval of the Roman Republic. Many historians converge in their assumption that for the Iron Age, the culture and art did not have much importance, since the instruments of war and labor were published.

Metal era backgrounds

In primitive history, a stone age is allocated, including Paleolithic, mesolithic and neolithic. Each periods are marked by the development of man and its innovation in stone processing. At first, the widespread hand turned out of the guns. Later there were tools from stone elements, and not a whole stuff. During this period there was a development of fire, the creation of the first clothing from the skins, the first religious cults and the arrangement of housing. During the six-bed lifestyle of man and hunting on large animals, more advanced weapons were required. The further round of the development of stones processing technologies came on the turn of the Millennium and the end of the Stone Age, when agriculture and cattle breeding was spread, ceramic production appeared. Copper and technology of its processing were mastered in the metal era. The beginning of the Iron Age laid the front of work for the future. The study of the properties of metals was consistently led to the discovery of bronze and its distribution. A century stone, bronze, iron is a single harmonious process of human development, based on massive movements of peoples.

Actual data on the duration of the era

The propagation of iron refers to the primitive and early-grade history of mankind. The characteristic features of the period are trends in metallurgy and the production of guns. Still in the ancient world an idea of \u200b\u200bthe classification of centuries according to the material was formed. Early Iron Age studied and continue to study scientists in a variety of spheres. In Western Europe, the volume of labor issued
Görnese, Montelsus, Tischler, Reinek, Kostoshevsky, etc. In Eastern Europe, the relevant textbooks, monographs and cards of the software produced the towns, Spitsyn, Gauty, Tretyakov, Smirnov, Artamonov, Counts. Often consider the spread of iron with a characteristic feature of tribes that lived outside civilizations. In fact, all countries in their time survived the Iron Institute. The bronze age at the same time was only a prerequisite. He did not occupy such an extensive time in history. The chronologically iron eyelid occupies the period from the 9th to the 7th century to our era. At this time, many tribes of Europe and Asia received impetus to the development of its own iron metallurgy. Since this metal remains the most important production material, then modernity is part of this century.

Culture period

The development of production and the spread of iron quite logically led to the modernization of culture and all social life. Economic prerequisites have emerged for working relationships and breakdown of tribal text. Ancient history notes the accumulation of values, the growth of property inequality and mutually beneficial exchange of the parties. Strengths were widely applied, the formation of class society and the state began. More funds passed into the private property of the elected minority, slavery arose and the stratification of society was progressed.

How did the century manifest itself in the USSR?

At the end of the second millennium BC, iron appeared on the territory of the Union. Among the most ancient places of development can be noted Western Georgia and Transcaucasia. The monuments of the early Iron Age are preserved in the South European part of the USSR. But the mass fame of metallurgy here was here in the first millennium BC, which confirm a number of archaeological artifacts from bronze in Transcaucasia, cultural relics of the North Caucasus and the Black Sea and others. In the implementation of the excavations of Scythian settlements, invaluable monuments of the early Iron Age were discovered. Finds are made on the Kamensky settlement near Nikopol.

History of materials in Kazakhstan

Historically, the Iron Age is divided into two periods. This is an early, which lasted from the 8th to 3 century to our era, and the late, which lasted from the 3rd century BC to our era to the 6th century of our era. Each country has an iron propagation period in its history, but the peculiarities of this process are highly dependent on the region. So, the Iron Age on the territory of Kazakhstan was marked by events in three major regions. In southern Kazakhstan, cattle breeding and irrigation agriculture are common. Climatic conditions did not assume agriculture classes. And the North, East and Central Kazakhstan inhabited people adapted to harsh winter. These three regions, radically different in terms of living, became the basis for creating three Kazakh zhuza. South Kazakhstan became the place of education of the Senior Jus. The lands of Northern, Eastern and Central Kazakhstan became the welrier of the West Kazakhstan represents the junior zhuz.

Iron Age in Central Kazakhstan

The endless steppe of Central Asia has long become the place of residence of nomads. Here, an ancient story is represented by Kurgan Mogilniks, which are invaluable monuments of the Iron Age. Especially often in the region there were mounds with painting or "ussami", performing, according to scientists, the functions of the lighthouse and compass in the steppe. Attracts the attention of historians Tasmolinsky culture, named so in the area in the Pavlodar region, where the first excavations of a person and a horse in a large and small mound are recorded. Archaeologists of Kazakhstan consider the mounds of Tasmolin culture the most common monuments of the Epoch of the early Iron Age.

Features of the culture of northern Kazakhstan

This region is distinguished by the presence of cattle. Local residents from agricultural classes switched to a settled and Tasmolin culture revered in this region. The attention of researchers of early iron century monuments attract Kurgan Birlik, Alylpasch, Bectenses and three settlements: Karlyga, Bills and Kenotkel. The strengthening of the early Iron Age has preserved on the right bank of the Esil River. The development here was obtained by the art of smelting and processing non-ferrous metals. Metal products produced are transported to Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Kazakhstan for several centuries ahead of his neighbors in the development of ancient metallurgy and therefore became a communicator between the metallurgical centers of his country, Siberia and Eastern Europe.

"ENGEAL GOLD"

The magnifier Kurgans of Eastern Kazakhstan preferably accumulated in the Shilictian valley. Here are more than fifty. In 1960, a study was conducted by the largest of the Kurgans, which is called gold. This peculiar monument to Iron Age was erected in 8-9 centuries to our era. Zaisansky district of Eastern Kazakhstan allows you to explore more than two hundred largest mounds, of which 50 are called Tsari and may contain gold. In the Shilictian valley is the oldest on the land of Kazakhstan of the royal burial of the 8th century to our era, which was open to Professor Toleubayev. Among the archaeologists, this discovery made noise, just like the third "golden man" of Kazakhstan. The buried was in clothes, decorated with 4325 gold curly plates. The most interesting find is a pentagonal star with lazulitic rays. Such an object symbolizes power and greatness. This became more evidence that Shikilites, Nezshatyr, Issyk, Berel, Boralday - the sacred places of the ritual rituals, victims and prayers.

Early Iron Institute in Nomad Culture

There are not so many documentary evidence of the ancient culture of Kazakhstan. Preferably, information is obtained from and excavations. About nomads a lot has been said regarding song and dance art. Separately, it is worth noting the skill in the manufacture of ceramic vessels and painting on silver bowls. The propagation of iron in everyday life and production has become a impetus to the improvement of the unique heating system: chimney, which was horizontally laid along the wall, and evenly warmed the whole house. Nomads invented many things familiar today for both domestic use and for use in wartime. They came up with pants, strive, yurt and curved saber. Metal shells were developed to protect horses. The protection of the warrior itself provided iron armor.

Achievements and opening of the period

The Iron Age became the third in line for stone and bronze. But by meaning, is undoubtedly considered the first. Prior to modernity, iron remains the material basis of all inventions of humanity. All important discoveries in the field of production are related to its application. This metal is characterized by a higher melting point compared to copper. In the pure form of natural iron there is no, and the process of smelting from ore is very difficult because of its refill. This metal caused global changes in the life of steppe tribes. Compared to the preceding archaeological epochs, the Iron Age is the shortest, but most efficient. Initially, humanity found out meteorite iron. Some original products and decorations from it were found on the territory of Egypt, Mesopotamia and Malaya Asia. Chronologically, these relics can be attributed to the first half of the third millennium BC. In the second millennium, the technology of obtaining iron from ore was developed before our era, but for quite a long time, this metal was considered a small and expensive and expensive.

The wide production of weapons and glaze tools began to engage in Palestine, Syria, Malaya Asia, Transcaucasia and India. The propagation of this metal, and also began to provoke a technical coup, expanding the power of a person over nature. Now the clearing of large forest territories under the crops has simplified. Modernization of labor instruments and improvement of land processing were promptly. Accordingly, new crafts were promptly recognized, especially blacksmith and weapons. There were no shoemakers who received more advanced tools. Masonry and mines began to work more efficiently.

Summarizing the results of the Iron Age, it can be noted that by the beginning of our era, all the main varieties of hand tools were already in the course (with the exception of screws and hinge scissors). Thanks to the use of iron in production, there was a much simpler construction of roads, a military equipment has advanced to step forward, and a metal coin has entered the turnover. The Iron Age accelerated and provoked the collapse of the primitive community, as well as the formation of class society and statehood. Many communities in this period adhered to the so-called

Possible development paths

It is worth noting that in small quantities there existed in Egypt, but the spread of the metal became possible with the beginning of ore smelting. Initially, iron melted only when such a need arises. Thus, fragments of metal inclusions were found in Syria and Iraq monuments, which were erected no later than 2,700 BC. But after the 11th century before our era of the Master of the forge of Eastern Anatolia, they learned the science of systematic manufacture of iron items. The secrets and subtleties of the new science were preserved in secret and passed from generation to generation. The first historical finds confirming the fact of widespread use of metal for the manufacture of instruments are fixed in Israel, namely in Geraré near Gaza. There was a huge amount of hoe, sickles and chambers of iron, dated period after 1200 to our era. Also in the places of excavations were detected by melting furnaces.

Special metal processing technologies belong to Western Asian masters, whose Masters of Greece, Italy and the remaining part of Europe borrowed them. The British technical coup can be attributed to the period after 700 to our era, and there he began and developed very smoothly. Egypt and North Africa showed interest in mastering the metal around at the same time with further transmission of skill in the south side. Chinese craftsmen almost completely abandoned bronze, preferred sharpened iron. European colonists brought their knowledge about metal processing technology in Australia and new light. After the invention of blower fur, the iron cast has become widespread on a massive scale. The cast iron has become an indispensable material for creating all sorts of home utensils and military equipment, which was a productive impetus for the development of metallurgy.

Iron Age - a new step in the development of mankind.
The Iron Institute, the Epoch in the primitive and early-grade history of mankind characterized by the propagation of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron guns. Replaced the Bronze Age mainly at the beginning of the 1st thousand to n. e. The use of iron gave a powerful impetus to production development and accelerated public development. In the iron century, the majority of the peoples of Eurasia occurred the decomposition of the primitive bureau and the transition to the class society. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe three centuries: stone, bronze and iron - arose in the ancient world (titles of Lucretia car). The term "Iron Age" was introduced into science around the middle of the 19th century. Danish archaeologist K. Yu. Tomsen. The most important studies, the initial classification and dating of monuments by the Iron Age in Western Europe were made by the Austrian scientist M. Gurnsom, Swedish - O. Montelus and O. Oberg, German - O. Tischer and P. Reineek, French - J. Dessel, Czech - I. Whisk and Polish - Yu. Koshevsky; in Eastern Europe - Russian and Soviet scientists V. A. Goldovov, A. A. Spitsyn, Yu. V. Gautier, P. N. Tretyakov, A. P. Smirnov, H. A. Moro, M. I. Artamonov, B. N. County, etc.; in Siberia - S. A. Tepshov, S. V. Kiselev, S. I. Rudenko et al.; in the Caucasus - B. A. Kuftin, A. A. Iessen, B. B. Piotrovsky, E. I. Rodnov, etc.; In Central Asia - S. P. Tolstovy, A. N. Bernshantam, A. I. Terenozhkin, etc.
The period of the initial distribution of the iron industry was survived by all countries at different times, however, only the cultures of primitive tribes that lived outside the territories of the ancient slave-ownership civilizations that arose in the era of Eneolita and Bronze (Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, India, China, etc. are usually attributed to the Iron Age. ). The Iron Age is relatively with the previous archaeological epochs (stone and bronze centuries) very short. His chronological boundaries: from 9-7 centuries. BC E. When many of the primitive tribes of Europe and Asia gained the development of its own iron metallurgy, and until the time of the occurrence of these tribes of class society and the state.
Some modern foreign scientists who consider the end of a primitive history of the appearance of written sources, belong to the end of J. in. Western Europe to 1 c. BC e. When Roman written sources appear, containing information about Western European tribes. Since both the iron remains the most important metal, from alloys of which the tools of labor are manufactured, the term "early iron age" is also applied for archaeological periodization of primitive history. On the territory of Western Europe, the early iron century is only its beginning (t. Halstatt culture).
Initially, mankind became known meteorite iron. Separate iron objects (mainly jewelry) 1st half of the 3rd thousand to n. e. Found in Egypt, Mesopotamia and Malaya Asia. The method of obtaining iron from ore was opened in 2nd thousand to n. e. According to one of the most likely assumptions, the cheese process (see below) was first applied by subordinate hittons tribes who lived in the Armenian Mountains (AntiTavr) at 15 V. BC e. However, for a long time, iron remained a small and proclaimed and very valuable metal. Only after 11 V. BC e. A rather wide manufacture of iron weapons and labor guns in Palestine, Syria, Malaya Asia, Transcaucasia, India began. At the same time, iron becomes famous in the south of Europe.
In 11-10 centuries. BC e. Separate iron items penetrate into the area lying north of the Alps, are found in the steppes of the south of the European part of the modern territory of the USSR, but iron tools begin to prevail in these areas only from 8-7 centuries. BC e. In the 8th century BC e. Iron products are widely distributed in Mesopotamia, Iran and a slightly later in Central Asia. The first news of the hardware in China belongs to the 8th century. BC e., but it is distributed only from 5 V. BC e. In Indochier and Indonesia, iron prevails at the turn of our era. Apparently, with a deep antiquity, iron metallurgy was known for various African tribes. Undoubtedly, already in 6 c. BC e. Iron was made in Nubia, Sudan, Libya. In 2nd. BC e. The Iron Age has come in the Central region of Africa. Some African tribes switched from the stone century to the iron, the passing bronze. In America, Australia and on most of the Pacific islands, iron (except meteorite) has become known only in 16-17 centuries. n. e. With the appearance of Europeans in these regions.
Unlike relatively rare copper deposits and especially tin, iron ores, however, most often low-grade (brown troops) are almost everywhere. But getting iron from ore is much more difficult than copper. Iron melting was unavailable for ancient metallurgists. The iron was prepared in a tough condition using a cheese process, which consisted in the restoration of iron ore at a temperature of about 900-1350 ° C in special furnaces - mining mines with forging with forge-sized nozzle. At the bottom of the furnace, a criter was formed - a lump of porous iron weighing 1-5 kg, which it was necessary to pierce for the seal, as well as the removal of slag from her.
Cheese iron - very soft metal; The tools and weapons made from pure iron had low mechanical qualities. Only with the opening of 9-7 centuries. BC e. The methods of manufacturing steel from iron and its heat treatment begins the wide distribution of new material. Higher mechanical quality of iron and steel, as well as the accessibility of iron ore and the low cost of the new metal, provided to them bronze, as well as stone, which remained an important material for the production of tools and in the bronze age. It happened not immediately. In Europe, only in the 2nd half of the 1st thousand to n. e. Iron and steel began to play a truly significant role as a material for the manufacture of guns and weapons.
The technical coup caused by the propagation of iron and steel, much expanded the power of a person over nature: it became possible to clearing under the crop of large forest areas, the expansion and improvement of irrigation and landlocative structures and the improvement in the overall processing of the Earth. The development of crafts is accelerated, especially for blacks and weapons. Treatment of wood is improved for the purposes of houseworking, production of vehicles (ships, chariots, etc.), the manufacture of various utensils. Craftsmen, starting with shoemakers and mason and ending with mines, also received more advanced tools. By the beginning of our era, all the main types of craft and agricultural hand-held guns (except screws and hinged scissors) used in the Middle Ages, and partly and in a new time were already in the go. The construction of roads was facilitated, the military equipment was improved, the exchange was expanded, it was spread as a means of circulation a metal coin.
The development of productive forces associated with the propagation of iron, over time led to the transformation of all social life. As a result of the growth of labor productivity, the surplus product increased, which, in turn, served as an economic prerequisite for the emergence of human exploitation by a man, breakdown of a tribal primitive system. One of the sources of accumulation of values \u200b\u200band the growth of property inequality was expanded in the Epoch of the Iron Age. The possibility of enrichment at the expense of operation gave rise to war with the goal of robbery and enslavement. At the beginning of the Iron Age, fortifications are widely distributed. In the era of the Iron Century, the tribes of Europe and Asia experienced the stage of the decay of the primitive community, were on the eve of the occurrence of class society and the state. The transition of some means of production to the private property of the dominant minority, the emergence of slavery, increased bundle of society and separating the tribal aristocracy from the majority of the population are already traits typical of early class societies. In many tribes, the social structure of this transition period has taken a political form of so-called. military democracy.
Iron Age on the USSR. At the modern territory of the USSR, iron first appeared at the end of the 2nd mil. e. In the Transcaucasia (Samtavra Mogination) and on Y. European part of the USSR. The development of iron in Rarth (Western Georgia) is ascebated to deep ancient times. Mossyna and Khalibov who lived next door to Kolkhami and Khaliba. However, the wide distribution of iron metallurgy on the territory of the USSR refers to the 1st thousand to n. e. In the Transcaucasus, a number of archaeological crops of the end of the Bronze Age are known, the flourishing of which is already among the early Iron Ventation: Centrally Transcaucasian culture with local foci in Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, Kyzyl-vanka culture, Collii culture, URRTA culture. In the North Caucasus: Coban culture, Kajanth-Horochoe culture and the bonus culture.
In the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region in the 7th century BC e. - first centuries n. e. Scythian tribes lived, creating the most developed culture of the early Iron Age on the territory of the USSR. Iron products are found in abundance on settlements and in the mounds of Scythian time. Signs of metallurgical production were found during the excavations of a number of Scythian settlements. The largest amount of remnants of iron and blacksmiths was found at the Kamensky settlement (5-3 centuries. BC) near Nikopol, which appeared, apparently, the center of the specialized metallurgical area of \u200b\u200bthe ancient Scythia. Iron tools contributed to the widespread development of all sorts of crafts and distribution among the local tribes of the Scythian time of pasty agriculture.
The next after the Scythian period of the early Iron century in the steppes of the Black Sea region is represented by the Sarmatian culture that dominated here from 2 V. BC e. up to 4 c. n. e. In the preceding time from 7 c. BC e. Sarmatians (or savromates) lived between Don and Urals. In the first centuries n. e. One of the Sarmatian tribes - Alans - began to play a significant historical role and gradually the very name of Sarmata was supplanted by the name of Alans. In addition, when the Sarmatian tribes dominated the Northern Black Sea region, they include the Northern Black Sea region, the Upper and Middle Dnieper and the Transnistria of the Culture "Fields of Burdes" (Zarubinetskaya culture, Chernyakhovsky culture, etc.). These cultures belonged to agricultural tribes that knew the metallurgy of iron, including, according to some scientists, there were ancestors of Slavs. The tribes inhabited in the central and northern forest areas of the USSR were familiar with iron metallurgy from 6-5 centuries. BC e. In 8-3 centuries. BC e. Ananyin culture was common in Prikamye, for which the coexistence of bronze and iron guns is characterized, with the undoubted superiority of the latter at the end of it. Ananyan culture at Kame changed the Pianoborsk culture (the end of the 1st thousand to n. E. - 1st half of the 1st thousand. N. E.).
In the Upper Volga region and in the areas of the Volga-Okok Meternrachia, the settlement of the Dyakovsky culture (the middle of the 1st thousand to N. e. - the middle of the 1st thousand n. E.), And in the territory of the territory of the average Oki's currents, to Z. from the Volga, in the PR Pool. Tsna and Moksha, the settlement of Gorodetskaya culture (7th century BC. E. - 5 V. N. E.), belonged to the ancient Finno - Ugric tribes. In the field of the upper subway, the numerous settlements of the 6th century are known. BC e. - 7th century. n. E., belonged to the ancient Eastern Baltian tribes, later absorbed by the Slavs. The settlements of the same tribes are known in the southeastern Baltic States, where along with them there are both the remains of culture belonging to the ancestors of the ancient Estonian (manty) tribes.
In South Siberia and in Altai, due to the abundance of copper and tin, the bronze industry has greatly developed, a long time has been successfully competing with iron. Although iron products appeared already in early Mayamir time (Altai; 7 V. BC), iron is widely spread only in the middle of the 1st thousand to n. e. (Taganskaya culture on Yenisei, Pazyryk mounds in Altai, etc.). The culture of the Iron Age is also presented in other parts of Siberia and the Far East. On the territory of Central Asia and Kazakhstan to 8-7 centuries. BC e. The guns and weapons were also made of bronze. The appearance of iron products in both agricultural oases and a cattle steppe can be attributed to 7-6 centuries. BC e. Throughout the 1st thousand to n. e. and in the 1st half of the 1st thousand n. e. The steppes of Central Asia and Kazakhstan were inhabited by numerous Sako-Usunsky tribes, in whose culture of iron was widespread from the middle of the 1st thousand to n. e. In agricultural oases, the time of the appearance of iron coincides with the emergence of the first slaveholding states (Bactria, Sogd, Khorezm).
The Iron Instant on the territory of Western Europe is usually divided into 2 periods - Galstatatsky (900-400 BC), which was also called the early, or the first Iron Institute, and Latensky (400 BC. E. - Start n. E.) called late or second. Galstatat culture was distributed in modern Austria, Yugoslavia, Northern Italy, partly Czechoslovakia, where it was created by the ancient Illyrians, and on the territory of modern Germany and the Priest departments of France, where the Celt tribes lived. By the same time, close to Galstatat culture include the Thracian tribes in the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula, Etruscan, Ligurian, Italy and others. Tribes on the Apennine Peninsula, the culture of the beginning of the Iron Age of the Pyrenees Peninsula (Iberov, Turdates, Lusitans, etc.) and Late Luzhitskaya Culture in PP pools. Oder and Vistula. For early Galstatt time, the coexistence of bronze and iron workers and weapons and gradual impact of bronze are characterized. In economic relations, this era is characterized by increasing agriculture, in the social - disintegration of generic relations. In the north of modern Germany, in Scandinavia, Western France and England, at this time there was still a bronze age. From the beginning of the 5th century Laten culture is distributed, characterized by genuine flowering of the Iron Industry. Laten culture talked to the conquest of the Romans of Gaul (1 V. BC), the distribution area of \u200b\u200bthe Latencian culture - the land to the west of the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean on average the Danube and north of him. Laten culture is associated with Celts tribes that had large fortified cities that were centers of tribes and places of concentration of a variety of remodes. In this era, the Celts gradually creates a class slave-owned society. Bronze tools are no longer found, but the greatest distribution receives iron in Europe during the Roman conquest period. At the beginning of our era, in the conquered Rome regions, the Laten culture replaced the so-called. Provincial Roman culture. In the north of Europe, iron spread almost 300 years later than in the south. By the end of the Iron Age, the culture of the German tribes inhabited in the territory between the Northern Sea and PP. Rhine, Danube and Elbe, as well as in the south of the Scandinavian Peninsula, and archaeological cultures that are considered to be the ancestors of Slavs. In the Northern countries, the complete domination of iron came only at the beginning of our era.

Early Iron Institute - Archaeological Epoch with which the use of items made from iron ore begins. The earliest iron furnaces dating back to the 1st floor. II thousand BC. Detected in the territory of Western Georgia. In Eastern Europe and the Eurasian steppe and the forest-steppe, the beginning of the era coincides with the time of the formation of early binding formations of Scythian and Saki types (approximately the VIII-VII centuries. BC). In Africa, it came immediately after the Stone Age (there is no bronze age). In America, the beginning of the Iron Age is associated with European colonization. In Asia and Europe began, almost simultaneously. The early iron century is also called the first stage of the Iron Age of the border of which are the final stages of the era of the great resettlement of peoples (IV-VI centuries. N.E.). In general, the Iron Age includes all the Middle Ages, and on the basis of the definition, this era lasts so far. The term "Iron Age" Archaeologists are used to denote the period of human history, during which iron has become commonwriter for the manufacture of weapons and weapons. Meteoric iron was used in small quantities for a very long time - even in Dodinal Egypt, - but the end of the bronze century in the economy became possible only with the development of iron ore melting. Probably, at first Iron was accidentally paid in the furnaces who served to fill high-quality ceramics - and indeed, pieces of smelted iron were found on the monuments of Syria and Iraq, dated no later than 2,700 BC. But only twelve or thirteen centuries, the blacksmiths learned how to give metal an elasticity, mounted hot forging with hardening with water. It is possible to argue almost with complete confidence that this discovery was made in Eastern Anatolia, especially rich iron ore. The Hetta was about two hundred years kept him secretly, but after the fall of their state ok. 1200 BC The technology has been distributed and the crystal iron has become a publicly available material. One of the oldest finds testifying to the use of iron for the manufacture of weapons of everyday use is made in Gerara near Gaza (Palestine), where in the layer dated OK. 1200 BC, melting mines were excavated and iron hoes, sickles and coulters were found. Iron treatment has spread throughout the entire anterior Asia, and from there to Greece, Italy and the rest of Europe, but in each of these regions, the transition from the previous embodiment based on the processing of bronze was in different ways. In Egypt, this process was stretched almost to the era of the Ptolemyev and the Roman period, whereas outside of those areas of the ancient world, where bronze was widely used, the ferrous craft was established relatively quickly. From Egypt, it gradually spread almost through the entire African continent, and in most regions, the stone age directly changed; In Australia and Oceania, as in the new light, the practice of smelting iron has penetrated with the opening of these regions by Europeans. Early iron products were made only from curvature iron, since the casting of this metal was not widespread until the introduction of 14 V. Gores with mechanics led by water. However, the development of shock gland caused a number of technical innovations - for example, hinged pliers, turning and planing machines, a mill with rotating millstones, - the introduction of which, facilitating the cleaning of the land overgrown with forest and ensuring a jump in the development of agriculture, laid the foundations of modern civilization.