Types of language norms. The dynamism of language development and the volatility of norms

Language norms are a historical phenomenon. We cannot talk about norms at once for all eras. Despite their conservatism, they change over time: from century to century. Just as the language itself changes. "The language system, being in constant use, is created and modified by the collective efforts of those who use it ... New in speech experience that does not fit into the framework of the language system, but working, functionally expedient, leads to restructuring in it" (V.V. Sokolova "Culture of speech and culture of communication").

The constant development of the language leads to a change in literary norms. What was the norm in the last century and even 15-20 years ago, today can become a deviation from it.

If in the 18th century the nominative plural form was an unstressed ending "Y" or "I", for example, they said: houses, teachers, professors and so on, then with the beginning of the 19th century a new form began to appear - the stressed ending "A" or me". And this new form gradually began to be perceived as correct, normative. This process is not completed even today, it captures more and more new linguistic units. So, already in the Pushkin era, for example, in Griboyedov's comedy "Woe from Wit", we meet new options in the form: home, teachers - "Homes are new, but prejudices are old." But even today in the literary language there are forms of engineer, and the form of engineer is unacceptable - it is considered colloquial, that is, this process of changing the norm dragged on for several centuries (and led to fluctuations within the norm).

This example clearly shows that in the history of the literary language the following are possible:

• preservation of the old norm;

  competition between the two options, in which dictionaries recommend the traditional option;

  competition of variants, in which dictionaries recommend a new variant;

  approval of the new version as the only normative one.

An example of a change in the lexical norm is the words graduate and enrollee... In the 30-40s. XX century word graduate denoted a student performing a thesis, and the word graduate was a colloquial (stylistic) version of the word diploma. In the literary norm of the 50-60s. there was a distinction in the use of these words: the word graduate began to call the student during the preparation and defense of the thesis (it lost the stylistic coloring of the colloquial word), and the word graduate began to be used to name the winners of contests, shows, competitions, marked with a winner's diploma. Word enrollee in the 30-40s. XX century was used as a designation for those who graduated from high school, and those who entered the university, since both of these concepts in many cases refer to the same person. In the 50s. XX century high school graduates have the word graduate and the word enrollee in this sense has fallen out of use. An example of a change in stylistic norms is the entry into the literary language of dialectal and colloquial words, for example bully, whiner, whistle, hype... As Professor Yu.A. Belchikov, “the Russian literary language is characterized by an intensive interaction with vernacular (constant replenishment of mainly vocabulary and phraseology, expressive, synonymous means) ... becoming the property of not only colloquial, but also book speech "( Belchikov Yu. A. Stylistics and culture of speech. M .: Publishing house URAO, 2000.S. 104-105).

Naturally, each new generation, relying on already existing texts, stable turns of speech, ways of forming thoughts, also introduces something new into the language. A kind of filtering process takes place: from the language of sample texts, a person of the new generation chooses the most suitable words and turns of speech, takes from what was developed by previous generations that is relevant for himself, refuses what seems archaic to him, not in tune with the new manner of formulating a thought, transmitting his feelings , attitude towards people and events. Sometimes there is a return to archaic forms, but in this case they are usually given a new content, new perspectives of comprehension.

In every historical epoch, the norm is a complex phenomenon and exists in rather difficult conditions. Vasily Ilyich Chernyshev wrote about this at the beginning of the 20th century, in 1909: “In the language of any particular era, for its contemporaries there is a lot that is unclear: it is forming, but not formed, dying out, but not extinct, entering again, but not establishing itself” (Chernyshev V I. Purity and correctness of Russian speech // Selected Works. T. 1. M .: 1970. P. 41).

Language norms (norms of the literary language, literary norms) are the rules for the use of linguistic means in a certain period of development of the literary language, i.e. rules of pronunciation, spelling, word usage, grammar. The norm is an example of a uniform, generally recognized use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences).

A linguistic phenomenon is considered normative if it is characterized by such features as:

- compliance with the structure of the language;

- massive and regular reproducibility in the process of speech activity of the majority of speakers;

- public approval and recognition.

Language norms were not invented by philologists, they reflect a certain stage in the development of the literary language of the entire people. Language norms cannot be introduced or abolished by decree; they cannot be reformed by administrative means. The activity of linguists who study language norms is different - they identify, describe and codify linguistic norms, as well as explain and promote them.

The main sources of language norms include:

works of classic writers;


works of modern writers who continue classical traditions;


media publications;


common modern usage;


linguistic research data.


The characteristic features of language norms are:


relative stability;


prevalence;


general use;


universality;


compliance with the use, custom and possibilities of the language system.


The norms help the literary language to maintain its integrity and comprehensibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialectal speech, social and professional jargons, and vernacular. This allows the literary language to perform one of the most important functions - the cultural one.
The speech norm is a set of the most stable traditional implementations of the language system, selected and fixed in the process of public communication.
Normalization of speech - this is its compliance with the literary and linguistic ideal.


The dynamism of language development and the variability of norms.


“The language system, being in constant use, is created and modified by the collective efforts of those who use it ... New in speech experience, which does not fit into the framework of the language system, but working, functionally expedient, leads to a restructuring in it, and each next state of the language system serves as a basis for comparison in the subsequent processing of speech experience. Thus, in the process of speech functioning, language develops, changes, and at each stage of this development, the language system inevitably contains elements that have not completed the process of change. Therefore, various fluctuations, variants are inevitable in any language "
The constant development of the language leads to a change in literary norms. What was the norm in the last century, and even 15-20 years ago, today may become a deviation from it. So, for example, before the word z midget, toy, bakery, everyday, on purpose, decent, creamy, apple, scrambled eggs pronounced with sounds [shn]. At the end of the 20th century. such pronunciation as the only (strictly obligatory) norm was preserved only in words on purpose, scrambled eggs... In words bakery, decent Along with the traditional pronunciation [шн], a new pronunciation [чн] is recognized as acceptable. In words everyday, apple the new pronunciation is recommended as the main variation, and the old one is allowed as a possible variation. In the word creamy pronunciation [шн] is recognized, although acceptable, but an outdated version, and in words diner, toy the new pronunciation [chn] became the only possible normative variant.


This example clearly shows that in the history of the literary language the following are possible:


- preservation of the old norm;


- competition between the two options, in which dictionaries recommend the traditional option;


- competition of variants, in which dictionaries recommend a new variant;


- approval of the new version as the only normative one.


In the history of the language, not only orthoepic norms change, but all other norms as well.
An example of a change in the lexical norm is the words graduate and enrollee... At the beginning of the 20th century. word graduate denoted a student performing a thesis, and the word graduate was a colloquial (stylistic) version of the word diploma. In the literary norm of the 50-60s. there was a distinction in the use of these words: the word graduate began to call the student during the preparation and defense of the thesis (it lost the stylistic coloring of the colloquial word), and the word graduate began to be used to name the winners of contests, shows, competitions, marked with a winner's diploma.
Word enrollee was used as a designation for those who graduated from high school, and those who entered the university, since both of these concepts in many cases refer to the same person. In the middle of the 20th century. high school graduates have the word graduate and the word enrollee in this sense has fallen out of use.
Language and grammatical norms change. In the literature of the XIX century. and colloquial speech of that time used the words dahlia, hall, piano- these were feminine words. In modern Russian, the norm is the use of these words as masculine words - dahlia, hall, piano.
An example of a change in stylistic norms is the entry into the literary language of dialectal and colloquial words, for example, bully, whiner, background, whistle, hype.
Each new generation relies on already existing texts, stable turns of speech, ways of forming thoughts. From the language of these texts, it chooses the most suitable words and turns of speech, takes from what was developed by previous generations that is relevant for itself, bringing its own to express new ideas, ideas, a new vision of the world. Naturally, new generations reject what seems archaic, not in tune with the new way of formulating thoughts, conveying their feelings, attitude towards people and events. Sometimes they return to archaic forms, giving them new content, new perspectives of comprehension.
In every historical epoch, the norm is a complex phenomenon and exists in rather difficult conditions.


Types of norms.


In the literary language, the following types of norms are distinguished:


1) the norms of written and oral forms of speech;


2) norms;


3) norms.


The norms common to oral and written speech include:


- lexical norms;


- grammatical norms;


- stylistic norms.


The special norms of writing are:


- norms;


- norms.


Only applicable to oral speech:


- pronunciation norms;


- stress norms;


- intonation norms.


The norms common to oral and written speech relate to linguistic content and the construction of texts. Lexical norms, or norms of word use, are norms that determine the correctness of the choice of a word from a number of units that are close to it in meaning or in form, as well as its use in those meanings that it has in the literary language.
Lexical norms reflected in explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries of foreign words, terminological dictionaries and reference books.
Compliance with lexical norms is the most important condition for the accuracy of speech and its correctness.


Their violation leads to lexical errors of various types (examples of errors from the essays of applicants):


- wrong choice of a word from a number of units, including mixing, inaccurate choice, wrong choice of unit
(bone type of thinking, analyze the life of writers, Nikolaev's aggression, Russia experienced many incidents in domestic and foreign policy in those years);


- violation of the norms of lexical compatibility (a herd of hares, under the yoke of humanity, a secret curtain, ingrained foundations, passed all stages of human development);


- the contradiction between the speaker's intention and emotionally evaluative words (Pushkin chose the path of life correctly and followed it, leaving indelible traces; He made an unbearable contribution to the development of Russia);


- use
(Lomonosov entered the institute, Raskolnikov studied at the university);


- mixing
(Lomonosov lived hundreds of miles from the capital);


- incorrect use of phraseological turns ( Youth gushed out of him; We must bring it to fresh water).


Grammar norms are divided into derivational, morphological and syntactic.
Morphological norms require the correct formation of grammatical forms of words of different parts of speech (forms of gender, number, short forms and degrees of comparison of adjectives, etc.). A typical violation of morphological norms is the use of a word in a non-existent or inappropriate inflectional form (the analyzed image, the reigning order, the victory over fascism, called Plyushkin a hole). Sometimes you can hear such phrases: railway rail, imported shampoo, customized parcel, patent leather shoes... In these phrases, a morphological error was made - the gender of nouns was incorrectly formed.
Orthoepic norms include norms of pronunciation, stress and intonation of oral speech. The pronunciation norms of the Russian language are determined primarily by the following phonetic factors:

Stunning voiced consonants at the end of words : du [n], bread [n].


Reduction of unstressed vowels (changes in sound quality)


Assimilation is the assimilation of consonants in voicing and voicelessness at the junction of morphemes: before voiced consonants, only voiced ones are pronounced, before deaf ones - only voiceless ones: furnish - o [n] set, run away - [h] run, fry - and [g] ary.


The loss of some sounds in combinations of consonants: stn, zdn, stl, lnts: holiday - pra [zn] ik, sun - so [nts] e.


Compliance with orthoepic norms is an important part of the culture of speech, because their violation creates an unpleasant impression on the listeners about the speech and the speaker himself, distracts from the perception of the speech content. Orthoepic norms are recorded in orthoepic dictionaries of the Russian language and dictionaries of stresses.


Pronouncing dictionary.
The spelling dictionary records the norms of pronunciation and stress.


This dictionary mainly includes the words:


- pronunciation, which cannot be unambiguously established on the basis of their written appearance;


- having a moving stress in grammatical forms;


- forming some grammatical forms in non-standard ways;


- words that experience stress fluctuations in the entire system of forms or in individual forms.


The dictionary introduces a scale of normativity: some options are considered equal, in other cases one of the options is recognized as the main one, and the other is acceptable. The dictionary also contains notes indicating the variant of pronunciation of a word in poetic and professional speech.


Pronunciation labels reflect the following main phenomena:


- softening of consonants, i.e. soft pronunciation of consonants influenced by subsequent soft consonants, for example: review, -and;


- changes occurring in consonant groups, such as pronunciation stn like [sn] (local);


- possible pronunciation of one consonant sound (hard or soft) in place of two identical letters, for example: apparatus, -a [ NS]; the effect, -a [f b];


- hard pronunciation of consonants followed by a vowel NS in place of spelling combinations with e in words of foreign language origin, for example hotel, -I am [ te];


- no reduction in words of foreign language origin, i.e. pronunciation of unstressed vowels in place of letters oh, e, a that does not comply with the reading rules, for example: bonton, -a [ bo]; nocturne, -а [fac. but];


- features in the pronunciation of consonants associated with the syllable section in words with secondary stress, for example head of laboratory [zaf / l], unsl. m, f.

Word formation in English. Devlin D. Types of phonoscopic research carried out during the preliminary investigation and in court

"The language system, being in constant use, is created and modified by the collective efforts of those who use it ... New in speech experience, which does not fit into the framework of the language system, but working, functionally expedient, leads to a restructuring in it, and each successive state of the language system Thus, in the process of speech functioning, the language develops, changes, and at each stage of this development, the language system inevitably contains elements that have not completed the process of change. Therefore, various fluctuations, options are inevitable in any language "(Sokolova VV Culture of speech and culture of communication. M .: Education, 1995, S. 47).

The constant development of the language leads to a change in literary norms. What was the norm in the last century and even 15-20 years ago today may become a deviation from it. So, for example, in accordance with the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language (1935-1940), the words z midget, toy, bakery, everyday, on purpose, decent, creamy, apple, scrambled eggs pronounced with sounds [shn]. According to the Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language in 1983, such pronunciation as the only (strictly mandatory) norm was preserved only in words on purpose, scrambled eggs... In the words bakery, along with the traditional pronunciation [шн], a new pronunciation [чн] was recognized as acceptable. In words everyday, apple the new pronunciation is recommended as the main variation, and the old one is allowed as a possible variation. In the word creamy pronunciation [шн] is recognized, although acceptable, but an outdated version, and in words diner, toy the new pronunciation [chn] became the only possible normative variant.

• This example clearly shows that in the history of the literary language the following are possible:
• preservation of the old norm;
• competition between the two options, in which dictionaries recommend the traditional option;
• competition of variants, in which dictionaries recommend a new variant;
• approval of the new version as the only normative one.

In the history of the language, not only orthoepic norms change, but all other norms as well.
An example of a change in the lexical norm is the words graduate and enrollee.
In the 30-40s of the 20th century, the word graduate denoted a student performing a thesis, and the word graduate was a colloquial (stylistic) version of the word diploma. In the literary norm of the 50-60s, there was a distinction in the use of these words: the word graduate began to call the student during the preparation and defense of the thesis (it lost the stylistic coloring of the colloquial word), and the word graduate began to be used to name the winners of contests, shows, competitions, marked with a winner's diploma.
Word enrollee in the 30s-40s of the 20th century, it was used as a designation for those who graduated from high school, and those who entered the university, since both of these concepts in many cases refer to the same person. In the 50s of the 20th century, the word graduate was assigned to those who graduated from high school, and the word enrollee in this sense has fallen out of use.
Language and grammatical norms change. In the literature of the 19th century and colloquial speech of that time, the words were used dahlia, hall, piano- these were feminine words. In modern Russian, the norm is the use of these words as masculine words - dahlia, hall, piano.
An example of a change in stylistic norms is the entry into the literary language of dialectal and colloquial words, for example, bully, whiner, background, whistle, hype... According to prof. YA Belchikov, “the Russian literary language is characterized by intensive interaction with vernacular (constant replenishment of mainly vocabulary and phraseology, expressive, synonymous means) ... its stylistic structure, becoming the property of not only colloquial, but also book speech "(Belchikov YA Stylistics and culture of speech. M .: Publishing house URAO, 2000, pp. 104-105).
Each new generation relies on existing texts, stable turns of speech, ways of forming thoughts. From the language of these texts, it chooses the most suitable words and turns of speech, takes from what was developed by previous generations that is relevant for itself, bringing its own to express new ideas, ideas, a new vision of the world. Naturally, new generations reject what seems archaic, not in tune with the new way of formulating thought, conveying their feelings, attitude towards people and events. Sometimes they return to archaic forms, giving them new content, new perspectives of comprehension. (Belchikov Yu.A. ibid., P. 106).
In every historical epoch, the norm is a complex phenomenon and exists in rather difficult conditions. VI Chernyshev wrote about this back in 1909: "In the language of any particular epoch for its contemporaries, there is a lot that is unclear: forming, but not formed, dying out, but not extinct, entering again, but not established" (Chernyshev V.I. Purity and correctness of Russian speech. // Selected works. Vol. 1. M .: 1970, p. 41).

The language and its norms, although they are relatively stable, are not frozen, fixed once and for all. All aspects of the language (phonetics, vocabulary, morphology, syntax) change during their long development. Changes in vocabulary(or the dictionary of the language), since she is most sensitive to the processes taking place in the life of society. The sound composition and grammatical structure of the language change much more slowly. These changes can only be detected by studying the history of the language. So, for example, in words belly, awl"and" is written according to tradition, because pre-13th century consonants w, w of the Old Russian language were soft, later they hardened. And only the traditional spelling has retained "in memory" the softness of these consonants.

Thus, the norms of the language, the rules of its use, are historically changeable. Slow changes are taking place both according to the internal laws of the language and under the influence of the development of society, its culture, language taste, habits and preferences of native speakers.

The rules of pronunciation, word usage and grammar are not established by someone personally, and not even by any influential social group, but by all the people, the speaking collective and are enshrined in its writing. Public recognition of the rules of linguistic use (the so-called codification of the norm), its description in grammars, dictionaries, reference books allows to ensure greater stability of the norm, to make it nationwide through school, theater, television. The relative stability of the rules for using the language preserves the "connection of times", the cultural tradition of the literature of a given nation.

However, those who are called "native speakers of the literary language" know, say, literary pronunciation, who is better or worse, therefore, when mastering the norms of the language, one cannot be equal to the mass, widespread pronunciation: "If everyone says so, then it’s right." Sometimes a very common use case has to be recognized as erroneous (compare, for example, the use of the word "extreme" in meaning "last") and, conversely, the less common one must be approved: you call, call, more beautiful instead of the widespread ones you ring, they ring, beautiful . The prevalence of a particular use case, therefore, is not the only criterion for its correctness.

What, then, are the criteria for the norm? First of all, it is regular use of this linguistic fact in the cultural environment: in secondary and higher school, in radio and television broadcasts, in cinema and theater, in the speeches of scientists, in poetic speech. The second is public approval the use of this fact in speech, its compliance with the prevailing linguistic taste. Third - recommendations for dictionaries and grammars(especially academic), reference books and other guides on pronunciation and stress, word usage, grammatical forms, etc.

Norms exist at all levels: phonetic (orthoepic), lexical, derivational, morphological, syntactic and stylistic. Let us now consider them more specifically.

2.3. Orthoepic, or pronunciation norms characteristic of oral public communication. Correct stressing is a necessary sign of pronunciation culture. It happens that the wrong stress or pronunciation (type A rbuz, document, percentage, funds, people, clothes) in the speech of a stranger or unfamiliar person, it is enough for us to form an unflattering opinion about the level of his general culture. Errors in the speech of public speakers (politicians, teachers, artists) are treated very negatively. Sometimes such a mistake can cross out all efforts to prepare a meaningful speech. “What can you expect from him if he says“ doc Have cop "? - the listener will think.

The correct formulation of the Russian stress is complicated by a number of objective reasons. One of its difficulties is diversity and trim(cf .: WATER - WATER, CITY - CITY). In languages ​​such as Czech, Hungarian stress is fixed on the first syllable, in Polish - on the penultimate, French, Turkish, Kazakh - on the last. These are languages ​​with a single, fixed stress.

In addition, the power stress in the Russian language performs several important functions: it distinguishes a word in the stream of sounding speech, plays the role of a semantic discriminating means (cf .: flour and flour, castle and castle, already and already), participates in the rhythmic organization of poetic and prosaic speech. The latter property allows you to avoid the monotony of speech, its intonational monotony.

The pronunciation rules of the Russian language took shape in the process of its historical development. They are based on the Moscow pronunciation, characterized by "moderate akany" (harasho, paydem). It spread throughout the country as an exemplary one and from the second half of the 19th century was fixed as the norm of the modern Russian language.

However, during this time there have been changes in the language. Outdated norms have been replaced by new ones. So, we now say: dobycha, cemetery, rolls, rolls, youth, etc., but in the 19th century - the "golden age" of Russian literature - such forms as custom, cemetery, rolling, spinning. In Krylov we read: "He sees the lamb, he strives for prey", where the stress is not changed for the sake of rhyme, as is often mistakenly thought; it was normative for the 18th century and, as we can see, was preserved in the 19th century. The current use of stress production it is socially limited and belongs to the professional jargon of miners, miners. Regulatory, i.e. compulsory for all members of society, is production. Stress cemetery was also generally accepted in the literary language of the 19th century. This form was used by Pushkin, Lermontov, Fet, Alexei Tolstoy and other poets. New pronunciation variant cemetery appeared only at the end of the 19th century, but for a long time it existed along with the old, until it finally supplanted it.

A.S. Pushkin we repeatedly meet stress music, which was the norm of the Russian literary language of that era: There will be a regimental music! .. The music will rumble, the candles will shine ... ("Eugene Onegin") Thus, fluctuations in the use of stress can be due to historical reasons .

What else can the fluctuation and change of stress depend on? There is no clear explanation for this. This can be the influence of vernacular and dialects on literary pronunciation, as well as the influence of foreign stress when borrowing words from other languages. So the word alcohol came to us from the German language and was first pronounced with an accent on the first syllable: A alcohol. However, under the influence of the then fashionable French language, the emphasis shifted to the last syllable, and the original version remained as professionalism in the speech of doctors.

The stress can also change under the influence of artistic speech, especially poetry. For example, the modern pronunciation of the word young people apparently owes its appearance to the "Anthem of the Democratic Youth of the World":

The song of friendship is sung by the youth.

You can't strangle this song, you can't kill

where the rhyme and reinforced the current stress. Pre-existing stress young people was pushed into the background, and then went out of use altogether. This example is also indicative in the sense that poetic speech (songs, poems, fairy tales, fables) is perceived by many as an example of correct stress and pronunciation, therefore, distortions of the norm for the sake of rhyme are unacceptable in it. The so-called poetic liberties, unfortunately, are also found among good poets (for example, in a previously popular song to the words of M. Isakovsky: "An order was given: to him to the west, to her in the other direction, the Komsomol went to the Civil War"), however, in most cases, the poetic stress can be treated with complete confidence.

For obvious reasons, the speech of radio and television announcers, film and theater actors, teachers who are the conductors of literary norms in life should be exemplary.

In the Russian language, there are fluctuations in stress, or variants that exist on equal terms and are normative. Such variants of stress are allowed in words: THINKING - THINKING, TWORG - Cottage cheese, SAZHEN - FATHER, Coal - Coal (genitive singular), Cossacks - Cossacks, Kulinaria - cooking, normalize - normalize, etc.

In difficult cases, you should refer to orthoepic reference books and dictionaries. However, it must be remembered that dictionaries do not always keep up with the pace of modern life, so there are often cases when the stress, firmly entrenched in colloquial speech, has not yet been consolidated in dictionaries. This was the case, for example, with the words kulinariya, metalUrgia, symmetry, which only recently entered spelling dictionaries as valid options along with cooking, metallurgy, symmetry.

Our spelling and pronunciation are not always the same. So, for example, it is written that, of course, that, but pronounced tavo, kaneshno, INTO, those. the "literal" pronunciation of these words will be incorrect. Some pronunciation features of the Russian language should be remembered:

1) in place of the combination chn pronounced shn in words: boring, scrambled eggs, laundry. A number of words are allowed shn, chn: bakery and bakery, decent and decent; however the combination chn actively displaces its "competitor";

2) combination NS so it is pronounced: mail, deduct. But in the word " what"and its derivatives are pronounced PCS:shto, something INTO. In the word " nothing" Maybe NS and PCS;

3) in place of the combination gk pronounced hk:makhky, lokhky;

4) in some combinations of consonants (stn, stl, lnts and others) one of them

not pronounced, for example holiday - praznik, stairs - stairs, sun - sun, hello - hello, feeling - feeling;

5) in the endings of the genitive singular of masculine and neuter adjectives, pronouns and ordinal numbers -ho-, -his- a sound is pronounced v:big, mine, red, third;

6) verbs ending in -sya(to be afraid, to swim), should be pronounced: battle ttsa, kupa ttsa.

However, in the pronunciation of some foreign words, deviations from the norms of the Russian literary language are observed. First, akanye persistently penetrates into borrowed words, for example, words glass, poet used to be pronounced as written , with a clear O; secondly, in accordance with the laws of Russian pronunciation before the vowel e a soft consonant sound is pronounced. This also applies to borrowed words, for example, academy, term, coffee, text - not NS! This rule is not always consistently implemented in speech, compare: theses - NS, apartheid - NS, trend - NS. A lot of everyday words are pronounced firmly: muffler - NS, sandwich - NS, thermos - NS and etc. Today the hardness of the consonants before e is considered a common sign of borrowed words: in words cocktail, hotel, patronage, timbre, dispensary, phonetics pronounced with NS. Stable pronunciation with unstressed O retain only some bookish words, for example, dossier, sonnet, oasis, rococo, beau monde. The tendency to use unstressed O (poet, poetry) in a solemn, poetic speech.

The presence of pronunciation options is noted by dictionaries for the following words: flounder and flounder, scanty and scanty, noose and noose, meatballs and meatballs, herbalist and herbalist, perch and perch, yellow and yellow, full and full, close and close, foil and foil, slogan and slogan, tarpaulin and tarpaulin, simultaneous and simultaneous, pronoun and pronoun, minus and minus.

It seems that before the end of the 19th century, there was much more orderliness and uniformity in Russian stress than today. It is curious that the newer the edition of the dictionary, the more often the "add." (admittedly) from variant forms and new forms are given along with the old ones as legitimately literary. New forms mainly appeared under the influence of everyday vernacular. They steadfastly held on in everyday speech, before taking their place in the orthoepic dictionaries.

Summarizing everything that has been said about stress and pronunciation, we can say:

1. The main direction in the development of modern pronunciation norms is the convergence of pronunciation with spelling.

2. The presence of pronunciation options that have appeared in the latest editions of special dictionaries, in our opinion, has two sides: it enriches the literary language, promotes its democratization, but at the same time deprives the pronunciation norms of orderliness and consistency.

3. The change in pronunciation norms was influenced by urban vernacular, borrowed words, less often - poetic speech.

4. Everything significant that has happened in Russian pronunciation in recent years is due to both the internal laws of the language and external causes of the social plan.

5. Preparing for a speech in front of the audience, you should clarify all doubtful cases of pronunciation of words using dictionaries.

2.4 Communication qualities of good speech

Accuracy of speech

In addition to the correctness of speech - compliance with the norms of an exemplary language - in the cultural consciousness there are a number of criteria that make speech "good", aesthetically perfect. There are several such qualities. Let's consider them sequentially.

Accuracy is assessed by a cultured person as one of the main advantages of speech.

For a long time, the accuracy of speech is associated with the ability to think correctly (adequately).

Accuracy is the quality of speech that assumes correspondence of its semantic side to verbal expression.

Distinguishes between subject accuracy (actual) and conceptual (proper speech).

Subject accuracy means good knowledge of the subject of speech I am talking about. If I distort the facts, or simply do not know anything, or know little, then one cannot speak of any accuracy. A speech cannot be complete if I do not know its subject. That is why such accuracy is called objective. You cannot speak with confidence about what you do not know.

For example, I say: "The sun revolves around the earth." Or "The earth is flat and lies on three huge turtles". In these cases, my statements do not correspond to modern scientific concepts, they are not only inaccurate, but simply incorrect.

Conceptual accuracy is the correspondence of the meaning of a word to the volume of the concept expressed in it. This means that you need to choose the right words, use them in the meanings that are assigned to them in the modern literary language and are reflected in explanatory dictionaries.

The accuracy of word usage depends on many circumstances.

At first, from words synonymous the series that are available for almost every word, it is necessary to select the most accurate one. So, in Russian there are verbs get out, get off, get off, get down, get out. When we go by train, electric train, motor ship, then when leaving we use the steps from which it is necessary go down. The bus, trolleybus, tram have exit and entrance... Therefore, urban transport passengers go in and out. However, let us assume in this case the question: "Will you go off?" - since the passenger has to go down the steps. In the latter case, we are faced with equivalent options.

Option get out stylistically rude, so it is better not to use it in such cases. So the accuracy of word usage also presupposes stylistic relevance.

In some cases, several synonyms can be used to clarify the concept, so that the thought appears in full, from different sides. So, in order to express a long and intense action, I can say: "He walked, rushed, flew."

The inaccuracy of word usage may be due to Secondly, with mixing paronyms.

Paronyms (from the Greek. Para + onima - near + name) are similar in sound, but do not coincide in meaning.

Examples of paronymic pairs: teeth - teeth, remnants - remains, economic - economical, business travelers - business trip, tourist - tourist, begging - to interrogate, subscriber - subscription, etc. These words differ in semantic shades, and when using them, one must be careful not to admit inaccuracies.

Exact usage, third, assumes the ability to clearly distinguish between different meanings ambiguous the words. An example of the ambiguity of a word: to give the book , to give work, to give advice, to give concert.

Different meanings of the same word are combined in different ways with other words. So the word short in the meaning of "small in height" can be combined with the following words: low rise, mountain, shore, tree, forest, house, fence, table, chair, heel. But the word "low" also has the meanings "bad" and "vile". Therefore, one cannot say: poor health, poor response, poor student. In the latter case, the word "low" can be understood in different meanings: short and mean. The possibility of a double understanding in this case is lexical imprecision.

Accuracy in use requires special attention terms.

Terms are generally accepted (official) scientific names for special concepts. Each term has a strictly delineated content, therefore, the terms in scientific papers and special dictionaries are given clear definitions (definitions). In accordance with the definition, terms should be used within one text, one speech situation. The term must meet the following requirements: unambiguity within one terminological system, lack of synonyms, lack of emotional and evaluative coloring, brevity, etc.

It is important to use terms correctly in scientific and business speech. Here, terminological accuracy is essential. Therefore, for example, in legislative acts, serious international agreements, definitions of concepts are given at the beginning. This should ensure that the terms are understood unambiguously by all stakeholders. In a serious dispute, also before starting a dispute, it is also "necessary to agree on terms."

The inaccuracy of word usage is also revealed when words are combined. In business speech, a combination of words is erroneous, the meanings of which completely or partially coincide: cutting edge avant-garde, memorable souvenir, price list. After all, the word "avant-garde" just means "vanguard", and the word "souvenir" is a memorable gift, an element of the word "price" means "price". Such combinations of words are called pleonasms.

Repetition of close ones single-root words are called tautology. So, from a stylistic point of view, combinations of words will be incorrect: builders built, the following should be noted.

Accurate word use requires a good knowledge of words of a narrow scope: professional terminological, foreign language, outdated , stylistically colored.

The requirement for the accuracy of word use is especially important in such genres of administrative language as law, decree, statute, instruction, etc. a plausible pretext. " Therefore, the wording of regulatory documents used even in one organization must be carefully edited.

Thus, accuracy of speech as the most important quality of her culture is associated with a good knowledge of the subject of speech, and with knowledge of the vocabulary of the language, its phraseology, and the rules of combining words.

Consistency of speech

Consistency is the communicative quality of speech, which presupposes the ability to consistently, consistently and reasonably present its content.

And here again there is a distinction between objective logic and conceptual logic.

Objective consistency is expressed in accordance with the semantic connections in the text with the connections and relationships of objects and phenomena of reality. Subjective consistency is associated with the ability to build convincing reasoning.

Conceptual consistency- this is the correct reflection in speech of the structure of reasoning, the expression by language means of semantic connections between parts of the text.

There is a deep inner connection between the logic of thinking and the logic of presentation. In order to learn to speak and write logically, you need to learn to think logically, master the rules of reasoning, and avoid logical mistakes and miscalculations. But besides this, one must learn to structure speech in such a way that the logical connections of the text are fully understood by the interlocutors or readers. This is especially true, again, for scientific and business texts.

The difference between the two types of logic is felt when the rules of logic are violated in speech, in the so-called illogisms, that is, in logical errors. The full reflection of the logical relations of the text in speech makes speech logical.

Definition is a logical operation that reveals the content of a concept.

Giving, for example, a definition of the concept thermometer, we indicate that this is, firstly, an instrument, and secondly, it is the one with which the temperature is measured. That is, we first refer this concept to the closest generic concept, and then call its distinguishing feature (features) in a number of similar concepts (monometer, dynamometer, tachometer, etc.).

Logic as a scientific and academic discipline also considers how to correctly construct judgments(statements) how to build inferences, proof and refutation, what are the logical laws. We will not go deeper into this side of the problem. Let's touch on the linguistic rules of consistency.

Consistency is associated with the correct construction of a sentence and a complete text.

So, in the sentence Forest fires break out in summer due to careless handling of fire the word "thanks" contradicts the content of the thought. The meaning of the statement Utilities must be paid not only in the first days of each month, but also earlier distorted because the word "must" is used incorrectly instead of "can". It turns out that utilities have to be paid twice.

Ambiguity can arise from the misuse of homonyms. For example, in the phrase By the age of 25, the son has settled down the word "settled down" can be understood both how "got a degree" and how "became sedate".

Ambiguity also arises in such combinations: calling a doctor, accusing a friend, inviting a teacher, helping a mother, etc.

The inconsistency arises in the case of incorrect use of the pronoun: Tomorrow, the school doors will open in front of the schoolchildren, having rested over the summer, they will sit down at their desks again. The word "doors" was put closer to the pronoun, and nonsense arose.

The consistency of speech is associated with the correct use of conjunctions in a complex sentence, and with the indication in the text of the sequence of presentation, etc.

Thus , the consistency of speech, as the most important quality of the culture of speech, is associated with the observance of the rules of logic, the accuracy of word use and with a balanced structure (composition) of the finished text.

Wealth and purity of speech

The richness of any language is determined primarily by the number of words, as well as their semantic volume. Russian dictionaries record hundreds of thousands of words. Our best writers have used more than ten thousand lexical units in their works. So, the language dictionary of A.S. Pushkin has about twenty thousand words.

However, the number of actively used words of an ordinary intelligent person does not exceed 5-7 thousand words. Some people have very poor vocabulary. And this, of course, does not adorn their speech, and besides, it speaks of the poverty of thought.

Learning your native language also means that you need to constantly replenish your vocabulary. This is done while reading, watching TV, participating in casual conversations, etc. Moreover, it is necessary to read not only detective stories and science fiction, but the works of classical writers, serious scientists and publicists, it is from them that you will find new words, new ideas, moral guidelines. It is very useful to re-read and listen to folklore works in a good performance. They have preserved the flexible and multicolored language of their ancestors.

Some people think that a business person, for example, needs to know the clerical language. It's a delusion. A good businessman is also an interesting, well-read and witty person. He will have to meet with many people and in an informal setting. The more interesting a person is as a person, the more chances he has for establishing reliable, lasting relationships with partners. So the richness of a businessman's speech is an indicator of his general culture, which makes him more credible.

Purity of speech is the absence of words and expressions that are alien to the literary language, alien to ethical standards.

Our speech is littered with dialectal, narrowly professional, slang words, rude vernacular and swearing.

Modern language has such dialect words not used in literary speech: x ata(hut ), kochet(rooster ), framing ( fence) , anadys(recently ), curly(curly ), tamaka(there ), bump(duck) and many others. Falling into general use, such words clog up speech, sometimes make it incomprehensible. However, their moderate use, justified by the context, gives the speech the flavor of the territorial culture of communication, thereby diversifying and stylistically enriching speech. However, when using dialect words or phraseological units, you need to make sure that they are understandable to your listeners.

Oral communication in a professional environment generates words and phrase combinations of a narrow scope, which are called professionalism... For example: bear, nestrug(in the speech of carpenters); galley(in the speech of sailors); duck, wick(in the speech of journalists); briefing(volatile meeting); cash, exchanger(in the speech of financiers) and many others. etc. When using these words in a non-professional audience, you should also remember that they may not be understood by the audience or will break the stylistic flavor of your speech.

Stylistically reducing the general coloring of speech will be the use of the so-called vernacular. Used in oral informal communication, these words and expressions have a vivid imagery and evaluativeness and, at the same time, bring roughness into speech, thereby "lowering" the style. Examples of common words and phrase combinations: talker, hi, kick out, peschedralom, itch, squander, hang around, henbane overeat, old hag, flapping ears. Colloquial vocabulary and phraseology are alien to scientific and official business styles. The artistic word uses the figurative coloring of vernacular to recreate the "speech masks" of characters or the speech behavior of people in the appropriate environment, in an emotionally rich conversation. In public communication, vernacular, for all its expressive attractiveness, can play a bad joke on you: listeners may think that you do not know the literary language and thereby lose the right to speak on behalf of cultured people.

Thus, it is necessary to use the vocabulary and phraseology of a limited scope of use with caution and tact.

Expressiveness of speech

Expressiveness of speech is such a positive quality of it that allows you to enhance the impression of what was said, to influence not only the mind, but also the feelings and imagination of the interlocutor.

In all these cases, personality-colored, that is, expressive speech, will be more effective. In direct contact, the expressiveness of our speech is given by the voice, facial expressions and gestures, in general, motor behavior, which conveys our emotions and moods.

There are many ways to make speech bright and original. There are many opportunities for this inherent in the language.

Adjectives-definitions called epithets... So, the word "moon" can be emotionally emphasized by evaluative epithets: young, fresh, ripe, hornless, chipped, etc. It is important for the epithet to be non-standard, unwritten. Here are some epithets for the word "gait": cheerful, lively, gallant, sluggish, flexible, graceful, large, strong, wooden, light and etc .

Colorful definitions are especially appropriate in the advertising text, which should affect not only the thoughts, but also the feelings of the reader. Of course, in this case it is necessary to observe the measure, "do not overdo it", because in this case, even a bright verbal find may seem far-fetched, tortured.

Make your speech expressive verbal imagery- metaphors, comparisons, metonymy, ironic words, antitheses (oppositions), hyperbole (exaggeration), puns, etc. (more on this - a little below).

The figurativeness of speech can be learned from good works of art, especially poetry.

The expressive power of speech is given by proverbs, sayings, in general stable expressions of figurative use.

Trails

The style of speech is closely related to the "colors of eloquence", that is semantic (semantic) means of expressiveness of speech... MV Lomonosov's rhetoric section, dedicated to elocution, is called "Decoration". This is how the scientist understood the tasks of this section: Adornment is the image of the invented ideas by decent and chosen phrases. Consists in the purity of style, in the flow of the word, in the magnificence and power thereof ( A quick guide to eloquence).

For the first time, figures and paths were understood and described in Ancient Greece. This description on the material of the Latin language and in relation to the speech practice of his society was continued in Ancient Rome. Therefore, the terms associated with the figurative use of words and expressions are mainly of Greek and Latin origin. However, these terms, incomprehensible at first, mean vivid verbal images which we use, not suspecting that we are talking metaphors, hyperboles, antitheses, that is, verbal images. Moreover, the imagery of speech is characteristic not only of well-read people, but also of the whole people. Folk speech at all levels of culture and in all countries is replete with rhetorical figures: the good fellow against the sheep, but the sheep himself against the good fellow - antithesis. Straight like a poker - oxymoron; Where are the fools for us to drink tea? - irony and meiosis. The abundance of figurative expressions in the language is evidence that any nation appreciates and loves allegorical speech, which not only economically betrays rational meaning, but also accompanies it with lively emotions and well-aimed assessments.

Verbal images have a number of advantages:

1) clarity, "Picturesque", Which is achieved by comparing the named objects or their proximity: cats scratch their hearts; the waves are running; The ruddy sunset has turned pale, / And the poplars, embarrassed in a row, / Shaking their head quietly, / Like judges, they whisper among themselves(Pushkin) ;

2) the ability to convey subjective look at things, emotion, assessment;

3) they provide an opportunity for the listener or reader to engage in a word game, thereby enjoying the speech addressed to him. "People are not so much listen speech how much see and feel her";

4) the advantage of verbal images is their semantic capacity, the ability to express "a little a lot": the country rejoices; the sunset turned pale; "noisy human desire"(Ivan the Terrible);

5) the verbal image has internal energy, intensity, which is addressed to sensory (visual, olfactory, auditory, tactile, gustatory) sensations.

So, the verbal image strives for clarity, frugality, ease of perception, meaningfulness, emotional saturation and expressiveness. It is these (as well as others) qualities of figurative speech that give it rhetorical value. Therefore, when talking about the "decoration" of speech, eloquence, expressiveness, they mean precisely the figurative word.

Now let's move on to characterizing the varieties of figurative speech.

All figurative words and turns of speech are divided into trails and shapes.

Trails -turns of speech, in which words and fixed expressions are used in a figurative sense in order to achieve greater expressiveness.

The most common types of tropes: allegory, hyperbole, irony, lithote, metaphor, metonymy, personification, synecdoche, comparison, epithet. Trails reinforce statement, due to the fact that emotional and expressive shades of meaning are added to the logical content. Figurative means allow you to see and analyze the phenomenon from all sides and remember it well.

The main type of trail is metaphor. This is a word or expression that is used figuratively. based on similarity in any respect of two objects or phenomena. An additional meaning is layered on the direct meaning, which becomes the main one, for example: the house is on fire - the earth is burning underfoot, the girl sobbed - the water sobbed, the thorny bush - the thorny man, the birds scattered - the thoughts scattered.

Quite often, metaphors are used in everyday speech. Often we hear and say ourselves: it is raining, the clock is steel, warm relations, keen eyesight. However, these metaphors have almost lost their figurative connection with the "original objects", faded, as it were, erased. Various parts of speech can act as a metaphor: verb (streams run) noun (flocks of waves) adjective (nerves of steel).

The basis of metaphorization can be based on the similarity of the most diverse features: color, shape, volume, purpose, position in space and time, etc. The metaphor is also called hidden comparison, since one of the comparison terms is not called in it, cf. flexible person - flexible like a cane, a cane... The more unexpected and accurate the assimilation, the fresher the metaphor, the more expressive it is.

The use of one metaphor often entails the stringing of new metaphors related in meaning to the first; as a result of this, a detailed metaphor arises: Dissuaded the golden grove with a birch, cheerful tongue ...; A fire of red mountain ash is burning in the garden, / But he cannot warm anyone(S. Yesenin).

The use of metaphors allows listeners and readers to create images and pictures that are retained in memory with particular strength, since specific ideas are assigned to them.

Another kind of trail - metonymy... Unlike metaphor, it is based on the contiguity (proximity) of the named objects. If, in a metaphor, two identical objects or phenomena should be based on similarities between them, then in metonymy, two objects or phenomena that have received the same name should be adjacent. The word "adjacent" in this case should be understood not just as a connection, but somewhat broader - closely related to each other. Thus, metonymy is the transfer of a name from one subject to another on the basis of their contiguity, i.e. based on external or internal communication between them. Such a relationship can be:

1) between subject and material from which the item is made: porcelain and bronze on the table(Pushkin); this refers to "china and bronze dishes";

2) between content and containing: I ate three plates; ... The hiss of frothy glasses(Pushkin);

4) between action and tool this action: He lived his own

Language norms are a historical phenomenon. Changes in literary norms are due to the constant development of the language. What was the norm in the last century and even 15-20 years ago, today can become a deviation from it. For example, in the 30-40s, the words were used graduate and diploma student to express the same concept: "A student doing thesis." Word graduate student was a colloquial version of the word diploma holder. In the literary norm of the 50-60s, there was a distinction in the use of these words: the former colloquial graduate student now denotes a student, a student in the period of defending a thesis, receiving a diploma. In a word graduate began to call mainly the winners of competitions, prize-winners of shows, competitions marked with a diploma (for example, a diploma winner of the All-Union Pianists Competition).

Not only lexical, accentological, but also morphological norms change. Take, for example, the endings of the nominative plural of masculine nouns:

Vegetable garden - vegetable gardens, garden - gardens, table - tables,

fence - fences, horn - horns, side - sides,

shore - shores, eye - eyes.

As you can see, in the nominative plural, nouns have the endings -ы or -а. The presence of two endings is associated with the history of the declination. The fact is that in the Old Russian language, in addition to the singular and the plural, there was also a dual number, which was used when it came to two objects: a table (one), tables (two), tables (several). Since the XIII century. this form begins to break down and is gradually eliminated. However, traces of it are found, firstly, in the ending of the nominative case of the plural of nouns denoting paired objects: horns, eyes, sleeves, shores, sides; secondly, historically, the form of genitive singularity of nouns with numerals two (two tables, two houses, two fences) goes back to the form of the nominative case of the dual. This is confirmed by the difference in stress: two hours and an hour had not passed, in two rows and left the row.

Violation of the norm not always an indicator of the carrier's awareness (his ignorance) or non-mastery of it.

It can be stylistic(characterization of the character, play on words, pictoriality) or indicates condition speaker (nervousness, affectation, lack of self-control, fatigue, depression). The nature of the violation of the norm at the same time (type, degree, regularity) can be an indicator of a nervous, mental somatic disorder.

Violation of the norm

Unknown - Stylists - Condition

indolence (the speaker's play

(illiteracy - words, character- (nervousness,

fatigue) fatigue,

the bearer of the character) depression, affectation)

nervous mental somatic

disorder disorder disorder