What is studying biological sciences: a list of applied items. Biology of man

Biology scientists and their contribution to the development of biology

• Aristotle - one of the founders of biology as science; The first summarized the biological knowledge accumulated before him by mankind; Developed the systematics of animals by determining the place of man in it; Located the basics descriptive and comparative anatomy, characterizing the OK 500 species of animals.
• Abu Ali Ibn Sina - In the first he wrote the encyclopedia of theoretical and clinical medicine "Canon of medical science"; One of the first laid the foundation of pediatrics; Created several hundred new types of drugs related to both traditional medicine and obtained by chemistry.
• Abu Reichan Mohammed Ibn Ahmet Al-Biruni - The author of Labor "Formagnetic medicine" is a book about honey. preparations.
• Brown. - Cell core.
• Bair K.E. - mammalian egg, the law of germinal resemblance.
• Vavilov - Centers of origin of cultivated plants, the law of homologous series of inheritance variability.
• Jesalia Andreas - the author of the work "On the structure of the human body"; Created anatomical terminology in Latin.
• Vernadsky I.V. - Teaching about the biosphere and the noosphere.
• Virhov - cell theory, new cells are formed by dividing old.
• Galen Claudius - laid the foundations of human anatomy; The concept of blood movement in the history of science was created in the history of science (the liver consisted of blood circulation), which existed to 17 V. and refuted by W. Gorel.
• GARVEY. - Small circle of blood circulation. Made the greatest scientific achievement - the discovery of blood circulation in the 17th century one of the first characterized the initial stages of the development of birds and mammals embryo (1651).
• Geckel, Muller - Biogenetic law.
• Hippocrates - The first who created a scientific medical school; Organisms develop under the laws of nature, the world is continuously changing; Created an idea of \u200b\u200bthe integrity of the body; About the causes of diseases and their forecast; About bodily (constitution) and mental (temperament) properties of a person.
• GUK - First observation of the cell.
• Darwin C. - The theory of natural and artificial selection, the struggle for the existence, the origin of a person from the monkey is an evolutionary teaching. The author of the scientific work "The origin of species by natural selection and preserving favorable races in the struggle for life."
• Ivanovsky - Tobacco mosaic virus.
• Calvin - Glucose formation cycle in chloroplasts.
• Karpechechenko - a prolific hybrid radish and cabbage.
• Kovalevsky A.- Development of Lanctress and Ascidia.
• Kovalevsky V. - Paleontological row of horses.
• Koh Robert - Founder of modern microbiology.
• Krebs. - Cycle cleavage of organic substances in mitochondria.
• Kuwier J. - the theory of disasters. Created the science of minerals - paleontology; In 1812, the doctrine of the four "types" of animals organization was formulated: "vertebrates", "artistic", "soft-walled" and "radiant".
• Leonardo da Vinci - wrote many plants; He studied the structure of the human body, the activity of the heart and the visual function.
• Lamark Zh.B. - The first one who tried to create a slim and holistic theory of the evolution of the living world; Expressed the idea of \u200b\u200bthe development and origin of man from monkey-like ancestors; For the first time introduced the term "biology".
• Levenguk - First observation of bacteria.
• Linny - suggested a system of classification of wildlife; Introduced a binary (double) nomenclature for naming species.
• Mendel G.I. - Laws of heredity. The founder of genetics.
• Mechnikov - Phagocytosis, cellular immunity.
• Miller, Yuri. - Experience confirming the possibility of formation of organic substances from inorganic.
• Morgan TS - chromosomal theory of heredity.
• Navashin- Double fertilization of coated bridges.
• Oparin, Holdane - the hypothesis of the occurrence of life from inorganic substances in an oxygen-free atmosphere.
• Pavlov I.P.- Conditional and unconditional reflexes, learning the digestive glands.
• Paster L. - The principle of creating vaccines, proof of the impossibility of self-relocation of bacteria. Identified the emergence of immunology (together with I.I. Mesnikov).
• Priwley - Experience with mouse and plant, proving the release of oxygen by plants in the light.
• Red - Proof of the impossibility of self-relocation of worms in rotting meat.
• Severstech- The main directions of evolution: idioadaptation, aromorphosis, general degeneration.
• Sechenov I.M. - reflex principle of the nervous system; First proved that red blood cells - oxygen carriers to the tissues from the lungs and carbon dioxide to the lungs from the tissues; Together with tantrics; developed a portable breathing apparatus; Posted by "psychological etudes."
• Sukachev - Teaching about biogeocenosis.
• Wallace - Theory of natural selection.
• Watson D, Creek F- Establishing the DNA structure.
• Fleming A. - closure of antibiotics; Opened Penicillin (September 3, 1928)
• Fries G. - mutational theory; Introduced the concept of "isotonic solution" - aqueous solution, isotonic blood plasma.
• Hardy, Weinberg - Genetics of populations.
• Chetverikov- synthetic theory of evolution.
• Shleden, Svann.- Cell theory.
• Shmalhausen I.I.- stabilizing selection. The doctrine of evolution factors.

A person is born and dying, reproduces offspring. His body has a cellular structure, and each cell consists of complex and simple molecules. Despite this, the human body has a complex system, which consists of a large number of organs connected with each other into a single whole. Therefore, the change in the work of one body causes a change in the work of the whole organism. In addition, the existing irritants of the external and inner medium, the body responds as a single biological system. Higher control provides the brain - the crown of nature.

The project "Biology of a person" contains extended training information, because As part of the school program, it is not always possible to submit enough in full. The proposed training material has, on the one hand, the basic foundation, and, on the other, it motivates the student for independent study and immersion. This is noticeably manifested in schemes, tables, figures made in the Paint program. Schemes and tables will help concentrate on the main thing, and the drawings contribute to the visual perception of a particular organ or part of it. The teacher may at any time use this material both at a lesson or during its preparation and when conducting the individual work of schoolchildren of passionate anatomy.

Not all topics are reflected in the project. Why? We mainly proceeded from the volume of the educational material of the textbook. The material in the section "The Sciences We study the human body" and the "origin of a person" are revealed. The historical material gives an idea of \u200b\u200bthe contribution of the ingenious personalities of different generations to the science, for whom the words "Higher Fale of Science - to serve a person" - more than words. In some sections ("musculoskeletal system", "breathing", "skin", "excretory system", "nervous system") affected issues of an evolutionary nature, which is important for materialistic understanding in training. A selection of "Questions-Answers and Interesting Facts" shows the perfection of the human body. Externally, people are very different from each other, however, general features are traced in the structure of the body of each person. Although the structure of organs and their functions are incredibly complex, human activity in labor, everyday life, sports is coordinated, agreed. Thus, as the ancient said, the multi-consciousness is not the mind, but at the same time it is necessary to recognize that knowledge of the facts contributes to the development of the mental abilities of schoolchildren of different levels.

Literature.

1. D. V. Wheels, R.D. Mash, I.N. Belyaev. Human. 8th grade. -M.: Drop, 2009
2. I. D. Zverev. A book for reading on anatomy, physiology and human hygiene. -M., Enlightenment, 1983
3. Biology Reference Ed. Academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences K. M. Sieve Kiev. Nukova Dumka. 1985.
4. T. L. Bogdanova, E. A. Solodova. Biology. Directory for high school students. -M., "Ast-Press School", 2005
5. A.V. Ganghina. Biology benefits for entering universities. Minsk, Higher School, 1978
6. L. V. Yolkin, Biology. Whole school course in tables. Minsk: Bookmaster: Kuzma, 2013
7. Human. Visual dictionary. Dorling Kindersley Limited, London. Word. 1991.
8. Biology. Human anatomy. Collection of abstracts I, II parts. -M., Eksmo, 2003
9. A. P. Bolshakov. Biology. Entertaining facts and tests. St. Petersburg, parity, 1999
10. M. M. Bondaurant, N. V. Kovylin. Entertaining materials and facts on the anatomy and human physiology in matters and answers. 8-11 classes. Volgograd: Teacher, 2005

From the first days of life, a person is inextricably linked with biology. Acquaintance with this science begins with a school desk, but we have to deal with biological processes or phenomena every day. Further in the article we will look at what biology is. The definition of this term will help to better understand what is included in the circle of interests of the named science.

What is studying biology

The first thing is considered when studying any science is a theoretical explanation of its meaning. So, there are several formulated detects, which is biology. We will look at a few of them. For example:

• Biology is a science of all living organisms living on earth, their interaction with each other and with the environment. Such clarification is most common in school school literature.
• Biology is a complex of exercises, which is engaged in the consideration and knowledge of the living objects of nature. Man, animals, plants, microorganisms - all these are representatives of living organisms.
• And the shortest determination sounds like this: biology is a science of life.

The origin of the term has ancient Greek roots. If we translate literally, then we will be another definition in front of us what biology is. The word consists of two parts: "Bio" - "Life", and "Logos" - "Teaching". That is, everything that in one way or another is related to life enters the scope of biology.

Subsections biology

The definition of biology will become more complete when transferring partitions included in this science:

1. Zoology. It is engaged in the study of the animal world, the classification of animals, their internal and external morphology, livelihood, interconnection with the world, influence on human life. In addition, Zoology considers rare, as well as extinct animal species.
2. Botany. This section of biology related to the vegetation world. It is engaged in the study of plant species, their buildings and physiological processes. In addition to the main issues related to plant morphology, this category of biology studies the use of plants in industry, human life.
3. Anatomy examines the inner and external structure of the body of human and animals, organ systems, systems interaction.

Each biological section has a number of own subcategories, each of which is engaged in the study of the narrower topics of the section. In this case, biology definitions will be several.

What is studying biology

Since the definitions of biology say that this science is alive, therefore, the objects of its study are living organisms. These include:

• human;
• plants;
• animals;
• microorganisms.

Biology is studying and more accurate structures of the body. These include:

1. Cellular molecular is the consideration of organisms at the level of cells and smaller components.
2. Tissue - complex of cells of one orientation adds to tissue structures.
3. Organ - cells and tissues performing one function form organs.
4. Organismen - the system of cells, tissues and organs and their interaction between themselves, forms a full-fledged living organism.
5. Population - the structure is aimed at studying the lives of individuals of one species in a single territory, as well as their interaction within the system and with other species.
6. Biosphere.

Biology is closely related to medicine, so its teachings are also medical advantages. The study of microorganisms, as well as molecular structures of living substances, contributes to the receipt of new drugs to combat various diseases.

What sciences crosses biology

Biology is a science that has close interaction with various sciences of other directions. These include:

1. Chemistry. Biology and chemistry have a close weave of topics and are inextricably linked with each other. Indeed, various biological processes continuously occur in biological objects. A simple example can be called the breath of organisms, photosynthesis of plants, metabolism.
2. Physics. Even in biology there is a subsection called biophysics, which explores the physical processes associated with the vital activity of organisms.

As you can see, biology is a multifaceted science. The definition of what biology is can be rephrased in different ways, but the meaning remains one - this is the doctrine of living organisms.

Biology (from Greek. BIOS - Life, Logos - Word, Science) is a complex of wildlife science.

The subject of biology is all manifestations of life: the structure and functions of living beings, their diversity, origin and development, as well as interaction with the environment. The main task of biology as science consists in interpreting all the phenomena of wildlife on a scientific basis, taking into account that inherent in the property inherent in the root differing from its components.

Biology studies all aspects of life, in particular, the structure, functioning, growth, origin, evolution and distribution of living organisms on Earth, classifies and describes living beings, the origin of their species, interaction between themselves and with the environment.

At the heart of modern biology lie 5 Fundamental Principles:

1. cellian theory.
2. evolution
3. genetics
4. homeostasis
5. energy

Biological sciences

Currently, biology includes a number of sciences that can be systematized by such criteria: subject and predominant methods research and studied living Nature Organization.

By subject researchi Biological sciences are divided into bacteriology, botany, virology, zoology, micrology.

Botany - This is biological science, comprehensively studying plants and vegetation cover of the Earth.

Zoology - section of biology, science of manifold, structure, vital activity, distribution and interrelation of animals with the habitat, their origin and development.

Bacteriology - biological science, studying the structure and vital activity of bacteria, as well as their role in nature.

Virology - Biological science studying viruses.

The main object mycology There are mushrooms, their structure and livelihoods.

Lichenology - biological science studying lichens.

Bacteriology, virology and some aspects of micrology are often discussed in the composition microbiology - section of biology, science of microorganisms (bacteria, viruses and microscopic mushrooms).

Systematics, or taxonomy, - biological science, which describes and classifies all living and extinct creatures by groups.

In turn, each of the listed biological sciences is divided into biochemistry, morphology, anatomy, physiology, embryology, genetics and systematics (plants, animals or microorganisms). Biochemistry - This is the science of the chemical composition of living matter, chemical processes occurring in living organisms and underlying their livelihoods.

Morphology - biological science, which studies the form and structure of organisms, as well as the patterns of their development. In a broad sense, it includes cytology, anatomy, histology and embryology. Differ morphology of animals and plants.

Anatomy - This is a section of biology (more precisely - morphology), science that studies the internal structure and shape of individual organs, systems and the body as a whole. The anatomy of plants is considered in the composition of botany, anatomy of animals - in the composition of zoology, and the human anatomy is a separate science.

Physiology - biological science examining the processes of the vital activity of plant and animal organisms, their individual systems, organs, tissues and cells. There are physiology of plants, animals and humans.

Embryology (development biology) - section of biology, science on the individual development of the body, including the development of the embryo.

Object genetics are the patterns of heredity and variability. Currently, this is one of the most dynamically developing biological sciences.

By studied level of organization of wildlife Molecular biology, cytology, histology, organology, biology of organisms and oversgan systems are distinguished.

Molecular biology It is one of the most young sections of biology, science, which studies, in particular, the organization of hereditary information and protein biosynthesis.

Cytology, or cell biology - biological science, the object of studying which cells are both unicellular and multicellular organisms.

Histology - biological science, section of morphology, the object of which is the structure of plant tissues and animals.

To the sphere organly include morphology, anatomy and physiology of various organs and their systems. Biology of organisms includes all sciences, the subject of which are living organisms, for example, etology - Science on behavior of organisms.

Biology of overshooting systems is divided into biogeography and ecology. The spread of living organisms is studied biogeography, whereas ecology - organization and functioning of overvalued systems of various levels: populations, biocenoses (communities), biogeocenoses (ecosystems) and biosphere.

By predominant research methods It is possible to highlight the descriptive (for example, morphology), experimental (for example, physiology) and theoretical biology. The identification and explanation of the patterns of the structure, functioning and development of wildlife at various levels of its organization is a task general biology. It includes biochemistry, molecular biology, cytology, embryology, genetics, ecology, evolutionary teaching and anthropology. Evolutionary doctrine It is studying the causes, driving forces, mechanisms and common patterns of the evolution of living organisms. One of its sections is paleontology - Science, the subject of which are fossil remains of living organisms. Anthropology - section of general biology, science on the origin and development of a person as a biological species, as well as a variety of populations of modern man and the laws of their interaction. Applied aspects of biology are related to the sphere of biotechnology, breeding and other rapidly developing sciences. Biotechnology Call biological science, which studies the use of living organisms and biological processes in production. It is widely used in food (bakery, cheesecake, brewing, etc.) and pharmaceutical industries (production of antibiotics, vitamins), for water purification, etc. Selection - Science on methods for creating breeds of domestic animals, varieties of cultivated plants and strains of microorganisms with the necessary person properties. By selection, the process of changing living organisms carried out by man for their needs is understood.

Biology progress is closely associated with the successes of other natural and accurate sciences, such as physics, chemistry, mathematics, informatics, etc. For example, microscopying, ultrasound studies (ultrasound), tomography and other biology methods are based on physical laws, and the study of the structure of biological molecules and The processes occurring in living systems would be impossible without the use of chemical and physical methods. The use of mathematical methods allows, on the one hand, to identify the presence of a natural link between objects or phenomena, confirm the accuracy of the results obtained, and on the other, to simulate the phenomenon or process. Recently, computer methods, such as modeling, are becoming increasingly important in biology. At the junction of biology and other sciences there was a number of new sciences, such as biophysics, biochemistry, bionics, etc.

The role of biology in the formation of a modern natural science picture of the world

At the stage of formation, biology has not yet existed separately from other natural sciences and was limited to observation, study, description and classification of representatives of the animal and plant world, i.e., was a descriptive science. However, this did not prevent antique natural hippocratic scientists (approx. 460-377 BC), Aristotle (384-322 BC) and the theophrast (real name Tirts, 372-287 BC. e.) To make a significant contribution to the development of ideas about the structure of the body of human and animals, as well as the biological diversity of animals and plants, thereby laying the foundations of the anatomy and physiology of man, zoology and botany. Deepening knowledge of wildlife and systematization of previously accumulated facts that occurred in the XVI-XVIII centuries were crowned with the introduction of a binary nomenclature and the creation of a slender systematics of plants (K. Linney) and animals (J.-B. Lamarc). A description of a significant number of species with similar morphological signs, as well as paleontological finds have become prerequisites for the development of ideas about the origin of the species and paths of the historical development of the organic world. Thus, the experiments F. Redi, L. Spallantsani and L. Pasteur in the XVII-XIX centuries denied the hypothesis of spontaneous self-relocation, put forward by the Aristotle and the existing in the Middle Ages, and the theory of biochemical evolution A. I. Oparin and J. Holdane, brilliantly confirmed with . Miller and G. Yuri, allowed to answer the question about the origin of all living things. If the process of the emergence of living non-living components and its evolution itself no longer doubt, the mechanisms, paths and directions of the historical development of the organic world are still not fully understood, since none of the two main rival theories of evolution (synthetic theory Evolution, created on the basis of the theory of Ch. Darwin, and the theory of J.-B. Lamarka) still can not make exhaustive evidence. The use of microscopy and other methods of related sciences, due to progress in the field of other natural sciences, as well as the introduction of the practice of the experiment allowed the German scientist T. Schwannu and M. Shledenu in the 19th century to formulate a cell theory, later supplemented by R. Virhov and K. Bar. It became the most important generalization in biology that the cornerstone formed the basis of modern ideas about the unity of the organic world. The opening of the laws of the transfer of hereditary information by the Czech monk M. Mendel was the impetus for the further rapid development of biology in the XX-XXI centuries and led not only to the opening of the universal carrier of heredity - DNA, but also a genetic code, as well as fundamental mechanisms for monitoring, reading and variability of hereditary information. . The development of ideas about the environment led to the emergence of such science as ecology,and wording teachings about the biosphereas a complex multicomponent planetary system of confined vast biological complexes, as well as chemical and geological processes occurring on Earth (V.I. Vernadsky), which ultimately allows to at least to a small degree to reduce the negative effects of human economic activities. Thus, biology played an important role in the formation of a modern natural science picture of the world.

Methods of studying live objects

Like any other science, biology has its own arsenal methods. In addition to the scientific method of knowledge used in other industries, such methods such as historical, relatively descriptive, etc. are widely used in biology.

Scientific method Cognition includes observation, formulation of hypotheses, experiment, modeling, analysis of results and elimination of general patterns.

Observation - This is a targeted perception of objects and phenomena using the senses or appliances organs due to the task of activity. The main condition of scientific observation is its objectivity, i.e. The ability to verify the obtained data by re-monitoring or applying other research methods, such as an experiment. The facts obtained as a result of observation are called data. They can be like quality(describing the smell, taste, color, form, etc.) and quantitative Moreover, quantitative data are more accurate than high-quality.

Based on observational data, hypothesis is formulated - an estimated judgment on the pattern of phenomena. The hypothesis is inspected in a series of experiments.

Experiment It is called scientifically delivered experience, observing the investigated phenomenon under controlled conditions, allowing to identify the characteristics of this object or phenomenon. The highest form of experiment is modeling - the study of any phenomena, processes or systems of objects by building and studying their models. Essentially, this is one of the main categories of the theory of cognition: on the idea of \u200b\u200bmodeling, any method of scientific research is based - both theoretical and experimental. The results of the experiment and modeling are subject to careful analysis.

Analysis They call the method of scientific research by decomposing the subject to composite parts or mental dismemberment of the object by logical abstraction. The analysis is inextricably linked with synthesis.

Synthesis - This is the method of studying the subject in its integrity, in unity and mutual communication of its parts. As a result of the analysis and synthesis, the most successful hypothesis of the study becomes a working hypothesis, and if it is able to resist when attempts to refute it and still successfully predicts previously inexplicable facts and relationships, it can become theory.

Under theory Understand the form of scientific knowledge, which gives a holistic understanding of patterns and significant relations of reality. The overall direction of scientific research is to achieve higher levels of predictability. If the theory is not able to change any facts, and the deviations from it are regular and predictable, it can be raised into rank law - necessary, significant, sustainable, repeating relationship between phenomena in nature. As the totality of knowledge and improvement of the methods of studying the hypothesis and even firmly rooted theories can be disputed, modified and even rejected, because scientific knowledge themselves are dynamic in nature and are constantly exposed to critical rethinking.

The historical method identifies the patterns of the emergence and development of organisms, the formation of their structure and function. In some cases, with the help of this method, the new life acquire hypothesis and theories previously considered false. For example, it happened with the assumptions of Darwin on the nature of the transmission of signals on the plant in response to environmental impacts. The comparative descriptive method provides for an anatomy-morphological analysis of research objects. It underlies the classification of organisms, identifying the patterns of the emergence and development of various forms of life.

Monitoring is a system of measures to observe, evaluate and forecast changes in the state of the object under study, in particular the biosphere. Observations and experiments require often the use of special equipment, such as microscopes, centrifuges, spectrophotometers, etc. Microscopy is widely used in zoology, botanic, human anatomy, histology, cytology, genetics, embryology, paleontology, ecology and other sections of biology. It allows you to study the subtle structure of objects using light, electronic, x-ray and other types of microscopes.

The light microscope consists of optical and mechanical parts. Optical parts are involved in building an image, and mechanical serve for ease of use of optical parts. The overall increase in the microscope is determined by the formula: an increase in lens x an increase in eyepiece \u003d an increase in the microscope.

For example, if the lens increases the object 8 times, and the eyepiece - in 7, then the overall increase in the microscope is 56.

Differential centrifugation, or fractionation, allows dividing particles by their size and density under the action of centrifugal force, which is actively used in the study of the structure of biological molecules and cells.

Basic Levels of Wildlife Organization

1. Molecular genetic. The most important tasks of biology at this stage is the study of mechanisms for transferring gene information, heredity and variability.
2. Cellular level. The elementary unit of the cellular level of the organization is the cell, and the elementary phenomenon - the reaction of cellular metabolism.
3. Fabric level. This level is represented by tissues that combine cells of a certain structure, sizes, location and similar functions. The fabrics arose during historical development together with multicellularity. In multicellular organisms, they are formed in the process of ontogenesis as a consequence of cell differentiation.
4. Organ level. The organ level is represented by organisms. The simplest digestion, breathing, circulation of substances, isolation, movement and reproduction are carried out by various organelles. More advanced organisms have organisms. In plants and animals, the organs are formed due to the different number of tissues.
5. Organizable level. The elementary unit of this level is a person in its individual development, or ontogenesis, therefore the organism level is also called ontogenetic. The elementary phenomenon of this level are changes in the body in its individual development.
6. Population-species level. The population is a combination of individuals of one species, freely crossing each other and living apart from other of the same groups of individuals. In populations there is a free exchange of hereditary information and its transfer to descendants. The population is an elementary unit of population-species level, and elemental phenomenon in this case are evolutionary transformations, such as mutations and natural selection.
7. Biogeocenotic level. Biogeocenosis is a historically established community of populations of different species, interrelated among themselves and the environment of metabolism and energy. Biogeocenoses are elementary systems in which the real-energy cycle due to the vital activity of organisms is carried out. Biogeocenoses themselves are elementary units of this level, while elementary phenomena are energy flows and substances circulation in them. Biogeocenoses make up the biosphere and determine all the processes occurring in it.
8. Biosphere. The biosphere is the land shell inhabited by alive organisms and transformed by them. The biosphere is the highest level of living on the planet. This shell covers the lower part of the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the top layer of the lithosphere. The biosphere, like all other biological systems, is dynamic and actively converted by alive creatures. It itself is an elementary unit of the biosphere level, and the processes of the substances and energy occurring occurring with the participation of living organisms as an elementary phenomenon.

As mentioned above, each of the levels of the organization of live matter contributes to a single evolutionary process: the cell information is not only reproduced, but its change occurs, which leads to new combinations of the characteristics and properties of the body, in turn exposed The action of natural selection in the population-view level, etc.