Getting acquainted with the works of Soviet art, you immediately notice that it is very different from the previous period in the history of art. This difference lies in the fact that all Soviet art is permeated with Soviet ideology and was intended to be a conductor of all ideas and decisions of the Soviet state and the Communist Party, as the leading force of Soviet society. If in the art of the 19th - early 20th century, artists subjected the existing reality to serious criticism, then in the Soviet period such works were unacceptable. The pathos of building a socialist state was applied as a red thread through all Soviet art. Now, 25 years after the collapse of the USSR, there is an increased interest in Soviet art on the part of the audience, especially it is becoming interesting for young people. And the older generation rethinks a lot in the past history of our country and is also interested in seemingly very familiar works of Soviet painting, sculpture, and architecture.

Art of the period of the October Revolution, the Civil War and the 20s - 30s.

In the first years after the revolution and during the civil war, battle political poster. The classics of poster art are rightfully considered D.S. Moor and V.N. Denis. Moore's poster "Have you volunteered?" and now captivates with the expressiveness of the image.

In addition to the printed poster, during the Civil War, hand-drawn and stenciled posters arose. it "ROSTA windows", where the poet V. Mayakovsky took an active part.

During the civil war he worked monumental propaganda plan, compiled by V.I. Lenin, the meaning of which was the construction of monuments throughout the country to famous people who, in one way or another, contributed to the preparation and implementation of the socialist revolution. The performers of this program are primarily sculptors N.A. Andreev I.D. Shadr.

In the 1920s, an association was formed that played a significant role in building a new Soviet society - Russia "(AHRR) "Association of Artists of Revolutionary Russia (AHRR).

In the 30s, a single Union of Artists of the USSR was created, uniting all artists who in their work were supposed to follow the method of socialist realism. Older artists (B. Kustodiev, K. Yuon and others.) and the younger ones strove to reflect the new in Soviet reality.

In creativity I.I. Brodsky the historical and revolutionary theme was reflected. The same theme in the works M. Grekov and K. Petrov-Vodkin is sublimely romantic in nature.

In the same years, the epic began "Leniniana" which created a countless number of works dedicated to V.I. Lenin during the Soviet period.

Genre painters (masters of the everyday genre) and portrait painters of the 20s-30s should primarily be called M. Nesterov, P. Konchalovsky, S. Gerasimov, A. Deineku, Y. Pimenov, G. Ryazhsky and other artists.

In the area of landscape such artists worked, as K. Yuon, A. Rylov, V. Baksheev and R.

After the revolution and civil war, there was a rapid construction of cities, in which many monuments to prominent figures of the revolution, parties and states. Famous sculptors were A. Matveev, M. Manizer, N. Tomsky, S. Lebedeva other.

Soviet fine arts 1941 -1945 and the first post-war years

During the Great Patriotic War, Soviet art resolutely refuted the dictum that "when the cannons are thundering, the muses are silent." No, during the period of the most cruel and terrible wars in the history of mankind, the muses were not silent. Immediately after the treacherous attack of the German fascists on the Soviet Union, the artist's brush, pencil and chisel became a formidable weapon in the fight against the enemy.

The heroic upsurge of the people, their moral unity became the foundation on which Soviet art rose during the Patriotic War. He was permeated with ideas patriotism. These ideas inspired poster artists, inspired painters to create paintings telling about the exploits of Soviet people, determined the content of works in all types of art.

A huge role at this time, as in the years of the civil war, was played by a political poster, where artists such as V. S. Ivanov, V. B. Koretsky other. Their works are characterized by an angry pathos, in the images they created, the unyielding will of people who stood up to defend the Fatherland with their breasts is revealed.

A hand-drawn poster is experiencing a genuine renaissance during the war. Following the example of "ROSTA Windows" in 1941-1945, numerous sheets were created "Windows of TASS". They ridiculed the invaders, exposed the true essence of fascism, called on the people to defend the Motherland. Among the artists working in "Windows TASS", first of all, one should name Kukryniksov (Kupriyanov, Krylov, Sokolov).

The graphic series of that time convincingly tell about the experiences of the Soviet people during the war years. A magnificent series of drawings marked with heartache DA Shmarinova "We will not forget, we will not forgive!" The severity of life in besieged Leningrad is captured in a series of drawings AF Pakhomov "Leningrad in the days of the siege".

It was difficult for the painters to work during the war years: after all, it takes time and appropriate conditions and materials to create a finished picture. Nevertheless, at that time many canvases appeared that were included in the golden fund of Soviet art. The painters of the studio of military artists named after A.B. Grekov tell us about the difficult everyday life of the war, about the hero-soldiers. They traveled to the fronts, took part in hostilities.

Military artists captured on their canvases everything that they themselves saw and experienced. Among them P.A.Krivonogov, author of the painting "Victory", B.M. Nemensky and his painting "Mother", a peasant woman who sheltered soldiers in her hut, who survived a lot in a difficult time for the Motherland.

Canvases of great artistic value were created during these years A. A. Deineka, A. A. Plastov, Kukryniksy... Their paintings, dedicated to the heroic deeds of Soviet people, Soviet people at the front and in the rear, are imbued with sincere excitement. The artists assert the moral superiority of the Soviet people over the brute force of fascism. This is the manifestation of the humanism of the people, their faith in the ideals of justice and goodness. Historical canvases created during the war, including such as the cycle paintings by E.E. Lancere "Trophies of Russian weapons"(1942), triptych by PD Korin "Alexander Nevsky", canvas by AP Bubnov "Morning on the Kulikovo field".

Portrait painting also told us a lot about the people of the wartime. In this genre, many works have been created, marked by outstanding artistic merit.

The portrait gallery of the period of the Patriotic War was replenished with many sculptural works. People of unbending will, courageous characters, marked by vivid individual differences, are represented in the sculptural portraits of S.D. Lebedeva, N.V. Tomsky, V.I.Mukhina, V.E. Vuchetich.

During the Patriotic War, Soviet art honorably fulfilled its patriotic duty. The artists came to victory, having gone through deep experiences, which made it possible in the first post-war years to create works with a complex and multifaceted content.

In the second half of the 40s - 50s, art is enriched with new themes and images. Its main tasks during this period are to reflect the successes of post-war construction, the upbringing of morality and communist ideals.

The flourishing of art in the post-war years was largely facilitated by the activities of the USSR Academy of Arts, which includes the most significant masters.

The art of the post-war years is also characterized by other features that primarily relate to its content. During these years, the interest of artists to the inner world of man is growing. Hence the attention paid by painters, sculptors, graphic artists to portraits and genre compositions, which make it possible to represent people in a variety of life situations and show the originality of their characters and experiences. Hence the special humanity and warmth of many works dedicated to the life and everyday life of Soviet people.

Naturally, at this time, artists continue to worry about the events of the recent war. Again and again they turn to the heroic deeds of the people, to the grievous feelings of the Soviet people in a harsh time. Such canvases of those years are known as "Mashenka" by B. Nemensky, "Letter from the Front" by A. Laktionov, "Rest after the Battle" by Y. Nemensky, "The Return" by V. Kostetsky and many others.

The canvases of these artists are interesting because the theme of the war is solved in them in the genre of everyday life: they paint scenes from the life of Soviet people in the war and in the rear, talk about their suffering, courage, heroism.

It is noteworthy that pictures of historical content are also often solved during this period in the genre of everyday life. Gradually, the peaceful life of the Soviet people, which replaced the difficult ordeals of the war years, finds an ever fuller and more mature embodiment in the work of many artists. A large number of genre paintings (i.e. paintings of everyday genre), striking a variety of themes and plots. This is the life of a Soviet family, with its simple joys and sorrows ( "Deuce again!" F. Reshetnikov), it is ardent labor in factories and factories, on collective and state farms ( "Bread" by T. Yablonskaya, "On Peaceful Fields" A. Mylnikova)... This is the life of Soviet youth, the development of virgin lands, etc. A particularly important contribution to genre painting was made during this period by artists A. Plastov, S. Chuikov, T. Salakhov other.

Successfully continued to develop during these years, portraiture is P. Korin, V. Efanov and other artists. In the field of landscape painting during this period, in addition to the oldest painters, including M. Saryan, R. Nyssky, N. Romadin worked other.

In subsequent years, the visual arts of the Soviet period continued to develop in the same direction.

creative organizations and unions The class approach to culture is primarily reflected in the activities Proletcult... It is a massive organization with more than half a million people, 80,000 of them worked in studios. Proletkult published about 20 magazines, had branches abroad.

In its most complete form, the concept of a special proletarian culture was formulated by A.A. Bogdanov, under whose influence other figures of Proletkult were. He believed that the culture of each class is isolated, closed and cannot be understood and used by representatives of other classes. The task was to create an independent proletarian culture, free from any "class impurities" and "layers of the past." A. A. Bogdanov's views were shared by V. F. Pletnev, F. I. Kalinin, and others.

Prolet-cult concepts denied the classical cultural heritage, with the exception, perhaps, of those works of art in which a connection with the national liberation movement was revealed. The idea of ​​denying cultural heritage is most fully expressed in V. Kirillov's program poem "We": "We are at the mercy of the rebellious terrible hop, Let them shout to us:" You are the executioners of beauty ", In the name of our tomorrow - we will burn Raphael, We will destroy museums, we will trample flowers of art!"

Decisive steps in the continuation of the mistakes of the proletcult were made in October 1920, when the All-Russian Congress of the Proletkults adopted a resolution rejecting incorrect and harmful attempts to invent a special, proletarian culture. Participation in the work of public education based on Marxism was recognized as the main direction in the work of proletarian organizations. The views of the theorists of the proletkult were criticized by V.I. Lenin, A.V. Lunacharsky, M.N. Pokrovsky, N.K. Krupskaya, Ya.A. Yakovleva.

Another very influential creative group was RAPP (Russian Association of Proletarian Writers) ... Organizationally, the association took shape at the First All-Russian Congress of Proletarian Writers in Moscow in October 1920. In different years, L. Averbakh, FV Gladkov, A.S. Serafimovich, V.I. Panferov and a number of others played a leading role in the association. Calling for the struggle for high artistic skill, polemicizing with the theorists of Proletkult, RAPP at the same time remained on the point of view of proletarian culture. In 1932 the RAPP was disbanded.

The artistic life of the country in the first years of Soviet power is striking in its diversity and abundance of literary and artistic groups. Only in Moscow in the 20s. there were more than 30 of them. Among them:

- "Forge" (founded in 1920),

- "The Serapion Brothers" (1921),

- “Moscow Association of Proletarian Writers” - MAPP (1923),

- "The Left Front of the Arts" - LEF (1922),

- “Pass” (1923) and others.

Many writers, by their conviction, were apolitical. Thus, the manifesto of the Serapion Brothers association proclaimed the independence of artistic creativity from politics and ideological convictions. However, the work of the "Serapions", among whom were N. S. Tikhonov, K. A. Fedin, M. M. Zoshchenko, V. A. Kaverin, went beyond the scope of this declaration.

April 1932 year of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b) adopted resolution "On the restructuring of literary and artistic organizations" , which provided for their dissolution and the creation of united creative unions. In August 1934, the Writers' Union of the USSR was formed. The very first congress ordered the workers of Soviet art to use exclusively the method of socialist realism, the principles of which are partisanship, communist ideology, nationality, "the depiction of reality in its revolutionary development." Along with the Writers' Union, the Union of Artists, the Union of Composers, etc. later arose. The Arts Committee was formed under the government to guide and control artistic creation.

Thus, the Bolshevik Party completely placed Soviet literature and art at the service of communist ideology, turning them into an instrument of propaganda. From now on, they were intended to instill in the minds of people Marxist-Leninist ideas, to convince them of the advantages of a socialist community, of the infallible wisdom of party leaders.

Artists and literary figures who met these requirements received large fees, Stalin's and other prizes, dachas, creative business trips, trips abroad and other benefits from the Bolshevik leadership.

literature and art. The fate of those who did not submit to the communist dictate was, as a rule, tragic. In concentration camps, torture chambers of the NKVD, the most talented representatives of Soviet culture were killed: Osip Mandelstam, who wrote the poem "We live under us without feeling the country ...", Isaak Babel, who vividly described the events of the civil war in the work "The First Horse", directed by Vsevolod Meyerhold, journalist M. Koltsov. Only from the members of the Writers' Union 600 people were repressed. Many cultural figures, for example the writer A. Platonov, artists P. Filonov, K. Malevich and others, were deprived of the opportunity to publish their books, exhibit paintings. Many outstanding works created in those years did not reach the reader and viewer immediately.

Only in 1966 was the novel by MA Bulgakov “The Master and Margarita” published, in 1986-1988 “Juvenile Sea”, “The Foundation Pit” and “Chevengur” by A.P. Platonov were published, in 1987 “Requiem” was published A. A. Akhmatova.

The paths of ideological and political self-determination and the life destinies of many people of art took shape in this crucial era not easy. For various reasons and in different years, great Russian talents turned out to be abroad, such as: I.A. Bunin, A.N. Tolstoy, A.I. Kuprin, M.I. Tsvetaeva, E.I. Zamyatin, F.I. Chaliapin, A.P. Pavlova, K.A. Korovin and others. Earlier than others, A.N. Tolstoy, who returned from emigration in 1922.

Literary and art magazines played an important role in the artistic life of the country. Such new magazines have become popular as:

- "New world",

- "Red nov",

- "Young guard",

- "October",

- "Star",

- “Print and Revolution”.

For the first time, many outstanding works of Soviet literature were published on their pages, critical articles were published, and heated discussions were conducted. The production of newspapers, magazines and books has increased. In addition to all-union and republican newspapers, almost every enterprise, plant, mine, state farm published its own large-circulation or wall newspaper. Books have been published in more than 100 languages ​​of the world.

The country was radioed. Radio broadcasting was conducted by 82 stations in 62 languages. There were 4 million radio points in the country. A network of libraries and museums developed.

By the mid-30s, new works appeared. The novel by M. Gorky “The Life of Klim Samgin” (1925-1936) is published. Sholokhov's novel “Quiet Don” (1928-1940) tells the story of the problem of man in the revolution, his fate. The image of Pavel Korchagin, the hero of N. Ostrovsky's novel How the Steel Was Tempered (1934), became a symbol of heroism and moral purity. The theme of industrialization is reflected in the works of L. Leonov “Sot”, M. Shaginyan “Hydrocentral”, V. Kataev “Time Forward”, I. Ehrenburg “Without catching his breath”. Many works were devoted to Russian history. These are “Peter I” by A. Tolstoy, “Death of Vazir-Mukhtar” by Y. Tynyanov, drama by M. Bulgakov “Cabal of the holy man” and “The Last Days” by A.S. Pushkin.

Brilliant examples of poetry were given in their work by S. Yesenin, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, B. Pasternak. M. Zoshchenko, I. Ilf and E. Petrov successfully worked in the genre of satire. The works of S. Marshak, A. Gaidar, K. Chukovsky, B. Zhitkov became classics of Soviet children's literature.

Many theatrical collectives arose. An important role in the development of theatrical art was played by the Bolshoi Drama Theater in Leningrad, the first artistic director of which was A. Blok; Meyerhold Theater. E. Vakhtangov, Moscow theater named after Mossovet.

The mid-1920s saw the emergence of Soviet drama, which had a tremendous impact on the development of theatrical art. The largest events of the theatrical seasons 1925-1927. became "Storm" V. Bill-Belotserkovsky in the theater. MGSPS, “Love Yarovaya” by K. Trenev at the Maly Theater, “Rift” by B. Lavrenev at the theater. E. Vakhtangov and at the Bolshoi Drama Theater, "Armored train 14-69" V. Ivanov at the Moscow Art Theater. Classics occupied a firm place in the repertoire of theaters. Attempts to re-read it were made both by academic theaters (“Ardent Heart” by A. Ostrovsky at the Moscow Art Theater) and by “leftists” (“The Forest” by A. Ostrovsky and “Inspector General” by N. Gogol at the V. Meyerhold Theater).

If drama theaters restructured their repertoire by the end of the first Soviet decade, the main place in the activities of opera and ballet collectives was still occupied by the classics.

Musical life of the country in those years it is associated with the names of S. Prokofiev, D. Shostakovich, A. Khachaturyan, T. Khrennikov, D. Kabalevsky, I. Dunaevsky and others. Young conductors E. Mravinsky, B. Khaikin came to the fore. Musical ensembles were created, which later glorified the national musical culture: the Quartet them. Beethoven, the Grand State Symphony Orchestra, the State Philharmonic Orchestra, etc. In 1932 the Union of Composers of the USSR was formed.

The rise in popularity of cinema was facilitated by the appearance of domestic sound films., the first of which were in 1931 “A Way to Life” (directed by N. Eck), “One” (directed by G. Kozintsev, L. Trauberg), “Golden Mountains” (directed by S. Yutkevich). The best films of the 30s told about contemporaries (“Seven Brave”, “Komsomolsk” by S. Gerasimov), about the events of the revolution and the civil war (“Chapaev S. and G. Vasiliev,“ We ​​are from Kronstadt ”by E. Dzigan,“ Deputy Baltika ”by I. Kheifets and A. Zarkhi, a trilogy about Maxim directed by G. Kozintsev and L. Trauberg). The musical comedies by G. Aleksandrov “Merry Fellows” and “Circus” date back to the same time.

In 1936 the title of People's Artist of the USSR was established. K.S. Stanislavsky, V.I. Nemirovich-Danchenko, V.I. Kachalov, B.V. Shchukin, I.M. Moskvin, A.V. Nezhdanova.

As in other forms of art the method of socialist realism was approved in painting ... The highest achievement of Soviet artists were paintings by B. Ioganson ("Interrogation of a Communist"), B. Grekov and his schools, dedicated to military themes, portraits of M. Nesterov, P. Korin, I. Grabar, works by A. Deineka praising a healthy, strong person ... Ceremonial portraits of the leaders of the people became widespread.

Soviet sculptors the main attention was paid to the creation of monuments depicting V.I. Lenin, I.V. Stalin, and other leaders of the party and state. In each city there were several monuments to the leaders. The sculptural group "Worker and Collective Farm Woman" created by V. Mukhina, depicting two steel giants, was considered a masterpiece of monumental art of that time.

education and science. The membership of the Russian Academy of Sciences in international organizations was renewed. Domestic scientists took part in international conferences, in foreign scientific expeditions. The first official speech of scientists of Soviet Russia abroad was a report by N.I. Vavilov and A.A. Yachevsky at the International Congress on the Control of Cereal Diseases in 1921 in the United States.

Joint scientific research was launched: V.I. Vernadsky and then young D.V. Skobeltsin worked at the Radium Institute in Paris, V.V. Bartold participated in the creation of the Turkological Institute in Istanbul, began to publish the "German-Russian Medical Journal".

The 200th anniversary of the Russian Academy of Sciences has been widely canceled. More than 130 scientists from 25 countries attended the anniversary celebrations.

A bright page in the annals of Soviet science was development of the Arctic ... In the fall of 1933, the Chelyuskin transport ship, on which the expedition headed by the famous scientist O.Yu. Schmidt, falling into ice compression and after almost five months of polar drift, sinking, crushed by ice. 101 people, including 10 women and two children, landed on the ice and continued to study the climate, currents, chemistry and biology of the Chukchi Sea. In April 1934, Soviet pilots removed the Chelyuskinites from the ice floe. For this, the pilots were the first in the country to receive the title of Hero of the Soviet Union.

From May 1937 to February 1938, the four scientists under the leadership of I.D. Papanin.

In 1937, a crew of pilots led by V.P. Chkalov made the world's first non-stop flight across the North Pole from the USSR to the USA, covering over 12 thousand km in 63.5 hours.

Continuing the development of the theory of space flight K.E. Tsiolkovsky... A group for the study of jet propulsion (GIRD) was created, which included F.A. Zander, A.G. Kostikov, the creator of the world's first jet weapon, the famous Katyusha during the war. In the summer of 1933, the group launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. ... The beginning of the study of the stratosphere dates back to the same time. On September 30, 1933, the first Soviet stratospheric balloon "USSR" climbed to an altitude of 19 km, thereby setting a world record. On January 30, 1934, the second Soviet stratospheric balloon "Osoaviakhim-1" rose to an altitude of 22 km. The flight ended tragically - the death of the crew.

A major breakthrough was made by Soviet physicists in the field of study of the atomic nucleus ... Scientists' research contributed to the creation of Soviet atomic weapons and nuclear power plants in the future.

The activities of the prominent Russian physiologist I.V. Pavlov and his students. On the basis of scientific research of academician S.V. Lebedev in the Soviet Union, for the first time in the world, the production of artificial rubber was organized. Academician A.N. Bach created and successfully developed a new science - biochemistry. Discoveries in the field of astronomy were made by the Armenian scientist V.A. Ambartsumyan.

Physical science developed (A.F. Ioffe, D.V. Skobeltsin, S.I. Vavilov, I.E. Tamm, P.L. Kapitsa), mathematics and theoretical mechanics (S.N.Bernshtein, I.M. Vinogradov, S. L. Sobolev), agricultural science (I. V. Michurin, D. N. Pryanishnikov, N. I. Vavilov), history (M. N. Pokrovsky, B. D. Grekov, S. V. Bakhrushin , M.N. Tikhomirov, M.N. Druzhinin, M.V. Nechkina, A.M. Pankratova, S.D.Skazkin, E.V. Tarle). The humanities were completely idealized, that is, scientists could only write what corresponded to the Marxist-Leninist ideology and party attitudes. In fact, such sciences as sociology and social psychology were banned. The Russian school of genetics was subjected to destruction and physical annihilation.

However, the strengthening of the command-administrative system, the tightening of control led to a narrowing of the amount of information coming from abroad. Personal contacts with foreigners and staying abroad became the reasons for undeserved accusations of espionage of Soviet citizens. The control over the departure of scientists and representatives of culture abroad was tightened.

A huge amount of work has been done to eradicate illiteracy. In 1920, the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for the Elimination of Illiteracy was created, which existed until 1930 under the People's Commissariat for Education of the RSFSR.

The school experienced enormous material difficulties, especially in the early years of the NEP. 90% of schools were transferred from the state budget to the local one. As a temporary measure, in 1922, tuition fees were introduced in cities and urban-type settlements, which were established depending on the wealth of the family. As the country's economic situation improved overall, government spending on education increased; the patronage of enterprises and institutions to schools has become widespread.

The rise in the educational level of the population had a direct impact on the process of democratization of higher education.

Decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR of August 2, 1918 “On the rules for admission to higher educational institutions of the RSFSR,” proclaimed that everyone who has reached the age of 16, regardless of citizenship and nationality, gender and religion, was admitted to universities without exams, and no secondary education document was required. The preference in enrollment was given to the workers and the poorest peasantry. In addition, starting from 1919, workers' faculties began to be created in the country. At the end of the recovery period, workers' faculty graduates accounted for half of the students admitted to universities. By 1927, the network of higher educational institutions and technical schools of the RSFSR consisted of 90 universities (in 1914 - 72 universities) and 672 technical schools (in 1914 - 297 technical schools). By 1930, the capital appropriations for the school had grown more than tenfold in comparison with 1925-26. During this period, almost 40 thousand schools were opened. On July 25, 1930, the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks adopted a resolution "On universal compulsory primary education", which was introduced for children 8-10 years old in the volume of 4 grades.

By the end of the 30s, the difficult legacy of tsarism - mass illiteracy - had been overcome. According to the 1939 census, the percentage of literate people aged 9-49 was 89.7% in the RSFSR. Differences between town and country, between men and women in terms of literacy remained insignificant. Thus, literacy of men was 96%, women - 83.9%, urban population - 94.9%, rural - 86.7%. However, there were still many illiterates among the population over 50 years old.

The culture of the USSR followed its own special path, largely determined by the Communist Party. In the 1930s, Soviet science switched to a planned system. Many scientific institutions have sprung up on the periphery. Branches of the Academy of Sciences were created in the Transcaucasian republics, the Urals, the Far East, and Kazakhstan. The party demanded that science serve the practice of socialist construction, have a direct impact on production, and help strengthen the country's military might.

The 20-30s went down in the history of our country as a period of implementation of the "cultural revolution", which meant not only a significant increase, in comparison with the pre-revolutionary period, of the educational level of the people and the degree of their involvement in the achievements of culture, but also the undivided triumph of the Marxist-Leninist teaching , the transformation of literature and art into an institution for influencing the masses. One of the main features of this period is the all-encompassing party-state control over the spiritual life of society in order to form a person of the communist type, to introduce into the mass consciousness a single unified ideology that justifies and justifies all the actions of the regime.

During this period, significant changes are taking place in the visual arts. Despite the fact that the Association of Traveling Exhibitions and the Union of Russian Artists continued to exist in the 1920s, new associations appeared in the spirit of the times - the Association of Artists of Proletarian Russia, the Association of Proletarian Artists.

The works of B.V. Johanson. In 1933, the painting "Interrogation of the Communists" was painted. In contrast to the "pictures" that appeared in abundance at that time, depicting and glorifying the Leader, or deliberately optimistic canvases like "The collective farm holiday" by S.V. Gerasimov, the work of Ioganson is distinguished by great artistic power - the unyielding will of people doomed to death, which the artist managed to masterfully convey, touches the viewer regardless of political convictions. Ioganson's brushes also belong to the large paintings "At the old Ural plant" and "Speech by V.I. Lenin at the 3rd Congress of the Komsomol ". In the 30s, K.S. Petrov-Vodkin, P.P. Konchalovsky, A.A. Deineka, a series of beautiful portraits of his contemporaries are created by M.V. Nesterov, the landscapes of Armenia found a poetic embodiment in the painting of M.S. Saryan. The work of the student of M.V. Nesterova P.D. Corina. In 1925, Korin conceived a large painting that was supposed to depict the procession of the cross during the funeral. The artist made a huge number of preparatory sketches: landscapes, many portraits of representatives of Orthodox Russia, from beggars to church hierarchs. The name of the painting was suggested by M. Gorky - “Departing Russia”. However, after the death of the great writer, who provided patronage to the artist, the work had to be stopped. The most famous work of P.D. Korina became the triptych "Alexander Nevsky" (1942).

The culmination of the development of sculpture of socialist realism was the composition "Worker and Collective Farm Woman" by Vera Ignatievna Mukhina (1889-1953). The sculptural group was made by V.I. Mukhina for the Soviet pavilion at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1937.

In architecture in the early 30s. Constructivism continues to be the leading one, widely used for the construction of public and residential buildings. The aesthetics of simple geometric shapes inherent in constructivism influenced the architecture of the Lenin Mausoleum, built in 1930 by A.V. Shchusev. The mausoleum is wonderful in its own way. The architect managed to avoid unnecessary pomp. The tomb of the leader of the world proletariat is a modest, small in size, very laconic structure that fits perfectly into the ensemble of Red Square. By the end of the 30s. the functional simplicity of constructivism begins to give way to neoclassicism. Lush stucco moldings, huge columns with pseudo-classical capitals come into fashion, gigantomania and a tendency towards deliberate wealth of decoration, often bordering on tastelessness, are manifested. This style is sometimes called the "Stalinist Empire style", although with the real Empire style, which is characterized primarily by the deepest inner harmony and restraint of forms, in reality it is only related to the genetic connection with the ancient heritage. The sometimes vulgar splendor of the Stalinist neoclassicism was intended to express the strength and power of the totalitarian state.

A distinctive feature in the field of theater was the formation of the innovative activity of the Meyerhold Theater, the Moscow Art Theater and others. The Theater named after Vs. Meyerhold worked in 1920-38 under the direction of director V.E. Meyerhold. There was a special school at the theater, which changed several names (since 1923 State Experimental Theater Workshops - GECTEMAS). Almost all the performances were staged by Meyerhold himself (on rare occasions in collaboration with directors close to him). Typical of his art in the early 1920s. the desire to close innovative experiments ("constructivist" productions of "The Magnanimous Cuckold" by F. Krommelink and "Death of Tarelkin" by A. V. Sukhovo-Kobylin, both in 1922) with the democratic traditions of the common square theater was especially noticeable in the extremely free, frankly modernized director's composition "Forests" by A.N. Ostrovsky (1924); the game was played in a buffoonish, far-fetched manner. In the second half of the 1920s. the desire for asceticism was replaced by a gravitation towards a spectacular spectacle, which manifested itself in the performances "Teacher Bubus" by A.M. Faiko (1925) and especially in "The Inspector General" by N.V. Gogol (1926). Among other performances: "Mandate" by N.R. Erdman (1925), "Woe to the mind" ("Woe from Wit") by A.S. Griboyedov (1928), "Bedbug" (1929) and "Bath" (1930) by V.V. Mayakovsky, "Krechinsky's Wedding" by Sukhovo-Kobylin (1933). The performance “Lady of the Camellias” by A. Dumas-son (1934) brought the theater a huge success. In 1937-38 the theater was sharply criticized as "hostile to Soviet reality" and in 1938 was closed by the decision of the Committee for Arts.

In the theater, directors S.M. Eisenstein, S.I. Yutkevich, I.A. Pyriev, B.I. Ravenskikh, N.P. Okhlopkov, V.N. Pluchek and others. In the troupe of the theater M.I. Babanova, N.I. Bogolyubova, E.P. Garina, M.I. Zharova, I. V. Ilyinsky, S.A. Martinson, Z.N. Raikh, E.V. Samoilova, L.N. Sverdlin, M.I. Tsareva, M.M. Shtraukh, V.N. Yakhontova and others.

Cinematography is developing rapidly. The number of pictures taken is increasing. New opportunities opened up with the advent of sound films. In 1938, a film by S.M. Eisenstein "Alexander Nevsky" with N.K. Cherkasov in the title role. The principles of socialist realism are affirmed in cinema. Films on revolutionary themes are being shot: "Lenin in October" (dir. MI Romm), "Man with a gun" (dir. SI Yutkevich); films about the fate of a working man: a trilogy about Maxim "Youth of Maxim", "Return of Maxim", "Vyborg Side" (directed by GM Kozintsev); musical comedies by Grigory Alexandrov with the cheerful, incendiary music of Isaac Dunaevsky ("Merry Fellows", 1934, "Circus" 1936, "Volga-Volga" 1938), idealized scenes from the life of Ivan Pyryev ("Tractor Drivers", 1939, "Pig and Shepherd" 1941 ) create an atmosphere of expectation of a "happy life". The film of brothers (in reality, only namesakes, “brothers” is a kind of pseudonym) by G.N. and S.D. Vasilievs - "Chapaev" (1934).

Culture of the 20-30s of the USSR

In the twentieth century, a totalized socio-cultural system was created in Russia, the distinctive features of which were ideological control over the spiritual life of society, manipulation of consciousness, destruction of dissent, physical destruction of the color of the Russian and scientific and artistic intelligentsia. In short, the culture of the Soviet period was contradictory. Both positive and negative phenomena were manifested in it. In assessing it, it is necessary to observe the principle of objectivity, to exclude any ideological bias. In this vein, it is necessary to analyze the culture of Russia in the twentieth century.

After the 1917 revolution, a new period begins in the history of Russian culture, a transition to a new system of relations takes place. The main question for the creative intelligentsia at that time was the question of the attitude towards the revolution. It should be admitted that not everyone was able to understand and accept the revolution. Many perceived it as a collapse, a catastrophe, a break with a past life, a destruction of traditions. Many figures of Russian culture have emigrated abroad. Such outstanding figures of Russian culture as S.V. Rachmaninov, K.A. Korovin, A.N. Tolstoy, M.I. Tsvetaeva, E.I. Zamyatin, F.I.Shalyapin, A.P. Pavlova, I.A. Bunin, A.I. Kuprin and others. Some of them returned, realizing the impossibility of living outside their homeland. But many remained abroad. The loss was significant. About 500 prominent scientists remained abroad, who headed departments and entire scientific directions. This brain drain led to a significant decrease in the spiritual and intellectual level in the country.

Most of the intelligentsia remained in their homeland. Many of them actively collaborated with the new government. Suffice it to say that in the civil war, Soviet power was defended by almost half of the officer corps of the former tsarist army. Engineers and scientists restored industry, developed the GOERLO plan and other economic development projects.

During this period, the Soviet state set the task of overcoming cultural inequality, making cultural treasures accessible to the working people, and creating culture for the entire people, and not for individual elites. To achieve this goal, nationalization was carried out. Already in 1917, the Hermitage, the Russian Museum, the Tretyakov Gallery, the Armory and many other museums became the property and disposal of the state. The private collections of the Mamontovs, Morozovs, Tretyakovs, IV Tsvetaev, VI Dal, SS Shchukin were nationalized. The cathedrals of the Moscow Kremlin turned into museums, as well as the royal residences near Petrograd and Moscow.

Unfortunately, in the process of nationalization, much of the lack of understanding and lack of culture was not accepted as values, much was plundered and destroyed. Priceless libraries were lost, archives were destroyed. Clubs and schools were set up in the manor houses. In some estates, museums of everyday life were created (the estates of the Yusupovs, Sheremetyevs, Stroganovs). At the same time, new museums arose, for example, the Museum of Fine Arts at Moscow State University, everyday life in the 40s of the 19th century, Morozov porcelain and others. From 1918 to 1923 alone, 250 new museums arose.

Another major task facing the Soviet state in the post-revolutionary period was the elimination of illiteracy. The task was relevant in view of the fact that 75% of the country's population, especially in the countryside and national regions, did not know how to read and write. To solve this most difficult problem, in 1919 the Council of People's Commissars adopted a decree "On the elimination of illiteracy among the population of the RSFSR", according to which the entire population from 8 to 50 years old was obliged to learn to read and write in their native language or Russian. In 1923, the voluntary society "Down with Illiteracy" was established under the chairmanship of MI Kalinin. Thousands of points were opened for the elimination of illiteracy, educational programs.

The next important milestone in the development of education was the adoption in 1930 of the decree of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks "On universal compulsory primary education." By the end of the 30s, mass illiteracy in our country was largely overcome.

Science and technology

In the 1920s and 1930s, significant successes were also achieved in the development of science. Physicotechnical and optical institutes were founded in hungry Petrograd in 1918, whose scientists subsequently created the country's nuclear shield. The famous TsAGI laboratory (Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute) was opened near Moscow, which means that our journey into space began back in 1918. Russian scientists became the founders of new directions of science: N.E. Zhukovsky, the founder of modern aerodynamics, K.E. Tsiolkovsky, the creator of the theory of jet propulsion, which underlies modern jet aviation and space flights. The works of V.I. Vernadsky laid the foundations of new sciences - biogeochemistry, radiology. The works of the Russian physiologist I.P. Pavlov, who created the doctrine of conditioned reflexes and higher nervous activity, received worldwide recognition. Back in 1904, Pavlov, the first Russian scientist, was awarded the Nobel Prize.

In the 30s, on the basis of scientific research of Academician S.V. Lebedev in the Soviet Union, for the first time in the world, mass production of synthetic rubber was organized. The works of A.F. Ioffe laid the foundations of modern physics of semiconductors. Scientists have made a number of major geographical discoveries, especially in the study of the Far North. In 1937, four researchers: I.D. Papanin, E. T. Krenkel, E. A. Fedorov and P. P. Shirshov - landed in the Arctic and opened the world's first research drifting station "SP-1". They worked on the ice for 274 days, having drifted 2500 kilometers. Scientists have done a lot for the development of science. They first received geological data on this territory, carried out magnetic measurements, which soon helped to ensure the safety of flights of Chkalov, Gromov, Levanevsky, made a huge contribution to the meteorology and hydrology of this part of the planet. After the first station, 30 more were opened, the last one was opened in 1989.

1) Resolution of the XVI Congress of the All-Union Communist Party / b / "On the introduction of universal compulsory primary education for all children in the USSR" (1930); 2) The idea of ​​renewing "economic personnel" at all levels put forward by I. Stalin in the thirties, which entailed the creation of industrial academies and engineering universities throughout the country, as well as the introduction of conditions stimulating workers to receive education at evening and correspondence departments of universities "without separation from production ".

The first five-year construction projects, the collectivization of agriculture, the Stakhanov movement, the historical gains of Soviet science and technology were perceived, experienced and reflected in public consciousness in the unity of its rational and emotional structures. Therefore, artistic culture could not but play an extremely important role in the spiritual development of socialist society. Never in the past and nowhere in the world have works of art had such a wide, such massive, truly popular audience as in our country. This is eloquently evidenced by the attendance rates of theaters, concert halls, art museums and exhibitions, the development of the cinema network, book publishing and the use of library funds.

The official art of the 1930s and 1940s was upbeat, assertive, even euphoric. The major type of art that Plato recommended for his ideal "State" was embodied in a real Soviet totalitarian society. Here, one should bear in mind the tragic contradictions that developed in the country in the pre-war period. In the public consciousness of the 1930s, belief in socialist ideals and the enormous authority of the party began to combine with "leaderism." Social cowardice and the fear of getting out of the ordinary ranks among wide strata of society. The essence of the class approach to social phenomena was reinforced by the personality cult of Stalin. The principles of the class struggle are reflected in the artistic life of the country.

In 1932, following the decision of the 16th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of the Soviet Union / b /, a number of creative associations were disbanded in the country - Proletkult, RAPP, VOAPP. And in April 1934, the First All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers opened. At the congress, the secretary of the Central Committee for ideology A.A. Zhdanov, who outlined the Bolshevik vision of artistic culture in a socialist society. "Socialist realism" was recommended as the "main creative method" of Soviet culture. The new method prescribed to the artists both the content and the structural principles of the work, suggesting the existence of a "new type of consciousness" that emerged as a result of the establishment of Marxism-Leninism. Socialist realism was recognized once and for all as the given, the only correct and most perfect creative method .. Zhdanov's definition of socialist realism was based on the definition of writers given by Stalin - for the sake of the technical thinking of the era - as "engineers of human souls." Thus, artistic culture, art was given an instrumental character, or the role of an instrument for the formation of a “new man” was assigned.

However, the artistic practice of the 1930s and 1940s turned out to be much richer than the recommended party guidelines. In the pre-war period, the role of the historical novel increased markedly, a deep interest in the history of the fatherland and in the most striking historical characters was manifested. Hence a whole series of serious historical works: "Kyukhlya" by Y. Tynyanov, "Radishchev" by O. Forsh, "Emelyan Pugachev" by V. Shishkov, "Genghis Khan" by V. Yan, "Peter the First" by A. Tolstoy.

In the same years, Soviet children's literature flourished. Her great achievements were poems for children by V. Mayakovsky, S. Marshak, K. Chukovsky, S. Mikhalkov, stories by A. Gaidar, L. Kassil, V. Kaverin, fairy tales by A. Tolstoy, Yu. Olesha.

On the eve of the war, in February 1937, the Soviet Union widely celebrated the 100th anniversary of the death of A.S. Pushkin, in May 1938, the country celebrated the 750th anniversary of the In March 1940, the last part of M. Sholokhov's novel "Quiet Don" was published in the USSR.

From the first days of the Great Patriotic War, Soviet art devoted itself entirely to the cause of saving the Fatherland. Cultural figures fought with weapons in their hands on the war fronts, worked in the front press and propaganda teams.

Soviet poetry and song achieved an extraordinary sound during this period. The song "Sacred War" by V. Lebedev-Kumach and A. Aleksandrov became the true anthem of the people's war. Military lyrics by M. Isakovsky, S. Shchipachev, A. Tvardovsky, A. Akhmatova, A. Cypikov, N. Tikhonov, O. Berggolts, B. Pasternak, K. Simonov were created in the form of oaths, crying, curses, and a direct call.

During the war years, one of the greatest works of the 20th century was created - the 7th symphony of D. Shostakovich. At one time, L. Beethoven liked to repeat the idea that music should strike fire from a courageous human heart. These ideas were embodied by D. Shostakovich in his most significant work. D. Shostakovich began writing the 7th Symphony a month after the start of the Great Patriotic War and continued his work in Leningrad besieged by the Nazis. Together with the professors and students of the Leningrad Conservatory, he went to dig trenches and, as a fighter in the fire-fighting team, lived in a barracks position in the building of the conservatory. On the original score of the symphony, you can see the composer's notes "VT" - meaning "air raid". When it approached D. Shostakovich interrupted work on the symphony and went to drop incendiary bombs from the roof of the conservatory.

The first three movements of the symphony were completed by the end of September 1941, when Leningrad was already surrounded and subjected to brutal shelling and aerial bombardment. The victorious finale of the symphony was completed in December, when the Nazi hordes stood on the outskirts of Moscow. “I dedicate this symphony to my native city of Leningrad, our struggle against fascism, our coming victory” - such was the epigraph to this work.

In 1942, the symphony was performed in the United States and in other countries of the anti-fascist coalition. The art of music all over the world does not know of any other composition that would have received such a powerful public response. “We defend the freedom, honor and independence of our Motherland. We are fighting for our culture, for science, for art, for everything that we have built and created, ”D. Shostakovich wrote in those days.

During the war years, Soviet drama created true masterpieces of theatrical art. We are talking about the plays of L. Leonov "Invasion", K. Simonov "Russian people", A. Korneichuk "Front".

During the war years, concerts of the Leningrad Philharmonic Symphony Orchestra under the direction of E. Mravinsky, the Song and Dance Ensemble of the Soviet Army under the direction of A. Alexandrov, the Russian folk choir named after A. M. Pyatnitsky, Soloists K. Shulzhenko, L. Ruslanova, A. Raikin, L. Utesov, I. Kozlovsky, S. Lemeshev and many others.

In the postwar period, Russian culture continued the artistic development of the military theme. The novel by A. Fadeev "The Young Guard" and "The Story of a Real Man" by B. Polevoy were created on the documentary basis.

In the Soviet humanities of this period, new approaches to the study of public consciousness began to be developed. This is due to the fact that the Soviet people are beginning to get acquainted with the culture of other countries and make spiritual contacts with all continents.

4. Socio-cultural situation in the 60-70s of the XX century in Russia The artistic process of the 60-70s was distinguished by the intensity and dynamism of its development. He was closely associated with the well-known socio-political processes taking place in the country. It is not for nothing that this time is called the political and cultural "thaw." Environmental changes in nature, the migration of a large number of the population from the countryside to the city, the complication of life and life in modern cities led to serious changes in the consciousness and morality of people, which became the subject of depiction in artistic culture. In the prose of V. Shukshin, Y. Trifonov, V. Rasputin, Ch. Aitmatov, in the drama of A, Vampilov, V. Rozov, A. Volodin, in the poetry of V. Vysotsky, there is a tendency to see complex problems of the time in everyday subjects.

In the 60s and 70s, the theme of the Great Patriotic War sounded in a new way in prose and cinema. The works of art of those years not only more boldly revealed the conflicts and events of the last war, but also focused their attention on the fate of an individual person in the war. The most truthful novels and films have been written and directed by writers and directors who know the war from personal experience. These are prose writers - V. Astafiev, V. Bykov, G. Baklanov, V. Kondratyev, filmmakers G. Chukhrai, S. Rostotsky.

A true phenomenon of Soviet culture was the birth of the so-called “village prose” during the “thaw” period. Its manifestation does not at all mean that there were special artistic needs among the peasantry, which were significantly different from the needs of other strata of Soviet society. The content of most of the works of V. Astafiev, V. Belov, F. Abramov, V. Rasputin and other "villagers" did not leave anyone indifferent, because the speech in

them were about problems common to all mankind.

The village writers not only recorded profound changes in the consciousness and morality of the village man, but also showed a more dramatic side of these shifts, which affected the change in the connection between generations, the transfer of the spiritual experience of older generations to younger ones. Violation of the continuity of traditions led to the extinction of old Russian villages with their life, language, and morality that had been taking shape for centuries. A new way of rural life, close to the urban one, is coming to replace it. As a result of this, the fundamental concept of village life is changing - the concept of "home", into which since ancient times Russian people have invested the concept of "fatherland", "native land", "family". Through the understanding of the concept of "home", a deep connection between the colonies was also realized. This is precisely what F. Abramov wrote with pain in his novel "House", and V. Rasputin's stories "Farewell to Mater" and "Fire" are also devoted to this problem.

The problem of the relationship between man and nature, one of the most acute global problems of the XX century, received its special artistic meaning also in the 60-70s. The irrational use of natural resources, the pollution of rivers and lakes, the destruction of forests were the most difficult consequences of scientific and technological progress. The unresolved nature of these problems could not but affect the spiritual world of a person who witnessed, and often the direct culprit of the violation of the ecological balance in nature. A cruel, consumerist attitude towards nature gave rise to heartlessness and lack of spirituality in people. The film-panorama of those years "Near the Lake" by film director S. Gerasimov was primarily devoted to moral problems. The sixties revealed to Soviet society the phenomenon of A. Solzhenitsyn's prose. It was during this period that his stories “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” and “Matrenin's Dvor” appeared, which became classics of dissent in those years. A true discovery of theatrical culture of that time was the creation of the young theater-studios "Sovremennik" and "Taganka". A notable phenomenon in the artistic life of those years was the activity of the Novy Mir magazine under the direction of A. Tvardovsky.

On the whole, the artistic culture of the "thaw" was able to pose a number of pressing problems to Soviet society and tried to solve these problems in its works.

5. Soviet culture of the 80s of the XX century The eighties was a time of concentration of artistic culture around the idea of ​​repentance. The motive of universal sin, the chopping block, forces artists to resort to such forms of artistic thinking as a parable, myth, symbol. In turn, having got acquainted with the novel "Plakha" by Ch. Aitmatov and the film "Repentance" by T. Abuladze, the reader and viewer discussed, argued, developed their own civic position.

The most important feature of the artistic situation in the eighties is the emergence of a powerful stream of “returned” artistic culture, which was interpreted and understood from the same positions as the modern one, that is, created for the viewer, listener, reader of those years.

The culture of the eighties is distinguished by an emerging tendency to give a new concept of man and the world, where the universal humanistic is more significant than the socio-historical. In terms of the variety of creative styles, aesthetic concepts, preferences for a particular artistic tradition, the culture of the late 80s and early 90s resembles the beginning of the 20th century in Russian culture. Domestic culture, as it were, picks up the failed natural moment of its development (calmly passed by the Western European culture of the 20th century) and forcibly stopped by the well-known socio-political events in our country.

Thus, the key problem of the artistic culture of the eighties, associated with the self-awareness of the individual in its relationship with the natural world and the world of people in stylistic expression, was indicated by a movement from psychologism to journalism, and then to myth, synthesizing styles of different aesthetic orientations.

Due to the specifics of Russian history and, in particular, the presence in society of fundamentally different socio-economic structures and sociocultural strata, the awareness of the need for transformation is usually very difficult. Klyuchevsky emphasized that the peculiarity of countries lagging behind the advanced powers is that "the need for reform is maturing before the people are ripe for reform." In Russia, the first to understand the need for reforms were the intelligentsia or individual representatives of the ruling elite, who experienced a certain influence of Western culture. However, due to the inertia of the overwhelming part of society and the alienation of state power, the ideas of reforms, as a rule, spread extremely slowly. This, in turn, often provoked their radical supporters to anti-government speeches or, at least, to propaganda. The suppression of these movements (for example, the Decembrists and populists in the 19th century, dissidents in the past decades) only provoked a backlash and postponed reforms.

At the same time, the idea of ​​the need for reforms gradually penetrated the minds of statesmen, and it was the state that began the reforms. Hence, the position of the supreme power was of great decisive importance for the fate of the transformations: kings, emperors, general secretaries, and now, presidents. Some of them were among the first who realized and started reforms. This, of course, is Peter the Great, and partly Alexander I. However, the latter, perhaps, like his grandmother, Catherine II, did not dare, like Peter I, to put their own fate at stake and begin radical transformations, breaking the resistance and apathy of the ruling elite, yes and to a large extent - the people.