Central tropical Andes. Environmental problems in the Andes Zone

28.09.2019

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The Andes Mountains are most important in South America with a climate barrier, an insulating territory to the west of the main Cordillera from the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, to the east - from the influence of the Pacific Ocean. The mountains lie in 6 climatic belts (equatorial, northern and southern subequatorial, southern tropical, subtropical and moderate) and are distinguished by sharp contrasts in moisturizing the eastern and western slopes.

Due to the considerable length of the Andes, their individual landscape parts differ significantly from each other. According to the nature of the relief and other natural differences, there are usually three main regions - the Northern, Central and South Andes. Andes stretched through the territories of seven states of South America - Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina.

Higher point: Akonkagua (6962 m)

Duration: 9000 km

Width: 500 km

Breeds: Magmatic and Metamorphic

Andes - the regenerate mountains, erected by the latest raising on the site of the so-called Andean (Cordillers) folded geosynclinal belt; Andes are one of the largest alpine folding systems on the planet (on Paleozoic and partly Baikal Folded Foundation). The beginning of the formation of the Andes belongs to the Jurassic time. For the Andean mining system, the triggers formed in TRIAS are characterized, subsequently filled with sedimentary and volcanogenic rocks of considerable power. Large arrays of the main Cordillera and the coast of Chile, the coastal cordillera Peru is granite-shaped end of challenge. Intergurny and boundary deflection (Altiplano, Maracaybo, etc.) were formed in Paleogenic and non -ogenic time. Tectonic movements, accompanied by seismic and volcanic activity, continue in our time. This is due to the fact that the subduction area is undergoing along the Pacific coast of South America: Nask and Antarctic plates go under South American, which contributes to the development of processing processes. The extreme southern part of South America, the fiery ground is separated by a transformer fault from a small plate of livestock. For the Strait of Drake Andes, the mountains of the Antarctic Peninsula continue.

Andes are rich in ores mainly non-ferrous metals (vanadium, tungsten, bismuth, tin, lead, molybdenum, zinc, arsenic, antimony, etc.); The field is confined mainly to the Paleozoic structures of the eastern Andes and the Zherelov of the ancient volcanoes; On the territory of Chile - large copper deposits. In advanced and foothill, there are oil and gas (in the foothills of the Andes within Venezuela, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina), in the edge of the weatherariness - bauxites. The Andes also have iron deposits (in Bolivia), sodium nitrate (in Chile), gold, platinum and emeralds (in Colombia).

Andes consist mainly of meridional parallel ridges: Eastern Cordillera Andes, Central Cordillera Andes, Western Cordillera Andes, Coastal Cordillera Andes, between which there are internal plans and plateau (Pune, Altipano - in Bolivia and Peru) or depressions. The width of the mining system is mainly 200-300 km.

The longest mountain system

The Inca Empire in Andes is one of the most mysterious disappeared states. The tragic fate of the highly developed civilization, which appeared in far from the most favorable natural conditions and the victims of the casual aliens, still worries humanity.
The era of the great geographical discoveries (the XV-XVII centuries) gave the opportunity to European adventurers quickly and fabulously get rich in new lands. Most often, brutal and unprincipled, conquistadors rushed to America, not for the sake of scientific discoveries and cultural exchanges between civilizations.
The fact that the Papal Thicket in 1537 recognized the Indians spiritualized beings, did not change anything in the methods of conquistadors - they were not interested in theological disputes. By the time of the "humane" papal solution, Konkistador Francisco Pisarro has already managed to execute the emperor Inca Ataualpu (1533), defeat the army of the Incas and seize the capital of the Empire Cusco (1536).
There is a version that at first the Indians accepted the Spaniards for the gods. And it is possible that the main reason for this error was not white skin of the aliens, not the fact that they were sacrificed with riding unprecedented animals, and not even what they had a firearm. Inca struck the incredible cruelty of conquistadors.
With the first meeting of Pisarro and Ataalpi, the Spaniards who organized an ambush killed thousands of the Indians and captured the emperor, who did not expect anything like that at all. After all, the Indians, whom the Spaniards condemned for human sacrifices, believed that human life was the highest gift, and it was because the human victim was the highest form of worship. But so that it's so easy to destroy thousands of people who came at all at war?!
The fact that the Incas could have serious resistance to the Spaniards, no doubt. After the murder of the captive ataalp, for which the Indians paid the monstrous ransom - almost 6 tons of gold, the conquistadors began to rob the country, mercilessly interpret on the ingots of the work of jewelry art of the Inca. But the brother Ataalp Manco, appointed by the new emperor, instead of collecting gold for the invaders, fled and headed the fight against the Spaniards. The last emperor, Tupaca Amaru, the vice-king of Peru Francisco de Toledo could execute only in 1572, and even after that, the leaders of new uprisings were called his name.
From the civilization of the Inca to this day, it came a little - after the death of hundreds of thousands of Indians, both from the hands of Spaniards and from work on mines, hunger, European epidemics, there was no one to maintain in the order of irrigation systems, alpine roads, beautiful buildings. Much Spaniard destroyed to get building material.
The country whose residents are accustomed to supplying from public warehouses, in which there were no beggars and vagrants, for many years after the arrival of the conquistadors became a zone of human disaster.

Nature

Andes pass through all climatic zones, so Flora and the fauna of these mountain ranges are very diverse.

Different theories are determined by the age of the High System from 18 million years to several hundred million years. But, more importantly for people living in Andes, the process of forming these mountains is still continuing.
Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, the gathering gatherings in Andes do not stop. In 1835, Charles Darwin watched the eruption of the Volcano Osorno from Chilo Island. The earthquake described by Darwin destroyed the city of Concepcion and Talcauano and took numerous sacrifices. Such events in the Andes are not uncommon.
So, in 1970, the glacier in Peru literally buried the city of Jung in almost all the inhabitants under him, about 20,000 people died. In 2010, the earthquake in Chile took several hundred lives, left no longer millions of people and caused tremendous material damage. In general, serious disasters occur in Andes with frightening cyclicity - once every 10-15 years.
The most severe climate is marked on the central and the Andes, where the sediments are falling out, even in the summer in the form of snow. It is believed that these are these highlands are the most barren and dry in the world, which is fully explained by the combination of rarefied dry air, ferocious winds and the dazzling sun.
Andes perform the function of the inter-cooked watershed: rivers belonging to the Atlantic Ocean basin, flow to the east of the Andes and many of them take the beginning in the mountains, the source of the Amazon itself, the largest river of the world is located in Andes. Rivers belonging to the pool of the Pacific Ocean are usually short, and they flow to the west of the Andes.
Also, and the length of which the largest in the world is the climatic barrier, isolating the Pacific Coast of South America from the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, and most of the continent - from the influence of the Pacific Ocean. As a result of the high length of the Andes, their landscape parts differ significantly, the Nordic Andes (up to 5º Yu. Sh.), Central Andes (5-28 "Yu. Sh.) And South Andes (28-41º30º Yu. Sh. ). Another feature of this mining system is a clearly pronounced high-altitude explanancy, according to which three belts are distinguished - Tierra Callent - the lower high-rise forest belt, Tierra Fria - the upper forest belt and Tierra Elay - a belt with a harsh climate.
Depending on the remoteness from the equator and from the height above sea level in Andes, they grow as equatorial, tropical and subtropical forests with their abundance of vegetation (palm trees, bananas, ficuses, cocoa wood, bamboo, evergreen trees and shrubs) and the forests of moderate climate. Subarctic forests and tundra vegetation are characteristic of large heights and southern latitudes. It is believed that many of the most important agricultural crops, such as tomatoes, potatoes, tobacco, - come from the Andes.
In the animal world, the Andes are a lot of unique species. So, the Andean camels of Lama, Alpaca, Wigoni and Guanako nowhere else are found in the world. More than 900 species of amphibians live in Andachs, about 600 mammalian species and more than 1,700 species of birds. Among them are many endemics.

general information

Andy, Andiy Cordillera - The most extended mountain system in the world, the southern part of the Cordiller.

Location: Furize from the North and West Continent South America

States in whose territory are the Andes: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina

Peoples inhabiting Andes: Indians, Europeans, methuses, African Americans, Mulati, people from Asia

Languages: mainly Spanish, as well as Kechua, Aimar, Guarani and other languages \u200b\u200bof Indian tribes

Religion: mainly Catholicism

Main seaports: Guayaquil (Ecuador), Valparaiso (Chile).

The most important airports: Simon Bolivar International Airport (Caracas, Venezuela); Eldorado International Airport (Santa Fe de Bogota, Colombia), Mariskal Sucre International Airport (Quito, Ecuador), Jorge Chavez International Airport (Lima, Peru), El Alto International Airport (La Paz, Bolivia), Santiago International Airport (Chile).

The most important rivers: Orinoco, Maranyon, Watti, Medera, Pilkomoyo, Bermecho, Parana, Rio Salado, Colorado, Rio Negro.

The largest lakes: Titicaca, Popo.

Economy

Leading industry - mining: Tungsten, silver, tin, oil, oil, Bolivia, Venezuela, Chile are being developed; Copper (Chile), Gold and Emeralds (Colombia), Iron (Bolivia).

Agriculture: bananas (Ecuador, Colombia), potatoes, coffee (Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, Ecuador), corn, tobacco, wheat, sugar cane, olives, grapes; Sheep flowering, fisheries on large lakes.

Climate and weather

Because of the high length of the Andes, there is a huge variety of climate, this mountain system stretches for six climatic belts (Equatorial, northern and southern subequatorial, southern tropical, subtropical and moderate).

Most of the precipitation (up to 820 mm per year) falls from May to November.

In the high-altitude Quito, the temperature is held within + 13ºС ... + 15ºС, but the differences between the day and night are great.

Precipitation (up to 1200 mm per year) - from September to May.

In La Paz, the average monthly temperature of November is about + 1 ºС, July - about + 7ºС.
In Chile, the average temperature in the north of the country - from + 12ºС to + 22ºС, in the south - from + 3ºС to + 16ºС.

sights

■ Lake Titicaca;
■ Lauka National Park;
■ Chiloe National Park;

■ National Park Cape Gorn;
■ Santa Fe de Bogota: Catholic churches of the XVI-XVIII century, National Museum of Columbia;
■ Quito: Cathedral, Museum of Musical Instruments, Museum of Del Banco-Sentral;
■ Cusco: Cathedral Cusco, Church of La Campa Naya, Heitun-Rumiyok Street (Rests of the Incas Buildings);
■ Lima: Archaeological zones of Uak Waplemarka and Uak Puklyan, Archbishop Palace, Church and Monastery of San Francisco;
■ Archaeological complexes: Machu Picchu, Pachakamak, Ruins of the city of Karale, Tambo Temar, Pukapukar, Kenko, Pisak, Olitantambo, Morai, Pikillock Ruins.

Curious facts

■ Bolivia's capital La Paz is the most high-mountain capital in the world. It is located at an altitude of 3600 m above sea level.
■ 200 km north of the city of Lima (Peru) are the ruins of the city of Kararal - temples, amphitheaters, houses and pyramids. It is believed that Kararal belonged to the ancient civilization of America and was built about 4000-4500 years ago. Archaeological excavations showed that the city led trading with extensive territories of the continent of South America. It is especially interesting that archaeologists did not find any evidence of military conflicts for about a thousand years in the history of Karala.
■ One of the most mysterious historical monuments in the world - the monumental archaeological complex of Saksayuaman, located north-west of Cusco, at an altitude of about 3,700 meters above sea level. The same fortress of this complex is attributed to the Inca civilization. However, it was not yet possible to establish how the stones of these walls were treated, weighing up to 200 tons and fitted to each other with jewelry accuracy. Also, the ancient system of underground strokes is not fully investigated.
■ Archaeological complex Morai, located 74 kilometers from Cusco at an altitude of 3,500 meters, still causes admiration not only archaeologists. Here, huge terraces, falling, form a kind of amphitheater. Studies have shown that this construction was used by the Incas as an agricultural laboratory, since different height of the terraces made it possible to observe plants in different climatic conditions and experiment with them. It used for different soils and a complex irrigation system, in total incons grown 250 species of plants.

One of the highest and most extended mountain systems of the world are Andes (The Andes), consisting of ridges, between which there are plans, depressions and a plateau. Often Andes are compared with a dragon lying on the west coast. The Head of the Dragon is resting at, the tail is immersed in the ocean y, the back is covered with spikes.

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Description and characteristics

And the worlds are amazing, difficult to access and have little studied. The length of the mountain range is more than 8,000 km, the average Andeship Width is 250 km (maximum - 700 km). The average height of the Andes is 4000 meters above sea level. In the extreme south of the continent, where Andes are descending to the ocean, giant icebergs are chipped out of glaciers and is considered the most insidious strait on the planet. In the south of the Andes lies the San Rafael glacier, which moves, shining the slopes of the mountains.

Until today, the growth of the Andes continues, over the past 100 years they have "grown" not one dozen meters. Here, air flows from the Pacific Ocean are cooled, falling out in the form of precipitation, and the dry air is moving to the east. In these young mountains are active educational processes, there are many active volcanoes here, earthquakes often occur.

Mountain ridges run through the territories of seven South American countries:

Northern Andes -, and;
Central Andes - and;
South Andes - and.

It is in Andes that takes the greatest river.

The highest point of the Andes and the highest peak of the southern hemisphere is, whose height is 6962 m above sea level.

The most high mountain planet lake

Lying in the Andes at an altitude of 3820 m (at the border of Bolivia and Peru), contains the richest fresh water in South America.

Since the outlines of the lake resemble the puma, its name consists of the words "rock" and "Puma". The lake and its surroundings remember the inks civilization, they built their temples on the islands and on the shores. This lake is often mentioned in the Indian myths about the origin of the world and the birth of the gods.

Lake Titicaca

The most "deserted" desert

Lying in Andes Desert - the most arid on the globe place. For centuries, neither a single rain was spilled here.

Here is the height of the Andes about 7000 m, but there are no glaciers on the vertices, and the rivers dried many centuries ago. Water locals are collected with the help of special mistakes from nylon threads flowing on them condensate per day is recruited up to 18 liters!

Atacama has a place called the lunar valley, where the salt hills create an unearthly landscape that is constantly changing under the influence of winds. On this huge, created by the nature of the film crew, many fantastic films about alien civilizations were shot.

Alpine geysers field

El Tatio, spreading in Andes at an altitude of 4200 m (Bolivia and Chile's border) - the most alleged field of the geysers of the world and the most extensive in the southern hemisphere.

There are about 80 geysers, which in the morning are shot by hot water and steam on a height of about a meter, although sometimes hot water fountains reach 5 - 6 m. Contact hot water, student air and evaporation of sulfur and various minerals in the rays of the rising sun create fantastic overflowing rainbow Pictures. Near geysers are thermal wells, the water of which has a temperature of 49 ° C and a rich mineral composition, to swim in it is useful for health.

Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, BoliviaChili, Argentina Length 8000 km Width 500 km Highest top Akonkagua Andes on wikisklad

Andes, Andiy Cordillera (Span. Andes; Cordillera De Los Andes ) - the longest (9000 km) and one of the highest (Mount Akonkagua, 6962 m) of the Mountain Systems of the Earth, bordering from the north and west of all southern America; Southern Cordiller. Plots of Andes reach the width of over 500 km (the largest width is up to 750 km - in Central Andes, between 18 ° and 20 ° Yu.Sh.). The average height is about 4000 m.

Andes are a major interchangeable watershed; To the east of the Andes, the Amazonian itself originates in the Andes, the Amazon itself and many of her major tributaries, as well as the tributaries of Orinoco, Paraguay, Parana, Magdalena River and the Patagonia River), to the west of the Pacific Pool (mostly short).

Andes serve most important in South America with a climate barrier, an insulating territory to the west of the main Cordillera from the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, east - from the influence of the Pacific Ocean. The mountains lie in 5 climatic belts (equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical and moderate) and differ (especially in the central part) with sharp contrasts in moisturizing the eastern (led) and Western (visits) slopes.

Andes stretched through the territories of seven states of South America - Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina.

Name history

According to the Italian historian Giovanni Anello Oliva (G.) Initially, Europeans-conquerors " Andes or Cordillera"(" Andes, o Cordilleras ") was called East Range, while West was called" sierra"(" Sierra ").

Geological structure and relief

Andes - Regenerate Mountains, erected by the latest raising on the site of the so-called Andean (Cordillers) folded geosynclinal belt; Andes are one of the largest alpine folding systems on the planet (on Paleozoic and partly Baikal Folded Foundation). The beginning of the formation of the Andes belongs to the Jurassic time. For the Andean mining system, the triggers formed in TRIAS are characterized, subsequently filled with sedimentary and volcanogenic rocks of considerable power. Large arrays of the main Cordillera and the coast of Chile, the coastal cordillera Peru is granite-shaped end of challenge. Intergurny and boundary deflection (Altiplano, Maracaybo, etc.) were formed in Paleogenic and non -ogenic time. Tectonic movements, accompanied by seismic and volcanic activity, continue in our time. This is due to the fact that the subduction area is undergoing along the Pacific coast of South America: Nask and Antarctic plates go under South American, which contributes to the development of processing processes. The extreme southern part of South America, the fiery ground is separated by a transformer fault from a small plate of livestock. For the Strait of Drake Andes, the mountains of the Antarctic Peninsula continue.

Andes consist mainly of meridional parallel ridges: Eastern Cordillera Andes, Central Cordillera Andes, Western Cordillera Andes, Coastal Cordillera The Andes, between which there are internal plans and plateau (Pune, Altiplano in Bolivia and Peru) or depressions. The width of the mining system is mainly 200-300 km.

Orography

Northern Andes.

The main system of the Andes (Andiy Kordiller) consists of a parallel ridges separated in the meridional direction of parallel ridges separated by internal plateales or depressions. Only the Caribbean Andes, located within Venezuela and belonging to the Northern Andam, stretched subshir along the coast of the Caribbean. Ecuadorian Andadores (in Ecuador) and North-Western Andes (in the west of Venezuela and Colombia) are also among the Northern Andama. The highest ridges of northern Andes have small modern glaciers, on volcanic cones - eternal snow. Aruba Islands, Bonaire, Curaçao in the Caribbean Sea are the tops of the northern Andes lowering in the sea.

In the North-Western Andes, the fan-forming diverging north of 12 ° C. Sh., Highlight three main cordillers - oriental, central and western. All of them are high, sharply and have a fold-bull-boring structure. They are characterized by faults, raising and lowering the latest time. The main cordillers are divided by large depressions - the valleys of Magdalena and Kauki rivers - the Pathi.

Eastern Cordillera has the highest height in its northeastern part (Ritakuva mountain, 5493 m); In the center of East Cordillera - ancient-armed plateau (prevailing heights - 2.5 - 2.7 thousand meters); For Eastern Cordillera, large surfaces of alignment are generally characteristic. In highlands - glaciers. In the north, the Eastern Cordiller continues the ridges of Cordille de Merida (the highest point - Mount Bolivar, 5007 m) and Sierra de Periha (reaches a height of 3,540 m); Between these ridges in the extensive lowland depression lake Maracaibo. In the extreme north - a grievous array of Sierra Nevada de Santa-Martha with heights of up to 5800 m (Mount Cristobal-Colon)

The Valley of the Magdalena River separates the eastern Cordiller from the central, relatively narrow and high; In the Central Cordillera (especially in its southern part) - many volcanoes (Wylas, 5750 m; Ruis, 5400 m; and others), some of which are valid (Cumble, 4890 m). To the north, the central Cordillera slightly decreases and forms anthokia array, strongly dissected by river valleys. Western Cordillera, separated from the Central Valley of the Kauca River, has smaller heights (up to 4,200 m); In the south of Western Cordillera - volcanism. Next to the West is a low (up to 1810 m), Serrania de Boudo ridge, turning in the north in the Panama Mountains. To the north and west of the North-Western Andes - the Retribic and Pacific Alluvial Lowlands.

As part of Equatorial (Ecuadorian) Andes, reaching up to 4 ° Yu.Sh., - two cordillers (Western and Eastern) separated by lowering height 2500-2700 m. Along the faults that limit these decrees (depressions) - one of the highest volcanic in the world chains (highest chimborace volcanoes, 6267 m, Kotopakh, 5897 m). These volcanoes, as well as the Volcanoes of Colombia, form the first volcanic area of \u200b\u200bthe Andes.

Central Andes.

In the central Andes (up to 28 ° Yu.Sh.), Peruvian Andes are distinguished (extending to the south to 14 ° 30 Yu.Sh.) and the actual Central Andes. In the Peruvian Andes, due to recent raises and intensive cutting into the rivers (the largest of which - Maranyon, Ukyali and Wellagi - belong to the Upper Amazon system) formed parallel ridges (Eastern, Central and Western Cordillers) and the system of deep longitudinal and transverse canyons, which dismembered the ancient alignment surface . The vertices of the Cordiller Peruvian Andes exceed 6000 m (the highest point - Mount Uscaran, 6768 m.); In Cordillera Blanca - modern glaciation. Alpine relief forms are also developed on Cordillera-Wilkanot's bilge ridges, Cordillera de Vilkabamba, Cordillera de Carrach.

South is the wider part of the Andes - Central Highlands (width to 750 km), where arid geomorphological processes prevail; A large part of the Highlands occupies a Puna plate with heights of 3.7 - 4.1 thousand meters. For Punes are characterized by Rabuleless Basins ("Brasses"), engaged in lakes (Titicaca, Popo, etc.) and Solonchaki (Atakama, Kupaas, Uyuni, and DR .). East of Pune - Cordillera Real (Anchoum Peak, 6550 m) with a powerful modern glaciation; Between the Altiplano plateau and Cordillera Real, at an altitude of 3700 m, is the city of La Paz, the capital of Bolivia, the most high-mountainous in the world. Eastern Cordillera Real - sub -andan folded ridges of East Cordillera, reaching up to 23 ° Yu.Sh. The southern continuation of Cordillera Real is the central Cordillera, as well as several block arrays (the highest point - Mount El Liebertor, 6720 m). From the West, Puna framed Western Cordillera with intrusive peaks and numerous volcanic vertices (Sakham, 6780 m; Lewlyillo, 6,723 m; San Pedro, 6159 m; Misty, 5821 m; and others), which are part of the second volcanic area of \u200b\u200bAndes. South 19 ° Yu.Sh. Western slopes of Western Cordillera go to the tectonic wpadine of the longitudinal valley occupied in the south of the Atakam desert. For the longitudinal valley - low (up to 1500 m) intrusive coastal cordillera, for which are characterized by arid sculptural form of relief.

In Pune and in the western part of the central Andes - a very high snow line (places above 6,500 m), so snow is marked only on the highest volcanic cones, and the glaciers are available only in the Hosie del Salado massif (up to 6 880 m height).

South Andes

Andes near the border of Argentina and Chile.

In the southern Andes extending to the south of 28 ° Yu.Sh., two parts are distinguished - Northern (Chilean-Argentine or subtropical Andes) and South (Patagonian Andes). In Chilean-Argentinean Andes, taped to the south and reaching up to 39 ° 41 Yu.Sh., a tripled structure is pronounced - Coast Cordillera, longitudinal valley and the main Cordillera; Within the last, in Cordillera Frontal, - the highest top of the Andes, Mount Akonkagua (6960 m), as well as large vertices of Tupungato (6800 m), Mercedario (6,770 m). The snow line is very high here (under 32 ° 40 Yu.Sh. - 6000 m). Eastern Cordillera-Frontal - ancient precorders.

South 33 ° Yu.Sh. (and up to 52 ° Yu.Sh.) there is a third volcanic area of \u200b\u200bthe Andes, where there are a lot of acting (mainly in the main Cordillera and west of it) and extinct volcanoes (Tupungato, Maypa, Legima, etc.)

When moving to the south, the snow line gradually decreases and under 51 ° Yu.Sh. It reaches the mark of 1460 m. High ridges acquire the features of an alpine type, the area of \u200b\u200bmodern glaciation increases, numerous glacial lakes increase. South of 40 ° Yu.Sh. Patagonian Andes begin with lower than in Chilean-Argentinean Andes, ridges (the highest point - San Valentine mountain - 4058 m) and active volcanism in the north. About 52 ° Yu.Sh. The strongly dissected coast Cordillera is immersed in the ocean, and its vertices form a chain of the rocky islands and archipelagoes; The longitudinal valley turns into a system of straits reaching the western part of Magellanov Strait. In the area of \u200b\u200bMagellanov, the Andes Strait (the name of the fire of the fire land) are abruptly deviated to the east. In the Patagonian Andes, the height of the snow line barely exceeds 1500 m (in the extreme south it is 300-700 m, and from 46 ° 30 Yu.Sh. Glaciers are lowered to the ocean level), the ice mills of the relief prevail (under 48 ° Yu.Sh. - Powerful patagonian glacier shield) with an area of \u200b\u200bover 20 thousand km², from where multi-kilometer glacial languages \u200b\u200bare lowered to the West); Some of the valley glaciers of the Eastern slopes end in large lakes. Young volcanic cones (Corcovado, etc.) are raised along the shores that are strongly cut by fjords. Andes of the fiery ground are relatively low (up to 2469 m).

Climate

Northern Andes.

The northern tube belongs to the northern hemispheresive belt; Here, as in the subequatorial belt of the southern hemisphere, there is an alternation of wet and dry seasons; The sediments fall from May to November, but in the northernmost areas the wet season is less than lasting. Eastern slopes are moistened much more western; The precipitation (up to 1000 mm per year) falls predominantly in the summer. In the Caribbean Andes, which are on the border of the tropical and subequatorial belts, the tropical air dominates all year; There are few precipitation (often less than 500 mm per year); Rivers short with characteristic summer floods.

In the equatorial belt, seasonal oscillations are practically absent; Thus, in the capital of Ecuador, Quito change the average monthly temperatures for the year is only 0.4 ° C. The precipitate is abundant (up to 10,000 mm per year, although usually 2500-7000 mm per year) and are distributed over the slopes evenly than in the subequatorial belt. Clearly expressed high-rise lower. At the bottom of the mountains - hot and humid climate, precipitation falls almost daily; In decreases - numerous swamps. With a height, the amount of precipitation decreases, but the power of the snow cover increases. The heights of 2500-3000 p temperatures are rarely lowered below 15 ° C, seasonal temperature fluctuations are insignificant. Here are already great daily fluctuations (up to 20 ° C), the weather can change dramatically during the day. At the heights of 3500-3800 m, daily temperatures ranges 10 ° C. Above - harsh climate with frequent snowstorm and snowfall; Day temperatures are positive, but there are strong frosts at night. The climate is dry, since with a large evaporation there is little precipitation. Above 4500 m - Eternal snow.

Central Andes.

Between 5 ° and 28 ° Yu.Sh. A pronounced asymmetry in the distribution of precipitation on the slopes is observed: Western slopes are moistened significantly weaker than the eastern. To the west of the main Cordillera - a desert tropical climate (the formation of which a lot contributes to the Cold Peruvian current), the rivers are very small. If 200-250 mm of precipitation falls in the northern part of the central Andes, then their number is reduced and the places do not exceed 50 mm per year. Atacama is located in this part of the Andes - the dry desert of the globe. The deserts rise to 3000 m over the sea level. Little oasis are located mainly in the valleys of small rivers feeding on the waters of mountain glaciers. The mediumbar temperature in coastal areas ranges from 24 ° C in the north to 19 ° C in the south, Medium-deed - from 19 ° C in the north to 13 ° C in the south. Above 3000 m, in dry Pune, is also a little precipitation (rarely more than 250 mm per year); Cold wind arrings are noted when the temperature may drop to -20 ° C. The medium temperature does not exceed 15 ° C.

At small heights, with an extremely small amount of rain, significant (up to 80%) humidity, therefore, fog and dew. Altiplano and Puna is a very stern climate, annual average temperatures are not exceeded by 10 ° C. A large lake Titicaca has a mitigating effect on the climate of the adjacent territories - in the brief areas of temperature fluctuations are not so significant as in other parts of the plateau. East of the main Cordillera is a large (3000 - 6000 mm per year) the amount of precipitation (mostly brought to the eastern winds in the summer), a thick river network. According to the valleys, air masses from the Atlantic Ocean crosses the eastern Cordille, moisturizing and its western slope. Above 6000 m in the north and 5000 m in the south - negative average annual temperatures; Due to dry climate of glaciers.

South Andes

In the Chilean-Argentine Andes, the climate subtropical, and moisturizing the Western slopes - at the expense of winter cyclones - more than in the subequatorial belt; When driving on the south, the annual amounts of precipitation in the Western slopes are rapidly increasing. Summer dry, winter wet. As the ocean removes the continentality of the climate increases, seasonal temperature fluctuations increase. In the city of Santiago, located in the longitudinal valley, the average temperature of the warmer month is 20 ° C, the coldest - 7-8 ° C; The precipitation in Santiago falls a bit, 350 mm per year (south, in Valdivia, precipitation is more than 750 mm per year). In the Western slopes, the main cordillera of precipitation is greater than in the longitudinal valley (but less than on the Pacific coast).

When driving to the south, the subtropical climate of the Western slopes is smoothly moving into the oceanic climate of moderate latitudes: the annual amounts of precipitation increase, the differences in moisturizing on the seasons decrease. Strong Western winds bring a large amount of precipitation on the coast (up to 6000 mm per year, although usually 2000-3000 mm). More than 200 days a year are strong rain, dense fogs are often lowered on the coast, the sea is constantly a storm; The climate is unfavorable for living. Eastern slopes (between 28 ° and 38 ° Yu.Sh.) are more arid than Western (and only in moderate belt, south of 37 ° Yu.Sh., thanks to the influence of Western winds, their moisturizing increases, although they remain less moistened Comparatives with Western). The average temperature of the warm month in Western slopes is only 10-15 ° C (cold itself - 3-7 ° C)

In the extreme southern part of the Andes, on the fiery ground, is a very wet climate, which forms strong wet Western and south-west winds; The precipitation (up to 3000 mm) falls out mainly in the form of drizzling rains (which go most of the days per year). Only in the easternmost part of the sediment archipelago is significantly less. Throughout the year there are low temperatures (at the same time fluctuations in temperature for seasons are extremely insignificant).

Vegetation and soil

The soil and vegetable cover of the Andes is very diverse. This is due to the large altitudes of mountains, a significant difference in moisture in the western and eastern slopes. High-rise explanation in Andes is pronounced clearly. Three high-rise belts are isolated - Tierra Caliente, Tierra Fria and Tierra Elay.

On the slopes of the Patagonian Andes South 38 ° Yu.Sh. - subarctic multi-tiered forests from high-power trees and shrubs, mostly evergreen, on the brown forests (south of apodulated) soils; In the forests a lot of moss, lichens and lian; South of 42 ° Yu.Sh. - Mixed forests (in the area of \u200b\u200b42 ° Yu.Sh. there is an array of arakarium forests). Buki, magnolia, tree fern, high-ranking coniferous, bamboo grow. On the eastern slopes of Patagonian Andes - mostly beech forests. At the extreme south of Patagonian Andes - tundra vegetation.

In the extreme southern part of the Andes, on the fiery land, forests (from deciduous and evergreen trees - for example, southern beeches and calauo) occupy only a narrow coastal strip in the West; Above the border of the forest almost immediately begins the snow belt. In the East and places in the West, the subnutrctic mountain meadows and peatlands are common.

Cordillers or Andes (Cordilleros de Los Andes) - Spanish name of a huge mountain system (from the Peruvian word anti, copper); This name was called before the ridges near Kuzko, but later it was called the mountain chain of South America. Spaniards and Spanish-Americans call cardillers as well as part of the ridges of Central America, Mexico and Yuz United States, but it is completely incorrect to call the mountains of these countries with one name with a huge mountain range of South America, which, starting at the most extreme south, at m. Horn, stretches Almost parallel to the Pacific Ocean, along the whole South.

America to Panama is the isthmus, for almost 12,000 km. The mountain chains of the western part of the North American mainland have no connection with South American Cordillera or Andes; In addition to other directions of the ridges - they are separated from the Andes of the lowlands of the Panama Isthmus, Nicaragua and Teguangtenev Iz.

To prevent misunderstandings, therefore it is better to call South American Cordillera Andami. They for the most part consist of a number of high grooves, which are more or less parallel to one other and covering their highlands and sidelines almost 1/6 of the whole South. America.

General description of the Mountain System Andes.

Description of the music of the Andes.

A mining system of a huge length, with a complex orography and a variety of geological structure, is sharply different from the eastern part of South America. It is characterized by completely different patterns of formation of relief, climates and the other composition of the organic world.

The nature of the Andes is extremely diverse. This is explained primarily by their huge length from north to south. Andes lie in 6 climatic belts (equatorial, northern and southern subequatorial, southern tropical, subtropical and moderate) and differ (especially in the central part) with sharp contrasts in moisturizing oriental (led) and Western (visits) Northern Slops, Central and Southern Andes of Andes They differ from each other at least than, for example, Amazonia from Pamppa or Patagonia.

Andes appeared thanks to the new (Cenozoic-Alpine) folding, the time of manifestation of which from 60 million years to the present day. This also explains the tectonic activity manifested in the form of earthquakes.

Andes - the regenerated mountains, erected with the latest raising on the site of the so-called Andean (Cordillers) folded geosynclinal belt. Andes are rich in ores mainly non-ferrous metals, in advanced and foothill deflections -nefty, gas. They consist of preferably from meridional parallel ridges: Eastern Cordillera Andes, Central Cordillera Andes, Western Cordillera Andes, Coastal Cordillera The Andes, between which there are internal plans and plateau (Pune, Altipano in Bolivia and Peru) or depressions.

The Andama passes the interconnection watershed, they take the beginning of Amazon and its tributaries, as well as the tributaries of Orinoco, Paraguay, Parana, the Magdalena River and the Patagonia River. The Andes lies the most alpine from the large lakes of the world - Titicaca.

Windward wet slopes from northwestern Andes to central Andes are covered with mining wet equatorial and tropical forests. In subtropical Andes - evergreen dry subtropical forests and shrubs, south of 38 ° southern latitude - wet evergreen and mixed forests. The vegetation of high-altitude plateau: in the north - mountain equatorial meadows Paramos, in Peruvian Andes and East Puna - Dry Alpine-Tropical Steppe Hulk, in the West Puna and in the entire Pacific West between 5-28 ° Southern latitude - desert vegetation types.

Andes are the birthplace of a fry tree, coca, potatoes and other valuable plants.

Character classification.

Depending on the position in one or another climatic belt and the differences in the orography and the structure of the Andes are divided into regions, each of which has its own features of the relief, climate and high-altitude.

Allocate among the Andes: Caribbean Andes, Nordic Andes lying in equatorial and sub-screen belts, central tropical belts, subtropical Chilean-Argentinean and South Andes lying within a moderate belt. The island region is particularly considered - fiery ground.

From Cape Mountain The main chain of the Andes go along the western coast of the fiery ground and consists of rocky peaks from 2000 - 3000 heights above sea level; The highest Sacramento, 6910 above sea level. Patagonian Andes go straight to the north to 42 °. Sh., accompanied by parallel rocky, mountainous islands in the Pacific Ocean. Chilean Andes stretch from 42 ° sh. up to 21 ° sh. And form a solid chain, divided into the northern direction into several grooves. The highest point is not only this area, but all the Andes are Akoncohua 6960 above sea level).

Between the Chilean Cordillers and the Pacific Ocean, at a distance of 200 - 375 km., There are huge plains lying at an altitude of 1000 - 1500 above sea level. In the south of the plains, these are covered with rich vegetation, but higher mountain areas are completely deprived of it. Bolivian Andes form the central part of the entire system and are sent to the north of 21 ° Yu.Sh. Up to 14 ° Yu.Sh. Huge masses of rocks stretching in length throughout almost seven degrees of latitude, and wide at a distance from 600 - 625 km. About 19 ° sh. The mountain chain is divided into two huge long-term parallel ridges to the East - Cordillera Real and West - coastal. The ridges are concluded by Highland Deauagoudero, it stretches for 1000 km. Length and 75 - 200 km. In width. These parallel ridges Cordillera stretch at a distance of about 575 km. One of the other and connect, in some items, huge transverse groups or solitary ridges, cutting them on the similarity. The slope to the Pacific Ocean is very cool, it is also placed to the East, where the sobs are diverted to low-lying plains.

The main tops of the coastal Cordiller: Sakham 6520m. 18 ° 7 '(Yu.Sh. and 68 ° 52' ZD, Illimani 6457m. 16 ° 38 Yu.Sh. and 67 ° 49 'ZD, Peruvian Cordillers. Dished from the Pacific Desert 100 - 250 km. Widths, for from 14 ° to 5 °, and are divided into two oriental spurs - one, which goes to the north-west, between the Rivers Maranyon and Gaullagoy, the other - between Guallagia and Ukillle. Between these spurs lies the Highlands of Pasco or Guanuko . Cordillera Ecuador begins in 5 ° J. sh. And will be held in the northern direction to the Highlands of the Quito surrounded by the most magnificent in the light of volcanoes in the eastern branch: Sangai, Tungurgua, Kotopakh, in the Western Branch - Chimborazo. On the Eastern Chain, under 2 ° C.Sh . There is a mountain node of Paramo, from which three separate chains go: Sumy grooves - to the northeast past Lake Maracaibo to Caracas, at the Karaiba Sea; Quyindia to the northeast, between the rivers Kaucco and Magdalen.

Choco - along the coast of the Pacific Ocean to Panama. Here Volcano Tolimo 4 ° 46 'S.Sh. and 75 ° 37 'ZD .. The Giant Mountain Chain Andes intersects between 35 ° Yu.Sh. and 10 ° S.Sh. Many, mostly narrow, steep and dangerous passages and roads at altitudes, equal to the highest heights of the European Mountains, What are the passages: between the Arequice and Punet, (and the highest passage between the Lima and Pasco. The most convenient of them are only available to the passage on Moulas and Laks or carrying travelers on the backs of the natives. Along the Andes for 25,000 km, there is a large trading road from Trujillo to Papayan.

Peru has a railway through the main ridge Cordiller, from the ocean east to the lakes of Titicah lake geological structure of South America, part of granite, gneis, mica and slate, but mainly from diorite, porphyra, basalt mixes with limestone, sandstone and conglomerates. Minerals, found here: Salt, Gypsum and large altitudes of stone coal veins; Especially rich in cordillera gold, silver, platinum, mercury, copper, iron, lead, topazami, amethysts and other precious stones.

Andes.

Caribbean Andes.

The northern latitudinal segment of the Andes from the island of Trinidad to the lowland of Maracaibo in orographic features and structure, as well as by the nature of the climatic conditions and vegetation differs from the system itself and forms a special physical and geographical country.

Caribbean Andes belong to the Antil-Caribbean folded area, which, according to the characteristics of the structure and development, is different from both Cordillere North America and the Andes actually.
There is a point of view according to which the Antilsk-Caribbean region is the Western sector of Tethysis, separated as a result of the "disclosure" of the Atlantic Ocean.

On the mainland, Caribbean Andes consist of two anticline zones, which correspond to the ridges of the Cordillera da Costa and Sierra del Interior, separated by a wide valley of the extensive syncinal zone. At the Bay of Barcelona Mountains interrupt, decaying two links - Western and East. From the platform of the Sierra del Interior platform is separated by deep fault from the oil-bearing subandan deflection, which merges in the relief with the lowland of the Orinoco. The deep-sized fear is also separated by the Caribbean and Cordillera de Merida. In the north flooded by the sea, the syncinal deflection separates from the continent of the Anticlinorium of Margarita Islands - Tobago. The continuation of these structures can be traced on Paraguian and Goahir's peninsula.

All mountain structures of Caribbean and are folded by the folded rocks of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic and are permeated by intrusions of different ages. The modern relief of them was formed under the influence of repeated raises, the last of which, accompanied by a flexing - syncinal zones and faults, took place in neogen. The whole system of caribbean and seismic, but does not have existing volcanoes. The relief of the mountains of the Mountains, the medium, the highest peaks exceed 2500 m, the mountain arrays are separated from each other through erosion and tectonic decrees.

Located on the border between the subequatorial and tropical belts, Caribbean Andes, especially the island and Paraguian and Goahir Peninsula, are characterized by a superior climate than the neighboring areas. All year they are under the influence of tropical air, brought by the North-Eastern Passat. The annual amounts of precipitation do not exceed 1000 mm, but more often they are even lower than 500 mm. The bulk of them falls from May to November, but in the most dry northern regions the wet period lasts only two or three months. From the mountains in the direction of the Caribbean sea, small short watercourses flowing down a large number of debris material to the shore; Places where limestone overlook the surface is almost completely anhydrous.

The lagoon coasts of the mainland and islands are covered with wide stripes of mangrove thickets, on dry lowlands, dominated, such as waste, consisting of candelabrovid cacti, indentation, mushroom, mosquito. Among this gray green vegetation, gray soil or yellow sand shocks. The more abundant irrigated slopes of the mountains and the valleys open to the sea are covered with mixed forests, in which evergreen and deciduous species, coniferous and deciduous trees are combined. The tops of the mountains are used as pastures. At a small height above sea level, groves or single specimens of royal and coconut palms are distinguished. All North Coast of Venezuela is turned into a spa-tourist area, with beaches, hotels and parks.

In the wide valley separated from the sea, the Cordillera-da Costa ridge, and the capital of Venezuela was spread on the slopes of the mountains around the mountains - Caracas. Mountain slopes and plains are separated from the forest are occupied by plantations of coffee and chocolate trees, cotton, tobacco, sisal.

Northern Andes.

Under this name is known for the northern segment of the Andes from the coast of the Caribbean to the border between Ecuador and Peru in the south. Here, in the area of \u200b\u200b4-5 °, Yu.Sh., passes a break, separating the Nordic Andes from the central.

At the coast of the Caribbean on the territory of Colombia and Venezuela, fan-formingly diverging ridges alternate with foothills and wide intergountain valleys, reaching a total width of 450 km. In the south, within the Ecuador, the entire system is narrowed to 100 km. In the structure of the main part of the Northern Andes (approximately between 2 and 8 ° C. sh.), All the main orotectonic elements of the Andiy system are clearly pronounced. Along the coast of the Pacific, a narrow, low and strongly dissected coastline is stretched. From the rest of the Andes, he is separated by the longitudinal tectonic attitudes of the Atrato River. Eastern climbed parallel to each other, higher and massive ridges of Western and Central Cordiller, separated by a narrow valley of the Kauki River. Central Cordillera is the highest mountain range Colombia. Separate volcanic vertices rise on its crystalline base, among which Tolima rises to a height of 5215 m.

Even east, for the deep valley of the Magdalena River, there is a less high ridge of East Cordillera, which is composed of strongly folded sedimentary rocks and is divided into the central part with extensive pool downs. In one of them, at an altitude of 2600 m is the capital of Columbia Bogota.

About 8 ° C. sh. Eastern Cordillera is divided into two branches - the submeridiaal Sierra-Periha and Cordillera de Me-Rida, extending to the northeast and reaching the height of 5000 m. On the median array located between them, the extensive intermountain Vpadina Marakaybo was formed, occupied in the central part of the same name Lagoon. The west of the Sierra Perich Ridge extends a wetland lowland of Lower Magdalena - Kauki, corresponding to the young intergusion deflection. At the coast of the Caribbean Sea, an isolated array of Sierra Neva-Da-de-Santa-Martha (Cristobal Colon - 5775m) is rising (Cristobal-Color - 5775m), which is a continuation of the anticlinium of the Central Cordillera, separated from its main part of the Magdalena Valley. In young sediments, performing the depressions of Maracaibo and Magdalena - Kauki, contain the richest oil and gas fields.

From the platform, the entire zone of northern Andes is accompanied by a young subandy deflection, also differing
Nephtone.

In the southern part of Colombia and on the territory of Ecuador, the Andes are narrowed and consist only of two parts. Coast Cordillera disappears, and a hilly coastal plain appears in her place. Central and eastern cordillers merge into one ridge.

Between two mountain chains of Ecuador lies depression with a strip of faults, along which the extinct and acting volcanoes rise. The highest of them is the acting volcano Kotopakh (5897 m) and the extinct Volcano Chimborace (6310 m). Within this tectonic depression at an altitude of 2700 m, the capital of Ecuador - Quito is located.

The active volcanoes also rise above the Eastern Cordillery of Southern Columbia and Ecuador is KaamaBe (5790 m), antisana (5705 m), Tunnuragua (5033 m) and Sangay (5230 m). The correct cones of these volcanoes with snow caps are one of the most striking features of Ecuadorian Andadore and.

For northern Andes, a clearly pronounced system of altitude belts is characteristic. At the bottom of the mountains and on coastal lowlands, it is wet and hot, there is the highest average annual temperature of South America (+ 2y ° C). In this case, seasonal differences are almost absent. Maracaibo lowland passe average temperature of August + 29 ° С, Middle January + 27 ° С. The air is saturated with moisture, the precipitates fall almost all year, the annual sums reach 2500-3000 mm, and on the Pacific coast -5000-7000 mm.

The entire bottom belt of the mountains, called the local population of "hot land", adversely for the lives of people. The high and constant humidity of the air and the exhausting heat apply relaxing on the human body. Extensive swamps are seating from various diseases. The entire bottom mountain belt is engaged in a wet rainforest, according to an appearance not differing from the forests of the eastern part of the mainland. It consists of palm trees, ficuing (among them - rubber space of Castilloa Tree Cocoa, bananas, etc. On the coast, the forest replace mangroves, and in wetlands - extensive and often impassable cane swamps.

At the site of cleared wet rainforests in many areas of the coast, sugar cane and bananas are grown - the main tropical cultures of the northern regions of South America. On rich oils of lowlands along the Caribbean and the Pacific, large areas of rainforest are reduced, and "forests" of countless oils appeared in their place, numerous working villages, major cities.

Above the lower roast mountain belt is a moderate zone of Northern Andes (Pegga Götr1Aya), rising to a height of 2500-3000 m. For this belt, as well as for the lower, characterized by a smooth temperature course during the year, but due to the height there is quite significant daily amplitudes there. Temperatures. The strong heat peculiar to the hot belt does not happen. The average annual temperature ranges from +15 to + 20 ° C, the amount of precipitation and humidity is significantly less than in the lower zone. The amount of precipitation in closed alpine basins and valleys is especially reduced, (no more than 1000 mm per year). The initial floral cover of this belt in composition and the appearance is very different from the forests of the lower belt. Palms disappear and tree-like ferns and bamboo predominate, a coca shrub appears, a coca shrub, in the leaves of which cocaine, and other breeds, unknown in the forests of "hot land".

Moderate mountain belt is most favorable for people's lives. Due to the monotony and temperatures of temperature, it is called the belt of eternal spring. Within its limits, there is a significant part of the population of the Northern Aid, there are the largest cities and developed agriculture. Corn, tobacco and most important culture of Colombia Coffee tree are widespread.

The next belt of the mountains local population calls "Cold Earth" (Pegga / g / a). Its upper limit is at an altitude of about 3,800 m. Within this belt, a uniform temperature is preserved, but it is even lower than in a temperate belt (only +10, + 11 ° C). This belt is characterized by alpine hyilen, consisting of low-spirited and curved trees and shrubs. A variety of species, an abundance of epiphetic plants and lian bring the alpine hyilen with a flat tropical forest.

The main representatives of the flora of this forest are evergreen oaks, heather, myrth, low-spirited bamboo and tree fern. Despite the greater height above sea level, the cold belt of the northern Andes is populated. Small settlements on the hollows rise to a height of 3500 m. Population, by the advantage of Indian, cultivates corn, wheat and potatoes.

Next high-altitude belt of northern Andi Alpine. At the local population, he is known as the "paramos". It ends at the border of eternal snow at an altitude of about 4500 m. Within this belt, the climate is severe. With positive daytime temperatures, at all times of the year there are strong night frosts, snow storms and snowfalls. The precipitation falls a bit, and evaporation is very strong. The vegetation of the paramosis is independent and has a pronounced xerophytic appearance. It consists of rarely growing turf cereals, pillow-shaped, rosette or high (up to 5 m), strongly pubescent complex plants with bright inflorescences. In flat areas of the surface, large areas occupy moss swamps, and completely fruitless stony spaces are characteristic of the steep slips.

Above 4500 m in the northern Andes, the belt of perpetual snow and ice with a constantly negative temperature begins. On many arrays of the Andes there are large alpine type glaciers. They are most developed in Sierra Nevada de Santa Marte, Central and Western Cordillerah Columbia. The high peaks of Tolima volcanoes, Chimborace and Kotopakh are covered with huge snow and ice caps. Significant glaciers also have in the middle part of the Cordillera de Merida Range.

Central Andes.

Central Andes are stretched to a huge distance from the state border between Ecuador and Peru in the north to 27 ° Yu.Sh. on South. This is the widest part of the mining system, reaching 700,800 km width within Bolivia.

In the south, the middle part of the Andes occupy a plateau, which on both sides are accompanied by ridges by East and Western Cordillera.

Western Cordillera represents an alpine chain with extinct and active volcanoes: Okhos del Salado (6880 m), Koropuna (6425 m), Walagiri (6060 m), Misty (5821 m), and others. Within Bolivia, Western Cordillera forms the main Water Building of Andes .

In North Chile, on the side of the Pacific Ocean, a chain of coastal cordillera appears, reaching the height of 600-1000 m. From Western Cordillera, it separates it with tectonic cultivation of attack. Coast Cordillera breaks right into the ocean, forming a straightforward rocky shore, very uncomfortable for the parking of ships. Along the coast of Peru and Chile from the ocean, the rocky islands are located, where, as well as on coastal rocks, billions of birds are nesting, departing the masses of guano - the most valuable natural fertilizer, widely used in these countries.

Andiy's plateau, called the local population of Chile and Argentina "Punami", and Bolivia "Altiplano", located between Western and Eastern Cordillers, reach a height of 3000-4500 m. The surface of them is cluttered with coarse debris material or bulk sand, and in the eastern part covered with sturgeon Products. In places there are decreases partially engaged in lakes. An example is the basin of Lake Titicaca, located at an altitude of 3800 m. Several southeast of this lake at an altitude of 3700 m above sea level at the bottom of a deep gorge embedded into the surface of the plateau, and on its slopes lies the main city of Bolivia - La Paz - the most Alpine capital in the world.

The surface of the plane in different directions intersect high ridges in excess of their average height per 1000-2000 m. Many vertices of the ridges are active volcanoes. Since the watershed runs along the Western Cordillera, the plateau crosses the rivers flowing to the east and forming deep valleys, and wild gorges.

In terms of its origin, the PUN zone - altiplano corresponds to the median array consisting of aligned folded colors of Paleozoic age, who have experienced lowering at the beginning of the Cenozoic and not subjected to such a strong lift as Eastern and Western Cordillera.

High Eastern Cordillera has a complex structure and forms the eastern outskirts of the Andes. Western slope it, facing a flat, steep, oriental - gentle. Since the eastern slope of the central Andes, as opposed to all other parts of the region, receives a significant amount of precipitation, is characterized by deep erosion dismemberment.

Above the crest of East Cordillera, reaching an average height of about 4000 m, the individual snowy vertices rise. The highest of them are Iliamp (6485 m) and Ilimani (6462 m). There are no volcanoes on the Eastern Cordillera.

Throughout the central Andes in Peru and Bolivia, there are large ore deposits of non-ferrous, rare and radioactive metals. The coastal and western Cordillera within Chile occupy one of the first places in the world in the preservation of copper, at attack and on the coast of the Pacific Ocean is the only field of Natural Selitra.

Desert and semi-desert landscapes predominate in the central Andes. In the north, 200-250 mm of precipitation falls per year, and most of them fall for the summer. The highest average monthly temperature + 26 ° C, the lowest + 18 ° C. Vegetation has a sharp xerophytic appearance and consists of cacti, nuns, acacia and rigid herbs.

South becomes much land. Within the desert depression of attacks and at the next section of the Pacific coast per year, less than 100 mm of precipitation falls, and even less than 25 mm in places. In some points, the east coastal cordillera never happens to rain. In the seaside strip (up to a height of 400-800 m), the lack of rains are somewhat compensated by high relative humidity (up to 80%), fogs and dears, which are usually in winter the year. Some plants are adapted to the existence of the account of this moisture.

Cold Peruvian flows temperatures on the coast. The average January from the north to south varies from +24 to + 19 ° C, and the middle July from + 19 to + 13 ° C.

Soil and vegetation in the attack is almost absent. Separate ephemeral plants that do not form closer cover appear in the fog season. Large areas occupy saline surfaces, on which vegetation does not develop at all. Very dry is also the slopes of Western Cordillera, facing the Pacific Ocean. The deserts rise here to a height of 1000 m in the north and up to 3000 m in the south. The slopes of the mountains are rarely worthwhile cacti and chopping. The annual movement of temperatures, precipitation within the Pacific deserts and relative humidity of the desert relatively few oasis. In the central part of the Pacific coast, natural oasis exist on the valleys of small rivers starting from glaciers. Most of them is located on the coast of Northern Peru, where among the desert landscapes on the irrigated and fertilized guano areas are green sugar cane plantations, cotton and coffee tree. In oases on the coast, the largest cities are located, including the capital of Peru - Lima.

The deserts of the Pacific coast merge with the gorgeous semi-desert belt, known as dry powders. Dry Pune spreads to the southwest part of the internal plane, height from 3000 to 4500 m, in some. Places dropped and lower.

Precipitation in the dry Pune drops less than 250 mm, the maximum of them falls for the summer. During the temperature, the climate continentality is manifested. The air is warm in the afternoon, but the cold winds at the warmer time can cause a strong cooling. In winter, frosts are up to -20 ° C, but the average monthly temperature is positive. The average temperature of the warmer months +14, + 15 ° C. In all periods of the year, the difference in the temperatures of the day and night. The sediments fall mainly in the form of rain and hail, but in winter there are snowfall, although snow cover is not formed.

Vegetation is very scarce. Dwarf shrubs prevail, among which representatives called Toltoral, why and the entire landscape of dry Punes are often called Tol. Some cereals and various lichens are mixed up to them. There are also cacti. Salt sites are even more poor plants. They grow mostly wormwood and ephedra.
In the east and north of central Andes, the annual amount of precipitation increases gradually, although the rest of the climate features are preserved. The exception is the terrain adjacent to the Lake Titicaca. The huge water mass of the lake (area over 8300 km2, depth up to 304 m) has a very tangible effect on climatic conditions of the surroundings. In the Priozen region, temperature fluctuations are not so cutting and the amount of precipitation is higher than in other parts of the plateau. Due to the fact that the amount of precipitation increases in the east to 800 mm, and in the north even up to 1000 mm, the vegetation becomes richer and more diverse, the mountain semi-desert goes to the mountain step, which the local population calls "Pune".

For the vegetation cover, the Puna is characterized by a variety of cereals, especially Ticacher, Kovyl and Vein. The species of the nova, called the local population of "ICH", forming rarely sitting rigid turns, is very common. In addition, various sowing shrubs grow in Pune. In some places there are also separate low-spirited trees.

Puna occupy huge territories in central Andes. In Peru and Bolivia, especially on the shores of Lake Titicaca and in the most wetted valleys, they were before the arrival of Spaniards inhabited by cultural Indian peoples who have formed the Inca State. Until now, the ruins of the ancient structures of the Inca, paved by stone slabs of the road and the remains of irrigation systems are still preserved. The ancient city of Cusco in Peru at the foot of Eastern Cordillera was the capital of the Incan state.

The modern population of the internal Plane of the Andes consists mainly of the Indians of Kechua, the ancestors of which were the basis of the Inc. Kechua is engaged in irrigated agriculture, tame and divorce Lam.

Agriculture is engaged at large altitudes. Planting potatoes and sowing some cereals can be found to a height of 3,500-3700 m, even higher growing a cinema - an annual plant from the Marcheov family, giving a large crop of small seeds that make up the main food of the local population. Around large cities (La Paz, Cusco) The surface of the Pun is turned into a "patchwork" landscape, where the fields alternate with groves from eucalyptuses brutged with Spaniards and thickets and other shrubs.

On the shores of Lake Titicaca lives the people of Aymara, engaged in the fishing and manufacture of various products from the cane growing at the low banks of the lake.
Above 5000 m in the south and 6000 m in the north, the temperature during the entire year is negative. The glaciation is insignificant due to climate dryness, only on the eastern Cordillera receiving more precipitation, there are large glaciers.

Eastern Cordillera landscapes differ significantly from the landscapes of the remaining central Andes. Wet winds brought a significant amount of moisture from the Atlantic Ocean in summer. Partly through through valleys, it penetrates the western slope of the Eastern Cordillera and the adjacent parts of the flat, where abundant "cages fall out. Therefore, the lower parts of the slopes of the mountains to a height of 1000-1500 m are dressed with dense tropical forests with palm trees and a chinnaya tree within this belt in the valleys grow sugar cane, coffee, cocoa and various tropical fruits. To the height of 3000 m, the low-spirited evergreen mountain forests are growing - thick thickets of bamboo and fern with Lianami. Above rising shrubs and alpine steppes. In the cross-cutting river valleys, Native American villages are surrounded by fields and groves. And in one of the valleys owned by the Amazon basin, on the eastern slope of Cordillera, there are ruins of the ancient fortress of the Inca, created during the period of fierce struggle with Spanish conquerors, - the famous Machu Picchu. Its territory has been turned on the Museum-Reserve.

Chilean-Argentine Andes.

In the subtropical belt between 27 and 42 ° Yu.Sh. Within Chile and Argentina, Andes are sore and consist only from one mountain range, but they reach their greatest height.

Along the coast of the Pacific Cordillera, which serves the continuation of the coastal cordillera central Andes, stretches along the shore of the Pacific Cordillers. The average height of it is 800 m, individual vertices rise to 2000 m. Deep valleys of rivers shared it on the table plateau, which are cool to break into the Pacific Ocean. Behind. Coast Cordillera lies parallel to her tectonic wpadin central, or longitudinal, Valley of Chile. It is an orographic continuation of the attacks of Atakama, but separated from her transverse extensions of the Andes. Such spurs of the main ridge share the valley on a number of isolated decreases. The height of the bottom of the valley in the north is about 700 m, it decreases to 100-200 m. Above its hilly surface is rising insulated cones of ancient volcanoes, reaching several hundred meters of relative height. The valley is the most populated area of \u200b\u200bChile, it is located the capital of Santiago.

From the east, the Central Valley is limited to the high chain of the main Cordillera, on the row of which the border of Chile and Argentina passes. In this part, the Andes are stacked highly folded mesozoic sediments and volcanic rocks and achieve a huge height and integrity of the raising. The highest vertices of the head of the main ridge are the highest tops of the Andonkagua (6960 m), Mercedaro (6770 m), acting volcanoes of Tupungato (6800 m), Milo (5223 m). Above 4000 M mountains are covered with snow and ice, the slopes of them are almost rigged and impregnable. The entire band of the mountains, including also the central valley, is subject to seismic and volcanic phenomena. Especially frequent and destructive earthquakes are on average Chile. The catastrophic earthquake broke out in Chile in 1960. Repeatedly replete reasons reached 12 points. The wave-caused by the earthquake crossed the Pacific Ocean and with a huge force hit the shores of Japan.

In the seaside part of Chilean And Klima * at subtropical, with dry summer and wet winter. The area of \u200b\u200bdistribution of this climate covers the coast between 29 and 37 ° YU. Sh., Central valley and lower parts of Western slopes of the main Cordillera. In the north, the transition to semi-deserts is planned, and to the south, the increase in precipitation and the gradual disappearance of the summer drought period marks the transition to the conditions of the oceanic climate of moderate latitudes.

As the climate is removed from the coast, it becomes more continental and dry than on the shores of the Pacific Ocean in Valparaiso, the temperature of the most cool month + 11 ° C, and the highest +17, + 18 ° C, seasonal amplitudes are small. In the Central Valley, they are more noticeable. In Santiago, the average temperature of the coldest month +7, + 8 ° C, and the highest + 20 ° C. The precipitation falls a bit, the number of them increases from north to south and from east to west. In Santiago, about 350 mm falls, in Valdivia - 750 mm. Agriculture in these areas requires artificial irrigation. In the direction of the south, the annual amounts of precipitation quickly increase and differences in their distribution between the summer and in the winter are almost erased. In the western slopes, the main cordillera of precipitation increases, but on its Eastern slope, they again become very little.

Soil cover is very pepper. Typical brown soils are most common characteristic of dry subtropical districts. In the central valley, dark color soils resembling chernozems are developed.

Natural vegetation is very exterminated, as in the middle of Chile there lives almost the entire population of a country that is mainly engaged in agriculture. Therefore, most of the land-friendly lands are engaged in sowing of various cultures. For natural vegetation, the prevalence of erenders of evergreen shrubs, resembling McWis Southern Europe or Chaparara North America.

The forests covered in the past of the Andes of the Andes to the height of 2000-2500 m. On eastern dry slopes, the upper limit border lies 200 m lower than on more wet western. Now the forests are exterminated and the slopes of the Andes and the coastal cordillera are bare. Wood vegetation is mainly in the form of artificial plantings in settlements and along the fields. On the conical volcanoes, rising from the bottom of the valley within Santiago, you can see eucalyptus groves, pines and araucaria, planenes, beech, in the undergrowth - thickets of brightly blooming geranium and jocks. In these plantations, the local flora is combined with species delivered from Europe.

Above 2500 m in Andes there is a gorgeous meadow belt, within which narrow strips of low forest and shrubs enter the valleys. In the vegetable cover of mountain meadows, the types of those generics of plants, which are found on the Alpine Lights of the Old World are presented: buttercup, coxy, acids, primrose, etc. There are also common shrubs, such as currants and barberries. There are areas of peat swamps with typical marsh flora. Mountain meadows are used as summer pastures.

Cultural vegetation is similar to the vegetation of the regions of Europe and North America appropriate on climate. Most subtropical crops were brought to South America from the Mediterranean European countries. This is a grape vine, olive tree, citrus and other fruit trees. The largest part of the plowed areas is busy wheat, significantly less - corn. On the slopes of the mountains, peasants in small areas grow potatoes, beans, peas, lentils, onions, artichokes and podpicks. At the most convenient areas at the site of the extermination of forests there are artificial lesions.

Southern (Patagonian) Andes.

In the extreme south, within the moderate belt, Andes are lowered and fragmented. Coast Cordillera south of 42 ° sh. Turns into thousands of the mountainous islands of the Chilean Archipelago. The longitudinal valley of the medium chili in the south is descended, and then disappears under the waters of the ocean. The continuation of it is the system of bays and straits separating from the mainland of the island of the Chilean Archipelago. The main Cordillera is also very reduced. Within the southern chili, her height rarely exceeds 3000 m, and in the extreme south does not reach 2000 m. In the coast, many fjords cut into the western slope of the mountains into a number of separate peninsular sites. The continuation of the fjords often serve as large glacial lakes, which crosses the low ridge and, leaving his East Argentine slope, facilitate the overcoming of the mountains. The whole terrain along the Pacific Ocean is very similar to the Norwegian coast of the Scandinavian Peninsula, although the fjords of the Chilean coast are not so ambitious as Norwegian.

Ice forms of relief are widespread in southern Andes. In addition to the fjords and glacial lakes, there you can meet big circus, valleys with a typical awesome profile, hanging valleys, moraine ridges, which often serve as a damaster for lakes, etc. Forms of ancient glaciation are combined with powerful modern glaciation and the development of glacial processes.

The climate of southern chili is wet, with small differences in the temperature of summer and winter, very unfavorable for people. The coast and Western slopes of the mountains are under the constant influence of strong Western winds bringing a huge amount of precipitation. With an average of their number up to 2000-3000 mm in some areas of the west coast, up to 6000 mm of precipitation per year. On the eastern slope, weathered in relation to Western air flows, the amount of precipitation decreases sharply. Permanent strong winds and rains, reaching more than 200 days a year, low clouds, fogs and moderate temperatures during the year - the characteristic features of the climate of southern Chile. On the coast and the islands, constant storms are rampant, making huge waves ashore.

With an average winter temperature +4, + 7 ° C, the average temperature of the summer does not exceed + 15 ° C, and in the extreme south is reduced to + 10 ° C. Only on the eastern slope of the Andes the amplitudes of oscillations between the average temperature of the summer and winter are somewhat increasing. At high altitude, a negative temperature is dominated in the mountains throughout the year, on the highest vertices of the eastern slope, frosts are held for a long time to - 30 ° C. In connection with these characteristics of the climate, the snow, the border in the mountains is very low: in the north of Patagonian Andes around at an altitude of 1500m, in the south - below 1000m. Modern glaciation occupies a very large area, especially in 48 ° Yu.Sh., where in the territory of over 20 thousand km2 lies with a powerful ice cover. This is the so-called Patagonian Ice Shield. From him to the West and East, powerful valley glaciers are diverged, the ends of which lie well below the snow border, sometimes at the ocean itself. Some of the oriental slope glacial languages \u200b\u200bend in large lakes.

Glaciers and lakes feed a large number of rivers flowing into a quiet and partially in the Atlantic Ocean. River valleys are deeply embedded into the surface. In some cases, they cross the Andes, and rivers, beginning on the eastern slope, fall into the Pacific Ocean. The rivers are winding, full-flowered and bourgeois, their valleys usually consist of lake expansion by narrow-sided sections.
The slopes of the Patagonian Andes cover the moisture-boring subnutrctic forests consisting of high-ranking trees and shrubs, among which the evergreen species prevail: in 42 ° sh. There is an array of araucaria forests, and mixed forests are south. Thanks to the thickness, abundance of species, multi-tie, diversity of lian, moss and lichens they resemble the forests of low latitudes. Soils under them type of burzems, in the south - podzolic. In flat areas there are many swamps.

The main representatives of the Flora Forests of the South Andes are views, evergreen and deciduous southern beech, magnolia, giant coniferous, bamboo and tree fans. Many plants bloom with beautiful fragrant flowers, especially decorating the forest in spring and summertime. Tree branches and trunks excrete lianas and dress up lush moss and lichen cover. Mossi and lichens together with a sheet bed cover the surface of the soil.

With lifting in the mountains, forests are cut and the species composition is impoverished. In the extreme south of the forest, the vegetation of the tundra type is gradually replaced.
On the eastern slope of the mountains facing the Patagonian plateau, precipitation falls significantly less than in the West.

There are less thick and poorer forests on the species composition than on the Pacific Coast. The main forest-forming rocks of these forests - beech, to which some doubles are mixed. At the foot of the mountains, the forests are moving in a dry steppe and shrub thickets of the Patagonian plateau.

The forests of southern Andes contain huge stocks of high-grade wood. However, so far they are used unevenly. Araucaria forests underwent the greatest deficion. In the southern, the least affordable areas still have significant arrays of forests, almost not touched by a person.

Fire Earth.

The fiery land is called the archipelago of dozens of large and small islands located at the southern coast of South America between 53 and 55 °. sh. And belonging to Chile and Argentina. Islands are separated from the mainland and one from the other with narrow winding straits. The most east and largest island is called fiery land or a big island.

In geological and geomorphologically, the archipelago serves as a continuation of the Andes and Patagonian Plateau. The coast of the Western Islands of the rocks and deeply cut by fjords, oriental - flat and weakly dissected.

The whole western part of the archipelago is occupied by mountains up to 2400 m. In the relief of the mountains, ancient and modern glacial forms play a big role in the form of boulders, troch valleys, "Baranjah Lbov" and draft lakes. The mountain ranges dismembered by the glaciers rise from the ocean itself, narrow winding fjords are cut into their slopes. In the eastern part of the largest island, an extensive plain spread.

The climate of the fiery land is very wet, with the exception of the extreme East. The archipelago is under constant influence of sharp and wet southwestern winds. The precipitation in the West drops up to 3000 mm per year, and the drizzles prevail, which go 300-330 days a year. In the East, the amount of precipitation decreases sharply.

The temperature throughout the year is low, and its fluctuations are insignificant. It can be said that the Archipelago of Fire Land at the summer temperature is close to the tundra, and in the winter - to the subtropics.
The climatic conditions of the fiery land are favorable for the development of glaciation. The snow border in the West lies at an altitude of 500 m, and the glaciers are broken directly into the ocean, forming icebergs. The mountain ranges are covered with ice, and only individual sharp vertices rise above its cover.

In a narrow seaside strip, mainly in the western part of the archipelago, forests are common from evergreen and deciduous trees. The southern beats are especially characteristic, carbon, from magnolia, blooming with white fragrant flowers, and some coniferous. The upper limit of forest vegetation and the snow boundary are almost closed with each other. Silence above 500 m, and sometimes by the sea (in the east) of the forests are replaced by scanty subnutrctic mountain meadows without flowering plants and peatlands. In areas where constant strong winds blow, rare and low curved trees and shrubs and shrubs with "flag-like" crowns, tilted in the direction of the dominant winds, are growing.

Animal world of the archipelago Fire Earth and South Andes are about the same and pretty peculiar. Along with Guanako, a blue fox, a lisuceratoid, or ma-gellanov, a dog and many rodents are common there. It is characterized by endemic, living under the ground rodent Tuko-Tuco. Numerous birds: parrots, hummingbird.
From domestic animals the most common sheep. Sheep fell is the main occupation of the population.

Environmental problems in the Zone of the Andes.

Careless use of natural resources.

Among the useful minerals mined on the territory of the Andes are allocated ores of ferrous and non-ferrous metals (copper, tin, tungsten, molybdenum, silver, antimony, lead and zinc) of magmatic and metamorphic origin. Also, platinum, gold, precious stones are mined there. On eastern highlands, large zirconium deposits, beryl, bismuth, titanium, uranium, nickel are associated with the yield of magmatic breeds; Iron and manganese deposits - with metamorphic passwords; The deposits of bauxite containing aluminum - with the crust of weathelation. The fields of oil, natural gas and stone coal are confined to the defaults of the platform, intermountain and foothill. Under the conditions of a desert climate during biochemical decomposition of litter of seabirds, the deposits of Chilean Selitra were formed.

Also, forest resources are underway fairly rapidly, with such a pace that they are no longer renewed. Three main problems in the field of forest protection are: the deforestation of forests for pastures and agricultural grounds illegal deforestation by the local population for the sale of wood or to use it as fuel for heating houses, as a result of economic reasons.

Countries in the area of \u200b\u200bthe Andes collided with a number of environmental problems in coastal and sea zones. First of all, these are large volumes of fish catch, which actually does not control the disappearance of many species of fish and marine animals, given that the catch is constantly increasing. The development of ports and transport led to serious pollution of coastal zones, where the landfills, warehouses of equipment and fuel for ships are often located. But the most serious damage bring the release of sewage waste, as well as industrial garbage in the sea, which adversely affects coastal zones, flora and fauna.

It must be said that it is quite difficult to get quite reliable information about emissions into the atmosphere of greenhouse gases, as statistics on this issue are either missing or not quite reasonable. Nevertheless, it is reliably known that the cause of air pollution in 50% of cases is industrial production and electricity generation. In addition, there is a tendency to reflect on the promising direction in the use of renewable energy in favor of burning fuel, both when generating electricity and in the transport sector. The largest share of the air pollution in South America and in Andes in particular, accounted for thermal power plants and plants for the production of steel and cast iron, and transport pollution amounts to 33% of all emissions.

The most active industrial activity has unfolded on the territory of Pampism, the region of extensive green steppes. Here mines, oil wells, melting factories and the oil refining industry, which significantly pollute the nearby territories are concentrated. Oil refining factories in particular are damaged to water and underground sources, polluting them with such heavy metals as mercury and lead and other chemicals. Oil refining activity in the salontal led to the erosion of the soil, worsening water quality, negatively affecting the agriculture of the regions. The southern territories of Patagonia were significantly injured from mining activities in mountainous areas, which adversely affected the flora and fauna of the terrain, which in turn had a negative effect on tourism, which is one of the most important sectors of local budgets.

Since ancient times, the states of South America were more agricultural countries. Therefore, soil degradation is a serious problem for the economy. The cause of the deterioration of the soil state is erosion, pollution due to improper use of fertilizers, the destruction of forests and poor agricultural land management. For example, the production of soybeans for export forced the Ministry of Agriculture of Argentina to expand the use of new technologies, which led to pollution by pesticides of a significant territory in the north of the country. Incorrect use of pastures led to the desertification of land in the Argentine steppes, where 35% of fertile lands were lost. The incorrect distribution of land and economic instability leads to the introduction of land for the sake of rapid profit, while this picture is observed everywhere throughout Andes. If appropriate measures will not be taken to protect land resources, soil degradation will continue and countries will face serious agricultural difficulties.

The territory of the Andes is richly populated by various biological species, but many animals and birds endangered due to the spread of agriculture and active human activity in coastal zones. Thus, more than 50% of birds and mammals are under threat of disappearance. Although many countries use a large number of reserves, many natural zones are not sufficiently estimated in the degree of risk. Moreover, many protected areas are so only on paper and are practically not guarded.

Possible ways out of the problem.

The main environmental problems of the Andes are:

soil degradation and coastal zones
illegal deforestation and lands desertification
destruction of biological species
pollution of groundwater and atmosphere
problems with garbage and pollution with heavy metals

The main task of Latin American governments today is to improve the economic situation in their countries in order to cope with environmental issues. The root consecration is the elimination of environmental problems in urban areas, where more than 1/3 of the population of countries live. Improving the sanitary situation, solving transport problems and problems with poverty and unemployment - these are directions in which the authorities need to be operated. The preservation of biological diversity is the second most important task.

Gradually, Latin America begins to recognize the need to protect its natural wealth. But further implementation of the Government Program on Environmental Protection is possible only after improving the economic situation in countries.

However, it is impossible to forget that the forests located in Latin America, especially in the Amazon River basin, are, and long ago, the forests of our planet are, not only the poor countries of Latin America are blamed and burned, but rich countries coldly pumping out from The subsoil of these countries is natural resources, without worrying about the future, living according to the principle: "After we have a flood."